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22Descartes on God Descartes on God

and His and His ExistenceExistence

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TAsTAs

nonenone

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Bibliographical ResourcesBibliographical Resources (reminder):(reminder):

Descartes’ Descartes’ MeditationsMeditations (with (with Critics and Critics and RepliesReplies) + ) + Discourse Discourse free at:free at:

http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_descarte.htmlf_descarte.html

Leibniz’s Leibniz’s Nouveau EssaysNouveau Essays free at:free at:http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/

f_leibniz.htmlf_leibniz.html

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Further bibliography on DescartesFurther bibliography on Descartes::

Cottingham J. (1986). Cottingham J. (1986). Descartes.Descartes. Blackwell, Blackwell, OxfordOxford

Further bibliography on/by ChomskyFurther bibliography on/by Chomsky::

Chomsky N. (2000). Chomsky N. (2000). New Horizons in the New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind. Study of Language and Mind. Cambridge UP: Cambridge UP: CambridgeCambridge

McGilvray J. (1999). McGilvray J. (1999). Chomsky: Language, Chomsky: Language, Mind, and Politics. Mind, and Politics. Polity Press: CambridgePolity Press: Cambridge

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The following can also be usefulThe following can also be useful

Antony L. M. & Hornstein N. (eds.) Antony L. M. & Hornstein N. (eds.) (2003). (2003). Chomsky and His Critics.Chomsky and His Critics. Blackwell: OxfordBlackwell: Oxford

Smith, N. (1999) Smith, N. (1999) Chomsky: Ideas and Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals.Ideals. Cambridge UP: Cambridge Cambridge UP: Cambridge

Wilson C. (2003). Wilson C. (2003). Descartes’s Descartes’s Meditations: An Introduction.Meditations: An Introduction. Cambridge UP: CambridgeCambridge UP: Cambridge

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The Need of GodThe Need of God

Main Goal: Main Goal: To discover the To discover the fundamental ideas and notions, the fundamental ideas and notions, the innate truths, that God implemented innate truths, that God implemented in us.in us.

God’s Existence: God’s Existence: Descartes Descartes proposed a causal explanation, but proposed a causal explanation, but the effects he focuses on are entirely the effects he focuses on are entirely within the mind.within the mind.

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The Trademark The Trademark ArgumentArgument

God has placed within us the God has placed within us the idea of himself as a idea of himself as a craftsman’s stamp on his craftsman’s stamp on his work. work.

This argument presents four This argument presents four phases:phases:

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1.1. To make an inventory of To make an inventory of the ideas the ideas found within oneself. found within oneself. The chief idea The chief idea Descartes founds Descartes founds is the one of a is the one of a supreme God, supreme God, eternal, infallible, eternal, infallible, omnipotent omnipotent and the creator of all and the creator of all things things that exist a part of Himself.that exist a part of Himself.

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I decided to inquire into the source of my ability to I decided to inquire into the source of my ability to think of something more perfect than I was; and I think of something more perfect than I was; and I recognized very clearly that this recognized very clearly that this had to come from had to come from some nature that was in fact more perfect.some nature that was in fact more perfect. … … it it was manifestly impossible to get this [idea] of a was manifestly impossible to get this [idea] of a being more perfect than my own. For it was being more perfect than my own. For it was manifestly manifestly impossible to get this from nothingimpossible to get this from nothing; ; and and I could not have got it from myself since it I could not have got it from myself since it is no less contradictory that the more perfect is no less contradictory that the more perfect should result from the less perfectshould result from the less perfect, and depend , and depend on it, than something should proceed from nothing. on it, than something should proceed from nothing. So there remained only the possibility that So there remained only the possibility that the idea the idea had been put into me by a nature truly more had been put into me by a nature truly more perfectperfect than I was and even possessing in itself all than I was and even possessing in itself all the perfections of which I could have any idea, that isthe perfections of which I could have any idea, that is—to explain myself in one word—by God. (—to explain myself in one word—by God. (Discourse Discourse on the Method; CSM Ion the Method; CSM I: 128): 128)

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2.2. The The Causal Adequacy Principle.Causal Adequacy Principle.

It’s the self-evident principle that It’s the self-evident principle that there must be as much reality in there must be as much reality in the efficient and total cause that the efficient and total cause that there is in the effect of that cause: there is in the effect of that cause: ex nihilo nihil fitex nihilo nihil fit..

