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Chapter 8

The Motivation to Work

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Module 8.1:An Introduction to Motivation

• Central position of motivation in psychology

• Motivation concerns conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, & direction of ongoing behavior– (Vinacke,’62)

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Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology

• First theories anchored motivation in notions of instincts (Freud)

• “Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like need, motive, & drive – (Maslow; Herzberg, Alderfer, Deci)

• Behaviorist approach (Skinner)• Field theory (Lewin) - Group dynamics

– B = f (p*e)

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Metaphors For Motivation(machine or Godlike? Weiner, ’91)

• Person as machine– People’s behaviors & actions are

reflexive & involuntary, performed without conscious awareness

– Pushed by internal needs

– Pulled by environmental stimuli

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Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d)Godlike

• Person as scientist – Seek information, test hypotheses

• with limited rationality; (Simon,‘60; Tversky, ’82)

• Person as judge (attributions to self, other)– Individual seeks information about extent person & others

perceived as responsible for positive & negative events– Hypothesizes about foundation

for events & actions of others• Person as intentional

– Develops goals & plans with expectancies• (Tolman, 1930s)

PhotoDisc/Getty Images

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Meaning & Importance of Motivation in the Workplace

• Motivation & performance

(Motivation x Ability)SituationalConstraints

= PERFORMANCE

–

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Motivation & Work-Life Balance

• Investigates whether satisfaction one experiences at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work & vice versa

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Motivation & Attitudes

• Attitudes– Relatively stable feelings or beliefs

directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, or jobs

– Have become less important in study of work motivation over last several decades

• “Under what work conditions are attitudes important?”

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Motivation & Personality

• Consistent relationships exist between personality characteristics & performance motivation

• Neuroticism negatively related to performance motivation

• Conscientiousness positively related to performance motivation

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Module 8.2: Motivational Theories – Classic Approaches

• Person-as-machine theories– Maslow’s need theory

• Internal mechanical theory• All humans have basic set of needs that

express themselves over life span of individual as internal “pushes” or drives

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Figure 8.1Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Maslow’s Need Theory

• Physiological needs– Basic needs like food & water

• Security needs– Need to produce a secure environment

• Love or social needs– Desire to be accepted by others

• Esteem needs– Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities

• Self-actualization– Desire to develop capabilities to fullest

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Maslow’s Need Theory

• Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating

• Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels

• Fits person-as-machine metaphor• Are need insatiable? (Hall & Nougaim, ’68;

Lawler and Suttle, ’72)

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Variations on Maslow’s Theory

• Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966)– 2 basic needs, not 5– Needs are independent (not hierarchical)– 1) Hygiene needs

• Maslow’s physical & security needs

– 2) Motivator needs• Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs

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Variations on Maslow’s Theory (cont'd)

• ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972)– 3 basic needs, not 2 or 5

– Levels:• Existence (E)• Relatedness (R)• Growth (G)

– Has not garnered much support

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Reinforcement Theory: An External mechanical theory

• Behavior depends on 3 elements:

stimulus, response, & reward

• Contingent reward– Reward depends on response

• Intermittent & continuous rewards– Intermittent rewards produce higher

performance levelsMartial Colomb/Getty Images

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Person-as-Godlike Theories:The Scientist Model

• Vroom’s VIE theory– Valence

• Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome.

– Instrumentality• Perceived relationship between performance &

attainment of a certain outcome.

– Expectancy• Perceived relationship between effort and performance.

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Scientist Models (cont'd)

• Dissonance theory– Suggests that tension exists when

individuals hold incompatible thoughts

– Assumes that individuals always seek some sense of “balance” & will direct their behavior toward seeking & maintaining that balance

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Scientist Models: Equity theory

• Individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs & outcomes

• Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of “comparison others”

Figure 8.2MathematicalDescription ofEquity Theory

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Module 8.3: Modern Approaches to Work Motivation

• Person-as-intentional– Goal-setting theory

• Notion of goal as a motivational force• Distinction between goal acceptance & goal

commitment

Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images

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Diagram of Goal Theory

Figure 8.3A Diagram of Goal Theory

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Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd)

• Feedback loop important between knowledge of results & intermediate stages

• Control theory– Based on principle of feedback loop– Assumes individuals compare a standard to an

actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring outcome into agreement with a standard

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Control Theory View of Goal Setting

Figure 8.4Control Theory View of Goal SettingSource: Austin and Klein (1996).

