1. Introduction. The term "Baba Malays" is used to refer to the Straits

The Development of Articles in Baba Malay

Elzbieta Thurgood

California State University, Chico

Abstract. This paper offers a synchronic analysis of nineteenth-century Baba

Malay ini and itu. On the basis of narrative stories published in the Baba Malay

newspaper Bintang Timor, the paper argues that Baba Malay used these forms

as both definite articles and as demonstratives; when ini and itu precede a

noun, they function as demonstratives, but when they follow a noun, they

function as definite articles. The evidence for the distinction between demon

stratives and definite articles is found in textual frequencies and discourse

functions of ini and itu. Nineteenth-century Baba Malay developed both a

proximal and a distal definite article, with the choice between the two definite

articles ini and itu reflecting complex discourse considerations.

1. Introduction. The term "Baba Malays" is used to refer to the Straits-born

Chinese, who have resided either in Melaka or in Singapore for generations.

Chinese settlements in Melaka can be traced back to at least the fourteenth

century; Chinese settlements in Singapore began with the founding of the city in

1819. The early Chinese immigrants in Melaka intermarried with the local

people, adopting the local Malay culture and the Malay language, but at the

same time they preserved some of their Chinese heritage. On the basis of the

historical facts documented in the work of historians (Clammer 1983; Preedman

1962, among others) as well as nineteenth-century commentators (Vaughan

1974), it is clear that the first contacts between the Chinese and Malays gave the

former full access to Malay culture and language.

The linguistic assimilation of Chinese immigrants in Melaka resulted in the

formation of a new variety of Malay, Baba Malay. The Chinese immigrants who

settled in Melaka and later in Singapore originally spoke Min dialects—primari

ly Hokkien, but closely related Teochiu as well. Prom these dialects they shifted

to local varieties of Malay into which they introduced some Hokkien elements

(Thurgood 1998).

In the nineteenth century, there must have been a rich variety of speakers

of Baba Malay. Baba Malay was the business language used not only by the

already established Babas, but also by Malays and the newly arrived Chinese

immigrants. In 1887, Lim referred to Baba Malay as the Malay "spoken by all

nationalities in the colonies of the Straits Settlements, with the exception of the

Europeans" (l887:i). Given such a variety of speakers, it would be unexpected

for there to be a single, undifferentiated, unified variety of Baba Malay. The

variant of Baba Malay analyzed in this study represents the Baba Malay

471

472 Anthropological Linguistics 43 no. 4

language before it was inundated and dramatically influenced by the arrival of

the great influx of Hokkien and other Chinese speakers at the end of the nine

teenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. It is the Baba Malay

that, at that time, had been spoken for generations by the Babas as their first

language.

The paper makes two claims about the systematic variation between the

prehead and posthead positions of the determiners ini and itu in nineteenth-

century Baba Malay. First, the nineteenth-century Baba Malay determiners

function as demonstratives when in prehead position and as definite articles

when in posthead position, that is, there are the two functions distinguished

only by syntactic position. Second, Baba Malay has, not one, but two definite

articles, one developed from the proximal demonstrative and the other from the

distal demonstrative. The evidence for each claim is both qualitative and quan

titative. The qualitative proof is that Baba Malay articles are found in contexts

that do not allow the use of demonstratives. The quantitative proof is found in

positional frequencies. The frequencies of the demonstrative use correspond to

the frequencies of demonstratives in other languages; the frequencies of the

definite article use correspond to the frequencies of articles. Further, it is shown

that the choice between the proximal article and the distal article is discourse

based, involving the interaction of the animacy hierarchy with a discourse hier

archy (cf. Chafe 1994). The emergence of definite articles from demonstratives has also been pos

ited for a number of other languages, for example, for English (Christophersen

1939); German (Lockwood 1968); Finnish (Laury 1995); and the Romance lan

guages Vulgar Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, and Rumanian (Williams 1962;

Lathrop 1980; Faingold 1996).1 The descriptions of the development of definite

articles in Swahili (Ashton 1944) and in Montagnais (Cyr 1993) offer par

ticularly useful comparisons for the study of Baba Malay definite articles.

Swahili and Montagnais share with Baba Malay two crosslinguistically rather

rare phenomena. First, in Swahili and Montagnais, the articles and demon

stratives are distinguished only by a difference in position. The same claim will

be made for Baba Malay. Second, Montagnais, like Baba Malay, uses the same

form for both, except that the positions are reversed—the postposed determiners

function as definite articles and the preposed determiners function as demon

stratives.

1.1. Baba Malay data. The analysis of Baba Malay demonstratives is based

on the data that come from the first Baba Malay newspaper Bintang Timor

(published from 2 July 1894 to 2 July 1895). The paper was used to report

local news and news from abroad; it was used to advertise, and to tell stories. It

also included Baba Malay pantun and syair, that is, Malay-style poems, and

dondang sayang, that is, Malay-style pantuns set to music.2

The database for this study consists of four narrative stories published in

2001

Bintang Timor 1

orang adekberac

fieri hal mak tit

and her stepchil

(FYC) 'About the

Cherita dua safa

long). Each oft!

period of two to 1

variety of Malay

variety of Malay

2. Demonstrati

language shift

originated when

of Malay. The st

the two demons

nouns (and class

(1) cit ui siai

this CL gen

'this gentlema

(2) hit ui tha\

that CL lad:

'that lady' (Be

In contrast, 1

itu, follow the h<

and itu was note

"they commonly i

before it, as para

'that man'" (1852

not simply obser

had the possibili

head position. O

on Malay only me

said in 1927 that

words, if any, d<

"any descriptive

or adjectival phr;

In Malay, ini

cles. These dual 1

noted that "the

often, where the?