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[T]he objective reality of our ideas needs a cause [T]he objective reality of our ideas needs a cause which contains this reality not merely objectively which contains this reality not merely objectively but formally or eminently. It should be noted that but formally or eminently. It should be noted that this axiom is one which we must necessarily this axiom is one which we must necessarily accept, since on it accept, since on it depends our knowledge of depends our knowledge of all thingsall things, whether they are perceivable through , whether they are perceivable through the senses or not. How do we know, for example, the senses or not. How do we know, for example, that the sky exists? Because we see it? But this that the sky exists? Because we see it? But this ‘seeing’ does not affect the mind except in so far ‘seeing’ does not affect the mind except in so far as it is an idea—I mean an idea which resides in as it is an idea—I mean an idea which resides in the mind itself, not an image depicted in the the mind itself, not an image depicted in the corporeal imagination. Now the only reason why corporeal imagination. Now the only reason why we can use this idea as a basis for the judgement we can use this idea as a basis for the judgement that the sky exists is that that the sky exists is that every idea must have a every idea must have a really existing cause of its objective realityreally existing cause of its objective reality; ; and in this case we judge that and in this case we judge that the cause is the the cause is the sky itselfsky itself. And we make similar judgements in . And we make similar judgements in other cases. (other cases. (Second Set of Replies; CSM IISecond Set of Replies; CSM II: 116-: 116-7)7)

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3.3. The Causal Adequacy Principle also The Causal Adequacy Principle also applies to the realm of ideas and applies to the realm of ideas and the features depicted by them the features depicted by them (ideas are often conceived along (ideas are often conceived along images).images).

E.g. if an idea X depicts/represents an E.g. if an idea X depicts/represents an object which is F, then the cause of the object which is F, then the cause of the idea must itself contain at least as much idea must itself contain at least as much F-F-nessness as it must be found/represented as it must be found/represented in the idea X.in the idea X.

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4.4. Given (1), i.e. that I have an idea of Given (1), i.e. that I have an idea of God being eternal, omnipotent, God being eternal, omnipotent, benevolent, etc. it follows from (2) benevolent, etc. it follows from (2) and (3) that:and (3) that:

The cause of my idea must The cause of my idea must contain in itself all the features contain in itself all the features represented by my ideasrepresented by my ideas. .

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Since I am a finite and imperfect Since I am a finite and imperfect being I cannot myself be the cause of being I cannot myself be the cause of this idea representing perfection, this idea representing perfection, omnipotence, etc. omnipotence, etc.

The ultimate cause of my idea of God The ultimate cause of my idea of God must be something possessing all must be something possessing all these perfections represented in my these perfections represented in my idea. idea.

Thus God existsThus God exists..

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Ideas are imagesIdeas are images

Thoughts are about things as Thoughts are about things as images are images of things.images are images of things.

Some of my thoughts are as it were Some of my thoughts are as it were the the images of things, and it is only in these images of things, and it is only in these cases that the term ‘idea’ is strictlycases that the term ‘idea’ is strictly appropriateappropriate—for—for example, when I think of example, when I think of a man, or a chimera, or the sky, or an angel, a man, or a chimera, or the sky, or an angel, or God. (or God. (Third Meditation; CSM IIThird Meditation; CSM II: 25): 25)

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Ideas, as images, cannot in Ideas, as images, cannot in themselves be false.themselves be false.

Now as far as ideas are concerned, Now as far as ideas are concerned, provided they are considered solely in provided they are considered solely in themselves and I do not refer them to themselves and I do not refer them to anything else, anything else, they cannot strictly they cannot strictly speaking be falsespeaking be false; for whether it is a ; for whether it is a goat or a chimera that I am imagining, goat or a chimera that I am imagining, it it is just as true that I imagine the is just as true that I imagine the former as the latterformer as the latter. (. (Third Third Meditation; CSM IIMeditation; CSM II: 26): 26)

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Causal Adeq. Princ. + Ideas as Causal Adeq. Princ. + Ideas as images images God God

