Notes

1 Introduction: Civilian Strategy in Civil War

1. Interviews with Murdalis, Parwati, and farmers, Panton Lues, South Aceh (April 16–20, 2009).

2 Toward a Theory of Civilian Strategy

* Parts of this chapter were published previously in S. J. Barter (2012), Unarmed Forces: Civilian Strategy in Violent Conflicts. Peace & Change 37(4): 544–571, © 2012 Peace History Society and Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons.

1. Some writers even cite Hirschman, although such references tend to be relegated to footnotes (Kriger 2008, 162; Zolberg, Suhrke, and Aguayo 1989, 27).

2. The UN definition of IDPs requires “large numbers” who are “forced to flee” (Cohen and Deng 1998, 16).

3. Cohen and Deng (1998, 42) suggest that most displaced persons are women and children, in part because, puzzlingly, many men have already “gone to the cities or left the country.”

4. Familiar examples include Laura Secord, Rosie the Riveter, and Florence Nightingale.

5. In Uganda, civilians fled with the rebels, who “insisted civilians had to leave the conflict zone and go to Red Cross camps or to towns under government control” (Kasfir 2005, 289).

3 Empirical Foundations, Aceh

1. “Aceh” is the Indonesian standard spelling. The former rebels refer to their home as “Acheh,” favored by early English studies, or “Atjèh,” a tonal variant on the Dutch “Atjeh.”

2. Miller is an exception, but even her references to Aceh’s Javanese are coupled with qualifiers such as “migrants” or “settlers” (2008, 4, 39, 74, 109, 123).

208 l Notes

3. Di Tiro was also a businessman, working with the “top 50 US corporations in the fields of petrochemicals, shipping, construction, aviation, manufacturing and food processing.”

4. Critics allege that references to the violence as criminal were intended to dis-credit the GAM’s political aims. It is unclear why the military would want to deny the existence of a political enemy—it is usually accused of making them up to justify its presence.

5. Interview with “Jungle Tiger,” panglima GAM Teunom, West Aceh (April 30, 2006).

6. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

7. Discussions in coffee shop, Subulussalam (April 21, 2009).8. A former Gayo leader from the Darul Islam Rebellion, Ilyas Leube, joined the

first Aceh Merdeka uprising, but was killed in North Aceh in 1982 (Kompas 1982).

9. For Bowen (1991, 124), “Gayo support for Golkar is also due to an underlying shift in Gayo political, economic, and cultural orientation from Aceh to the nation as a whole.”

10. Siegel (1979, 2–3) refers to a fascinating poster listing the leaders of Aceh. It begins in 1874 with the Dutch resident, lacking any reference to sultans, followed by a Japanese commander, Daud Beureueh, and ends with an Indonesian army colonel. Although it is strange to see such actors on the same list, it makes sense in terms of the form of power they wielded. Each ruler was expected to govern, and was subject to higher government authority.

11. McCarthy (2006, 205) suggests this created “a model of village government set out on a national scale . . . Because the village head became a government official accountable to an appointed official (the subdistrict head, or camat), village government became increasingly responsive to instructions from above.” See Barber (1999).

12. “Ulama” is actually a pluralization of the Arabic alim (knowledge). In Arabic, individual ulama should be referred to as alim, but in Aceh, ulama is both singular and plural.

4 Aceh’s Civilians in War

1. Human Rights Watch (2001) lists human rights abuses, rape, killing activists, and legal reform. There is no discussion of displacement.

2. There were an estimated 23,000 IDPs as of early 2003. Months later, in response to Martial Law, this reached 48,000, dropping to around 7,000 by mid-2004 (Media Indonesia, 2003; Tempo 2003b).

3. The Norwegian Refugee Council estimated 120,000–150,000 displaced per-sons in late 2003 (Ramly 2005, 13).

4. Interview with Asiah and Mustawalad, Kontras Aceh, Banda Aceh (January 25, 2008).

Notes l 209

5. Discussion in coffee shop, Subulussalam (April 21, 2009). In one village, “all the young men left for Banda Aceh, Medan, and Kuala Lumpur” (HRW 2003a, 17).

6. Interview with Hamdani Hamid, Vancouver (May 8, 2010).7. Interview with Mardi, Panton Luas, South Aceh (April 18, 2009).8. Interview with Henri Kurnia, refugee, Vancouver (January 12, 2006), and

subsequent correspondence.9. Interview with Hamdani Hamid, refugee, Vancouver (May 8, 2010).

10. The ethnic Kluet village of Paya Teuk was totally evacuated as GAM sought help from Acehnese and the army sought the assistance of Malays. Interview with M. Amin, former keucik of Paya Teuk and rice farmers, Paya Teuk, South Aceh (April 15, 2009).

11. Discussion with Malay fishermen, Panton Luas, South Aceh (April 18, 2009).12. Discussion with Acehnese farmer, Panton Luas, South Aceh (April 17, 2009).13. Interview with Hussin Amin, former keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (January 29,

2008).14. Interview with Abdul Wahab, imeum mukim of Gunung Seulawah, Aceh

Besar (November 1, 2007).15. Anonymous interviews with Javanese IDPs in Sei Lapan, North Sumatra

(September 2003).16. Anonymous interviews with Javanese IDPs, Bakti Suci, North Sumatra

(October 2003).17. Interview with Alamsyah (coroner) and Duli (wife), Suka Damai, Aceh Besar

(January 28, 2008).18. Interview with Syarbini, keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).19. Interview with M. Daud, keucik of Subarang, South Aceh (April 19, 2009).20. Interview with Darmi Junid, keucik of Air Dingin, South Aceh (April 17,

2009)21. Interview with Lurah of Laksana, Banda Aceh (January 25, 2008).22. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, KPA official, Bireuen (February 4,

2009).23. Interview with Teungku Abdullah, Saree, Aceh Besar (January 28, 2008).24. Interview with Teungku Syamsuddin, Suka Damai, Aceh Besar (January 28,

2008).25. Interview with Samsul, businessman, Kutacane, Aceh Tenggara (April 8,

2009).26. Interview with Juanda, People’s Crisis Center (PCC), Saree, Aceh Besar

(November 4, 2007).27. Several SIRA activists fled to Bangkok, where they sought refugee status at the

UNHCR.28. Interview with Gayo farmers, Kutacane, Aceh Tenggara (April 9, 2009).29. Discussion in coffee shop, Kutacane, Aceh Tenggara (April 8, 2009).30. Discussion in coffee shop, Kutacane, Aceh Tenggara (April 8, 2009).31. Anonymous interview with former militia member, Jangar, Aceh Tenggara

(April 8, 2009).