43 no. 4

y the arrival of

nd of the nine-

he Baba Malay

is as their first

m between the

in nineteenth-

ay determiners

lefinite articles

s distinguished

tut two definite

j other from the

ative and quan-

und in contexts

jroofisfoundin

je correspond to

quencies of the

ther, it is shown

icle is discourse

* discourse hieir-

is also been pos-

[Christophersen

le Romance lan-

(Williams 1962;

unent of definite

1993) offer par-

iefinite articles,

uistically rather

cles and demon-

j same claim will

iy, uses the same

)sed determiners

action as demon

stratives is based

r Bintang Timor

is used to report

dtotellstories.lt

style poems, and

>ries published in

2001 ELZBIETA THURGOOD 473

Bintang Timor between July and October I894. These stories are Cherita dua

orangadek beradek (CDO) "The story of two siblings' (3,094 words long), Cherita

deri hal mak tiri dengan anak tirinya (CDHMT) 'A story about a stepmother

and her stepchild' (1,766 words long), Putri yang chinta bapanya sperti garam

(PYC) 'About the princess who loved her father like salt' (3,120 words long), and

Cherita dua sahabatyang baik (CDS) 'A story of two good friends' (1,674 words

long). Each of the stories was published in serial form every other day over a

period of two to three weeks. The Baba Malay used in the stories is an informal

variety of Malay whose grammatical patterns are not found in a more standard

variety of Malay.3

2. Demonstratives and definite articles in the Baba Malay context of

language shift. Baba Malay system of demonstratives and definite articles

originated when the Chinese immigrants shifted from Hokkieii to local varieties

of Malay. The shift to Malay required learning a new word order. In Hokkien,

the two demonstratives, the proximal cit and the distal hit always precede

nouns (and classifiers), as shown in (1) and (2).

(1) cit ui sian-si

this CL gentleman

'this gentleman'

(2) hit ui thai-thai

that CL lady

'that lady' (Bodman 1987:15)

In contrast, the two Malay demonstratives, the proximal ini and the distal

itu, follow the head noun. However, a variation in the syntactic position of ini

and itu was noted in nineteenth-century Malay by Crawfurd, who reports that

"they commonly follow the noun or pronoun, but may also be occasionally placed

before it, as parampiian ini or ini parampuan 'this woman'; laki itu or itu laki

'that man'" (1852:28).4 This observation suggests that, assuming Crawfurd was

not simply observing the variation in Baba Malay, rtineteenth-century Malay

had the possibility of prehead position, in addition to the more common post-

head position. Contrary to Crawfurd's early observations, later commentators

on Malay only mention posthead position for ini and itu. Winstedt, for example,

said in 1927 that ini and itu follow "the word that they qualify and follow all the

words, if any, denoting its attributes" (1957:116). Similarly, Lewis said that

"any descriptive words which belong to the noun (i.e., any attributive adjective

or adjectival phrase) must come before the ini or itu" (1968:55).

In Malay, ini and itu may function as both demonstratives and definite arti

cles. These dual functions have been commented on in the literature. Crawfurd

noted that "the demonstrative pronouns, especially itu, are much used, and

often, where they would appear to us, redundant" (1852:28). He suggested that

474 ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS 43 NO. 4

"they seem to be equivalent to our definite article, or to the Latin Me, turned

into an article ..." (1852:28). Almost a hundred years later, Winstedt gave a

more detailed description of mi and itu saying that the demonstrative pronoun

itu means 'the, that, those' and refers to "the well-known, the distant in time

and space," and that the demonstrative pronoun ini means 'this, these' and

refers to "the particular, the near in time and space" (1957:116). In Lewis's

description of Malay, both ini and itu were marked as being "at times the

equivalent of the English definite article 'the'," when "the thing to which the

noun refers has been under discussion, or is familiar to the hearer, or ... is well

known to everybody" (1968:55-56). Here, Lewis observed that, for Malay, it is

particularly itu that may function as a definite article.

3. The qualitative proof. For a particular language, there is usually agree

ment as to what a demonstrative is and what a definite article is; occasionally,

however, there are problems of definition. These problems arise when demon

stratives do not express what is often at least assumed to be their primary

meaning—denoting spatial distance (cf. Lyons 1977:646; Pillmore 1982:48;

Anderson and Keenan 1985:259; among others). Kirsner (1979:358), for exam

ple, has shown that, in Dutch, demonstratives do not have to signal spatial dis

tance at all, but instead they may signal a relative degree of focus placed on a

referent by the speaker. As a result, in some contexts, the Dutch proximate

demonstrative signals a relatively high degree of attention placed on the refer

ent by the speaker (regardless of the spatial distance), whereas the distal de

monstrative signals a relatively low degree of attention placed on the referent.

In other contexts, however, these demonstratives do signal spatial distance.

Establishing that a particular demonstrative has actually become a definite

article has to be based on criteria that explicitly differentiate between those

usages shared by both definite articles and demonstratives and those usages

restricted just to definite articles. The criteria used in this study follow those of

Hawkins (1978, 1984, 1991), who discusses various different uses of demon

stratives and definite articles, and then collapses them into the following four:

the anaphoric use, the visible situation use, the larger situation use, and the

associative anaphoric use. The first use, the anaphoric use, does not discrimi

nate between demonstratives and articles. The second use, the visible situation

use, discriminates between demonstratives and definite articles under certain

circumstances. The remaining two, the larger situation use and the associative

anaphoric use, are restricted to definite articles; only the posthead occurrences

of ini and itu display these uses. This correlation between the syntactic position

and the functions performed by ini and itu constitute the basis for the claim

that, besides demonstratives, Baba Malay also has two definite articles.

3.1. The anaphoric use. Both demonstratives and definite articles display

the anaphoric use. In (3) below, the anaphoric use of ini is illustrated.

2001

(3) Dahulu ada a

before be 01

perampuan? j

woman <

datang kapad

come to-3SG

'In an earlier tii

the king called

In(3),anewparti(

the numeral satu'

is referred to as

anaphoric definite

Like ini, itu 1

and (5).

