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1. Assess the impact of the Scientific Revolution on religion and

philosophy in the period 1550 – 1750.

2. “If I have seen farther than others, it is because I have stood on the

shoulders of giants.” How did Isaac Newton synthesize scientific

thought?

3. What is the scientific method? What was the significance of its

development as a standard of truth not only for the sciences, but for

knowledge in general?

4. Analyze the major ways through which Tsar Peter the Great sought

to reform his society and its institutions in order to strengthen

Russia and its position in Europe.

5. Compare and contrast the Enlightened leadership of two of the

following leaders: Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great, Peter

the Great, and Joseph II. Take a stand on which of the two is the

more effective Enlightened leader.

6. Compare and contrast the views of Machiavelli and Rousseau on

human nature and the relationship between government and the

governed.

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Results of

Industrialization =

1. Social Unrest

2. Classical Economics

3

PROLETARIANIZATION = People lost control of the production

process. Workers were forced to submit to desires of their

supervisors. They were paid little more than a minimum

sustenance wage.

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Protests

And

Reformers

5

Stereotype of the Factory Owner

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“Upstairs”/“Downstairs” Life

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The Luddites: 1811-1816

Attacks on the “frames” [power looms].

Ned Ludd [a mythical figure supposed to

live in Sherwood Forest]

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The Luddite Triangle

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Actions taken by Parliament to maintain the power of

the aristocracy:

(1799 – passed the Combination Acts which

outlawed unions.

• 1815 Parliament passed the Corn Law to

maintain high corn prices (tariffs on foreign

corn).

• 1816 Parliament abolished the income tax

paid by the wealthy & replaced it with a sales

tax paid by everyone.

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Peterloo Massacre, 1819 (Manchester,

England)

(St. Peter’s Field)

British

Soldiers

Fire on

British

Workers:

Let us die like

men, and not be

sold like slaves!

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Parliament responded to the Peterloo Massacre by

passing legislation known as The Six Acts (Dec. 1819):

1. Forbade large, unauthorized, public meetings

2. Raised fines for seditious libel

3. Speeded up trials for political agitators

4. Increased newspaper taxes

5. Prohibited training of armed groups

6. Allowed local officials to search homes in certain

counties.

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CHARTISM {England} = the first large scale working class

political movement. Factory workers demanded a “People’s

Charter” between the government and the industrial workers.

The charter was issued in 1838 and included:

1. Vote to all men

2. Annual election of the House of Commons

3. Secret ballot (protect employees from revenge of employers)

4. Equal electoral districts

5. No property qualification for Parliament members

6. Payment of Parliament members

The Charter lasted until 1848. It was not successful due to divided

tactics – violent versus peaceful. Movement was driven by

economic desire. When the economy improved, the Charter

Movement collapsed.

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The Chartists

A female ChartistA physical force—

Chartists arming for

the fight.

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The 1834 Poor Law (Engl.)

Created a series of “workhouses”

where the conditions were

purposely horrible in order to

discourage lazy people. Poor

relief was given only in

workhouses where spouses were

separated, the food was bad, and

the work was distasteful.

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Mealtime in the

workhouse.

An English Workhouse

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Multnomah County Poorhouse Remodeled to become

McMenamin’s Edgefield Manor

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The Corn Laws

Series of tariffs passed between 1815 & 1846 to

shore up the price of British corn by placing

tariffs on foreign imports. Intent was to

maintain the wealth and power of the landed

aristocracy when its power was being

challenged by the new wealth of the factory

owners. Factory owners were against the tariffs

{supported laissez faire} since they caused

other nations to place tariffs on British

manufactured goods. This hampered trade.

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Repeal of the Corn Laws – 1846

1} created cheaper food

2} allowed manufacturers to pay lower wages

(since they were based on minimum subsistence cost)

3} lower corn prices made Britain more

competitive internationally

*** Real reason for repeal was the Irish potato

blight of 1845-47 & fact the British could not

afford to feed the Irish at the higher corn prices.

Repeal of corn laws was beginning of free trade

policies that lasted until the late 1800s.

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Cesare Beccaria

(Italian, 1738-94)

On Crimes and

Punishments {1764}

Sought humane

punishment (no death

penalty or torture).

