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Language Language Origins, and Origins, and DevelopmentDevelopment

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The linguistic The linguistic what’what’ss and and neurophysiological neurophysiological how’how’ss are are incomplete without the evolutionary incomplete without the evolutionary why’why’ss..

Most species are not intelligent, which Most species are not intelligent, which suggests that natural selection didn’t suggests that natural selection didn’t favor high intelligence.favor high intelligence.

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The heart of Chomsky’s argument is that The heart of Chomsky’s argument is that the human brains are predisposed to use the human brains are predisposed to use certain types of syntax and not others.certain types of syntax and not others.

The language specializations of the brain The language specializations of the brain are not exclusive; the same areas of the are not exclusive; the same areas of the brain have a lot to do with inventing oral-brain have a lot to do with inventing oral-facial and hand-arm movement sequences, facial and hand-arm movement sequences, and with judging sounds sequence—and and with judging sounds sequence—and these functions probably evolved together.these functions probably evolved together.

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Part of the language instinct could turn Part of the language instinct could turn out to be something very simple. out to be something very simple.

E.g.: a real fascination of the young E.g.: a real fascination of the young human with discovering any hidden human with discovering any hidden patterns in the sensory environment some patterns in the sensory environment some of which can be remembered by patterns of which can be remembered by patterns in the brain.in the brain.

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Selection favoring one function may well Selection favoring one function may well benefit another function. benefit another function.

E.g.: Selection for language abilities E.g.: Selection for language abilities benefited musical abilities, because it is benefited musical abilities, because it is hard to figure out what evolutionary hard to figure out what evolutionary circumstances would have rewarded four-circumstances would have rewarded four-part harmony … part harmony …

The minor product may turn into the The minor product may turn into the major one in the long run.major one in the long run.

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Among the first tasks of early childhood are Among the first tasks of early childhood are the discovery of four levels of organization in the discovery of four levels of organization in the apparent chaos of the surrounding the apparent chaos of the surrounding environment. environment.

Infants discover Infants discover phonemesphonemes and create and create standard categories for them. standard categories for them.

With a set of basic speech sounds, babies With a set of basic speech sounds, babies start discovering patterns amid string of start discovering patterns amid string of phonemes, averaging nine new phonemes, averaging nine new wordswords every every day.day.

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Between 18 and 36 months infants start Between 18 and 36 months infants start discovering patterns of words called phrases and discovering patterns of words called phrases and clauses, adding –s for plurals, adding –ed for past clauses, adding –s for plurals, adding –ed for past tense. tense.

After After syntaxsyntax, they go on to discover the rules , they go on to discover the rules about about narrativenarrative having a beginning, middle and having a beginning, middle and end. end.

Thus in four years, children “pyramid” four levels Thus in four years, children “pyramid” four levels organization, each with its own rules that are organization, each with its own rules that are causally decoupled from the underlying level’s causally decoupled from the underlying level’s rule.rule.

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WordsWords

The word “chair” is not a chair, but the The word “chair” is not a chair, but the word “word” is a word.word “word” is a word.

The correct The correct identificationidentification of things in the of things in the world—correct in terms of the consequences world—correct in terms of the consequences we predict from them, rather than in any we predict from them, rather than in any sense of absolute truth—is adaptive, in the sense of absolute truth—is adaptive, in the evolutionary sense of the term. evolutionary sense of the term.

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Misidentifying genes would not make it as Misidentifying genes would not make it as far in the future. far in the future.

Because of their evolutionary value, these Because of their evolutionary value, these processes of identification, these fine processes of identification, these fine discriminations in terms of stored sensory discriminations in terms of stored sensory impressions, began very early in evolution, impressions, began very early in evolution, long before mammals walked the earth. long before mammals walked the earth.

In us these processes may seem to have In us these processes may seem to have reached a higher pitch of refinement.reached a higher pitch of refinement.

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Words represent something somehow. They Words represent something somehow. They serve focus our minds on some aspect of serve focus our minds on some aspect of reality.reality.