(4) dan atorkan s)

and arrange a

'and everything

(5) kumdian diai

afterwards 3PL

'then they took 8

In (4), kemah 'ten

precedes the head:

rumah 'house'. In

position. A more c<

(6) dia tengok api

3SG look fire

ayer sudah

water already

tetapi dia ta't

but 3SG not

'he saw that th<

already brough

done all the wor

The anaphoric de

events: the fire be

the tables and cha

events are the refe

Intheanaphoi

position, but also ii

43 no. 4 2001 Elzbieta Thurgood 475

.tin Me, turned

ifinstedt gave a

xative pronoun

distant in time

Jus, these' and

16). In Lewis's

I "at times the

ng to which the

•er, or... is well

, for Malay, it is

s usually agree-

is; occasionally,

ge when demon-

e their primary

illmore 1982:48;

):358), for exam-

ignal spatial dis-

bcus placed on a

)utch proximate

iced on the refer-

>as the distal de-

1 on the referent,

itial distance.

Decome a definite

te between those

and those usages

dy follow those of

t uses of demon-

he following four:

tion use, and the

ioes not discrirni-

e visible situation

:les under certain

ad the associative

thead occurrences

syntactic position

■asis for the claim

te articles.

.te articles display

istrated.

(3) Dahulu ada aatu raja dalam sebuah negri yang ada tujoh anak

before be one king inside one-CL country that have seven child

perampuan.6 Pads suatu hari raja ini panggil anak-nya tujoh tujoh

woman on one day king this call child-3SG seven seven

datang kapada-nya,

come to-3SG

'In an earlier time, there was a king of a country who had seven daughters. One day

the king called his seven daughters to him,' (PYC:l-2)

In (3), a new participant, raja 'king', is first introduced as satu raja 'a king' with

the numeral satu 'one' functioning very much like an indefinite article. Then, he

is referred to as raja ini 'the king'. Ini in raja ini marks the phrase as an

anaphoric definite NP.

like ini, itu also marks a particular referent as definite, as shown in (4)

and (5).

(4) dan atorkan smoa barang itu didalam aatu rumah kemah

and arrange all thing that inside one CL tent

'and everything was arranged inside a tent1 (PYC:265)

(5) kumdian diaorang ambil satu krosi letakkan diluar kemah itu

afterwards 3PL take one chair put outside tent that

'then they took a chair and put it outside the tent' (PYC:272-73)

In (4), kemah 'tent' is marked as a new referent by the classifier phrase that

precedes the head noun and consists of the numeral satu 'one' and the classifier

rumah 'house'. In (5), kemah 'tent' is marked as definite by itu in the posthead

position. A more complicated example of anaphora is shown in (6).

(6) dia tengok api dapor-nya sudah menyala bilek-nya sudah sapu,

3SG look fire kitchen-3SG already light room-3SG already sweep

ayer sudah sedia angkat, meja dan bangku smoa sudah bersih,

water already ready lift table and stool all already clean

tetapi dia ta'tahu siapa yang sudah bikin smoa kerja ini,

but 3SG not.know who that already make all work this

'he saw that the fire in his kitchen was lit, his room was swept, the water was

already brought, the tables and chairs were all clean, but he did not know who had

done all the work,' (CDHMT: 178-81)

The anaphoric definite NP smoa kerja ini 'all the work' refers back to four

events: the fire being lit; the room being swept; the water being brought; and,

the tables and chairs being cleaned. The anaphoric use of ini signals that these

events are the referents of the NP smoa kerja ini 'all the work'.

In the anaphoric use, Baba Malay ini and itu occur not only in the posthead

position, but also in the prehead position. Compare (4M6) above with (7) below.


(7) dan dia dapat satu mimpi dia tengok ada satu hutan, daXam itu

and 3SG get one dream 3SG look be one jungle inside that

hutan ada satu orang bertapo, ini orang bertapa jikalau dia tidor

jungle be one person hermit this person hermit if 3SG sleep

dua bias tahun

two teen year

'and he had a dream in which he seemed to be in a jungle, in the jungle there was a

hermit, the hermit would sleep twelve years' (PYC:l62-64)

Examples (4M7) illustrate the anaphoric use of ini and itu characteristic of

definite articles and demonstratives.

3.2. The immediate situation use. Hawkins (1978:110-15) says that, with a

demonstrative, it is essential for the hearer to be able to see the referent; but,

with a definite article, the hearer does not have to be able to see the referent. He

observes that it is not the function of definite articles to signal visibility "even

when the referent is to be located in the immediate situation of utterance in

which it is potentially visible" (1978:114). Thus, in (8), the hearer is warned

about a dog in the immediate vicinity, but it is not necessarily visible to him.

(8) Don't go there, chum. The dog will biteyou. (Hawkins 1978:112)

In contrast, a demonstrative in the same sentence would instruct the hearer "to

identify the object itself, and thus it actually has a visibility requirement built

into it as part of its meaning" (Hawkins 1978:115).

The four Baba Malay texts examined in this study have been analyzed in

light of Hawkins's observation. Although ini and itu do not often occur in the

prehead position, when they do and when this is a first mention, the referent is

always visible. For example, it is clear from the story PYC that, in (9), the

interlocutors can see the jungle that is referred to with the NP ini hutan 'this

jungle'. Similarly, it is clear from the story CDO that, in (10), the interlocutors

can see the water referred to with the NP itu ayer 'that water'.

(9) mengapa angkau datang didalam ini hutan,

why 2SG come inside this jungle

'Why did you come into this jungle?' (FYC:198)

(10) "jikalau angkau mandi badan bulih dapat kuat dan segar,

if 2SG bathe body can get strong and refreshed

lekas-lah itu ayer nanti sejok"

fast-EMPH that water later cold

'"if you wash, you will feel strong and be refreshed, quickly before that water gets

cold,"' (CDO:263-64)

2001

However, w

their referents a

visible, as, for ex

red to as raja ini

(11) angkau dud*

2SG sit

'please sit an<

But the crucial e?

the hearer is in i

with the posthea

(12) Maka bertru

then cry.ou'

selak klaml

open mosqi

"Then the ol<

(CDO:276-7'/

Thus, in (12), itu

such cases, ini an

demonstratives i

3.3. Larger sitx

noted that there

namely, what he1

use. "The larger

various kinds, e.j

objects" (Hawkin

lish town has a to

mentioned for th<

(13) Halifax is as

last year. (Ht

Hawkins (19'

for the associative

cles requires a lin

(14) The man drovt

1978:123)

Hawkins (1978:1

lead to the definii

43 no. 4

alam

iside

itu

that

siau dia tidor

3SG sleep

angle there was a

characteristic of

jays that, with a

he referent; but,

the referent. He

I visibility "even

i of utterance in

earer is warned

risible to him.

ict the hearer "to

squirement built

been analyzed in

ften occur in the

m, the referent is

that, in (9), the

fP ini hutan 'this

the interlocutors

egar,

efreshed

fore that water gets


However, when ini and itu occur in posthead position, there are times when

their referents are clearly not visible. Sometimes, of course, the referents are

visible, as, for example, in (11), where both interlocutors can see the king refer

red to as raja ini 'the king'.