210 l Notes

32. Interview with “Jungle Tiger,” panglima GAM Teunom, West Aceh (April 30, 2006).

33. Discussion in coffee shop, Subulussalam (April 21, 2009).34. Anonymous interviews with Javanese IDPs, Bakti Suci, North Sumatra

(October 2003).35. Anonymous interviews with Javanese IDPs, Sei Lapan, North Sumatra

(September 2003).36. Anonymous interviews with Javanese IDPs, Sei Lapan, North Sumatra

(September 2003).37. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (February 3, 2008).38. After the conflict, he is bitter that his contributions have not been rewarded

by the rebels. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (February 3, 2008).

39. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

40. Discussion in coffee shop, Saree, Aceh Besar (October 30, 2007).41. Interview with Iwan, former keucik of Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (November 5,

2007).42. Interviews with M. Hashim Usman, keucik of Lembah Seulawah (January 24,

2008, and January 30, 2008).43. Interview with Budi Arianto, JKMA [Jaringan Komunitas Masyarakat Adat,

Network of Traditional Communities] (January 24, 2008).44. Interview with Ismuda, panglima GAM North Aceh (February 4, 2008).45. During the Darul Islam Rebellion, chiefs who supported the rebels often

quit their posts and were appointed as camat in the shadow administration (Sjamsuddin 1985, 164).

46. Interview with Yusriman, former camat of Terangon, Aceh Tenggara (April 7, 2009).

47. Interview with Faisal, activist and Partai Rakyat Aceh (PRA) candidate, Kutacane, Aceh Tengarra (April 7, 2009).

48. Group interview with Teungku Syafei, keucik; Ibu Konsatum, sekdes; Bantardi, PA; and Ibu Ayani, activist, in Pasi Lembang, South Aceh (April 14, 2009).

49. Interview with Teungku Abu Ismail Yacoob, vice president of the MPU, Banda Aceh (January 26, 2008).

50. Interview with Nurdin Abdul Rahman, bupati of Bireuen and former GAM negotiator (November 5, 2007).

51. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

52. Interview with Darmi Junid, keucik of Air Dingin, South Aceh (April 17, 2009).

53. Interview with Ismuha, activist, Bireuen (February 2, 2008).54. Interview with Syarbini, keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).55. Interview with Abdul Wahab, imeum mukim of Gunung Seulawah, Aceh

Besar (November 1, 2007).56. Interview with Iwan, elder in Bireuen (November 5, 2007).

Notes l 211

57. Interview with Anwar, former sekdes of Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

58. On the ground, these systems were less clear. Around Bireuen, I was told that the rebels have their own camat, which surprised me, as I expected that GAM would favor the traditional Acehnese imeum mukim.

59. Even Daud Beureueh gave his blessing to Golkar in the 1987 elections (Kell 1995, 85).

60. Interview with Teungku Abu Ismail Yacoob, MPU (January 26, 2008).61. Interview with Teungku Haji Burhanuddin Ahmad, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh

(April 19, 2009).62. Interview with Teungku Kamaruddin, Saree, Acer Besar (January 30, 2008).

Similarly, “cities are a different place, and the ulama there see different things.” Interview with Teungku Faisal, secretary general of HUDA (Himpunan Ulama Dayah Aceh, Association of Traditional Acehnese Scholars), Banda Aceh (January 26, 2008).

63. The vice president of the provincial Majelis voiced concerns against the abuse of Javanese minorities. Interview with Teungku Abu Ismail Yacoob, MPU (January 26, 2008).

64. For one Muhammadiyah ulama, “the GAM wanted our help, but we are not Acehnese.” Interview with Teungku Bukhari Husni, Lawe Sumur, Southeast Aceh (April 8, 2009).

65. Anonymous interview with ulama, Nagan Raya (December 8, 2006).66. Interview with Teungku Abu Ismail Yacoob, MPU (January 26, 2008).67. Interview with Teungku Lukman Ramli, MPU member, Tapak Tuan, South

Aceh (April 17, 2009).68. Interview with Teungku Haji Burhanuddin Ahmad, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh

(April 19, 2009).69. Interview with Sarbunis and Agus, activists, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April

14, 2009).70. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February

4, 2008).71. Interview with Teungku H. Muhammad al-Khalidy, GAM wali and advisor to

Governor Irwandi, Teunah Merah, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).72. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, KPA official, Bireuen (February 4,

2009).73. Interview with Teungku H. Muhammad al-Khalidy, GAM wali and advisor to

Governor Irwandi, Teunah Merah, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).74. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, KPA official, Bireuen (February 4,

2009).75. Communication with Teungku Yahya Abdullah (June 2009).76. Interview with Teungku H. Muhammad al-Khalidy, GAM wali and advisor to

Governor Irwandi, Teunah Merah, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).77. Interview with Ismuha, activist, Bireuen (February 2, 2008).78. “If all sides like me and I pay my taxes, I can prosper.” Interview with Amir,

businessman, Saree, Aceh Besar (November 2, 2007).

212 l Notes

79. Interview with Doctor Julkarnian, Saree Medical Clinic, Aceh Besar (October 31, 2007).

80. Interview with Hussin Amin, former keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (January 29, 2008).

81. Interview with Zainal Abidin, sekdes of Jeumpa, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).82. Discussion in coffee shop, Saree, Aceh Besar (October 30, 2007).83. Aspinall (2009, 169) found that this was true as long as “they did not question

independence.”84. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (November 6, 2007).85. Discussion in coffee shop, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April 15, 2009).86. The boy was later asked to serve as an army spy. He provided basic, vague

information, and slowly ceased to do so as troops rotated and he was forgotten. Discussion with family in Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

87. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (November 6, 2007).88. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February

4, 2008).89. Interview with Yusriman, camat of Terangon, Aceh Tenggara (April 7, 2009).90. Interview with Nurdin Abdul Rahman, bupati of Bireuen and former GAM

negotiator (November 5, 2007).91. Interview with Nurdin, woodworker and keucik of Suka Damai, Aceh Besar

(January 29, 2008).92. Anonymous interview with keucik, Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).93. Discussion with family in Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).94. Anonymous interview with Javanese women rice farmers, Saree, Aceh Besar

(October 29, 2007).95. In Bireuen, I asked a keucik and residents if they could share some examples.

They went on to list 18 cases over 5 hours. This interview, which cost me a meeting with a GAM official, was not typical, but most chiefs were able to detail 5 or 6 cases. Anonymous interview with keucik, Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

96. Group interview with Harmaini, keucik of Lam Kabu; Isha, former keucik of Lam Tamot; M. Hashim Usman, keucik of Pancah; Pukan Darawan, sekdes of Pancah; and Muzakhir, imeum mukim of Lembah Seulawah (January 30, 2008).

97. Anonymous interview with ulama, Nagan Raya (December 8, 2006).98. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (November 6, 2007).99. Interview with Syarbini, keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).

