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Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
1
Europe as a linguistic area(Sprachbund)
the Standard Average European(SAE)
2
Relative clauses with declinable relative pronounsRelative clauses with declinable relative pronouns
3
Particle comparative with standard of comparisonParticle comparative with standard of comparison
4
Nominative experiencersNominative experiencers
5
Verb fronting in polar interrogatives
Comparative marking of adjectives
Suppletive second ordinal
Relative-based equative constructions ndash use of adverbial relative pronouns or demonstratives (olyan ugyanolyan yhtauml) with correlative particles (mintkuin)
Lack of alienableinalieanable opposition in adnominal possession
Lack of an inclusiveexclusive opposition in first person non-singular pronouns
Lack of reduplication constructions
Some other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and FinnishSome other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and Finnish
6
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Europe as a linguistic area(Sprachbund)
the Standard Average European(SAE)
2
Relative clauses with declinable relative pronounsRelative clauses with declinable relative pronouns
3
Particle comparative with standard of comparisonParticle comparative with standard of comparison
4
Nominative experiencersNominative experiencers
5
Verb fronting in polar interrogatives
Comparative marking of adjectives
Suppletive second ordinal
Relative-based equative constructions ndash use of adverbial relative pronouns or demonstratives (olyan ugyanolyan yhtauml) with correlative particles (mintkuin)
Lack of alienableinalieanable opposition in adnominal possession
Lack of an inclusiveexclusive opposition in first person non-singular pronouns
Lack of reduplication constructions
Some other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and FinnishSome other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and Finnish
6
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Relative clauses with declinable relative pronounsRelative clauses with declinable relative pronouns
3
Particle comparative with standard of comparisonParticle comparative with standard of comparison
4
Nominative experiencersNominative experiencers
5
Verb fronting in polar interrogatives
Comparative marking of adjectives
Suppletive second ordinal
Relative-based equative constructions ndash use of adverbial relative pronouns or demonstratives (olyan ugyanolyan yhtauml) with correlative particles (mintkuin)
Lack of alienableinalieanable opposition in adnominal possession
Lack of an inclusiveexclusive opposition in first person non-singular pronouns
Lack of reduplication constructions
Some other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and FinnishSome other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and Finnish
6
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Particle comparative with standard of comparisonParticle comparative with standard of comparison
4
Nominative experiencersNominative experiencers
5
Verb fronting in polar interrogatives
Comparative marking of adjectives
Suppletive second ordinal
Relative-based equative constructions ndash use of adverbial relative pronouns or demonstratives (olyan ugyanolyan yhtauml) with correlative particles (mintkuin)
Lack of alienableinalieanable opposition in adnominal possession
Lack of an inclusiveexclusive opposition in first person non-singular pronouns
Lack of reduplication constructions
Some other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and FinnishSome other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and Finnish
6
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Nominative experiencersNominative experiencers
5
Verb fronting in polar interrogatives
Comparative marking of adjectives
Suppletive second ordinal
Relative-based equative constructions ndash use of adverbial relative pronouns or demonstratives (olyan ugyanolyan yhtauml) with correlative particles (mintkuin)
Lack of alienableinalieanable opposition in adnominal possession
Lack of an inclusiveexclusive opposition in first person non-singular pronouns
Lack of reduplication constructions
Some other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and FinnishSome other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and Finnish
6
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Verb fronting in polar interrogatives
Comparative marking of adjectives
Suppletive second ordinal
Relative-based equative constructions ndash use of adverbial relative pronouns or demonstratives (olyan ugyanolyan yhtauml) with correlative particles (mintkuin)
Lack of alienableinalieanable opposition in adnominal possession
Lack of an inclusiveexclusive opposition in first person non-singular pronouns
Lack of reduplication constructions
Some other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and FinnishSome other SAE features displayed by both Hungarian and Finnish