(11) angkau dudok tunggu raja ini,

2SG sit watch.over king this

'please sit and watch over the king,' (PYC:93)

But the crucial examples are when the referents are not visible, as in (12), where

the hearer is in another room and thus cannot see the mosquito net referred to

with the posthead determiner itu.

(12) Maka bertriak-lah baboo tua itu, dengan berkata, "Hai, jangan-lah

then cry.out-EMPH domestic old that with say hey don't-EMFH

selak klambu itu,"

open mosquito.net that

'Then the old nurse called out, saying, "Hey, don't open the mosquito net,"'

(CDO:276-77)

Thus, in (12), itu must be an article since the referent is clearly not visible. In

such cases, ini and itu pattern like definite articles in posthead position, but like

demonstratives in prehead position.

3.3. Larger situation and associative anaphoric uses. Hawkins (1978)

noted that there are uses of articles that are not shared by demonstratives,

namely, what he terms "the larger situation use" and "the associative anaphoric

use." The larger situation use requires "a general knowledge that situations of

various kinds, e.g., weddings, villages, countries, etc., generally contain certain

objects" (Hawkins 1978:119). For example, the general knowledge that an Eng

lish town has a town clerk makes it possible to refer to the town clerk even when

mentioned for the first time, as in (13)-

(13) Halifax is a sleepy little Yorkshire town. The town clerk was involved in a scandal

last year. (Hawkins 1978:120)

Hawkins (1978) shows that referring to general knowledge is also the basis

for the associative anaphoric use of the definite article. This use of definite arti

cles requires a linguistic referent which triggers relevant associations, as in (14).

(14) The man drove past our house in a car. The exhaust fumes were terrible. (Hawkins

1978:123)

Hawkins (1978:123) observes that the first NP a car triggers associations that

lead to the definiteness of the exhaust fumes. Hawkins notes that, although it is

478 Anthropological Linguistics 43 no. 4 2001

not clear what the parameters defining the set of possible associates are, "the

notion 'part-of' seems to play and important role in denning... possible associ

ates" (1978:123). He observes that "the trigger must conjure up a set of objects

which are generally known to be part of some larger object or situation" (1978:

123-24).

This associative use of Baba Malay itu is illustrated in (15) and (16) below.

(15) Tetakala sudah sampai ka-iatana-nya, dia suroh orang orang-nya

when already arrive to-palace-3SG 3SG order person person-3SG

riaskan dalam istana itu dengan segala perhiasan

decorate inside palace that with all decoration

'When they arrived at his palace, he ordered his/the people to decorate the inside of

the palace' (CDO:226-27)

(16) Maka sahari hari dia bermain main-lah di dalam taman itu,

after.that one.day day 3SG play play-EMPH at inside garden that

"Then every day he/she/it played in the garden,' (CDO:234)

In (16), this associative, first-mention use of taman 'garden' occurs with the

determiner itu already in posthead position, suggesting that it is an article. The

larger context provided by the story makes it clear that the definiteness of

taman 'garden' has been established by associating it with istana 'palace' refer

red to in (15).

In a similar way, but in a different story, the earlier mention of tempat tidur

'the bed' in. (17) allows the narrator to use a posthead itu when referring to a

nearby corner penjuru itu 'the corner' in (18).

. (17) angkau mesti masok tempat tidor,

you must enter place sleep

'you must go to bed,' (CDHMT: 19)

(18) baik juga dia ada berdiri ditepi penjuru itu,

good again 3SG be stand at.edge corner that

'it was good that she was standing in the corner,' (CDHMT:24)

Reference to general knowledge is also illustrated in (19), where the deter

miner ini is used to refer to kebun 'garden* on the first mention.

(19) bagaimana elok nampaknya rumah ini, dan brapa chantek

how handsome see house this and how.much beautiful

kebun ini dengan kolam-nya,

garden this with pool-3SG

'how handsome the house looked, and how beautiful the garden with its pool was,'

(PYC:6l-62)

Examples (16M

in which the twc

some larger obje

tion, suggesting

Baba Malay

other nrst-menti

ically related to

that in such uses

(20) tengok mats

see eye-d

diseblah

down.at.sidt

'did you see

(CDS:9-11)

In (20), mata-hai

visible to the in

introduced refert

Obviously, this \

makes it possibh

The general

(in standard Me

cheritakan dent

Beginda Sultan <

the Sultan of Jo

mention, as in (2

(21) Dato ini n

dato this g

di rumahny

to house-3S

'The Dato ga

Chinese.' (D

Similarly, the re

mentioned for th

(22) Pada suaiu

on one

'One day the 1

In (22), howeve

country' intervej

ambiguity as in ]

43 no. 4

iciates are, "the

possible associ-

) a set of objects

ituation" (1978:

and (16) below.

orang-nya

person-3SG

>rate the inside of

taman itu,

garden that

occurs with the

s an article. The

; definiteness of

xa 'palace' refer-

l of tempat tidur

m referring to a

2001 Elzbieta Thurgood 479

where the deter-

i.

chantek

luch beautiful

with its pool was,'

Examples (16)-(19) illustrate a very frequent use of Baba Malay ini and itu, one

in which the two determiners are used to mark a particular NP as being part of

some larger object. In such uses, ini and itu always occur in the posthead posi

tion, suggesting that posthead position is associated with definite articles.