100. Interview with Udin, panglima GAM Aceh Besar (November 3, 2007).101. Discussion with family in Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).102. Anonymous interview with keucik, Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).103. Interview with M. Hashim Usman, keucik of Lembah Seulawah, Banda Aceh

(January 24, 2008) and Aceh Besar (January 30, 2008).104. Interview with Murdalis, keucik of Panton Luas, South Aceh (April 18, 2009).105. Another role of the imeum mukim was to console the family of victims, serving

Notes l 213

as a counselor. Interview with Abdul Wahab, imeum mukim of Gunung Seula-wah, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).

106. Tidak tahu adat [does not know culture], is used to refer to someone who acts outside of social expectations. Interviews in Saree, Aceh Besar (November 2007, February 2008).

107. Group interview with Teungku Syafei, keucik of Pasi Lembang; Ibu Konsatum, sekdes of Pasi Lembang; Bantardi, PA; and Ibu Ayani, activist in Pasi Lembang, South Aceh (April 14, 2009).

108. Interview with Budi Arianto, JKMA (January 24, 2008).109. Interview with Sarbunis and Agus, activists, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April 14,

2009).110. Interview with Teungku Faisal, secretary general of the HUDA, Banda Aceh

(January 26, 2008).111. Interview with M. Hashim Usman, keucik of Lembah Seulawah, Banda Aceh

(January 24, 2008) and Aceh Besar (January 30, 2008).112. Interview with Teungku Kamaruddin, Saree, Acer Besar (January 30, 2008).113. Interview with Teungku Faisal, secretary general of the HUDA, Banda Aceh

(January 26, 2008).114. Interview with Teungku Jainal, former keucik of Jangar, Aceh Tenggara (April 8,

2009).115. Interview with Juanda, secretary general of PCC, Saree, Aceh Besar (November

4, 2007).116. Interview with Agus, coffee shop owner, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April 14,

2009).117. Interview with Yunis, coffee shop owner, Saree, Aceh Besar (November 3, 2007).118. Interview with Haji Ramli, businessman, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April 20,

2009).

5 Explaining Civilian Strategies in Aceh

1. Interview with Mardi, Panton Luas, South Aceh (April 18, 2009).2. Interview with Juanda, People’s Crisis Center (PCC), Saree, Aceh Besar

(November 4, 2007).3. Interview with Shakar, Panton Luas, South Aceh (April 18, 2009).4. Interview with Hamdani Hamid, Vancouver (May 8, 2010).5. Aspinall (2009, 116) adds that refugees “disguised themselves as part of the

regular flood of illegal workers.”6. Interview with Amir, businessman, Saree, Aceh Besar (November 2, 2007).7. Discussion with family in Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).8. Interview with Syarbini, keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).9. It may be easier to view civilian support in this way, because it maintains their

innocence. If civilians willingly support an armed group, especially when their support contributes to conflict, this blurs the innocence of civilians.

10. Interview with Iwan, former keucik, in Bireuen (November 5, 2007).

214 l Notes

11. It is possible that women faced private forms of coercion, serving GAM to avoid domestic violence at the hands of fathers, brothers, husbands, and sons.

12. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (February 3, 2008).13. Discussion in coffee shop, Saree, Aceh Besar (October 30, 2007).14. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February

4, 2008).15. Interview with Yusriman, former camat of Terangon, Aceh Tenggara (April 7,

2009).16. Anonymous interview with women’s cooperative members, Abeuk Usong,

Bireuen (November 4, 2007).17. Interview with Pukan Darawan, sekdes of Pancah (January 30, 2008).18. Discussion with villagers, Paya Teuk, South Aceh (April 15, 2009).19. Near Banda Aceh, rival restaurant owners denounced each other to the army.

Discussion in coffee shop, Banda Aceh (January 25, 2008).20. Discussion with Gayo farmers, Kutacane, Aceh Tenggara (April 9, 2009).21. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, KPA official, Bireuen (February 4,

2009).22. Interview with Asiah and Mustawalad, Kontras Aceh, Banda Aceh (January

25, 2008).23. Discussion with farmers, Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (February 3, 2008).24. Discussion with farmers, Mesjid Raya, Aceh Besar (January 26, 2008).25. Anonymous interview with soldier, Jangar, Aceh Tenggara (April 8, 2009).26. Interview with Yusriman, former camat of Terangon, Aceh Tenggara (April 7,

2009).27. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February

4, 2008).28. Group interview with Teungku Syafei, keucik of Pasi Lembang; Ibu Konsatum,

sekdes of Pasi Lembang; Bantardi, PA; and Ibu Ayani, activist in Pasi Lembang, South Aceh (April 14, 2009).

29. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, KPA official, Bireuen (February 4, 2009).

30. Interview with Teungku Lukman Ramli, MPU member, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April 17, 2009).

31. Interview with Teungku Abu Ismail Yacoob, vice president of the MPU, Banda Aceh (January 26, 2008).

32. Nessen (2006, 191) notes that blaming Indonesia undermines the rebel mes-sage, and GAM support was more than anti-Indonesian sentiment. He goes on to show only that the Acehnese were abused by Indonesia before the seces-sionist conflict. This may make reform more difficult, suggesting the problem was deeper than Suharto alone, but it is not a pro-rebel argument.

33. Interview with Udin, panglima GAM Aceh Besar (November 3, 2007).34. Interview with Ismuda, panglima GAM North Aceh (February 4, 2008).35. Interview with “Jungle Tiger,” panglima GAM Teunom, West Aceh (April 30,

2006).

Notes l 215

36. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).

37. Interview with Darmi Junid, keucik of Air Dingin, South Aceh (April 17, 2009).

38. Interview with Teungku Bukhari Husni, Lawe Sumur, Southeast Aceh (April 8, 2009).

39. Interview with Teungku Faisal, secretary general of the HUDA, Banda Aceh (January 26, 2008).

40. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, KPA official, Bireuen (February 4, 2009).

41. Interview with M. Daud, keucik of Subarang, South Aceh (April 19, 2009).42. Interview with Hussin Amin, former keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (January 29,

2008).43. Interview with Nurdin, woodworker in Suka Damai, Aceh Besar (January 29,

2008).44. Interview with Juanda, secretary general of PCC, Saree, Aceh Besar (November

4, 2007).45. Group interview with Teungku Syafei, keucik of Pasi Lembang; Ibu Konsatum,

sekdes of Pasi Lembang; Bantardi, PA; and Ibu Ayani, activist in Pasi Lembang, South Aceh (April 14, 2009).

