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Chapter 11

Leadership

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Who comes to mind when you think of great leaders?

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L e a d e r s h i p v s. M a n a g e m e n t

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Historical Overviewof Leadership Theories

A. Early trait-based approach

B. Behavior-based approaches

C. Contingency approaches

D. Contemporary approaches:– Charismatic leadership– Transformational leadership– Authentic leadership– Leadership Attribution– Substitutes for leadership– Servant leadership

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Typical traits and competencies– ambition and energy– desire to lead; internal drives– honesty and integrity– self-confidence– cognitive abilities– physical characteristics– personality traits

A. Trait-based Approaches

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Limitations:• Assumes leaders are “born”

• No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.

• Unclear evidence of cause and effect between leadership and traits.

• Traits MAY be better at predicting appearance of leadership than who will be effective/ineffective as leaders

A. Trait-based Approaches (cont.)

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B. Behavior-based Approaches

Culminated in the “Managerial Grid”:

• initiation/task/production behaviors

• consideration/employee behaviors

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Typical Task/Initiation Behaviors

1. Quick to tell what’s expected.

2. Promote standardized procedures.

3. Make unilateral decisions about methods, policies and procedures.

4. Clarify roles and expectations.

5. Schedule work, set goals, monitor closely.

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Typical Consideration Behaviors

1. Get along easily; strive for harmony.

2. Treat employees as equals.

3. Put the group’s ideas into action.

4. Let people know of upcoming changes; solicit input.

5. Quick to communicate reasons behind actions and decisions.

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The Managerial/Behavioral Grid

DOMINANCE

SUBMISSION

RESPECTHOSTILITY

Q4: IntegratorASSERTIVE, RESPONSIVE• Strives to build consensus• Promotes self-direction in others• Promotes growth and development• Seeks views and input of others• Involves others in problem solving• Is open to constructive

disagreements• Motivates with natural

consequences• Provides useful/meaningful

feedback

Q3: IngratiatorPASSIVE, EASYGOING• Seeks to avoid all forms of conflict• Smoothes over disagreements• Wants everyone to “one happy family”• Makes few substantive demands• Lavishes praise even when

undeserved• Avoids anything negative• Prefers idle socializing to substance

Q1: ImposerDOMINEERING, INSENSITIVE• Pressures others to comply• Makes authoritarian decisions• Pushes to ”win” regardless of cost• Demeans and often displays anger• Quick to punish for mistakes• Compliments rarely• Concerned solely with own agenda

Q2: IgnorerRELUCTANT, UNRESPONSIVE• Pessimistic and critical• Keeps distant, silent or aloof• Hides true emotions and feelings• Avoids or postpones decisions• Resists change; prefers status quo• Cites rules or higher authority• Provides little feedback

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Principle of Behavioral Interaction

Mgr’s Behavior Other’s Behavior

Q1 Q2 or Q3 (maybe Q1?)

Q2 Q1 or Q2

Q3 Q3 or Q1

Q4 Q4 (or shift in that direction)

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C. Contingency Approaches

• Fiedler’s Model

• LMX Model

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Fiedler’s Contingency Model

• The leader’s “style” (LPC scale):– Fixed and untrainable

• Situation control factors:– Leader-member relations– Task structure– Position power

• Situation control and leader “fit”– the options are . . . . ?

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Overview of Fiedler’s Model

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

• Leaders have one-on-one relations that differ

• Leaders have “in-groups” and “out-groups”– Based on competence, personal compatibility and/or other

close similarities to leader

• “Exchanges” (or interactions) with leader are very different for followers who are “In” vs. “Out”

• Result: “In-group” subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.

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LMX Model• How group members are assigned is somewhat unclear– Follower characteristics determine group membership

• Leaders control by keeping favorites close• Research has been generally supportive

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LMX Group Membership

In-group members• Share a common bond and

values• Regular interactions with

leader• Get more challenging work

and more positive reinforcement

• Are more positive about company; have higher job performance and satisfaction

Out-group members• Have less in common with

leader• Limited interactions with

leader• Get less challenging work

and little positive reinforcement

• Easily bored and often complain; typically do jobs only at minimum required level

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• Descriptive or normative?