Baba Malay determiners in posthead position are also used to refer to still

other first-mention objects that are neither visible to interlocutors nor anaphor-

ically related to a previously introduced referent. Nonetheless, it can be shown

that in such uses ini and itu function as definite articles, as, for example, in (20).

(20) tengok mata-hari itu chahyanya merah lagi, tetapi dia sudah turun

see eye-day that glow-3SG red more but 3SG already come

diseblah kanan,

down.at.side right

'did you see the sun glowing red, but it has already set on the right side,'

(CDS:9-H)

In (20), mata-hari 'sun' is mentioned for the first time in the story. Although not

visible to the interlocutors, and not anaphorically related to any previously

introduced referent, mata-hari 'sun' is referred to with itu in posthead position.

Obviously, this use results from shared general knowledge about the sun that

makes it possible to refer to it with a definite article even on the first mention.

The general knowledge that a Malay state has a governor called a dato

(in standard Malay datuk) makes it possible for the narrator of the story Di

cheritakan dengan rengkasnya waktu kawin-nya Tuan putri anak-anda

Beginda Sultan Johore (DDR) 'A short report of the wedding of the daughter of

the Sultan of Johore' to refer to the dato with the definite article on the first

mention, as in (21).

(21) Dato ini membri satu mata-matanya menyuroh sahya pergi

dato this give one eye-eye-3SG order 1SG go

di rumahnya satu towkay China

to house-3SG one towkay China

'The Dato gave one of his constables an order that I was to go to the house of a

Chinese.' (DDR: 18)

Similarly, the raja 'king' in (22) is referred to as raja . . . itu 'the king' when

mentioned for the first time.

(22) Pada suatu hari raja didalam negri itu datang memburu,

on one day king at.inside country that come hunt

' One day the king of that country came to hunt,' (CDO:98)

In (22), however, there is the prepositional phrase didalam negri 'in the

country' intervening between raja and the determiner itu. This leads to scope

ambiguity as in Baba Malay it is not possible to say *raja didalam negri itu itu

480 Anthropological Linguistics 43 no. 4 2001

(cf. Cumming [1991:23] about Malay). However, regardless of the reading, this

use is consistent with the analysis given in this paper.

3.4. Concluding remarks. Qualitative proof for the existence of the Baba

Malay posthead definite articles ini and itu is found in their four basic uses. In

each case, when a use differentiates between demonstratives and articles, the

demonstrative use is associated with prehead position and the article use is

associated with posthead position. Thus, demonstratives and articles are readily

differentiated on the basis of these tests and on the basis of their syntactic

position.

4. The quantitative proof. The quantitative proof for the existence of Baba

Malay definite articles is found in positional frequencies. The numbers given in

table 1 show the frequencies of ini and itu per full NP in the four Baba Malay

stories analyzed for this study. The frequency of ini and itu is far, far higher in

posthead position than in prehead position, as might be expected. In the four of

the Baba Malay stories analyzed here, posthead ini and itu are used with

between 32.9 percent and 40.2 percent of the NPs. In contrast, in none of the

stories does the frequency of prehead ini and itu exceed 6.8 percent. These tex

tual frequencies by themselves suggest that posthead ini and itu are articles and

prehead ini and itu are demonstratives.

Table 1. Textual Frequencies of ini and itu in Two Syntactic Positions

TEXT NP + ini/itu ini/itu + HP TOTAL NPs

CDO

CDHMT

PYC

CDS

Total

38.4% (144) 39-5% (75) 40.2% (159)

32.9% (84)

38.0% (462)

3.5% (13)

3-7% (7) 6.8% (27)

4-7% (12)

4-9% (59)

100%

100%

100%

100%

(375) (190)

(395)

(255)

100% (1,215)

The Baba Malay textual frequencies correlate with the frequencies found in

other languages. In her study, Cyr (1993:221) compares the textual frequencies

of definite articles with the frequencies of demonstratives in such languages as

French, Italian, Cree, Swedish, Montagnais, and German. Her statistics are

based on narrative texts, short stories, and condensed versions of larger tales

(Cyr 1993:222). Cyr's frequencies for definite articles and demonstratives are

presented in table 2 and, for comparison, the textual frequencies of Baba Malay

ini and itu have been added.

The posthead frequencies of Baba Malay ini and itu correspond to the fre

quencies in other languages for definite articles; and, the prehead frequencies of

ini and itu correspond to the frequencies of demonstratives in other languages.

These numbers provide additional support for the claim that, in posthead posi

tion, Baba Malay ini and itu function as definite articles, but, in prehead posi

tion, they fun<

guages, NPs w

percent (in Pn

Malay with its

Table&Frequf

Malay, Italian,

Languac

Baba Me

Italian

French

Cree

Swedish

Montagr

German

4.1. Other Bi

represent less

Baba Malay N

are marked as •

As shown in tt

marks primari

Table 3. Freq

Constructions

Text

PYC6 CDO

CDHMT

Iftheyrefe

first-mention :

frequencies arc

Table4.Textui

Text

CDO

PYC

CDHM

Nouns the

characters tha

1994:90) occui

43 no. 4

the reading, this

jnce of the Baba

•ur basic uses. In

and articles, the

he article use is

tides are readily

>f their syntactic

ixistence of Baba

lumbers given in

four Baba Malay

far, far higher in

bed. In the four of

:u are used with

st, in none of the

jrcent. These tex-

u are articles and

*b8itions

italNPb

0% (375)

0% (190)

0% (395)

0% (255)

0% (1,215)

squencies found in

jxtual frequencies

such languages as

Her statistics are

ons of larger tales

emonstratives are

:ies of Baba Malay

respond to the fre-

tead frequencies of

n other languages.

;, in posthead posi-

it, in prehead posi-


tion, they function as demonstratives. Table 2 shows that, in the seven lan

guages, NPs with definite articles and demonstratives represent from over 41

percent (in French) to over 62 percent (in German) of all NPs in the data; Baba

Malay with its 42.9 percent is more like French than German.