46. Interview with Syarbini, keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).47. Interview with Teungku Abdullah, Saree, Aceh Besar (January 28, 2008).48. Interview with Teungku Abdul Malik, Suka Mulia, Aceh Besar (January 28,

2008).49. Anonymous interview, Aceh Besar (January 24, 2008).50. International Development Law Organization, “The Role of a Mediator in

Dispute Resolution under Adat in Aceh.”51. Anonymous interview with keucik, Teupin Ridup, Bireuen (February 4, 2008).52. Interview with Sarbunis and Agus, activists, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (April

14, 2009).53. Interview with Teungku Zakaria, keucik of Abeuk Usong, Bireuen (February 3,

2008).54. The Kancil occupies a similar role as the fox in Western stories, Br’er Rabbit,

and cartoon characters such as Bugs Bunny, where weaker parties trick more dangerous, but unintelligent foes, never confronting them.

55. Interview with Hussin Amin, former keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (January 29, 2008).

56. Interview with Teungku Jainal, former keucik of Jangar, Aceh Tenggara (April 8, 2009).

57. Anonymous interview with Javanese women rice farmers, Saree, Aceh Besar (October 29, 2007).

58. Interview with Marwaeni, imeum mukim of Sama Dua, South Aceh (April 19, 2009).

59. Interview with Abdul Wahab, imeum mukim of Gunung Seulawah, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).

216 l Notes

60. Interview with Andi, activist, Banda Aceh (January 24, 2008).61. Interview with Ardiansyah, lurah of Kuta Alam, Banda Aceh (January 24,

2008).62. Interview with lurah of Laksana, Banda Aceh (January 25, 2008).63. Discussion in coffee shop, Kutacane, Aceh Tenggara (April 8, 2009).64. Hans Antlöv (1995, 154) finds that Javanese villagers, used to hierarchical chiefs,

reminisce that during the war for independence and Darul Islam Rebellion, the chief was one of them, sleeping under the stars and defending locals.

65. Interview with Muslim Jaram and family, Kota Fajar, South Aceh (April 16, 2009). There were some exceptions though. I met one ethnic Malay village chief who mediated frequently, and villagers suggested that he ruled like the Acehnese keucik. Group interview with M. Amin, former keucik of Paya Teuk and rice farmers, Paya Teuk, South Aceh (April 15, 2009).

66. Interview with Darmi Junid, keucik of Air Dingin, South Aceh (April 17, 2009).

67. Interview with Udin, panglima GAM Aceh Besar (November 3, 2007).68. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February

4, 2008).69. Interview with Nurdin Abdul Rahman, bupati of Bireuen and GAM negotia-

tor (November 5, 2007).70. Anonymous interview with Javanese women rice farmers, Saree, Aceh Besar

(October 29, 2007).71. Interview with Teungku Kamaruddin, Saree, Acer Besar (January 30, 2008).72. Interview with Professor Otto Syamsuddin Ishak, professor of sociology at

Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh (October 28, 2007).73. Interview with “Kowboy” Effendi, panglima GAM Bireuen, Bireuen (February

4, 2008).74. Interview with Teungku Faisal, secretary general of the HUDA, Banda Aceh

(January 26, 2008).75. Interview with Teungku Abdullah, Saree, Aceh Besar (January 28, 2008).76. Interview with Teungku Kamaruddin, Saree, Acer Besar (January 30, 2008).77. Interview with Juanda, secretary general of PCC, Saree, Aceh Besar (November

4, 2007).78. Interview with Syarbini, keucik of Saree, Aceh Besar (November 1, 2007).79. Interview with Amir, businessman, Saree, Aceh Besar (November 2, 2007).80. Interview with Teungku Kamaruddin, Saree, Acer Besar (January 30, 2008).

6 Comparisons, Patani

1. So-called terrorism experts suggest that the conflict is owing to radical Islamists, who threaten to transform the conflict “into an international Islamic jihad” (Gunaratna, Acharya, and Chua 2005, xii).

2. McCargo may downplay Thaksin’s power in Patani. His party included the Wadah faction, which held most seats in the south. It was the Upper South where Thaksin failed to make electoral inroads against the Democrats.

Notes l 217

3. Created to help overcome the conflict, the National Reconciliation Commis-sion (NRC) “was too large and unwieldy to function effectively” (McCargo 2010b, 75).

4. Interview with Srisompob Jitpiromsri, Pattani (June 6, 2008).5. Such advocacy is not without dangers. On March 12, 2004, its leader Somchai

Neelaphaijit, who had been defending Muslim youths accused of raiding an army base, was pulled from his car in Bangkok and disappeared.

6. After a rebellion in 1692, Patani’s Sultana and her people fled southward, “where their familiarity with the terrain allowed them to effectively evade any further attacks” (Bradley 2009, 280).

7. Reports note that “6,000 villagers had fled Pattani to seek refuge in Malaya on account of the Thai police action” (Nantawan 1976, 217).

8. Discussion in coffee shop, Yala (June 8, 2008).9. Villagers explained that the chief had ties to the Democrat Party and was

harassed by security forces for political reasons. I asked locals why Malay vil-lage chiefs targeted by state forces would flee to state strongholds, and was told that many chiefs would not be welcome in Malay villages and many continue to collect their pay in Patani.

10. Discussion with fishers, Rusembilan, Pattani (June 7, 2008).11. Discussion with fishers, Rusembilan, Pattani (June 1, 2008).12. Anonymous interview with phuyaiban, Pattani (June 1, 2008).13. One Malay chief helped to capture insurgents planning on sabotaging the

electrical grid (Askew 2009, 77–78).14. Discussions in Bukit Timang, Thepha, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).15. Interview with Najeeby, professor at PSU, Pattani (June 4, 2008).16. Interview with Srisompob Jitpiromsri, PSU, Pattani (June 6, 2008).17. Anonymous interview with phuyaiban, Pattani (June 1, 2008).18. Discussion with PSU students, Pattani (May 31, 2008).19. Anonymous interview with Islamic school student, Yala (June 8, 2008).20. Interview with Abdullah Abru, head of majelis Pattani (June 1, 2008).21. Interview with Buddhist abbot, Pattani (June 4, 2008).22. Discussion with villagers, Bacho, Narathiwat (May 31, 2008).23. Anonymous interview with phuyaiban, Tamuang, Thepha, Songkhla (May 29,

2008).24. Discussions with villagers, Bacho, Narathiwat (May 31, 2008).25. Discussions in Bukit Timang, Thepha, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).26. Discussions with villagers, Bacho, Narathiwat (May 31, 2008).27. Discussion with PSU students, Pattani (June 10, 2008).28. Interview with Mohammad Ayub-Pathan, Deep South Watch, Pattani (June 6,

2008).29. Discussions in Bukit Timang, Thepha, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).30. In one coffee shop, I wore a t-shirt bearing the term “keadilan” (social justice),

a gift from an Indonesian environmental NGO. Malays thought it was an endorsement of Anwar Ibrahim, providing me with free coffee.

31. Anonymous interview with village elder, Pattani (June 12, 2008).

218 l Notes

32. Field observations in Pattani (June 2008).33. Cornish (1997, 11) finds that many Malays avoid the state mosque “on the

grounds that it was built with non-Muslim money and labor, and that the roof dome has the appearance of a lotus flower.”

