1Malcolm X, 1925 - 1965

Psychology 305 2

Midterm: February 9th, 6:00 – 8:00 PM

• The exam is worth 20% of your final grade.

• The exam will include 30 multiple choice questions (1 point each) and several short answer questions

(ranging in value from 2 – 8 points each). It will be scored out of 50.

• Please bring a pencil, eraser, pen, and your student ID to the exam. Note that hats (e.g., baseball caps) should not be worn during the exam.

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Lecture 15

Questions That Will Be Answered In Today’s Lecture

Learning Perspective on Personality, continued

4. What is Bandura’s social-cognitive learning theory of personality? (continued)

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2. Self-Efficacy

Refers to an individual’s subjective belief about his or her ability to successfully perform a behaviour in a given situation. High self-efficacy entails

expectations of success, whereas low self-efficacy entails expectations of failure.

Self-efficacy is not a global, trait-like characteristic. Rather, it varies from one situation to another.

What is Bandura’s social-cognitive learning theory

of personality? (continued)

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Research has demonstrated that, in contrast to individuals with low self-efficacy, individuals with high self efficacy in a given domain:

set more challenging goals for themselves.

persist longer in the pursuit of those goals.

recover more quickly from setbacks.

experience less fear, anxiety, stress and depression.

Example: Study of leg strength in men and women as a function of self-efficacy.

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Bandura maintained that self-efficacy is influence by:

Mastery experiences (i.e., performance accomplishments).

Social modeling (i.e., vicarious experiences).

Social persuasion (i.e., verbal persuasion).

Emotional arousal (e.g., levels of fear and anxiety).

Research suggests that mastery experiences are the most important determinant of self-efficacy.

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3. Reciprocal Determinism

Suggests that human functioning is a product of the interaction of behaviour (B), person variables (P), and environmental variables (E).

Person variables include cognitions (e.g., memories, judgments, expectations) as well as physical characteristics (e.g., attractiveness, size), and social characteristics (e.g., social status).

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B

P E

Diagrammatically represented as:

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Example of reciprocal determinism:

A child is begging his father for a second cookie. The father thinks to himself “If I give him a second cookie, he will stop crying temporarily, but in the future, he will be more likely to persist until I give in to him. Therefore, I will not allow him to have another cookie.” As a result, the father tells his son that he will not give him another cookie. After a few minutes, the child stops begging for another cookie. The father evaluates his behaviour and thinks to himself “I’m a good father because I did the right thing.” With his son no longer begging for a cookie, the father takes his son to the park.

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B

P E

E = Child’s behaviour

P = Father’s cognitions and status

B = Father’s behaviour

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Analysis of the Personality of a Civil Rights Leader

Malcolm X Discussion Questions

1. How can Adler’s concepts of inferiority feelings, superiority strivings, and lifestyles be applied to Malcolm X?

2. Which of Loevinger’s stages of ego development did Malcolm X pass through over the course of his life?

3. Do you think that Malcolm X successfully resolved all of the crises identified in Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?

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Discussion Questions, continued

4. What learning processes (e.g., classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning) do you think shaped Malcolm X’s personality? Identify specific examples to illustrate how these learning processes shaped his personality.

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Discussion Questions, continued

5. Prior to his imprisonment, Malcolm X did not adhere to a separatist view regarding race relations. However, after his imprisonment, he did adhere to a separatist view. How can Dollard and Miller’s social-cognitive learning theory of personality be used to explain this change in Malcolm X’s attitudes and behaviour?

6. Apply Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism to an event in Malcolm X’s life.

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Adler’s Concepts

1. Inferiority feelings: Feelings of inadequacy that arise during childhood due to our dependency upon others.

2. Superiority strivings: Efforts to compensate for inferiority feelings; reflects the desire to be competent

in whatever one strives to do and to actualize one’s potential; continuously cycles with inferiority feelings to produce the “great upward drive.”

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3. Lifestyles: The primary means by which one attempts to compensate for inferiority feelings (i.e., strive for superiority); established in childhood.

Adler identified 4 primary lifestyles—1 “healthy” lifestyle and 3 “mistaken” lifestyles:

• The socially useful lifestyle: Characterized by social interest and activity and a desire to resolve problems in a socially responsible way; a “healthy” lifestyle.

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• The getting lifestyle: Characterized by greed and an excessive dependency upon others; a “mistaken”

lifestyle.

• The avoiding lifestyle: Characterized by inactivity, a lack of interest, and a fear of involvement; a “mistaken” lifestyle.

• The ruling lifestyle: Characterized by little social interest or cultural perception and a desire to dominate

or rule others; a “mistaken” lifestyle.

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4. Inferiority complex: A psychological condition that exists when one is overwhelmed by inferiority feelings; may result in stagnation (i.e., lack of strivings) or in overcompensation (i.e., inappropriate strivings).

5. Superiority complex: A psychological condition that exists when one concentrates too much on his or her own need to strive while ignoring the needs of others. Such an individual tends to be vain, domineering, and arrogant.

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Loevinger’s Stages of Ego Development

1. Symbiotic stage: Work to acquire a sense of separation between self and nonself.

3. Self-protective stage: Begins to grasp rules, but only as guides to avoid punishment; no moral sense; personal expediency, opportunism.

2. Impulsive stage: Assertion of self through impulse expression; relationships with others are exploitive, for own needs.

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4. Conformist stage: Rules adopted because they are accepted by group; concerned with appearing properly to the social group.

6. Conscientious stage: Use of self-evaluated standards rather than group’s norms; realization that events have multiple meanings.

5. Self-aware stage: Realization that rules have exceptions; increased introspection, with increased awareness that own behaviour isn’t perfect.

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7. Individualistic stage: Clearer sense of individuality; greater tolerance for individual differences.

9. Integrated stage: Conflicting demands have been resolved; not just tolerance, but intense appreciation of others’ viewpoints.

8. Autonomous stage: Realization of interdependency among people; awareness of conflicts among one’s own needs; recognition of others’ need for autonomy; search for self-fulfillment.

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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

1. Infancy

Crisis: Basic trust vs. mistrustStrength: Hope

2. Early childhood

Crisis: Autonomy vs. shame and doubtStrength: Willpower

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3. Preschool

Crisis: Initiative vs. guiltStrength: Purpose

4. School age

Crisis: Industry vs. InferiorityStrength: Competence

5. Adolescence

Crisis: Identity vs. identity confusionStrength: Fidelity

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7. Adulthood

Crisis: Generativity vs. stagnationStrength: Care

8. Old Age

Crisis: Integrity vs. despairStrength: Wisdom

6. Young adulthood

Crisis: Intimacy vs. isolationStrength: Love

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Racism, social isolation (US)

Negative emotions (UR; e.g., anxiety)

Reflexive

Presenceat school (CS) Learned

Repeatedly paired

Highly similar

Negative emotions(CR)

Example of Classical Conditioning

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Death of father, burning of home (US)

Negative emotions (UR; e.g., anger, fury)Reflexive

Presence of “whites” (KKK) (CS) Learned

Repeatedly paired

Highly similar

Negative emotions(CR)

Example of Classical Conditioning