Punishment should

create greatest good

for greatest number

(rehabilitation).

Speedy trial and sure

punishment to deter

repeat offenders.

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Prison Hulk York in Portsmouth HarborHand and foot shackles

placed on the prisoners.

Before the 1800s, often chained prisoners to benches and made

them row until they died. Later, imprisoned in ships at port cities

and made to work on the docks.

HULK SHIPS

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Early City Police Organizations

Gendarmerie – military police force initially created

(1667) by Louis XIV of France to patrol the city of Paris

and to spy on his own people {secret police} to help him

control them.

1828 Metropolitan Police Act (London) – created largely

with support of Parliament member, Sir Robert Peel.

The policemen were named, “Bobbies,” after him.

Sergeants – 1829, new & more visible blue uniformed

Paris Police who carried light arms. No longer a military

force, but a modern police force.

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British “Bobbies” – 1828

Metropolitan Police Act (London)

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The Rise of

Classical

Economics{associated with laissez-faire economics}

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Old Economic Philosphy = Physiocratic Economics

Physiocrats - - theory that economic production

depends upon sound agriculture. Consolidate

smaller to larger farms. Government’s main role

is to protect private property & allow freedom of

land use.

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New Economic Theory = Laissez-faire Economics

Government should have very minimal

involvement in the economy. The economy

should primarily operate on supply and

demand.

Government should provide some services

such as: schools, military protection, roads,

capital for big ventures (major entrepreneurial

risks).

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Adam Smith – Capitalism

Inquiry into the Nature and

Causes of the Wealth of

Nations {1776}.

Gov’t should stay out of the

economic system.

Mercantilism hampers the

ability of the economy to

produce. Gov’t restrictions

attempt to preserve the Wealth

of Nations for the gov’t.

Allow greed to drive the

economy to perform to its peak

potential.

Economic potential of a nation

is infinite!

(1723-1790, Scotland)

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Adam Smith

Created the idea of laissez-faire economics.

Absent-minded man. At night, he often walked the

streets of London, deep in thought. When morning came

he realized he was totally lost.

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Thomas Malthus – Classical

Economist

“Essay on the Principle of

Population” {1798} –

population growth will

eventually outstrip the food

supply.

Must control birthrate to

stop disaster: later

marriages, chastity,

contraception.

Nothing can be done to

improve the working class.

Higher wages cause them to

have more children.

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David Ricardo – Classical Economist

Principles of Political

Economy {1817}

**Iron Law of Wages = a

raise in wages causes

more children which

eventually lowers wages.

Then people have fewer

children and there is

eventually a labor

shortage which drives

wages up. Becomes a

cyclical pattern.

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Utilitarian Economics

The goal of

society is the

greatest good

for the greatest

number.

Government

should make

laws which

provide a social

safety net for

those who can’t

protect

themselves

(poor fact.

workers).

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Jeremy Bentham, Utilitarian Economist

Legal reformer.

Wanted codes of

scientific laws

based on providing

the greatest good

for the greatest

number.

Utilitarian laws

would make up for

the special

interests of the

privileged classes

(rich).

English (1748-1832)

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John Stuart Mill, Utilitarian Economist

Best example of

utilitarian economics.

Principles of Political

Economy (1848) –

supported education

of working class to

improve standard of

living.

Supported

organization of labor

cooperatives (unions).

Supported women’s

rights.

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3 Key Economic Systems of the World1. Capitalism – economic system in which the means of production

is privately owned. Competition between businesses guarantees

efficiency of operations and reasonable prices. Profit motive drives

workers.

2. Socialism – economic system in which most of the means of

production is privately owned. The government controls key

industries which are essential to national security. Examples

include: defense industries, transport, agriculture, etc.

3. Communism – economic system in which all means of production

are owned by the government. Intent is for the government to

manage the nation’s resources and distribute the wealth equally

among all people. All people have jobs and homes. Nobody is

homeless and nobody is filthy rich. Supposedly the need for

government would eventually wither away. This has failed to work

since most humans are primarily motivated by desire for profit .

When you remove the profit incentive, productivity declines

significantly.