6
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Anticausative prominence reflexive or medial derivation on the base of the causative verb and not the other way round
No cooccurrence of verbal negation with negative indefinite pronouns
Intensifierreflexive differentiation
Some SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and FinnishSome SAE features lacked by both Hungarian and Finnish
7
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Definite and indefinite articles
Comitativeinstrumental syncretism
Dative external possessors
Some SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by FinnishSome SAE features displayed by Hungarian but not by Finnish
8
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Non-pro-drop (strict) person marking (in 3Sg)
A SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by HungarianA SAE feature displayed by Finnish but not by Hungarian
9
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)Degrees of membership in SAE (combining 9 features)
10
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Comparative linguistics
areal linguistics linguistic typology genealogical linguistics
features constructional linguistic shared by patterns relationship languages langugages
of a geographical belong to area
language unions language types language families (Sprachbund)
11
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Morphological typology
(emerging 19th century)
grouping languages according to their common morphological structures main point word construction
12
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
isolation
guru muda itu memberi gadis pandai itu buku bagus teacher young this give girl clever this book nice
No declinations and conjugations
Separate stems + separate stems in grammatical function
Word order intonation
13
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
agglutination
hajliacutet-hat-atlan-saacuteg-uk-toacutel
Analytic (monosemantic) morphemes stem + suffixes with one meaningfunction each
The string of morphemes constitutes a complete word on every step of extension
hajliacutet rsquo(s)he bendsrsquohajliacutethat rsquo(s)he can bendrsquohajliacutethatatlan rsquounbending (inflexible)rsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteg rsquoinflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguk rsquotheir inflexibilityrsquohajliacutethatatlansaacuteguktoacutel rsquofrom their inflexibilityrsquo
Morphemes are mostly uniform their boudaries are strict and clear
14
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
inflection
analytic declination synthetic declination (external flection)
foumlld- -nek terr-ae
stem + singular + case morpheme stem + singular case morpheme
foumlld-ek-nek terr-is
stem + plural + case morpheme stem + plural case morpheme
synthetic stem morphemes (inner inflection)
anya Mutter laacuteb foot anyaacute-k Muumltter laacuteb-ak feet
laacutet see laacutet-ott saw
15
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
flection
agglutination
isolation
16
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
August Schleicher (19th century)
On the basis of Hegelrsquos dialectics
Thesisisolation the word is a whole but the grammatical relation is not expressed
Antithesis agglutination the grammatical relation is expressed but the word is not a whole (ie fallsinto its parts)
Synthesisflection both the grammatical relation is expressed and the word remains a whole
17
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
18
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Syntactic typology(emerging 20th century)
word order types bdquocontentiverdquo typology
system of alignment (basicsentence construction) patterns
19
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Basic notions 1
Agent the actuator or intentional instigator of the act processor state expressed by the predicate verb
Patientthe entity affected by the verbal content ie the animateor inanimate being which undergoes or is targeted by the process in question which comes into being by virtueof the event or is independently of its own actsin the state denoted by the verbal predicate
20
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Basic notions 2
Intransitive verb a verb that constitutes a sentence by itselfor that has only one compulsory complement (argument)(In what follows we will be only concerned with the latter type)
Transitive verba verb that has two or three compulsory complements (arguments) of which at least one is a patient(We will be only concerned with the two arguments type)
21
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Transitivity chart
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
S = A (but P) ndash nominative alignment S A P ndash triadic (tripartite) alignment
S = P (but A) ndash ergative alignment
22
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Nominative alignmentS = A (but P)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Nominative