Now it is manifest by the natural light that Now it is manifest by the natural light that there must there must be at least as much <reality> in the efficient and be at least as much <reality> in the efficient and total cause as in the effect of that causetotal cause as in the effect of that cause. . For For where, I ask, could the effect get its reality from, where, I ask, could the effect get its reality from, if not from the cause? And how could the cause if not from the cause? And how could the cause give it to the effect unless it possessed it? It give it to the effect unless it possessed it? It follows from this both that something cannot follows from this both that something cannot arise from nothing, and also that what is more arise from nothing, and also that what is more perfect—that is, contains in itself more reality—perfect—that is, contains in itself more reality—cannot arise from what is less perfectcannot arise from what is less perfect. … if we . … if we suppose that an idea contains something which was suppose that an idea contains something which was not in its cause, it must have got this from nothing; yet not in its cause, it must have got this from nothing; yet the mode of being by which a thing exists objectively the mode of being by which a thing exists objectively <or representatively> in the intellect by way of an <or representatively> in the intellect by way of an idea, imperfect though it may be, is certainly not idea, imperfect though it may be, is certainly not nothing, and so it cannot come from nothing. (nothing, and so it cannot come from nothing. (Third Third Meditation; CSM IIMeditation; CSM II: 28-9): 28-9)

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[I]deas in me are like <pictures, or> [I]deas in me are like <pictures, or> images which can easily fall short of the images which can easily fall short of the perfection of the things from which they perfection of the things from which they are taken, are taken, but which cannot contain but which cannot contain anything greater or more perfectanything greater or more perfect. . ((Third Meditation; CSM IIThird Meditation; CSM II: 29): 29)

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Hierarchy of IdeasHierarchy of Ideas

(i) idea of God (i) idea of God

(ii) idea of finite substances (ii) idea of finite substances

(iii) idea of accident and (iii) idea of accident and modesmodes

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Because of the Causal Adequacy Because of the Causal Adequacy Principle:Principle:

Descartes can argue that ideas of Descartes can argue that ideas of things less perfect than myself can be things less perfect than myself can be wholly invented/created by myself wholly invented/created by myself whereas ideas of things more whereas ideas of things more perfectly than myself cannot be perfectly than myself cannot be wholly created/invented by myself. wholly created/invented by myself.

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The idea of God is neither an The idea of God is neither an

(i) an adventitious idea (coming from (i) an adventitious idea (coming from the senses) the senses)

(ii) nor invented. (ii) nor invented.

It is simply found within the mind and It is simply found within the mind and yet it corresponds to something yet it corresponds to something outside the mind. outside the mind.

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The Idea of God is The Idea of God is innateinnate

It is innate, for if it cannot be It is innate, for if it cannot be caused by an external thing and yet caused by an external thing and yet corresponds to an external thing.corresponds to an external thing.

As such it must be stamped into the As such it must be stamped into the mind at the first instance of its mind at the first instance of its existence.existence.

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By the word ‘God’ I understand a substance that By the word ‘God’ I understand a substance that is is infinite, <eternal, immutable,> infinite, <eternal, immutable,> independent, supremely intelligent, independent, supremely intelligent, supremely powerfulsupremely powerful, and which created both , and which created both myself and everything else (if anything else myself and everything else (if anything else there be) that exist. All these attributes are such there be) that exist. All these attributes are such that, the more carefully I concentrate on them, that, the more carefully I concentrate on them, the less possible it seems that they could the less possible it seems that they could have originated from me alonehave originated from me alone. So from what . So from what has been said it must be concluded that has been said it must be concluded that God God necessarily existsnecessarily exists..It is true that I have an idea of substance in It is true that I have an idea of substance in me in virtue of the fact that I am a me in virtue of the fact that I am a substance; but this would not account for substance; but this would not account for my having the idea of an infinite substance, my having the idea of an infinite substance, when I am finite, unless this idea proceeded when I am finite, unless this idea proceeded from some substance which really was from some substance which really was infiniteinfinite. (. (Third Meditation; CSM IIThird Meditation; CSM II: 31): 31)

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Descartes does not discuss Marsenne’s Descartes does not discuss Marsenne’s assertion that there are human beings assertion that there are human beings with no innate idea of God:with no innate idea of God:

[T]he fact that the native of Canada, the [T]he fact that the native of Canada, the Hurons and other primitive people, have no Hurons and other primitive people, have no awareness of any idea of this sort seems to awareness of any idea of this sort seems to establish that the idea does come from establish that the idea does come from previous held notions. (Marsenne; previous held notions. (Marsenne; Second Set Second Set of Objections;of Objections; CSM IICSM II: 89): 89)

Furthermore Descartes does not tackle Furthermore Descartes does not tackle the question how there can be natural the question how there can be natural atheists if the idea of God is innate.atheists if the idea of God is innate.

