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a text - spoken or written - that is functioning for some purpose within some context

discoursediscourse

a discourse (text) usually consists of a number of sentences.

a discourse (text) usually consists of a number of sentences.

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t e x ts e n t e n c e s

c l a u s e s

p h r a s e s

w o r d ssounds

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the linguistic “cement” we use to

connect clauses and sentences

in order to make our text cohesive

the linguistic “cement” we use to

connect clauses and sentences

in order to make our text cohesive

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cohesive devices

referring expressions, e.g. pronouns

substitution - replacing words with substitutes - one, do, so, not

ellipsis - leaving words

out

conjunctions

lexis - using words that are related - synonyms, antonyms, co-hyponyms etc

adjacency pairs

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categories of referring expressions

e.g. he, she, it, they, them etc;

this, that, these, those;

the

now, then

here, there

same, another, similar, different etc

comparatives

locative adverbs

temporal expressions

•definite article

demonstrative pronouns

personal pronouns

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referring expressionswhereabouts is the meaning to

which a referring expression refers? It could be:

earlier in the text, e.g.

The doctor crossed the road. He was in a hurry.

referri

ng express

ion

anaphoric reference

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The meaning to which a referring expression refers could be later in the text, e.g.

This is what I would like: a bowl of soup

refe

rrin

g ex

pres

sion

referring expressions

cataphoric reference

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The meaning referred to could be outside the text, e.g.

I think I’m getting

sunburnt. The sun is very hot

today

referring expressions

exophoric reference

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referring expressions

I’ll have a piece of that

cheese!

exophoric reference

What would you like to

eat?

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summary of types of referring expressions

referring expressions

(reference)

text external

(exophoric)

text internal

(endophoric)

referring

backwards

(anaphoric)

referring

forward

(cataphoric)

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referring expressions in text

Lilly’s grandmother told her a story.

‘Once upon a time,’ she said, ‘the ocean was filled with whales. They were as big as the hills. They were as peaceful as the moon. They were the most wondrous creatures you could ever imagine.’

Lilly climbed on her grandmother’s lap. ‘I used to sit at the end of the jetty and listen for whales,’ said Lilly’s grandmother. ‘Sometimes I’d sit there all day and all night. Then all of a sudden I’d see them coming from miles away. They moved through the water as if they were dancing.’

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so

substitution

There are a small number of words which we can use as substitutes for other words, phrases or even clauses. We use them to avoid repeating a word.

one

not

do

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substitution

Don’t you think we could have a sandwich each?

Let’s have one while we’re waiting.

substitute for a word = one

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substitution

substitute for phrases and clauses = not, do, so

I don’t think so.

Are you coming?

Why not?

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This cohesive device is like substitution but what is substituted is Ø.

ellipsis

The boy should be

back by now

Yes. I suppose he should ( )

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related words

in any text, there are words that are related in some way, e.g.

tall lanky

tall short

sandwich

food

synonymy

antonymy

hyponymy

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a word about hyponymy

food

fruit grain

meat

vegetables

applesbananas

root leaf animal fish rice wheat

carrot yam

hyponymy is the “kind of” relation, e.g. apples are a kind of fruit

superordinate

co-hyponyms

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lexical relations in textAfter the potatoes have been washed, the

skins are softened with alkali and ^^

removed with steam. Next, they are sliced

into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will

cook faster but will become hard if they are

over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on

a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes

them through a tank of hot water or a dilute

solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This

helps to prevent them discolouring.synonymy; antonymy; hyponymy; repetition

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potatoes strips cook softened steam

skins strips over-cooked

hard water

(skins) strips blanched

they strips

they

strips cut

them sliced

them

meronymy

repetition

synonymy antonymy

hypon

part/whole similarity opposite kind of

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cohesive conjunctions• used to link sentences;• can occur anywhere in a sentence –

beginning, middle or end, e.g.

Don’t go so fast!

OK. We’ll be late though

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conjunctive meaningsconjunctions express different kinds of

meaning, e.g.

cause - so, consequently, therefore, as a result etc

time - after, before, previously etc;

addition – moreover, and, etc

contrast – but, however, etc

sequence – first, then, next etc

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adjacency pairs

question – answer;invitation – response;inform – acknowledge;greeting - responseetc

How are you? I’m well.

How are you?

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adjacency pairsthese provide cohesion in spoken

language; a serious break in cohesion occurs if the second part of the pair is not given, e.g. if an answer to a question is not provided.

Do you like

cheese?

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coherence

• general – particular• chronological

• simple – complex• external – internal• problem – solution• question – answer

• cause – effect• claim – counter claim

patterns of text organisation

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In these jokes, watch for the confusion between the speakers

This confusion arises because one makes the wrong assumption about what the other

is referring to.

Moral: Make sure your cohesive links are clear

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• Passenger: I have to be in Kuching at 5:45 on Sunday evening. How long does it take to fly there?

• Airline Clerk: Just a minute.

• Passenger: Thanks very much.

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• A: Time flies. You can’t.

• B: Why not?

• A: They fly too fast.

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• Teacher: Which month usually has 28 days?

• Student: All of them

• (The teacher left out ‘only’)

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• Do you like cleaning ladies?

• I don’t know. • I’ve never cleaned one.

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text i)After the potatoes have been washed, the

skins are softened with alkali and removed

with steam. Next, they are sliced into

square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook

faster but will become hard if they are over-

cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a

wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them

through a tank of hot water or a dilute

solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This

helps to prevent them discolouring.referring expressions;

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text i)After the potatoes have been washed, the skins

are softened with alkali and [the skins are]

removed with steam. Next, they are sliced

into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will

cook faster but [they] will become hard if

they are over-cooked. The cut strips are

blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which

passes them through a tank of hot water or a

dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt.

This helps to prevent them discolouring.[ellipsis]; related words

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text i)After the potatoes have been washed, the

skins are softened with alkali and removed

with steam. Next, they are sliced into

square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook

faster but will become hard if they are over-

cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a

wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them

through a tank of hot water or a dilute

solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This

helps to prevent them discolouring.conjunctions

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text i) without using referring expressions and ellipsis

After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are

softened with alkali and the skins are removed with

steam. Next, the potatoes are sliced into square-

sectioned strips. Thin strips will be cooked faster but

thin strips will become hard if thin strips are

overcooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh

conveyor belt which passes the cut strips through a

tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or

citrate salt. Passing the cut strips through a tank of hot

water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt

helps to prevent the cut strips discolouring.

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text ii)The government has taken a practical, hands-on

approach to an issue about which something

had to be done, given the feedback from the

parents of children who are suffering because

of their problems with the subject. At the

same time, it is trying to enhance the learning

of the language among top students.

The move is a courageous one because

the issue is fraught with sensitivities.

conjunctions lexical relation substitution

exophoric reference cataphoric reference anaphoric reference