34. Discussion with fishers, Rusembilan, Pattani (June 1, 2008).35. Interview with Ausmoh Maneeihiya, women’s leader, Yala (June 9, 2008).36. Interview with Wahida, student, Yala (June 9, 2008).37. During the heated elections of 1937, ulama refused to translate campaign

posters written in Jawi (Malay written in Arabic script) for Thai authorities (Ockey 2008, 129).

38. Interview with Ibrahem, professor at PSU, Pattani (June 4, 2008).39. Interview with villagers and phuyaiban, Hutang Tua, Thepha, Songkhla (May

30, 2008).40. Discussions in Bukit Timang, Thepha, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).41. Discussions in Bukit Timang, Thepha, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).42. Anonymous interview with tok guru, Bukit Torun, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).43. Anonymous interview with elder, Bukit Torun, Songkhla (May 30, 2008).44. “The problem is, after they are freed, they stay on a list, and when a new

commander comes, they arrest them again.” Interview with Chidchanok Rahimmula, professor at PSU, Pattani (June 6, 2008).

45. Discussion with elder in Pattani (June 12, 2008).

7 Comparisons, Mindanao

1. Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, chairman of MILF Committee of Information and member of MILF/GRP peace talks, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20, 2008).

2. Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20, 2008).3. Outside of General Santos City, villagers explained that, while many datus

are corrupt, some are able to oversee long-term development projects because they are permanent power holders. Discussion with plantation workers, Lapu, South Cotabato (June 25, 2008).

4. In a group interview, a farmer introduced himself as Datu Sri Dr. Sultan Datu III, at which point the group erupted with laughter, except for the one man who had initially referred to himself as datu, the target of the joke. Anonymous interview with barangay officials and MILF soldiers in Kabacan, Cotabato (June 26, 2008).

5. Local officials explain that it is best not to hold elections, as local bosses will win anyways, and this way there is less violence. Interview with barangay council, Semba, Sharif Kabungsuwan (June 21, 2008).

6. Gowing (1964, 64–65) adds that while most Moros “had only scant know-ledge of their religion, they stuck fanatically to what little they knew.”

7. Interview with former barangay leaders, Buluan, Maguindanao (June 22, 2008).

Notes l 219

8. Interview with barangay chairman and council, Semba, Sharif Kabungsuwan (June 21, 2008).

9. Anonymous interview with barangay leaders, Lapu, South Cotabato (June 25, 2008).

10. In Spanish assaults, “seeing that the inhabitants of the Lake had retired to the mountains of the interior, they set fire to all settlements and fields they could lay their hands on” (Majul 1999, 157).

11. Anonymous interview with barangay officials and MILF soldiers in Kabacan, Cotabato (June 26, 2008).

12. Discussion with villagers, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20, 2008).13. For example, in 1972, Datu Mantil Gumawa, nephew of Undtog Matalam,

forced Christian minorities out of his community with the explicit goal of ensuring Muslim dominance (Mindanao Cross 1972).

14. Discussion with plantation workers, Lapu, South Cotabato (June 25, 2008).15. In one example from Maguindanao, the barangay captain “ordered the evacu-

ation of his constituents,” when he “had a hint of the tremors that would take place” (Mindanao People’s Peace Movement 2008, 4).

16. Interview with Abdulaziz G. Abdula, former barangay captain of Kalingangan (June 29, 2008).

17. Anonymous interview with barangay leaders, Lapu, South Cotabato (June 25, 2008).

18. Interview with Hisham Nando, ulama, Buluan (June 23, 2008).19. Nuns provided assistance to poor Muslims after the 1976 earthquake

(McKenna 1998, 210).20. Interview with Benjamin Dumato, president of Buluan madrasah, Buluan

(June 23, 2008).21. Interview with Hisham Nando, ulama, Buluan (June 23, 2008).22. Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, MILF official, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat

(June 20, 2008).23. Interview with Guiamel Alim, Cotabato City (June 30, 2010).24. Discussion with plantation workers, Lapu, South Cotabato (June 25, 2008).25. Historically, datus were textbook collaborators. Datu Piang was “a shrewd

and independent-minded collaborator,” while Datu Sinsuat’s “ascent to power was due almost entirely to his close cooperation with colonial authorities” (McKenna 1998, 95–99).

26. Interview with Datu Kalipapa Sarip, Lumbac, Lanao del Sur (June 29, 2008).

27. Interview with former barangay leaders, Buluan, Maguindanao (June 22, 2008).

28. Discussion with plantation workers, Lapu, South Cotabato (June 25, 2008).29. Interview with Samaon Uyag, former barangay chairman, Buluan (June 22,

2008).30. Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20,

2008).

220 l Notes

31. Interview with Benjamin Dumato, President, Buluan Madrasah (June 23, 2008).

32. Interview with Abdulaziz G. Abdula, former barangay captain of Kalingangan (June 29, 2008).

33. Interview with Imam Amah, Cotabato City (June 19, 2008).34. At the 2010 Kusog Mindanaw meeting, army officials described the MILF as a

terrorist organization.35. Syed Lingga is a public voice for the rebels, publishing sympathetic research,

claiming that “The Bangsamoro qualify as people who hold the right to self-determination” on the grounds that “they occupy contiguous territory” [sic] which is rich in resources (2008, 5).

36. Interview with village elders, Limbalod, Carmen, North Cotabato (June 24, 2008).

37. Discussion with professors at University of Southern Mindanao, North Cotabato (June 24, 2008).

38. Interview with Lanie Paggopl, chairwoman of the joint task force, Ugalingan Peace Zone, Carmen, North Cotabato (June 24, 2008).

39. Interviews with Guinard Dalid, barangay chairman, Talahir Sulaiman, Coalition of Bangsamoro Civil Society, and Datuan S. Panolimba, MILF coordinator, Manarapan Darussalam, Carmen, North Cotabato (June 24, 2008). Interview with Guiamel Alim, Cotabato City (June 30, 2010).

40. Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20, 2008).

41. Interview with Datu Kalipapa Sarip, Lumbac, Lanao del Sur (June 29, 2008).

42. Interview with Sammy, NGO activist, Cotabato City (June 30, 2008).43. Interview with Guiamel Alim, Cotabato City (June 30, 2010).44. On March 23, they created four new zones, after the CoHA had failed (Centre

for Humanitarian Dialogue 2008).45. Interview with barangay chairman and council, Semba, Sharif Kabungsuwan

(June 21, 2008).46. Interview with Ismail Dalinan, MILF provincial chair of Damakaling (June

23, 2008). Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20, 2008).

47. Interview with Imam Amah, Cotabato City (June 19, 2008). Nuns began “actively defending the young men in the community from military harass-ment” (McKenna 1998, 181–182).