Table 2. Frequencies in the Use of Definite Articles and Demonstratives in Baba

Malay, Italian, French, Cree, Swedish, Montagnais, and German

Demonstrative

4.9%

7.2%

2.9%

2.9%

3.1%

2.9%

7.2%

4.1. Other Baba Malay NPs. In Baba Malay, the NPs with ini and itu

represent less than 50 percent of all NPs in the data, leaving the majority of

Baba Malay NPs marked in another way or unmarked. Some Baba Malay NPs

are marked as definite, not by ini or itu, but by free or bound pronominal forms.

As shown in table 3, the most common bound form is the enclitic -nya, which

marks primarily the third person as the possessor, and, of course, as definite.

Table 3. Frequencies of NPs with -nya and with Pronouns in Possessive

Constructions

TEXT

PYC6 CDO

CDHMT

NP-nya

11.6% (46)

31.5% (118)

33.2% (63)

NP +PRONOUN

3-3% (13) 4.0%

1.6%

(15)

(3)

Total NPs

100% (395)

100% (375)

100% (190)

If they refer to characters of primary or secondary importance (Chafe 1994),

first-mention referential indefinite NPs occur with classifiers. The textual

frequencies are given in table 4>

Table 4. Textual Frequencies of Indefinite NPs with Classifier Constructions

Text Classifier+NP TotalNPs

CDO

PYC

CDHMT

6.1% (23)

9.9% (39)

10.5% (20)

100% (375)

100% (395)

100% (190)

Nouns that refer to props and characters of trivial importance, that is,

characters that are "sources of information, but trivial in the discourse" (Chafe

1994:90) occur unmarked, not just on their first mention, but also on the

482 ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS 43 NO. 4 2001

subsequent mentions, a pattern that Baba Malay shares with Malay (Cumming

1991:96). Hie textual frequencies of unmarked nouns are given in table 5.

Table 5. Textual Frequencies of Unmarked Nouns ^^_

Text

cdo

PYC

CDHMT

CDS

Total

Unmarked NPb

16.5% (62)

15.1% (60)

10.5% (20)

8.6% (22)

13.5% (164)

TOTAL NPs

100% (375)

100% (395)

100% (190)

100% (255)

100% (1,215)

Thus, in their article use, ini and itu refer to primary and secondary charac

ters; references to props and trivial characters remain unmarked. The question

that remains to be answered is what Baba Malay does with the two definite

articles, ini and itu.

5. The two definite articles in Baba Malay. Baba Malay has two definite

articles—one developed from the proximal demonstrative and the other from

the distal demonstrative. As shown in table 6, both of the articles are used with

roughly equal frequency. The question is what determines which is used where.

Table 6. The Distribution of the Two Definite Articles

Text NP+ini NP+ itu

43% (36)

48% (69)

56% (42)

61% (97)

Total NPs

100% (84)

ioo% (144)

100% (75)

100% (159)

In the following sections, it is shown that the choice between the two definite

articles reflects the complex interaction of two different tendencies. The crucial

interplay is between Kuno's (1976) notion of "empathy," that is, in part, the

tendency to empathize with the subjects, and Chafe's (1994) notion of referen

tial importance.

5.1. Narrator's.empathy. Kuno suggests that grammatical choices can be

influenced by "the speaker's attitude towards the participants of the event that

he is describing" (1976:431). He uses the term "empathy" to "characterize the

speaker's identification, in varying degrees, with a participant in an event"

(Kuno 1976:431). Kuno describes the speaker's empathy hierarchy as follows:

Surface Structure Empathy Hierarchy (revised): It is easiest for the speaker to

empathize with the referent of the subject than with the referents of other NPs

in the sentence. [Kuno 1987:211]

This hierarchy

the proximal articl<

the narrators use t

the subject. The re]

distal by itu. That ii

other NPs. Compar

(23) maka raja ini

then king this

'then the king be

(24) dan itek ini

and duck this

'and the duck sw

In (23), the subj

but anak perawan

Likewise, in (24) fro

as definite in diffei

subject or not. Exe

throughout the Bal

the proximal defini

distal definite articl

Table 7 present

versus nonsubjects

stories, the use of i

with nonsubjects is

tion is reversed witt

Table 7. The Use oft

Text

CDHMT

PYC

CDO

Table 8-The Use oft

TEXT

CDHMT

PYC

CDO

The use of itu w

jects it occurs over

itu also correlates v

43 no. 4

lalay (Cumming

i in table 5.

NPs

(375)

(395) (190)

(255)

1,215)

scondary charac-

:ed. The question

the two definite

' has two definite

d the other from

les are used with

ch is used where.

otalNPs

)0% (84)

D0% (144)

30% (75)

30% (159)

n the two definite

ncies. The crucial

at is, in part, the

notion of referen-

sal choices can be

9 of the event that

"characterize the

>ant in an event"

archy as follows:

.* the speaker to

its of other NPs


This hierarchy of "empathy" can be seen in the Baba Malay distribution of

the proximal article and the distal article. Throughout the Baba Malay stories,

the narrators use the proximal definite article ini to mark high empathy with

the subject. The referents of the other NPs, in contrast, are usually marked as

distal by itu. That is, typically, the speaker is "closer" to the subject than to the

other NPs. Compare (23) and (24) below.

(23) maka raja ini jnulai berchakap kepada anak perawan itu

then king this begin speak to child woman that

'then the king began speaking to the girl' (CDO:217)

(24) dan itek ini bernang-lah kolam itu.

and duck this swim-EMPH pool that

'and the duck swam on the pond.' (CDHMT:103)

In (23), the subject raja 'king' occurs with the proximal definite article ini,

but anak perawan 'female child' occurs with the distal definite article itu.

Likewise, in (24) from a different story, the two NPs are grammatically marked

as definite in different ways depending on whether the particular NP is the

subject or not. Examples (23)-(24) illustrate a very common pattern found

throughout the Baba Malay narratives: referents of subjects are marked with

the proximal definite article ini; referents of other NPs are marked with the

distal definite article itu.