Words haveWords have propertiesproperties. (adjectives, nouns, . (adjectives, nouns, verbs, …)verbs, …)

My My mental representationmental representation of ‘apple’ is only a of ‘apple’ is only a collection of neurons, all of which are also used collection of neurons, all of which are also used for other purposes on occasion. Still, they form for other purposes on occasion. Still, they form an organization that functions pretty well for an organization that functions pretty well for recognizing apples, eating apples, pronouncing recognizing apples, eating apples, pronouncing “apple” and so forth.“apple” and so forth.

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Most of the Most of the animal callsanimal calls are analogous to are analogous to our exclamations.our exclamations.

One of the evolutionary puzzles is how our One of the evolutionary puzzles is how our ancestors made the transition from a few ancestors made the transition from a few dozen vocalizations, each with an dozen vocalizations, each with an assigned meaning, to our present system assigned meaning, to our present system of meaningless phonemes (about 40 in of meaningless phonemes (about 40 in English) that have meaning only in English) that have meaning only in combination with each other.combination with each other.

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We may want to think of standard exclamationsWe may want to think of standard exclamations—and most primate calls—as involving an older, —and most primate calls—as involving an older, more primitive system, located far away from more primitive system, located far away from those left lateral brain areas that seem to be those left lateral brain areas that seem to be important in our kind of syntactic language. important in our kind of syntactic language.

We may think in terms of a second language We may think in terms of a second language system, operating in parallel with an older one, system, operating in parallel with an older one, and not necessary an intensification of the first and not necessary an intensification of the first system. system.

The second system could have its origins in The second system could have its origins in something like face recognition and social something like face recognition and social relationship, rather than producing vocalization.relationship, rather than producing vocalization.

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Words must be able to combine one Words must be able to combine one another, at least in the minimal another, at least in the minimal subject/predicate mode (NP/VP). subject/predicate mode (NP/VP).

The subject focus on the object of discourse The subject focus on the object of discourse while the predicate on a property/action … while the predicate on a property/action …

We cannot do it with calls. The latter simply We cannot do it with calls. The latter simply trigger readiness for a certain behavior. No trigger readiness for a certain behavior. No way that calls can be linked to one another.way that calls can be linked to one another.

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It is words, not sentences that dramatically It is words, not sentences that dramatically distinguish our species from others: no distinguish our species from others: no animal can learn things that fall outside its animal can learn things that fall outside its biological capacity. biological capacity.

A word is the combination of a mental A word is the combination of a mental representation of something, which may or representation of something, which may or my not exist in the real world, with a mental my not exist in the real world, with a mental representation of a set of symbols representation of a set of symbols (phonetic, orthographic, manual). (phonetic, orthographic, manual).

What one utters are not words, only the What one utters are not words, only the orthographic representation of words.orthographic representation of words.

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Categories of words, such as proper names, Categories of words, such as proper names, are easy for us, but that’s because our brains are easy for us, but that’s because our brains have some specializations for them in the have some specializations for them in the front end of the temporal lobe, just in front of front end of the temporal lobe, just in front of where the specialization for facial recognition where the specialization for facial recognition are located.are located.

In all mammals the frontal lobe is used to In all mammals the frontal lobe is used to move and prepare for movements, so it isn’t move and prepare for movements, so it isn’t surprising to find verbs there, at least verbs surprising to find verbs there, at least verbs for when one is the actor.for when one is the actor.

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Terms like “subject” and “object” can only be Terms like “subject” and “object” can only be defined over a syntax that already exists. defined over a syntax that already exists.

Before syntax existed, they were meaningless. Before syntax existed, they were meaningless. For that matter ancestral humans are very For that matter ancestral humans are very unlikely to have had words like “on” or “the”. unlikely to have had words like “on” or “the”.

Even today the first words of children don’t Even today the first words of children don’t contain them. (e.g. they don’t contain contain them. (e.g. they don’t contain determiners like “some’, ‘few’, “all”, determiners like “some’, ‘few’, “all”, “many”…).“many”…).

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ProtolanguageProtolanguage

Before syntax all that existed was a kind Before syntax all that existed was a kind of of protolanguageprotolanguage. .