Accusative
23
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
The boy is cold A fiuacute faacutezik Poika palelee
(patient of state)
The boy runsA fiuacute fut Poika juoksee
(agent of intentional intransitive action)
The boy is coughing A fiuacute koumlhoumlg Poika yskii
(agent [or patient] of unintentional action)
The boy is eating bread A fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml
(transitive affecting agent)
The boy is baking breadA fiuacute kenyeret suumlt Poika leipoo leipaumlauml
(transitive effecting agent)
Functions of nominative
The boy is washingA fiuacute mosakodik Poika peseytyy
(agent of reflexive action)
(patient of transitive action)
The teacher was given a bottle of wine (recipient of transitive action)
This violin is easy to play the sonata on (locative of transitive action)
This is a house Ez itt egy haacutez Taumlmauml on talo
([part of a] predicate)
A bottle of wine was given to the teacher
24
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
1 Both unmarked
The boy is eating bread
(This type is commonly called neutral)
2 Subject unmarked direct object marked
Markedness of subject and direct object
A fiuacute fut Poika juoksee rsquothe boy is runningrsquoA fiuacutek futnak Pojat juoksevat rsquothe boys are runningrsquoA fiuacute kenyeret eszik Poika syouml leipaumlauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquoA fiuacute (meg)eszi a kenyeret Poika syouml leivaumln rsquothe boy eats up the breadrsquoA fiuacutek kenyeret esznek Pojat syoumlvaumlt leipaumlauml rsquothe boys are eating breadrsquoA fiuacutek (meg)eszik a kenyeret Pojat syoumlvaumlt leivaumln rsquothe boys eat up the breadrsquo
25
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
No nominative language of this type exists
3 Both subject and direct object marked
Domin-us agricola-m laudat rsquothe master praises the farmerrsquo
Domin-us agricola-s laudat rsquothe master praises the farmersrsquo
Domin-i agricola-m laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmerrsquo
Domin-i agricola-s laudant rsquothe masters praise the farmersrsquo
4 Subject marked direct object unmarked
26
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Passive sentence construction
The house is being built by the workers
Дом строится рабочими
A haacutez eacutepiacutettetik a munkaacutesok aacuteltal
(No such construction in Finnish)
27
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Ergative alignmentS = P (but A)
S intransitive verb A transitive verb P Ergative (case)
Absolute case(Absolutive)
28
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
What would Hungarian be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Hungarianrdquo Hungarian
a fiuacute szeacuteduumll a fiuacute szeacuteduumll
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
a fiuacute kenyeret eszik a fiuacutepak kenyeacuter eszik rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
fiuacute ndash nominative (subject) fiuacute kenyeacuter ndash absolutive kenyeret ndash accusative (do) fiuacutepak ndash ergative
(ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative
29
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
What would Finnish be like if it were an ergative language
Normal (nominative) ldquoErgative Finnishrdquo
Finnish poika pyoumlrtyy poika pyoumlrtyy
rsquothe boy feels dizzyrsquo
poika syouml leipaumlauml poikapak syouml leipauml rsquothe boy is eating breadrsquo
poika ndash nominative (subject) poika leipauml ndash absolutive case leipaumlauml ndash partitive (do) poikapak ndash ergative case (ldquo-pak-pekrdquo is a fictive case ending) Neither absolutive Neither nominative nor ergative nor accusative 30
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
A real ergative language yalarngga (Australia)
kupi waya kunu-ka rsquothe fish is in the waterrsquo fish that water-locative case ending kupi-ku mila taca-mu rsquothe fish swallowed the flyrsquo
fish-ERGATIVE fly swallow-past na-tu kupi wala-mu rsquoI killed the fishrsquo I-ERGATIVE fish kill-past
kupi rsquofishrsquo + (unmarked) absolute case kupiku rsquofishrsquo + ergative case
31
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
ccedili v- accedilrsquo-ula rsquothe man comesrsquoman malehumanclass come-pres
ebeacutel-alda ccedili v-at- -ula rsquothe mother finds
the manrsquo mother-erg (sup) -find-
Avar (Caucasian)
32
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Georgian (Caucase)
dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-i -mal -adog-abs garden-dat he-intr -hide -aor3Sg
rsquothe dog hid in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-ma dzaghl-i bagh-ši da-mal-a boy-erg
rsquothe boy hid the dog in the gardenrsquo
bićrsquo-i bagh-ši da-rch -a stay
rsquothe boy stayed in the gardenrsquo33
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Yidin (Australia)
waguja-ŋgu jugi gunda-l (galban-da)man-erg tree cut-impf (axe-instr)
rsquothe man is cutting the tree (with an axe)rsquo
