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1
Development of Multi-scale Methodology of High-k oxides
Growth
2
OutlinePART 1:
Introduction and context
PART 2:First principles investigations of possible growth mechanisms
PART 3:
Lattice based kinetic Monte-Carlo algorithm (HfO2)
PART 4:Exploitation, validation and results
3
PART 1Introduction and context
High-k oxides: Why? How? Methodology: available approaches overview Multi-scale strategy
Our goal: first predictive and generic kMC tool for high-k oxides deposition (ALD first steps, kinetics, process optimization…)
Cfontexte: Croissance d’oxyde à fortes permitivité (high-k)
Miniaturisation Nanotechnologie
Nouvelles filières
Nouveaux matériaux
4
Enjeu majeur de la modélisation et de la simulation:Simulation des structures d’interfaces
Why high-k oxides ?
MOSFET evolution: “scaling”
Production year
Etching width
Gate oxide
thickness
1997 250 nm 4 – 5 nm
1999 180 nm 3 – 4 nm
2001 150 nm 2 – 3 nm
2002 130 nm 2 – 3 nm
2004 90 nm < 1.5 nm
2007 65 nm < 0.9 nm
2010 45 nm < 0.7 nm Intel Corp.
Enjeu majeur de la modélisation et de la simulation:Simulation des structures d’interfaces
ITRS 2004
5
6
Problem: high leakage current through the gate.
A solution: use a gate oxide of greater permittivity than SiO2.
Oxide k
SiO2 3,9
Al2O3 ~ 9,8
ZrO2 ~25
HfO2 ~35
0k SC
t
Why high-k oxides ?
To extend Moore’s Law
Intel Corp.
Les oxydes minces
État actuel: Limite physique de l’oxyde du silicium SiO2
•Oxydes candidats Problèmes spécifiques: Stabilité vis-à-vis du silicium Nature et contrôle de la couche d’interface Stabilité de la microstructure
Mener un travail de recherche en amont
Nouveaux procédés du dépôt
Contrôle à l’échelle nanométrique
Caractérisation structurale et électrique
Coupler: recherches expérimentale & théorique
7
8
High-k oxides implementation into microelectronics Materials properties considerations
-High permittivity-Sufficient band offset (to minimize leakage)-Low fix charges density (for reliable threshold voltage)-Low interface states density (to keep an acceptable mobility in the channel)-Low dopant diffusivity (to keep them in the electrode or the channel)-Limitation of SiO2 regrowth (which would reduce the capacitance)-Amorphous phase or at least few grain boundaries (to minimize leakage)
Process considerations-Known solution for the gate electrode-High-k oxide deposition process compatibility (with other materials, with industrial needs)-High-k oxide (itself) compatibility with other CMOS processes (e.g. crystallization problems, dopant diffusivity)-Reproducibility-Reliability
9
High-k oxides implementation into microelectronics Process choice: Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
Phase 1 :Precursor pulse
Phase 2 :Precursor purge
Phase 3 :Water pulse
Phase 4 :Water purge
(…)
10
Methodology: available approaches overview
Available experimental data:
IR spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), low energy ion scattering (LEIS)…
+
Macroscopic simulations:
feature scale and reactor scale.
Oxydes de grille : Oxydes de grille : StratégieStratégie
Notre but : la description des mécanismes physico-chimiques principaux aux échèles nano et meso du dépôt par ALD
Plusieurs millions d’atomes
NanoscopiqueAb initio / DFT / DM
MesoscopiqueMCC
MacroscopiqueExpérimentation
Morphologie, Composition Taux de croissance…
Expérimentation Technologie…
Mécanismes réactionnels structures géométriques &
électroniques…
Dizaines d’atomes
L’ALD implique des systèmes à états multiples, hors équilibre, des dynamiques non linéaires (par bifurcations). La complexité du problème exige une stratégie multi-échelle.