• In/out group differences NOT random

• Regularly evaluate your criteria

• Watch for biases in assignments and treatment

• Maintain fluid movement between groups

Implications of LMX Model

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D. Contemporary Approaches

1. Charismatic leadership

2. Transformational leadership

3. Authentic leadership

4. Leadership Attribution

5. Substitutes for leadership

6. Servant leadership

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1. Charismatic Leadership Theory

Charismatic Leaders:1. Articulate a compelling vision.2. Will take personal risks to achieve the vision.3. Are sensitive to follower needs.4. Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.

Charismatic Leaders:1. Articulate a compelling vision.2. Will take personal risks to achieve the vision.3. Are sensitive to follower needs.4. Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.

Charismatically Lead Followers:1. Accept the vision of the leader.2. Will take personal risks to achieve the vision.

3. Will respond with loyalty, respect, devotion and affection for the leader.

4. Typically exhibit obedience without questioning.

Charismatically Lead Followers:1. Accept the vision of the leader.2. Will take personal risks to achieve the vision.

3. Will respond with loyalty, respect, devotion and affection for the leader.

4. Typically exhibit obedience without questioning.

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2. Transactional and Transformational Leadership2. Transactional and Transformational Leadership

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3. Authentic Leaders and Ethical Behavior

• Authentic Leaders:– Self-aware (know who they are; what they believe

in and value;– Act on their beliefs and values openly and candidly

(followers will thus see them as ethical).

• Resulting outcomes are:– Creation of trust– Greater open communication– Socialized charismatic leadership

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Trust: “A positive expectation that others will not act opportunistically.”

• Two “components” of trust:– Competence (e.g., knowledge, skills, abilities)– Character (e.g., consistency, loyalty, openness)

• Three “types” of trust:– Deterrence-based– Knowledge-based– Identification-based

Authentic Leaders and Trust

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Strategies for Building Trust:• Practice openness

• Be fair

• Speak your feelings honestly

• Tell the truth

• Show consistency

• Fulfill the spirit of your promises

• Maintain confidences

• Demonstrate competence

Leadership and Trust (cont.)

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4. Attribution Theory of Leadership andthe Implicit Leadership Model (ILM)

• We have implicit expectations (i.e., beliefs and assumptions) about “ideal” leadership.

• Our implicit expectations work as prototypes, which are the basis of the attributions we make.

• Fit between the observed behavior and our prototypes is called congruence:– Intuitively more favorable views of the leaders are

intertwined with our broader social stereotypes (about things like gender roles, for example), and thus increase our positive attributions.

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ILM and Gender Stereotypes

Typical FemaleExpressive Behaviors

– Nurturing– Warm– Sympathetic– Soft-hearted– Talkative– Gentle– Sentimental– Affectionate

Typical MaleInstrumental Behaviors

– Productive– Energetic– Strong– Stoic– Aggressive– Reserved– Detached– Aloof

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Attribution and Implicit Leadership (cont.)

• Implicit norms about ideal leadership:– consistent with male Instrumental behaviors– inconsistent with female Expressive behaviors

• To be “in-role” as a leader, women have to:– be “out-of-role” for their gender expectations,

– which creates incongruity,

– which creates implicit attribution that women who “fit” their gender role don’t “fit” a leadership role and vice versa.

• Women are thus often implicitly perceived as less qualified for leadership positions (even though many of the typically expressive “female” qualities make for better charismatic and transformational leadership!)

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5. Leadership “Substitutes”

Characteristics of the task• Unambiguous and routine• Methodologically invariant• Provides its own feedback re: accomplishment• Intrinsically satisfying

Characteristics of the organization• Formalization• Inflexibility• Highly specified and active advisory and staff functions• Close-knit, cohesive work groups• Organizational rewards not in leaders’ control• Spatial distance between leader & followers

Characteristics of the subordinate• Ability, experience, training, knowledge• Need for independence• Professional orientation• Indifference to organizational rewards

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6. Servant Leadership

• Servant leader’s highest priority is:– to meet the needs of others.

• Characteristics of a Servant Leader:– Self-awareness and other-awareness– Strong purpose and sense of direction– Keen focus on development and growth– Highly competent listeners– Pursue change as tool to serve– Foster communities– Influence through referent power– Foresight and perceptiveness to balance risks– Stewardship (responsibility to foster “betterment”)

(Why would you want to be a servant leader?!)