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God as Final CauseGod as Final Cause

Problem with Causal Adequacy Problem with Causal Adequacy PrinciplePrinciple

The Causal Adequacy Principle does not The Causal Adequacy Principle does not seem to account for new or emergent seem to account for new or emergent properties. properties.

E.g. the property of sponginess created in E.g. the property of sponginess created in mixing and backing some flowers emerge mixing and backing some flowers emerge from some chemical changes.from some chemical changes.

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Idea of God?Idea of God?

Hobbes (Hobbes (Third Set of Objections with Third Set of Objections with Replies; CSM2Replies; CSM2: 127) objected that : 127) objected that we cannot have an idea of God.we cannot have an idea of God.

For, if ideas are images what is our For, if ideas are images what is our image of God? image of God?

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HobbesHobbes::

But when I think of an angel, what comes to But when I think of an angel, what comes to mind is an image, now of a flame, now of a mind is an image, now of a flame, now of a beautiful child with wings; beautiful child with wings; I feel sure that I feel sure that this image has no likeness to an angel, this image has no likeness to an angel, and hence that it is not the idea of an and hence that it is not the idea of an angelangel. . But I believe that there are But I believe that there are invisible and immaterial creatures who invisible and immaterial creatures who serve Godserve God … In the same way we have no … In the same way we have no idea or image corresponding to the sacred idea or image corresponding to the sacred name of God. … It seems, then, that name of God. … It seems, then, that there is there is no idea of God in usno idea of God in us. (. (Third Set of Third Set of Objections with Replies; CSM IIObjections with Replies; CSM II: 126-7: 126-7

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Descartes’ Descartes’ replyreply

Although ideas may be somewhat like Although ideas may be somewhat like picture or images they’re not actually picture or images they’re not actually imagesimages

‘‘idea’ stands for what is immediately idea’ stands for what is immediately perceived by the intellect. perceived by the intellect.

One can know and understand One can know and understand something without fully grasping it.something without fully grasping it.

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DescartesDescartes’ ’ ReplyReply

Here my critic Here my critic wants the term ‘idea’ to wants the term ‘idea’ to be taken to refer simply to the images be taken to refer simply to the images of material things which are depicted of material things which are depicted in the corporeal imaginationin the corporeal imagination … I am … I am taking the word taking the word ‘idea’ to refer to ‘idea’ to refer to whatever is immediately perceived by whatever is immediately perceived by the mindthe mind. (. (Third Set of Objections with Third Set of Objections with Replies; CSM IIReplies; CSM II: 127): 127)

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The Ontological The Ontological Argument Argument

It is an It is an a prioria priori proof of God’s proof of God’s existenceexistence..

One can imagine a triangle even if this figure One can imagine a triangle even if this figure were not to exist anywhere outside one were not to exist anywhere outside one thought. To do so it suffices to imagine that it thought. To do so it suffices to imagine that it has tree angles whose sum is 180 degrees, has tree angles whose sum is 180 degrees, and so on. and so on.

Thus we can deduce that a triangle has an Thus we can deduce that a triangle has an essence whether or not it exists outside our essence whether or not it exists outside our mind.mind.

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The same (The same (a priori a priori reasoning) with reasoning) with GodGod

We can imagine his existence because We can imagine his existence because the latter cannot be separated from his the latter cannot be separated from his essence. essence.

It would be contradictory to think of It would be contradictory to think of God (a supremely perfect being) God (a supremely perfect being) lacking existence.lacking existence.

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Lack of existence entails Lack of existence entails imperfectionimperfection. .

Since I must attribute all perfections to Since I must attribute all perfections to God and since existence is among the God and since existence is among the perfections, God cannot lack it. perfections, God cannot lack it.

Descartes’ argument rests on the very Descartes’ argument rests on the very idea that existence, like omniscience idea that existence, like omniscience and omnipotence, is a perfection. If so and omnipotence, is a perfection. If so it should be a property of some kind.it should be a property of some kind.

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But, is existence a property?But, is existence a property?