Table 7 presents the statistical frequencies in the use of ini with subjects

versus nonsubjects in three Baba Malay stories. In all three of the Baba Malay

stories, the use of ini with subjects exceeds 70.6 percent, while the use of ini

with nonsubjects is under 30 percent. However, as shown in table 8, the situa

tion is reversed with itu, which occurs predominately with nonsubjects.

Table 7. The Use of ini with Subjects vs. Nonsubjects

Text

cdhmt

PYC

CDO

Subjects

87.5% (28)

78.5% (51)

70.7% (53)

Nonsubjects

12.5% (4)

21.5% (14) 29.3% (12)

Table 8. The Use of itu with Subjects vs. Nonsubjects

Text

CDHMT

PYC

CDO

Subjects

22.0% (9)

24-7% (23) 32.4% (22)

Nonsubjects

78.0% (32)

75-3% (70) .

67.6% (46)

The use of itu with subjects never passes 32.4 percent, while with nonsub

jects it occurs over 67 percent of the time. Clearly, the occurrence of ini and

itu also correlates with the distinction between subjects and nonsubjects, and


reflects what Kuno described as a tendency to empathize with the subject.

Although this tendency usually completes the animacy hierarchy, at times the

two conflict.

5.2. The animacy hierarchy. The animacy hierarchy can be represented as

the distinction between human, nonhuman animate, and inanimate categories

in language. In the animacy hierarchy, humans are ranked above animals, and

animals are ranked above objects (Comrie 1989):

human > nonhuman animate > inanimate

The animacy hierarchy reflects the human point of view of the world: of primary

importance to humans are other humans, of secondary importance to humans

are animals, and of tertiary importance are objects. This hierarchy is sometimes

reflected in grammatical choices and sometimes in discourse choices.

In Baba Malay, the animacy hierarchy is reflected in the use of the two

definite articles ini and itu. Example (25) illustrates a case in which the gram

matical categories do not coincide with the animacy hierarchy.

(25) dan pintu itu pun terbuka lalu rusa ini masok dan pintu itu and door that also open then deer this enter and door that

tertutop kembali.

close return

' and the door opened, the deer entered, and the door closed again.' (CDO: 152-53)

Here, the first and the third clauses have the inanimate noun pintu 'door' as

their subjects; the second clause has the animate noun rusa 'deer' as its subject.

Notice that it is only the animate subject rusa 'deer' that is marked by ini; the

inanimate pintu, even though in the subject position, is marked by itu.

In (23)-(24), the grammatical category predicts the choice between the pro

ximal article ini and the distal article itu. Example (25) shows that the gram

matical category may not determine the choice if it conflicts with the animacy

hierarchy. Note that the animacy hierarchy, even more directly than the gram

matical category, reflects Kuno's (1976) empathy. In (25), where the animacy

considerations override the grammatical category, it is the most empathized

referent that is marked with im.

The statistical frequencies presented in table 6 show that the definite article

ini is used primarily to refer to human referents. In all three Baba Malay

stories, ini is used with human referents more than 84.5 percent of the time,

while the use of ini never exceeds 15-4 percent.

2001

Table 9. The Us<

Text

CDO

CDHMT

PYC

Unlike ini,

with nonhumar

table 10.

Table 10. The Ui

Text

CDO

CDHMT

PYC

5.3.Theinflue

definite article!

(1994) notion 0

characters of p

tance, with cer

example, consic

(26) dia-orang

3SG-person

'they both li:

The expression

her child who 1

expression dia-

though it is in

occurs with the

characters in t

taken from ano1

nonsubject posi

'hermit*.

(27) orang her

person hen

'the hermit'.

In(26H27),th<

in (28) below,

hierarchy are 0

43 no. 4

with the subject,

rchy, at times the

be represented as

nimate categories

bove animals, and

i world: of primary

trtance to humans

irchy is sometimes

choices.

he use of the two

n which the gram-

y-

n pintu itu

d door that

iin.' (CDO: 152-53)

>un pintu 'door' as

deer' as its subject,

marked by ini; the

•ced by itu.

:e between the pro-

)ws that the gram-

3 with the animacy

ctly than the gram-

svhere the animacy

3 most empathized

,the definite article

three Baba Malay

>ercent of the time,

2001 ElzbietaThurgood

Table 9. The Use of ini with Human Referents

485

Text

cdo

CDHMT

PYC

Human

100% (75)

87.5% (28)

84.6% (55)

NONHUMAN

0% (0)

12.5% (4)

15.4% (10)

Unlike ini, the use of itu correlates neither with human referents nor

with nonhuman referents, as shown by the statistical frequencies presented in

table 10.

Table 10. The Use of itu with Human and Nonhuman Referents

Text

CDO

CDHMT

PYC

Human

50.0% (34)

41.5% (17)

50.5% (47)

Nonhuman

50.0% (34)

59.0% (24)

49-5% (46)

5.3. The influence of the discourse hierarchy. The choice between the two

definite articles also interacts with a discourse hierarchy reflected in Chafe's

(1994) notion of referential importance. Chafe (1994) distinguishes between

characters of primary importance, secondary importance, and trivial impor

tance, with certain props, of course, falling outside of the classification. For

example, consider (26) below.

(26) dia-orang berdua itu angkat-lah permesuri ini

3SG-person both that lift-EMPH queen this

'they both lifted the queen' (CDO:265)

The expression dia-orang berdua 'both of them' refers to the stepmother and

her child who are characters of secondary importance. As a consequence, the

expression dia-orang berdua 'both of them' co-occurs with the distal itu, even

though it is in a subject position. In contrast, the noun permesuri 'queen' co-

occurs with the proximal article ini, because the queen is one of the two major

characters in the story and, thus, of primary importance. Similarly, in (27),

taken from another story, the raja 'king' is followed by ini, even though it is in a

nonsubject position, because the king is more important than the orang bertapa

'hermit*.

(27) orang bertapa itu banyaklah suka dengan raja ini,

person hermit that many-EMPH like with king this

'the hermit liked the king very much,' (FYC:196)

In (26)-(27), the influence of the grammatical category was overridden, whereas

in (28) below, the effects of both the grammatical category and the animacy

hierarchy are overridden.