galban-du waguja gunda-ji-ŋ -erg
rsquothe axe cut the manrsquo
34
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Antipassive construction
Ergative Absolutive Oblique case
matyumpa-yu kukapi țaca -mu kangaroo-ERG grass (ABS) eat-PAST
rsquothe kangaroo ate the grassrsquo
matyumpa kukapi-u țaca-li-ma rsquothe kangaroo eats grassrsquo (= lsquokangaroos are grass-eating animalsrsquo)
35
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Triadic (tripartite) alignment
S A P S intransitive verb A transitive verb P
Agentive Accusative
Stative
36
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Wankumara (Australia)
kana -ia palu-a rsquothe man diedrsquo
man-stat die-past
kana-ulu kalka-a titi-nana -agnt hit dog-acc(fem)
rsquoThe man hit the bitchrsquo
37
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
ma-ţa rsquoI diersquoma-waśte rsquoI am goodrsquoma-kaśka rsquohe binds mersquoma-ya-kaśka rsquoyou bind mersquowa-ti rsquoI dwell (somewhere)rsquowa-kaśka rsquoI bind itrsquo
Active (agentive) alignment
VERBActive case
Inactive case
wa active I ma passive I (= me)
38
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Choctaw (American indian language)
čokma rsquogoodrsquo
I + Active case + čokma rsquoI do good (things)rsquo
I + Inactive case + čokma rsquoI am goodrsquo
I + Dative + čokma rsquoI am wellrsquo
39
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Eastern Pomo
wiacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI slip (unintentionally)rsquoIinact haacute ćexelkacirc rsquoI glide (intentionally)rsquoIact
40
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Theme or TOPIC
That part of the sentence which refers to the information already known by the hearer
Rheme or COMMENT
That part of the sentence which displays the new information for the hearer
The central (stressed) element of the comment is the FOCUS
ldquoActual dismemberingrdquoor information structure analysis of sentences
41
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Comparison syntatic parsing and actual dismembering
The boy likes the soup The boy likes the soup
Subject
Theme (topic)
The boy likes the soup We are speaking of the boynew information he likes the soup
The boy likes the soup We do know that the boy likes something(It is the soup that the boy likes) new information it is the soup
The boy likes the soup (It is the boy who likes the soup)
We do know that somebody likes the soup new information it is the boy 42
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Tagalog (Philippines)
mags -alis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata ag-top-take (fut) top woman AP rice loc sack for child
rsquoThe woman will take rice out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa batapat-top rsquoAs for the rice the woman will take some out of the bag for the childrsquo
a-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata loc-top
As for the sack the woman will take rice out of it for the childrsquo
ipag-s -alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako para ang bata dat-top
rsquoAs for the child the woman will take rice out of the bag for himrsquo
43
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
mag -tatrabaho ang lalaki rsquoThe man will workrsquo ag-top-work (fut) man
papa -wisan ang lalaki rsquoThe man will sweatrsquo agloc-top-sweat (fut)
44
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
accusative alignments
Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III (Acc) II transitive verb III (Acc)
45
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
transitive alignments Nominative pattern Triadic pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern
I intransitive verb
II transitive verb III
46
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
finite alignments Nominative pattern Tripartite pattern
I intransitive verb I intransitive verb II transitive verb III II transitive verb III
Ergative pattern Active pattern I intransitive verb Agent
Verb Patient
II transitive verb III
47
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
nominative triadic ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
thematic
48
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
The semi-accusative construction Volna unesla lodku
wave-NOM(FEM) carried(FEM) boat-ACC
Lodka (byla) unesena volnoj boat-NOM(FEM) (was FEM) carry-PSSPART(FEM) wave-INSTR
Volnoj uneslo lodku wave-INSTR carried(NEUTR) boat-ACC
49
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
Prenominativity
ndash any feature that precedes the nominative pattern in the schematogonic tree ie emerged during one of the ldquoprotordquo- periods is a prenominative feature
nominative tripartite ergative active
proto-accusative
proto-transitive
proto-active
ndash the nominative case and the nominative sentence pattern based on it are historical products (and thus have a prehistory)ndash this prehistory has left recoverable relics in the nominative languages 50