48. My deep thanks to Lela Garner Noble and Lloyd Van Vactor for their accounts of Dr. Gowing’s work.

49. Interview with Benjamin Dumato, president of Buluan madrasah, Buluan (June 23, 2008).

50. Interview with Muhajir Iqbal, Camp Darapan, Sultan Kudarat (June 20, 2008).

Notes l 221

8 Civilian Strategy: Theory and Practice

1. Discussion in coffee shop, Saree, Aceh Besar (October 30, 2007).2. Interview with Iwan, elder in Bireuen (November 5, 2007).3. Interview with Teungku Lukman Ramli, MPU member, Tapak Tuan, South

Aceh (April 17, 2009).

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Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), 161, 165, 169Aceh Besar (district), 4, 33, 37, 49, 65,

68, 72, 73, 76, 82, 86, 108, 109, 117

see also SareeAceh, Indonesia, 3–4, 33–58

ethnic groups, 33, 35government, 44, 199, 208history of, 37–42map of, 34name, 37, 207population of, 34regions, 33–5, 37secessionist conflict, 42–52social groups, 48–58, 52

Aceh Tenggara (district), 102, 122see also Tapak Tuan

adat (tradition), 53, 82, 85, 120, 121, 213council, 54, 63

agency, 3, 6, 10, 13, 25, 26, 110, 188, 191–4, 200–2

Alas, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41–2, 49, 51, 57, 58, 67, 108

ARMM (Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao), 164–5, 166, 167, 185, 200

Aspinall, Edward, 43, 46, 63, 68, 70, 75, 80, 89, 93, 97, 107, 114, 195, 202, 224

bakwit (evacuees), 170, 185, 188Banda Aceh, 4, 33, 36, 39, 47, 49, 60,

64, 106, 109, 112Bantay Ceasefire, 186–7barangay chairman, 167, 171–2, 176,

184–5, 189, 199, 211barangay (Philippine village

government), 167–70, 181Batak, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 122Bireuen (Aceh), 4, 49, 60, 69, 77, 78,

79, 80, 83Bowen, John, 33, 36, 208BRN (Barisan Revolusi Nasional,

National Revolutionary Front), 130, 131, 145

Buddhism, 135, 143, 201sangha, 134–5, 168wats (temples), 135, 143, 201

bupati (Indonesian district chief), 53, 63, 72, 121

camat (Indonesian subdistrict chief), 53, 54, 63, 64, 70, 71, 72, 121–2, 208, 210, 211

capacity, 8, 29, 31, 132–3, 155–6, 192, 198–200

rebel groups, 3, 12, 19, 46–7, 140, 145, 165–6

state, 7, 17, 54, 87, 159, 166, 189, 195, 198

Index

Page numbers in bold refer to figures and tables.

240 l Index

Catholic Church (in Mindanao), 168, 172, 173, 178, 180, 185

Central Aceh (district), 36, 50–1, 60–2, 66–8, 73, 81

see also TakengonCessation of Hostilities Agreement

(CoHA), 47, 183chief. See barangay chairman in

Mindanao; keucik in Aceh; Phuyaiban in Patani

civil society, 12, 21, 23–4, 193in Aceh, 4, 46, 51, 52, 56–7, 58,

77–9, 86–9, 95, 113, 124, 195in Maguindanao, 169, 178–9, 181,

186in Patani, 135, 136, 144, 149see also NGOs

civil war, 1, 2, 9, 11, 21, 26, 28, 103, 191, 195, 196, 206

civilians, 1ability to shape armed conflicts,

200–2definition of, 9–10explanations for wartime behavior,

25–32, 26as independent variables, 12, 191–2strategies in war, 14, 59, 191–2, 195,

203–4types of, x, 2–3see also flight; support; voice

clan violence. See ridocollaboration. See supportcolonialism, 38–42, 53, 58, 106,

161–3, 219combatant control. See zones of controlcombined strategies, 2, 16, 24–5, 65,

89–90, 156, 181, 188, 193–4, 201–2

in Aceh, 89–90in Mindanao, 188–9in Patani, 149, 156–7

conflict migration. See flightcontested zones, 4–5, 31, 193, 205

in Aceh, 65, 68, 73–4, 86, 101–4, 108, 111, 118, 123–5, 204

in Mindanao, 196in Patani, 140, 152, 156–7

conviction (as an explanation for civilian strategy), 3, 7, 26–32

as an explanation for flight, 99as an explanation for support, 109–14,

147–8, 180, 198as an explanation for voice, 124–5,

155, 187–8, 198positive and negative, 3, 30, 110, 187

Cotabato (Mindanao), 5, 159, 161, 162, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 183, 185

Cotabato massacre, 166courts, 23, 55, 75, 177, 185cultural norms. See socio-cultural

normsCumbok War (Aceh), 39Cut Nyak Dien, 1

Darul Islam, 39, 41, 44, 45, 55, 69, 72, 106, 108–9, 119, 120, 203, 208, 210, 216

datu (traditional leader), 133, 166–7, 168, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 189, 199, 201, 218, 219

Daud Beureueh, 38, 42, 44, 45, 55, 107, 108, 109, 208

defiance (voice), 20–1, 25, 31, 78–9, 81, 87–9, 103, 115, 118, 148–9, 181–3, 193, 199

democracy, 87, 90, 113, 129, 143–4displacement. See f light

East Timor, 46, 59, 95, 102economic approaches to civil war, 3, 26economic explanations for civilian

behaviour, 26–32as an explanation for flight, 95, 97,

139, 173, 197as an explanation for support, 103–5,

147, 179, 197–8as an explanation for voice, 117–18,

155, 187, 198

Index l 241

elections, 48, 49, 53, 107, 133, 143, 148, 151, 187, 199, 216

engagement (voice), 20, 22–4, 31, 79–81, 82–6, 88, 116–19, 122, 152–5, 182, 184–7, 193

evacuation, 60, 64, 169–73, 181, 185, 188, 192, 194, 195–6, 198, 219

see also bakwiteveryday resistance, 20, 21–2, 31, 78–9,

81, 87, 89, 115, 117–18, 148–9, 156, 184, 187, 198, 204

exit. See f light

feedback. See engagementflight, 2, 3, 14–17, 192

in Aceh, 59–65, 93–100, 208–9combined with support, 16, 24, 89,

188, 194combined with voice, 24, 65, 89–90,

188, 194explanations for, 27–8, 93–100,

139–40, 172–3, 197in Mindanao, 168–73in Patani, 136–40types of, 16–17

framing, 10, 25, 82, 188, 193Free Aceh Movement. See GAM

GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, Free Aceh Movement), 1, 42, 44–52, 61

civilian support, 65, 68–70, 74–6, 100–15

criminal ties, 45–6, 48, 49expansion, 46ideology, 44–5, 110–11organization, 46–7origins, 44recruitment, 75tolerance of voice, 80–1violence against Javanese, 51–2,