"*Hj«r

486 anthropological Linguistics 43 no. 4

(28) maka raja itu sudah tengok

then king that already look

'Then the king saw the deer come/ (CDO:191)

rusa ini datang

deer this come

Here, the raja, is markedby the distal article itu, while rusa 'deer' is marked by

the proximal article ini. The ignoring of the grammatical category and of the

animacy hierarchy is imposed by the discourse importance of the rusa 'the deer',

which is of more importance in the story than the raja.

6. Conclusion. This study has examined ini and itu in the literary Baba

Malay of the nineteenth century. Using narrative stories published in the Baba

Malay newspaper Bintang Timor as a database, the paper has argued that ini

and itu function both as definite articles and as demonstratives. When ini and

itu precede nouns, they function as demonstratives; when they follow nouns,

they function as definite articles. Further, the Baba Malay system of definite

articles is particularly interesting because it distinguishes between a proximal

definite article ini and a distal definite article itu, a choice determined by the

interaction of grammatical and discourse considerations.

Baba Malay developed its system of articles in the course of language shift,

when Hokkien speakers shifted to Malay. The findings of this study suggest that

the system of nineteenth-century Baba Malay determiners reflects a com

promise between the distributional patterns found in Malay and in Hokkien.

The statistically more common Baba Malay pattern head + article comes from

Malay, while the statistically less common pattern demonstrative + head comes

from Hokkien, which itself has demonstratives in that position.

The Malay-like Baba language analyzed in this study was later influenced

by two events: a large influx of new Chinese immigrants, and the growth of

Singapore and other British controlled towns. From a linguistic point of view,

the first event brought an enormous number of new speakers of not just

Hokkien, but of other Chinese languages as well. The second event resulted both

in Baba Malay, not the Malay of the Malays, becoming the dominant language of

the Straits Settlements, and in English, not Malay, being the most important

second language of the region. Thus, it would be interesting to examine modern

Baba Malay7 texts to see in what ways its determiner system resembles the

system of the nineteenth century and in what ways it has changed.

Notes

Acknowledgments. I would like to thank Mohamed Risham Fauzi and Solakhia

Januari for assisting with text translation. I am indebted to Graham Thurgood, George

Grace, and Roderick Jacobs for helpful comments and discussions. I am grateful to

Barbara Anday a for generous assistance with the historical aspects of this paper, and to

Benjamin Ts'ou for his information about the Min dialects. Thanks are also due to Hein

Stemhauer and to an anonymous referee for their thoughtful comments. All errors, of

course, remain mine.

2001

Abbreviations

person; 3 = third ;

singular.

1. Frajzyngier

demonstratives (d

definite markers d

example, verbs of s

2. Vaughan s;

clever in extempor

themselves and the

and tomtoms" (19

tells how when he

Baba from Malacc

peting in the comp

489).

3. Although be;

widespread the syn

varieties of Malay

(Rafferty 1982), an

4. The Malays

5.TheBabaM:

6. Not included

main character of 1

used very much lil

son 1959:1101) ma

7. See, howeve:

modern Baba Mais

Anderson, Stephen

1985 Deixii

matic

Camb

Ashton, E. O.

1944 Swak Bodman, Nicholas

1987 Spoke

Chafe, Wallace

1994 Disco-

scious

Press

Christophersen, Ps

1939 The 4

Einar

Clammer, John

1983 The&

Capit

Whea

Collins, J.T.

1980 Ambo:

danP

43 no. 4

deer' is marked by

ategory and of the

he rusa 'the deer',

the literary Baba

)iished in the Baba

las argued that ini

ives. When ini and

they follow nouns,

system of definite

►etween a proximal

determined by the

e of language shift,

study suggest that

srs reflects a com-

ay and in Hokkien.

article comes from

rative + head comes

ion.

ras later influenced

and "the growth of

uistic point of view,

jeakers of not just

event resulted both

iminant language of

the most important

to examine modern

stem resembles the

nanged.

n Fauzi and Solakhia

lam Thurgood, George

iona. I am grateful to

:ts of this paper, and to

ks are also due to Hein

moments. All errors, of


Abbreviations. The abbreviations used in the glosses are as follows: 2 = second

person; 3 = third person; CL = classifier; EMFH = emphatic particle; PL = plural; SG =

singular.

1. Frajzyngier (1996) challenges the assumption that definite articles develop from

demonstratives (cf. Greenberg 1978). On the basis of Chadic languages, he argues that

definite markers do not have to derive from deictic markers, but may originate from, for

example, verbs of saying (see Frajzyngier [1996] for discussion).

2. Vaughan says that "the Malacca Babas are exceedingly musical and are very

clever in extemporizing words to their tunes, and will for several hours at a time amuse

themselves and their guests by singing their pantuns, and lagus, accompanied by fiddles

and tomtoms" (1974:39). Vaughan's reports are confirmed by Munshi Abdullah, "who

tells how when he was accompanying his master from Johor on a voyage in 1871, four

Baba from Malacca were brought in to entertain the company in the evening by com

peting in the competition of pantun and songs with an old blind Malay" (Salmon 1987:

489). 3- Although beyond the scope of this work, it might be interesting to investigate how

widespread the syntactic patterns found in Baba Malay have been among other regional

varieties of Malay, which include Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien (Teo 1993), Chindo

(Rafferty 1982), and Ambonese Malay (Collins 1980; Dix Grimes 1991,1994).

4. The Malay spelling is the original orthography used by Crawfurd (1852).

5.The Baba Malay spelling is the original orthography used in Bintang Timor.

6. Not included here are the fifty occurrences of the term si Putri used to refer to the

main character of the story, the princess. The term si Putri in this Baba Malay story is

used very much like in Malay (cf. Marsden 1973:156), with "a titular prefix" si (Wilkin

son 1959:1101) marking a title-like use of the noun putri 'princess'.

7. See, however, Pakir (1986) andlim (1988) for their analyses of different aspects of

modern Baba Malay.

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Documents

1. Introduction. The term "Baba Malays" is used to refer to the Straits