Cf., for instance, Frege’s view that Cf., for instance, Frege’s view that existence is a second order existence is a second order predicate.predicate.

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Importance of the Argument for Importance of the Argument for God’s ExistenceGod’s Existence

It constitutes the only way we can It constitutes the only way we can transcend the subjective self-awareness transcend the subjective self-awareness knowledge and progress to the knowledge and progress to the knowledge of the external world and knowledge of the external world and reality. reality.

Thus within the Cartesian framework Thus within the Cartesian framework God can be viewed as a scientific God can be viewed as a scientific posit/necessity.posit/necessity.

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The Avoidance of ErrorThe Avoidance of Error

We should recognize the We should recognize the impossibility for God to deceive. impossibility for God to deceive.

Yet we often do make mistakes. Yet we often do make mistakes.

It seems thus that there should be It seems thus that there should be evil in the world. evil in the world.

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How do we conciliate the presence of How do we conciliate the presence of error with the idea that God is perfect error with the idea that God is perfect and benevolent?and benevolent?

To avoid error we should suspend most To avoid error we should suspend most of our judgements. We should restrict of our judgements. We should restrict them to the sphere of pure them to the sphere of pure mathematics, which is the only reliable mathematics, which is the only reliable strategy for avoiding error.strategy for avoiding error.

Mathematical judgements constitute the Mathematical judgements constitute the paradigm of properties that the intellect paradigm of properties that the intellect can clearly and distinctly perceive.can clearly and distinctly perceive.

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Why mathematics?Why mathematics?

Mathematical judgements help Mathematical judgements help understanding reality insofar as understanding reality insofar as ordinary three-dimensional objects ordinary three-dimensional objects can be defined in pure mathematical can be defined in pure mathematical terms. terms.

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The physical nature is the proper subject The physical nature is the proper subject of mathematical reasoning.of mathematical reasoning.

When we make errors we improperly When we make errors we improperly embrace a proposition without having embrace a proposition without having sufficient grounds for doing so. And we sufficient grounds for doing so. And we do so because the scope of our will do so because the scope of our will transcend the scope of the intellect:transcend the scope of the intellect:

So what then is the So what then is the source of my mistake?source of my mistake? It It must be this: the scope of must be this: the scope of the will is wider the will is wider than that of the intellectthan that of the intellect; but instead of ; but instead of restricting it with the same limits, I extend its restricting it with the same limits, I extend its use to matter I do not understand. (use to matter I do not understand. (Fourth Fourth Meditation; CSM IIMeditation; CSM II: 40): 40)

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Cartesian CircleCartesian Circle

To prove God’s existence I need to To prove God’s existence I need to trust my intellect. trust my intellect.

Yet without prior knowledge of Yet without prior knowledge of God’s existence I have in principle God’s existence I have in principle no reason to trust my intellect. no reason to trust my intellect.

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If all knowledge depends on God, then to If all knowledge depends on God, then to know this premise (that all knowledge know this premise (that all knowledge depends on God) one needs to prove the depends on God) one needs to prove the existence of God without first knowing existence of God without first knowing God. God.

It is only on relying on clear and distinct It is only on relying on clear and distinct ideas that Descartes can proves the ideas that Descartes can proves the existence of God, yet it is only by the existence of God, yet it is only by the existence of God that one can have clear existence of God that one can have clear and distinct ideas.and distinct ideas.

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Out of the circle?Out of the circle?

The way out of the circle is for The way out of the circle is for Descartes to claim that there are certain Descartes to claim that there are certain propositions (e.g. cogito) presenting propositions (e.g. cogito) presenting self-evidentself-evident knowledge knowledge that one can that one can grasp as long as one is attending them. grasp as long as one is attending them.

These self-evident propositions do not These self-evident propositions do not require God’s intervention.require God’s intervention.

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The Need of GodThe Need of God

Why on top of the self-evident Why on top of the self-evident elementary truth we need God? elementary truth we need God?

Because of the temporary nature of Because of the temporary nature of these self-guaranteeing truths, i.e. these self-guaranteeing truths, i.e. because they last only as long as one is because they last only as long as one is entertaining them. entertaining them.

Once God’s existence in established we Once God’s existence in established we can progress beyond the temporality of can progress beyond the temporality of these self-evident truths.these self-evident truths.