61–2, 95, 112Gayo (Aceh), 33, 35, 36, 41–2, 49,

50–1, 57–8, 109, 208flight, 61

support, 66–7, 73, 108voice, 117

geography, 3, 16, 78, 136, 156, 159, 169, 174, 192

Golkar, 49, 57, 66, 72, 73, 112, 208Greed. See economic explanations for

civilian behaviourgrievances, 3, 17, 23, 26–7, 30–1, 114,

125–6, 153, 162, 187, 109, 205economic, 42, 117–18, 131–2human rights, 110–11, 132, 179

Hashim, Salamat (MILF Commander), 164, 166, 177

Helsinki Agreement, 47, 48Hirschman, Alberto O., 14, 20, 22, 24,

89, 99, 192, 207Holy War, 38, 75, 216human rights, 11, 21, 27, 31, 46–8, 57,

79, 87, 88, 99, 103, 111–13, 132, 189, 191, 202

human security, 11, 191Humanitarianism, 10–11, 169, 191,

204–5Hurgronje, Snoucke, 120

IDP (internally displaced person), 15, 51, 59–63, 94–5, 169–73, 192, 207, 208

Ilagas. See militiasimeum mukim, 52–4, 57, 63, 72, 85,

121, 211inaction, 156–7, 203–4. See also neutralityIndonesia, 1, 3, 4, 6, 35, 44–8, 66, 68,

76, 87, 111, 117, 155, 156, 194, 202, 214

government, 50, 53, 54, 56, 63, 72–3, 76–7, 79, 80, 82, 95, 100, 110, 112–13

history, 38–9, 41state capacity, 56, 199–200see also TNI

informants, 67, 84, 85, 100, 103–4, 106, 146, 176

Inong Balee, 70, 76, 107

242 l Index

Irwandi Yusuf, 48Iskandar Muda, 37–8, 40, 53Islam

education, 54–5, 57, 129, 134–5, 142, 148, 151–2

leaders. See tok guru in Patani; ulama in Aceh; ustadz in Mindanao

see also Majelis; Sharia Law

Jabidah Massacre, 163Jafar Siddiq Hamzah, 65Japan, 39, 45, 208Javanese, 122, 216

in Aceh, 4, 33, 37, 41–2, 51, 58, 83, 86, 89, 207

flight, 62–3, 64, 95, 98, 99support, 67–8

kabupaten (Indonesian district), 4, 33, 46–7, 48–50, 53, 73

Kalyvas, Stathis, 11, 17, 26, 28–9, 31, 100, 103

control hypothesis, 4, 7, 65, 76, 78, 114, 196

kamnan (Thailand sub-district chief), 133, 152–3

kancil (mouse deer), 107, 119, 215keadilan (social justice), 109, 123, 124,

217kecamatan (Indonesian subdistrict), 47,

53, 63, 72, 167Kelantan (Malaysia), 127, 132, 136–9kepala desa (village head), 53, 58, 122keucik (Aceh village head), 52, 53, 55,

57, 197, 200as diplomats, 82–3flight, 63–4, 95, 97, 98as lawyers, 83–6responsibilities, 53, 120, 198, 216support, 70–2, 101–2, 108, 112voice, 81–6, 116–17, 119–22

KPA (Komite Peralihan Aceh, Aceh Transition Committee), 48, 75

Kutacane (Aceh), 4, 49, 64see also South Aceh

loyalty. See supportLumad (Philippines), 161, 166–8,

170, 171, 173, 175, 179–81, 186, 192

madrasah, 55, 75, 135Maguindanao, 3–5

ethnic group, 161, 167, 173, 180region, 3–4, 161, 200

Majelis, 55, 73, 75, 105, 134, 142–3, 151, 153, 177, 185, 211

Malay (ethnic group), 38, 120, 122, 167

in Aceh, 33, 35–7, 40–2, 50, 53, 57, 61–2, 94–5, 96–7, 106, 108, 211

in Patani, 127, 129–57Malaysia, 4, 5, 45, 60–1, 68, 81, 89–90,

94, 96–9, 127, 129, 130, 136–9, 150, 159, 163, 164, 169, 172, 192, 194, 197

see also Kelantanmaratabat (pride), 186Marcos, Ferdinand, 163–4, 168, 174,

177, 184McCargo, Duncan, 132, 134, 140, 143,

149–50, 151, 216McKenna, Thomas, 170–1, 173, 174,

177–9, 184mediation. See engagementmerantau, 98meunasah, 55–6, 98, 107MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front),

161, 164, 165–6, 167, 169, 171, 172, 174–89, 201

militias, 18, 24, 192in Aceh, 66–7, 68, 76, 102, 105, 112in Mindanao, 163, 164, 166, 170,

172, 174, 175–6, 182in Patani, 133, 134, 141, 146, 152–3,

155Mindanao, Philippines, 3–4, 7, 8,

159–89, 199history, 161–6map of, 160

Index l 243

regions, 159secessionism in, 163–6society in, 166–9see also Maguindanao

Misuari, Nur (MNLF Commander), 163–5, 177

MNLF (Moro National Liberation Front), 161, 164–5, 174–80, 184, 199, 200

Moro, 159, 167, 171MoU (Memorandum of Understanding).

See Helsinki AgreementMuhammadiyah, 41, 57, 211mukim, 38, 53, 72

see also imeum mukim

Narathiwat (Thailand), 127, 137, 143–6, 149, 150

negotiations, 23, 80–5, 116, 123, 175, 182–5, 193, 200

neutrality, 13, 20–5, 193, 203–5in Aceh, 70–2, 73, 77, 81–8, 101–2,

103, 104, 108–9, 111–12, 116, 122–3

in Mindanao, 174, 175, 178–80, 181, 183

in Patani, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 152–3, 155–6

see also contested zonesnew notables, 193, 202

in Aceh, 52, 56–7flight, 64–5, 95, 97support, 76–8, 103voice, 87–9, 124

in Mindanao, 168–9, 172, 178–80, 189

in Patani, 135–6, 138–9, 146, 154–5

see also civil societyNew Order, 39, 44, 47, 49, 51, 55–6,

66, 72, 77, 105, 109, 119, 199

economic development, 42–3, 49, 51, 66

human rights abuses, 44, 46–8, 132

NGO (nongovernmental organization), 4, 21, 31, 193, 205

in Aceh, 50, 53, 56–7, 62, 65, 77, 87–8, 90, 95, 97, 113, 116–17, 195

in Mindanao, 169, 172–3, 178–9, 181–2, 184, 185–7, 205

in Patani, 135–6, 144noncombatant. See civilianNorth Sumatra, 1, 4, 5, 35, 36, 39, 41,