11
12
PART 2
Ab initio Calculations of reaction paths during the initial stage of ALD growth of HfO2
Approach: cluster-based DFT
*Reactions between the precursors and hydroxylated surface:
1) Decomposition of HfCl4 on the surface
2) Hydrolysis
*Particle formation and Chlore Contamination mechanisms
Apport de la Modélisation depuis 2002Apport de la Modélisation depuis 2002
Mécanismes de base :Mécanismes de base :
Addition des ligands à la surface – Addition des ligands à la surface – Musgrave, Musgrave, Elliott, Gavartin,Elliott, Gavartin, Raghavachari, JRaghavachari, Jeloaicaeloaica Echange des ligands avec la surface – Echange des ligands avec la surface – Musgrave, Jeloaica, DkhissiMusgrave, Jeloaica, Dkhissi Hydrolyse – Hydrolyse – Musgrave, Musgrave, Elliott, Jeloaica, DkhissiElliott, Jeloaica, Dkhissi Effets de coopérativité – Jeloaica, Effets de coopérativité – Jeloaica, DkhissiDkhissi Contamination/Diffusion (Cl, C, N, H…) - Contamination/Diffusion (Cl, C, N, H…) - Musgrave, Jeloaica, Dkhissi (non publié)Musgrave, Jeloaica, Dkhissi (non publié) Diffusion de l’Oxygène dans le substrat – Diffusion de l’Oxygène dans le substrat – non publiénon publié
Les groupes OH sont considérés les sites actifs principaux de la surface (exp.)Les groupes OH sont considérés les sites actifs principaux de la surface (exp.)
14
DFT : elementary mechanisms Single bond on SiO2
Initial reaction pathway and associated barriers in the case of Hf-based precursor exposure on SiO2/Si(100)
- Incorporation is an endothermic reaction
- HCl stays on the surface => purge phase{SiO2}-OH + HfCl4 {SiO2}-O-HfCl3 + HCl
- Desorption is as favourable as the first bond formation - Both bond formation are endothermic reaction- Dense structure of the oxide
{SiO2}-(OH)2 + HfCl4 {SiO2}-O2-HfCl2 + 2HCl,
0.50
0.53
0.150.52
0.17
0,02eV
-0,40eV
-0,25eV
0,23eV0,12eV
-0,50eV
0,29eV
DFT : elementary mechanisms Double bond on SiO2
15
• DFT : hydrolyse d'une liaison Hf--ClDFT : hydrolyse d'une liaison Hf--Cl
0.619
0.12
0.916
{SiO2}-O-HfCl3 + H2O {SiO2}-O-HfCl2(OH) + HCl
- La désorption de l'eau est plus favorable que hydrolyse
- Hydrolyse est une réaction endothermique
16
DFT : elementary mechanisms
17
Hydrolysis, solvatation effect
DFT : elementary mechanisms
18
DFT : elementary mechanisms Chlore contamination
A. DKHISSI , [email protected]
size
stru
cture
Particle formation: MParticle formation: MnnOO22nn
19
DFT : elementary mechanisms
20
PART 3
Lattice based kinetic Monte-Carlo algorithm (HfO2)
Preliminary considerations: space and time scales Lattice based model: how the atomistic configuration is described Temporal dynamics: how the atomistic configuration changes Elementary mechanisms: some examples
21
Preliminary considerations:
Space scale: Crystallographic considerations
≈ ≈
22
Preliminary considerations:
Time scale: simulation algorithm choice
TIME CONTINUOUS KINETIC MONTE-CARLO
Attainable phenomenon duration: second
Realistic evolution
Monte-Carlo steps have time meaning
23
Lattice based model Merging different structures into one framework
Conventional HfO2 cell on substrate Discrete locating model
Si (layer k=1) Hf (k=2 and even layers)
Ionic oxygen (k + 1/2) Hf (k=3 and odd layers)
2D cell
24
Other aspects: strands, contaminants…
Lattice based model
Example: non-crystalline HfCl3 group, bound to the substrate via one oxygen atom. Non-crystalline aspects:
-Non-crystalline Hf
-Non-crystalline O
-OH strands
-Cl strands
-HCl contamination
-H2O
25
Substrate initialization (example)
Lattice based model
Si (100) layer (k=1)
+
User defined OH and siloxane distributions
(random)
=
Large variety of available substrates
26
Zhuravlev model for substrate initialization
Lattice based model
From the Monte-Carlo point of view, OH density is the percentage of sites that have an OH
27
Temporal dynamics Mechanisms and events (definitions)
Mechanism = elementary reaction mechanism with associated activation barrier E≠
Site = one cell within the lattice, located by (i,j,k) indexes and containing occupation fields (can be empty)
Event = Mechanism + Site, (depending on the local occupation, can be possible or not, thus must be “filtered”)
28
m
m,k,j,i
ZlogT
where Z is a random number between 0 and 1
Tk
Eexp.