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
1 Unmarked object
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
51
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
52
a With finite indicative forms of transitive verbs
Hungarian
Only with either a first or a second person possessive marker
Ide hiacutevom apaacutem(at) anyaacutem(at) minden rokonom(at)rsquoI will call my father my mother all my relativesrsquo
Finnish
No such fenomenon
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
53
b With imperative forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
Lue taumlmauml kirja rsquoread this book throughrsquoCf Luen taumlmaumln kirjan rsquoI will read this book throughrsquo
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
54
c With infinitives
Hungarian in archaic and dialectal varieties
Az uram oda van fa vaacutegni rsquomy husband is away cutting woodrsquoJoacute lesz ez a voumldoumlr viacutez hordani rsquothis bucket will be good for bringing waterrsquo
Finnish
Sinun olisi parasta mennauml lukemaan englannin laumlksy rsquoIt would be better for you to go and do your English lessonrsquoJaakolla oli halu kaumlydauml kiskaisemassa joulupukilta parta rsquoJaakko felt like going up to Santa Claus and tearing off his beardrsquo Tuulikki piti velvollisuutenaan pestauml lattialattian rsquoTuulikki regarded it as her duty to mop up the floorrsquo
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
55
d With other non-finite verbal and deverbal nominal forms Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo
Finnish
No such phenomenon
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
56
e With ldquopassiverdquo verb forms
Hungarian
No such phenomenon
Finnish
asia jaumltettiin lepaumlaumlmaumlaumln yli vaalien rsquothey put the matter aside until after the electionsrsquo
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
57
f Numerals as unmarked object
Hungarian
No adnominal case forms for numerals
Finnish
Naumlin kaksi pientauml sorsaa rsquoI saw two ducklingsrsquoCfNaumlin vain yhden pienen sorsan rsquoI only saw one ducklingrsquo
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
58
g Unmarked object in compounds
Hungarian
favaacutegoacute rsquowoodcutterrsquo favaacutegaacutes rsquowoodcutting loggingrsquo (noun)dolgaveacutegezetlen rsquowithout having succeededrsquo
Finnish
tiedonhaku rsquodata-gathering (lit information-seeking)rsquo(tieto + n + haku)
henkiloumlhaku rsquocasting (lit person-seeking)rsquo (henkilouml + haku)levontarve rsquoneed for restrsquo (lepo + n + tarve)asuntotarve rsquodemand for flatsrsquo (asunto + tarve)metsaumlnhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + n + hakkuu)metsaumlhakkuu rsquoforest-clearingrsquo (metsauml + hakkuu)
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
2 The ambivalenceof participle voice
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
59
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
60
Hungarian
eladoacutelaacuteny lsquofemale shop assistantrsquo(lit lsquogive-away-PART girlrsquo) ndash active
eladoacute laacuteny lsquogirl ready to marry who has come of agersquo (lit the same) ndash passive
olvasott ember lsquowell-read personrsquondash activeolvasott koumlnyv lsquoa book readrsquondash passive
Finnish
karhu on tapettu lsquothe bear has been killedrsquo ndash passiveei tapettu lsquono killing has taken placersquo rsquondash activetapettu karhu lsquothe killed bearrsquo ndash passivekarhun tapettua kananpojan lsquoafter the bear killed the chickenrsquo ndash active
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
3 The word orderof participial subordination
Some examples of prenominative relics in the Uralic languages
61
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
62
Hungarian
A szaacutellodaacuteba rendszerint csak soumlteacutet este eacuterkező vendeacutegek csak reggel pillantjaacutek meg a tengertlsquoGuests normally arriving at the hotel only after darkglimpse the sea only in the morningrsquo A geacutepekben hosszuacute eacuteveken aacutet folyamatosan hasznaacutelt alkatreacuteszeket akkor is ki kell csereacutelni ha nem laacutetszanak hibaacutesnak lsquoParts used in the machine continually for many years have to be replaced even if they do not appear to be faultyrsquo
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
63
Finnish
puolueet valmistautuvat kovaa vauhtia syksyn kunnallisvaalien yhteydessauml pidettaumlviin EU-vaaleihinlsquothe parties are busy preparing for the EU-elections to be held simultaneously with the municipal elections in the autumnrsquo suojelualueet pakkolunastetaansukupolvien ajan alueella asuneilta maanomistajilta lsquothe protected areas are appropriated from landowners who have lived there for generationsrsquo
64
rarr Word Order Typology
64
rarr Word Order Typology
![TOYOTA-TERMINOLOGIE [ ]- SAE-ABKÜRZUNGEN SAE …](https://img.dokumen.tips/doc/110x75/62bbb323bf7def5b7910eaf4/toyota-terminologie-sae-abkrzungen-sae-.jpg)