65, 98Javanese IDPs, 51, 59, 62–3, 67, 90,

99, 192village leaders, 122

oil. See petroleumorang baik (good men), 134, 138, 155orang biasa (common folk), 5–6, 21,

24, 193, 196in Aceh, 52, 54, 60, 61, 67, 68–9, 70,

78–9, 81, 89, 93–4, 99, 101, 104, 106, 115, 118–19

in Mindanao, 166–7, 169, 171, 172, 174–5, 179, 184, 185, 188, 192

in Patani, 135, 136, 139, 140, 143–4, 146, 147, 148–50, 199

ordinary civilians. See orang biasa

PanglimaGAM Commanders, 47, 49, 68, 69,

70, 72, 80, 83, 101, 104, 111, 117, 123

historical, 38, 40paramilitary groups. See militiasPartai Aceh (Aceh Party), 48–9Patani, Thailand, 3–4, 7, 8, 127–57, 199

definition of, 127history, 129–31, 136map of, 128regions, 127secessionism in, 130–3society in, 133–6

Peace Studies, 12–13, 191peace zones. See zones of peacePepper Coast (Aceh), 40–1

244 l Index

petroleum, 43–4, 164Peusijuek, 123–4peutuha seunubok (garden councils), 53Philippines, 5, 21, 159–89Phuyaiban (Thailand village chief),

134, 137–8, 141–2, 152, 154, 155

pondok, 129, 134–5, 142, 148, 151, 152, 154

profit. See economic explanations for civilian behaviour

PULO (Patani United Liberation Organization), 130–1, 145

PUSA (Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh), 39, 43, 55

qadi (judge), 55, 74–5, 105, 134, 142, 201

rebel government, 23, 72refugee, 15–16, 61, 94, 96, 136, 137,

169, 173, 194, 205Reid, Anthony, 35, 36, 38, 234rido, 167, 186–7

Saree (Aceh village), 4–5, 63, 83, 87, 101, 116, 125

see also Aceh BesarScott, James C., 14, 20, 22, 25, 31, 97,

118, 152, 235secession, 3–4, 21, 45, 127

in Aceh, 42–52in Mindanao, 163–5in Patani, 130–1

security (as an explanation for civilian strategy), 3, 26–32

as an explanation for flight, 93–5, 139, 172–3, 197

as an explanation for support, 100–3, 147, 179, 197

as an explanation for voice, 115–17, 155, 187, 198

Sharia Lawin Aceh, 39, 47, 48, 55, 75, 90, 201in Mindanao, 182

Siegel, James T., 37, 38, 52–3, 56, 98, 208, 235

socio-cultural norms (as an explanation for civilian strategy), 3, 7, 26–32

as an explanation for flight, 97–9, 139, 173, 197

as an explanation for support, 105–9, 147, 179–80, 198

as an explanation for voice, 118–24, 155, 187, 198

sociological approaches to civil war, 26, 195–7

South Aceh (district), 1, 49, 50, 61–3, 67, 68, 73, 74, 84, 89, 94, 96, 121, 122. See also Kutacane

Suharto, 39, 42–3, 46, 49, 56, 58, 74, 86, 87, 113, 214

Sukarno, 45, 51, 106Sulu (Mindanao), 159, 160, 161–4, 167,

168, 169support, 2, 3, 17–19, 192–3

in Aceh, 65–78, 100–15combined with flight, 16, 24, 89,

188, 194combined with voice, 24, 90, 149,

188–9, 194, 201–2differences between rebel and

state, 105explanations for, 28–30, 100–15,

147–8, 179–80, 197–8for GAM, 68–70, 74–6, 77–8,

101–15for Indonesia, 65–8, 72–3, 77,

101–15in Mindanao, 173–80in Patani, 132, 140–8types of, 18, 192voluntary and involuntary, 18, 25,

30, 69, 102–3, 105, 203–4Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY),

47, 48

Tak Bai massacre, 150Takengon, 42, 49

see also Central Aceh

Index l 245

tambon (Thailand subdistrict), 133Tapak Tuan, 1, 4, 36, 41, 62, 94

see also Aceh Tenggaraterrorism (in Patani), 11–12, 129, 131,

140, 145, 148Thailand, 5–6, 65, 127–57Thaksin Shinawatra, 131, 132, 134,

153, 216Tiro, Hasan di, 44–51, 72, 81, 106–7,

208TNI (Tentara Nasional Indonesia), 1,

43, 46–7, 51, 60, 68, 69, 71, 74, 78–81, 86–90, 94, 103, 108, 111, 115, 117, 124, 201, 202

tokguru, 135, 138, 142, 148transmigration, 4, 7, 37, 41, 51, 129–30,

132, 161, 162, 163, 165, 170tsunami, 42, 47, 50, 76

ulama (Islamic teachers), 38–9, 45, 52, 55–6, 90, 197, 201–2

career and teaching, 72, 105flight (Aceh), 64, 95, 97, 98in Mindanao, 168, 172, 177–8, 184in Patani, 135, 142support (Aceh), 72–6, 102–3, 105,

109, 112–13traditional and modern, 55, 123voice (Aceh), 83, 86–7, 116, 118,

123–4, 125zuama, 39, 55

ulee sagoe (GAM representative), 69, 77, 80, 84

uleebalang, 38–9, 41, 49, 52, 53, 56, 57United Nations, 61, 78, 97, 148, 207universities, 51, 56, 77, 87, 88, 136,

168–9, 178ustadz, 55, 172

victims, ix, 2, 5, 6, 15, 17, 42, 57, 58, 62, 111, 123, 163, 191, 194

village chief. See barangay chairman in Mindanao; keucik in Aceh; Phuyaiban in Patani

voice, 2, 3, 19, 193, 205–6in Aceh, 78–89combined with flight, 24, 65, 89–90,

188, 194combined with support, 24, 90,

188–9, 194, 201–2definition of, 20distinctions from support, 150explanations for, 30–2, 115–25, 198in Mindanao, 180–8in Patani, 148–56types of, 20

women, 10, 16, 19, 22, 54, 98, 192, 193, 205, 214

flight (Aceh), 60–2, 95, 98, 207in Mindanao, 167, 175in Patani, 135, 137, 139, 144, 151support (Aceh), 68–70, 101, 106–7,

197, 214voice (Aceh), 57, 78, 80, 86, 88, 116,

119, 198Wood, Elizabeth, 22, 23, 30, 100, 110

zones of control, ix, 4, 7, 29, 100, 103, 192, 195–7

in Aceh, 48–9, 65–6, 71, 72, 76, 77, 78, 100, 103, 106, 109, 114, 120–1, 124, 140

in Mindanao, 174in Patani, 140–1, 147, 156

zones of peace, 21, 181–4, 187–8, 193, 198, 203