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• Athenian philosopher• “Student” of Socrates• Aristotle’s teacher• Founded the Academy (Closed 525 AD;

Justinian)• Composed many (preserved) dialogues

on morality, metaphysics and epistemology

The Apology Ostensibly, the story of Socrates’ trial Also represents Socrates’ conception of human

nature as essentially rational Background to the trial

Athenian democracy Socrates the gadfly

Mocked in Aristophanes’ The Clouds Socrates’ (divinely inspired) “inner voice” advises

him Apollo’s Oracle/Priestess at Delphi

“No one is wiser than Socrates” Socrates says that he has no wisdom, small or

great Certainly not prominent Athenians

Neither politicians nor writers Writers as “clairvoyants”!

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From early rumor Socrates paraphrases Aristophanes’ The Clouds:

"Socrates is an evil-doer, and a curious person, who searches into things under the earth and in heaven, and he makes the worse appear the better cause; and he teaches the aforesaid doctrines to others."

Current formal charge (Meletus, Anytus, Lycon) impiety

practices new (unsanctioned) religion does not recognize the State’s gods

corruption of youth3

Result of trial Socrates’ sentenced to execution

expectation of exile Plato’s rejection of democracy in the

Republic Socrates’ defense

Against the rumor (Aristophanes) Socrates denies any special wisdom expect

that he knows his own ignorance Admits he’s embarrassed the pompous

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Against impiety Socrates recognizes some gods (e.g. Apollo)

even if other philosophers (Anaxagoras) don’t Socrates recognizes the Oracle of Delphi (Apollo’s

representative) who says that no one is wiser than Socrates

Accusation of practice of new religion implies Socrates recognizes some gods, which contradicts accusation of atheism

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Against corruption of youth This is the critical accusation Socratic Paradox as defense

All normal humans are rational Rational creatures are designed to seek only value,

only what is good, only what is right Hence, rational creatures can’t be bad intentionally Hence, rational creatures are robots of reason & not

driven by emotion

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“Paradox” means “beyond belief.” A paradox expresses something that is simultaneously credible and incredible. Thus, Socratic Paradox regarding rationality: To corrupt the youth is to make them evil Evil youths would harm Socrates No rational person would intentionally harm

him/herself Since Socrates is rational, he either

did not corrupt the youth or did so only unintentionally

If he did not corrupt, he should not be punished If he unintentionally corrupted the youths, he should

be educated but not punished Hence, in either case, Socrates should not be punished

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A rational person will always and necessarily: Try to do what he/she judges to be best Never knowingly do what is wrong

Any behavior that appears wrong or immoral must result from Ignorance of the immorality Psychological impairment, malfunction or

insanity

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Rational persons act deliberately Deliberation = the use of reason to select what is

judged to be the best alternative action So, rational persons always try to do what seems

best Hence, they never intentionally do what they think is

wrong Therefore, rational agents should never be punished

for wrongdoing. At worst, they should be taught what is right or best. For once they know this, they will inevitably try to do what is right or best

Failure to try to do what is believed best = mental illness

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Our inclination towards fallacy Cognitive Biases (Daniel Kahneman (Princeton Professor of

Cognitive Psychology and Behavorial Economics; Nobel Laureate in Economics) & Amos Tversky (Deceased Stanford Professor of Cognitive Psychology) gambler’s fallacy selecting a car ordering effects on preferences

Impact Bias in predicting happiness Daniel Gilbert: Harvard Professor of Social Psychology His research indicates that humans chronically err in

estimating how happy their activities and property will make them.

Failures in deployment of knowledge Where are my glasses? Calculation errors on math test Tip of the tongue phenomenon

Rational wrong doing Augustine: weakness of will Hume: reason as slave of desire

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The unexamined life is not worth living

The examined life is the life of a rational person who undertakes to know what is generally good and valuable in life

Only such a person may come to know what is best to do or how to live so as to optimize what is valuable in life.

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The unexamined life is one in which a person does not attempt to know what is generally good and valuable in life

Such a person cannot rely on deliberation to guide life

Rationality is wasted in such a person. Such a person cannot hope to have a good or rewarding life

So, the unexamined life, is not worth living

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Is deliberation driven by value rather than desire?

Is evil action the result of ignorance or insanity?

Are people really saints? Is education the only appropriate

response to (unintentional) evil? Are rational agents slaves to deliberation

or are we free to do what is wrong?

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Assume that as a rational person you Inevitably seek what is most valuable in order to be

happy Rational deliberation optimizes your chance of securing

what is most valuable and thereby being happy Successful deliberation depends upon knowledge Hence, your happiness depends on your actions

being controlled by whomever is most knowledgeable, even if that is someone other than yourself

Hence you should surrender personal autonomy to whomever is more knowledgeable than you and committed to deliberating on your behalf to achieve what is most valuable for you

But wait! Is it better to be autonomous or ruled always and completely by whomever is wiser?

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