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Utopian Socialists

Utopian Socialism – economic systems which use

unique or progressive types of social or economic

organization. Attempt to create ideal

communities centered around the idea that a

factory owner can pay workers well, provide a

safe work environment, and treat the workers

well AND STILL MAKE A GOOD PROFIT! This

philosophy centers around the theory that

workers who are treated well will be more loyal

to the factory and more productive.

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Robert Owen (Engl. 1771 – 1858)

Self made cotton manufacturer. Owned

cotton factory in New Lanark, Scotland.

Thought could create a humane work

environment & still make a profit. His

factory offered: good living quarters,

abundant recreation, factory schools for

children, and churches. Rewarded good

workers. The factory DID make a good

profit!

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Owen Cotton Mill / New Lanark, Scotland

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Owen tried to duplicate his success in New Harmony,

Indiana and failed. ** He did establish the idea of

cooperative production & provided proof that good

working conditions could yield good profits. Owen tried to

form the Grand National Union, a union of all trade unions.

It failed in the 1830s. {American AFL-CIO}

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Proto-Communists

Louis Blanc (French, 1811 – 1882)

His book, The Organization of

Labor {1839} promoted ending

competition, the vote for working

class males, use of the vote to

improve the economic situation.

Said a state ruled by working

class voters would develop

workshops to employ the poor.

Gov’t would use workshops to

organize labor and guarantee

jobs.

Blanc said the gov’t should

become the main employer in

order to improve the plight of

workers.

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George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Hegel said that history advances

through conflict. One phase of history

(thesis), creates its opposite (antithesis).

Example = absolutism led to democracy.

History develops through the constant

clash of thesis versus antithesis,

followed by a new synthesis.

Dialectical Theory

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Karl Marx (German, 1818 – 1883)

He and Friedrich Engels created the

economic system of communism. Marx

was exiled from Germany for publishing

radical ideas in the Rhineland Gazette while

he was editor, 1842-3.

Lived in London after 1849 & based many

of his beliefs on conditions in London at

the peak of industrialization.

Marx saw a class struggle between

capitalists (bourgeois} and the working

class (proletariat) that would lead to a

revolution and a dictatorship of the

proletariat. Eventually a new society would

be created in which the gov’t would wither

away. Marx theorized that competition

among capitalists would make life

miserable for the proletariat, causing them

to rise up and take over the means of

production. Eventually there would be a

classless, propertyless society.

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Friedrich Engels (German, 1820 – 1895)

Middle class German

whose father owned a

textile factory in

Manchester, England.

In 1845, he published The

Conditions of the Working

Class in England, which

explained how horrible

life was for the factory

workers, based on his

father’s factory.

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“The Communist Manifesto”

was a pamphlet written by

Marx & Engels in 1848.

Communism was chosen as

the name since it implied

totally giving up privately

owned property.

This booklet became one of

the most influential political

documents in Modern

European History.

Engels & Marx thought a

proletarian revolution was

inevitable. They suggested

that revolution was the best

path to communism, not

reform.

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Karl Marx’s Dialectical Theory

History is the story of class

struggle. The Middle Ages

produced a dominant

Aristocracy which led to the

Renaissance and rise of the

middle class or bourgeoisie

{antithesis}. This resulted in a

synthesis which was

capitalism.

Capitalism = factory owners &

professional managers

ruthlessly exploit industrial

workers, causing the

proletariat to rise up and take

over the means of production

{antithesis}.

New synthesis is communism

in which the gov’t takes over

factories to better serve the

workers. Eventually the need

for gov’t will wither away.

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The Terminus

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The Liberal Revolts of 1848

There were a series of revolutions across the continent of Europe

due to:

Economic Conditions – food shortages (since 1846 / Irish potato

blight 1845-7). Downturn in the economic cycle causing high

unemployment & overburdened poor relief. Industrialization causing

city slums & suffering of working class.

Liberalism – middle class liberal agitation and alliance with the

working class to get representative gov’t, civil liberty, & laissez-faire

economics.

Nationalism – esp. caused uprisings in Eastern Europe & particularly

in the Austrian Empire.

These Revolutions Failed Because:

Conservatives regained control & liberal middle class would not

grant social reforms to the urban working classes.

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The Revolutions of 1848