B
mm
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics derivedacceptance for arrival mechanisms
(1-precursor and 2-water):
T.M
S.P.Cst
2,1
2,1
kMC: Temporal Dynamics Events occurrence times calculation
Occurrence time of event « mechanism m on site (i,j,k) » :
Arrhenius law derived acceptance with attempt frequency ν
for all other mechanisms:
29
Summary: the kinetic Monte-Carlo cycle
Occurrence timescalculation
and comparison
Atomisticconfiguration
change
Events filtering
Occurrence of the event of smallest occurrence time
Temporal dynamics
30
ALD cycle + kMC cycle
Phase 1 : Precursor Pulse- duration T1- temperature Th1 -pressure P1
Phase 2 : Precursor Purge- duration T2- temperature Th2
Phase 3 : Water Pulse- duration T3- temperature Th3- pressure P3
Phase 4 : Water Purge- duration T4- temperature Th4
As the kMC cycle works, ALD parameters change periodically:
Temporal dynamics
31
Mechanisms (some examples) HfCl4 adsorption (from DFT)
E≠ = 0 eV
ΔE = -0.48 eV
32
Mechanisms (some examples) Dissociative chemisorption (from DFT)
E≠ = 0.88 eV
ΔE = 0.26 eV
33
Mechanisms (some examples) Densification mechanisms purpose
34
Mechanisms (some examples) Densification: interlayer non-cryst./cryst. (from
kMC)
35
Mechanisms (some examples) Densification: multilayer non-cryst./tree (from
kMC)
36
Mechanisms: complete list01 MeCl4 adsorption02 H2O adsorption03 MeCl4 Desorption04 HCl Production05 H2O Desorption06 Hydrolysis07 HCl Recombination08 HCl Desorption09 Dens. Inter_CI_1N_cOH-iOH (all k)10 Dens. Inter_CI_1N_cOH-iCl (all k)11 Dens. Inter_CI_1N_cCl-iOH (all k)12 Dens. Inter_CI_2N_cOH-iOH (all k not2)13 Dens. Inter_CI_2N_cOH-iCl (all k not2)14 Dens. Inter_CI_2N_cCl-iOH (all k not2)15 Dens. Intra_CI_1N_cOH-iOH (k=2)16 Dens. Intra_CI_1N_cOH-iCl (k=2)17 Dens. Intra_CI_1N_cCl-iOH (k=2)18 Dens. Intra_CC_1N_cOH-cOH (k=2)19 Dens. Intra_CC_1N_cOH-cCl (k=2)20 Dens. Intra_CC_2N_cOH-cOH (k=2)21 Dens. Intra_CC_2N_cOH-cCl (k=2)22 Dens. Bridge_TI_2N_tOH-iOH (k=2)23 Dens. Bridge_TI_2N_tOH-iCl (k=2)24 Dens. Bridge_TI_2N_tCl-iOH (k=2)
25 Dens. Bridge_TI_3N_tOH-iOH (k=2)26 Dens. Bridge_TI_3N_tOH-iCl (k=2)27 Dens. Bridge_TI_3N_tCl-iOH (k=2)28 Dens. Bridge_TC_3N_tOH-cOH (k=2)29 Dens. Bridge_TC_3N_tOH-cCl (k=2)30 Dens. Bridge_TC_3N_tCl-cOH (k=2)31 Dens. Bridge_TC_4N_tOH-cOH32 Dens. Bridge_TC_4N_tOH-cCl33 Dens. Bridge_TC_4N_tCl-cOH34 Dens. Bridge_TT_3N_tOH-tOH (k=2)35 Dens. Bridge_TT_3N_tOH-tCl (k=2)36 Dens. Bridge_TT_4N_tOH-tOH37 Dens. Bridge_TT_4N_tOH-tCl38 Dens. Bridge_TT_5N_tOH-tOH39 Dens. Bridge_TT_5N_tOH-tCl40 Siloxane Bridge Opening
Suggested by…-DFT studies-kMC investigation-Experiments
37
PART 4
Exploitation, validation and results
Hikad simulation platform ALD first steps Growth kinetics
38
Hikad simulation platform Main features• HfO2, ZrO2 and TiO2 ALD• ALD thermodynamic parameters (link with experimental data)• Start from an existing atomistic configuration file (Recovery option)• Initial substrate atomistic configuration customization• Feedback options (log file + automatic configuration/graphic files export)• Back up option
Evolutivity• Steric restriction switch (for big precursors)• Mechanisms activation energies
Performance• Huge substrates compared to ab initio or DFT• Up to 1015 events• Improved events filtering (SmartFilter option)• Shortcuts method preventing fast flip back events (SmartEvents option)• Computation effectiveness analysis
Analysis• Simulation data analysis, even during simulation job• Easy and fast browsing through events using bookmarks (find event, ALD phase, ALD cycle...)• Atomistic configuration visualisation using AtomEye• Snapshots (jpeg, ps or png formats)• Configuration analysis (substrate, coverage, coordination...)• Batch processing
39
ALD first steps Coverage vs. substrate initialization
40
Coverage vs. substrate initialization
ALD first steps
One precursor pulse phase:100ms, 1.33mbar, 300°C
Best start substrates: 50% and Random on dimers
41
Early densifications barrier fit
ALD first steps
