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Forgetting, Memory

Construction, and Improving

Memory

Module 22

QR code for 21 22 SG

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Memory Overview

Forgetting Encoding Failure

Storage Decay

Retrieval Failure

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Forgetting

An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or

retrieval.

Encoding Failure

We cannot remember what we do not encode.

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Storage DecayPoor durability of stored memories leads to their

decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting

curve.

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Retaining Spanish…maybe not…

Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.

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Retrieval Failure

Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins

with an H (hemoglobin).

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Forgetting as Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of

old information

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Retroactive Interference

Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it

leads to better recall.

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Why do we forget?

Forgetting can occur at any

memory stage.

Link of Mice and memory nova 12:16

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Motivated Forgetting

Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories.

Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Sigmund Freud

Culver Pictures

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Motivated Forgetting

• So, if you are ever depressed over earning a bad grade, cheer up. Chances are, if you just wait long enough, it'll improve.

• …their accuracy of recall declined steadily from 89 percent for A’s to 64 percent for B's, 51 percent for C's, and 29 percent for D's.

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Memory Construction

While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information

to make our recall more coherent.

Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's

memory of an event.

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Link Scott Fraser 20:51

Impact of Leading Questions on Eyewitness Testimony

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Memory ConstructionA week later they were asked: Was

there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A

(hit).

Vividness makes information more available in memory.

• On his way out the door, Sanders staggered against a serving table, knocking a bowl to the floor.

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• On his way out the door, Sanders staggered against a serving table, knocking a bowl of guacamole dip to the floor and splattering guacamole on the white shag carpet.

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Source Amnesia

Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we

experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).

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Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed.

However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases.

In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.

Children’s Eyewitness Recall

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Memory Construction

Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?

Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

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Constructed Memories

Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals,

they construct (fabricate) their memories.

Don Shrubshell

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How to Improve Memory

1. Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.

2. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.

3. Make material personally meaningful.4. Use mnemonic devices:

associate with peg words — something already stored

make up a story chunk — acronyms

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Improving Memory

5. Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood.

6. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation.

7. Minimize interference:1. Test your own knowledge.2. Rehearse and then determine what you

do not yet know.

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Loftus on Memory

• Loftus at Fora TV

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Chris Hakala Western New England

College

The Annual Meeting of the Utah Teachers of Psychology in the Secondary Schools

November 5, 2010

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Concept: Encoding specificity

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Method for Activity 2• Have students listen to the statements• Have students recall the target word(s) at

the end of each phrase.• Then present first word of each phrase, in

a different order, and have students recall word

• Helps students understand encoding specificity concepts

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Activity 2• A brick can be used as a doorstop.• A ladder can be used as a

bookshelf.• A wine bottle can be used as a

candleholder.• A pan can be used as a drum.• A record can be used to serve

potato chips.• A guitar can be used as a canoe

paddle.• A leaf can be used as a bookmark.• An orange can be used to play

catch.• A newspaper can be used to swat

flies.• A TV antenna can be used as a

clothes rack.• A sheet can be used as a sail.• A boat can be used as a shelter.• A bathtub can be used as a punch

bowl.

• A flashlight can be used to hold water.

• A rock can be used as a paperweight.

• A knife can be used to stir paint.• A pen can be used as an arrow.• A barrel can be used as a chair.• A rug can be used as a bedspread.• A telephone can be used as an

alarm clock.• A scissors can be used to cut

grass.• A board can be used as a ruler.• A balloon can be used as a pillow.• A shoe can be used to pound

nails.• A dime can be used as a

screwdriver.• A lampshade can be used as a

hat.

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Activity 2• balloon• lampshade• boat• barrel• TV antenna• guitar • rug• pen• newspaper• knife• sheet• ladder• bathtub

• flashlight• rock• shoe• orange• pan• leaf• telephone • scissors• board• wine bottle • shoe• dime• record