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Relationships Among Needs, Motives, Goals, & Performance

Figure 8.5The Relationships among Needs,Motives, Goals, and PerformanceSource: Locke & Latham (1996).

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Control Theories & the Concept of Self-Regulation

• Self-regulation is compatible with control theory

Figure 8.6Simple Control Systems ModelSource: Taylor, Fisher, & Ilgen (1984).

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Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory

• Belief in one’s capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal– Developed & increased by:

• Mastery experiences• Modeling• Social persuasion• Physiological states

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Action Theory (Rubicon theory)

• Broad consideration of role of intention in motivated behavior & connection between intention & action

• Action phases in active goal pursuit– Predecisional– Postdecisional– Actional– Evaluative

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Action Theory (cont'd)

• Action has 2 elements– Action process

– Action structure

Figure 8.7 The Action ProcessSource: Frese & Zapf (1994).

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Common Themes in Modern Approaches

• Intention plays key role in motivated behavior

• Concept of feedback critical in considering anything but the simplest act at one point in time

• Theory should include element of person-as-scientist

• Theory should include concept of self-assessment

• Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate” motivation theory

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Entrepreneurs (EO):Role of Pattern Recognition (Frese & Fay, 2001)

Figure 8.8

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Module 8.4:Practical Issues in Motivation

• Motivation can be measured

• Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ)– Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation

• Desire to learn• Mastery• Other referenced goals

• Competitiveness• Worry• Emotionality

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Entrepreneurial Orientation(Frese et al.)

• Personality characteristics:– PI: Personal Initiative

• Self starter; proactive

– AO: Achievement Orientation• Need for achievement

– RT: Risk Taking

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Measuring Motivation

• Judge & Ilies, (2002)– Conscientiousness & emotional stability

• Erez & Judge (2001)– “core self-evaluations”

• Kanfer (Heggestad & Kanfer, 2001)– Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ)

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Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation

• Hofstede’s cultural theory– Cultures differ on 5 dimensions

• Collectivism/individualism• Uncertainty avoidance• Masculinity/femininity• Power dimensions• Long-term vs. short-term orientation

– Application to MTQ

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Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation (Erez, 1997) (cont'd)

• Types of motivational practices employed by managers across all cultures– Differential distribution of rewards– Participation in goal setting & decision making– Design & redesign of jobs & organizations– Quality improvement

• How would you modify these practices to fit an organization you have worked for?

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Generational Differences & Work Motivation

• Generation– Defined by group

members who share birth years & significant life events

– e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Generation Yers

D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images

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Generational Differences (cont'd)

• Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers– Younger employees appear to be more “me”

oriented– Today’s workers value “pride in work” less

than workers of 1974– Work is less important now than 25 years ago– Work becomes less idealized as workers age– ? Do Gen Xers cheat more than previous ones?

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Motivational Interventions Hackman & Oldham JCM

• Contingent rewards• Job enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics)

• Skill variety• Task identity• Task significance• Autonomy• Task feedback

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Motivational Interventions (cont'd)

• Productivity Measurement & Enhancement System (ProMES)– Utilizes goal setting, rewards, &

feedback to increase motivation & performance

– Evidence shows significant gains in productivity following use of ProMES

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ProMES (Prichard, ’92)

Steps for Implementation

1) Forming a design team

2) Identifying objectives

3) Identifying indicators

4) Defining contingencies

5) Designing the feedback system

6) Giving & responding to feedback

7) Monitoring the system

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Example Feedback Reportfrom ProMES

Figure 8.9