One precursor pulse phase:90% OH, 200ms, 1.33mbar, 300°C
Criteria: 90% OH => 80% coverage (exp.)=> Densifications barriers: 1.5 eV
42
Coverage vs. Deposition temperature
ALD first steps
Precursor pulse phase:50ms, 1.33mbar + purge
-Low temperatures: chemisorptions can’t occur-High temperatures: poor OH density=> Optimal temperature: 300°C
43
Surface saturation
ALD first steps
One precursor pulse phase:1.33mbar, 300°C
Saturation: 48% coverage for a 90ms long pulse
44
Growth kinetics Coverage for 10 ALD cycles
Pulse phases: 1.33mbar, 300°C+ purges
Fast first cycle, then slow growth…73% coverage saturation = simulation artefact
45
End configuration
Growth kinetics
-First layer will never be full nor dense: bridge densifications needed-Hard to achieve 100% substrate coverage, “waiting” for SiOSi openings-“Blocking states” are visible (“trees”)
Growth kinetics: speeds
Transient regime Steady state regime
Vt,exp = 7E+13 Hf/cm²/cycle (TXRF) Vs,exp = 12E+13 Hf/cm²/cycle (TXRF)
Hard to obtain a reliable and stable growth speed because of blocking effectSteady state regime simulations suffer less
46
Growth kinetics: conclusions
ALD cycle
Transient regime (Vt)
“Waiting” for siloxane bridges openings until full SiO2
coverage.
Steady state regime (Vs>Vt)
HfO2 growth onto HfOx(OH)y (more OH)
Am
ount
of
depo
site
d H
f at
oms
1st cycle
Fast initial Si-OH sites saturation
47
48
Conclusion
Original methodology:- Multi-scale strategy- First predictive tool at these space and time scales for high-k oxides growth
- Generic method: MeO2 oxides (changing barriers), other precursors (using steric restriction switch)
Validation and first encouraging results:- Substrate preparation dependence- Optimal growth temperature- Surface saturation- Activation barriers calibration (densifications)- Growth kinetics: hard substrate coverage, but “blocking effect”
49
Perspectives…
First:- Reduce blocking effect with new densification mechanisms- Add migration mechanisms, and lateral growth mechanisms to obtain complete substrate coverage and maybe grain boundaries- Study coordination evolution and crystallisation
Next:- Simulate thermal annealing (migrations, crystallisation…)- Dopant migration- Standardisation
50
Electronic structure of poly(9,9-dioctyfluorene) in the pristine and reduced state
The electronic structure of the conjugated polymer poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene) and the charge storage mechanism upon doping with lithium atoms have been studied using a combined experimental-theoretical approach.
Experimentally, the density of states in the valence band region was measured using ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, and the spectra interpreted with the help of the results of ab-initio calculations
51
Chemical structures of PFO, LPPP and PPP
UPS spectra of the valence band region of PFO: The He II radiation (white dots) and synchrotron radiation (black dots) spectra are compared with the theoretical DOVS. The bottom panel shows the corresponding VEH band structure.
He UPS spectrum showing the two lowest binding energy features of pristine PFO.
52
Excellent agreement between theory and experiment
Electronic structure of poly(9,9-dioctyfluorene) in the pristine state
VEH theoretical band structures of PFO, LPPP, and PPP.Comparison of the He I UPS spectra of PFO with PPP and LPPP:experimental spectra and theoretical DOVS
53
Comparison between PFO with PPP and LPPP
54
Comparison of the VEH theoretical simulations with the experimental results
55
Electronic structure of poly(9,9-dioctyfluorene) in the reduced state
UPS spectra illustrating the doping-induced changes in the valence band region of PFO as a function of Li deposition. Starting from the bottom spectrum ~corresponding to the pristine polymer!, succeeding spectra correspond to increases in lithium deposition. The overall changes in the VB region are displayed in the left panel. The right-hand side provides a magnification of the region close to the Fermi energy.