Protolanguage looks like the production of Protolanguage looks like the production of apes that have been taught to use sign or apes that have been taught to use sign or symbols, or at early stage pidgin symbols, or at early stage pidgin languages.languages.

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Protolanguage varieties:Protolanguage varieties:

Can only string together a small handful of Can only string together a small handful of words at a time.words at a time.

Can leave out any words they feel like leaving Can leave out any words they feel like leaving out.out.

Often depart from the customary word order Often depart from the customary word order unpredictably and for no obvious reason.unpredictably and for no obvious reason.

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Cannot form any complex structure, Cannot form any complex structure, whether these be complex noun phrases whether these be complex noun phrases or sentences more than a clause long.or sentences more than a clause long.

Contain, if they have any at all, only a tiny Contain, if they have any at all, only a tiny fraction of the inflections and the fraction of the inflections and the “grammatical words”—things such as “grammatical words”—things such as article, prepositions and the like—that article, prepositions and the like—that make up 50% of true language utterances.make up 50% of true language utterances.

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Protolanguage characteristically consists Protolanguage characteristically consists almost exclusively of nouns and verbs, without almost exclusively of nouns and verbs, without any modifiersany modifiers

If adverbs appear they are usually whole-If adverbs appear they are usually whole-utterance modifiers, not modifiers of single utterance modifiers, not modifiers of single words. words.

This means that all units are of equal value: This means that all units are of equal value: every words for itself. Hence, no syntactic every words for itself. Hence, no syntactic structure, no parsing.structure, no parsing.

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No structure No structure vs. vs. structurestructure

John kissed MaryJohn kissed Mary JohnJohn

kissed kissed Mary Mary

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This shows that’s happening in the brain. This shows that’s happening in the brain.

If the brain is working in a protolanguage If the brain is working in a protolanguage mode each words is sent separately to the mode each words is sent separately to the part of the brain that controls the motor part of the brain that controls the motor organs of speech, and each word is uttered organs of speech, and each word is uttered separately. separately.

There is also a difference in There is also a difference in speedspeed between between protolanguage users and language ones. protolanguage users and language ones.

E.g.: In Hawaii the old-timers spoke about E.g.: In Hawaii the old-timers spoke about tree times slower than their own kids.tree times slower than their own kids.

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If the brain is working in a language-mode, If the brain is working in a language-mode, words are put together in whole phrases and words are put together in whole phrases and clauses and even sentences before they’re clauses and even sentences before they’re sent to the speech organs to be pronounced. sent to the speech organs to be pronounced.

The second diagram also illustrates the The second diagram also illustrates the order in which words are put together. order in which words are put together.

One parses sentences to find out their One parses sentences to find out their meaning (cf. resolution of syntactic meaning (cf. resolution of syntactic ambiguity).ambiguity).

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Parsing is something we all do every time Parsing is something we all do every time anything is uttered. But it works quite anything is uttered. But it works quite differently depending on whether what’s differently depending on whether what’s uttered is language or protolanguage. uttered is language or protolanguage.

If it is protolanguage, it is a good question If it is protolanguage, it is a good question whether one can be said to parse at all. whether one can be said to parse at all.

We can’t decide what the structure is if We can’t decide what the structure is if there is any structure. there is any structure.

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In protolanguage what one does is just the In protolanguage what one does is just the second part of the operation, i.e. determine the second part of the operation, i.e. determine the meaning directly from the words (and the meaning directly from the words (and the context). context).

This is much harder since there is no structure This is much harder since there is no structure to help. to help.

With structure we rarely need With structure we rarely need contextcontext to figure to figure out the meaning of true-language utterances, out the meaning of true-language utterances, whereas we almost always need context to get whereas we almost always need context to get the meaning of a protolanguage utterance.the meaning of a protolanguage utterance.

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Empty categories.Empty categories.

In true-language the antecedent is always In true-language the antecedent is always there somewhere in the sentence, and there somewhere in the sentence, and there are rule to help you find it (e.g.: there are rule to help you find it (e.g.: anaphoric resolution, ellipsis). anaphoric resolution, ellipsis).

In protolanguage the empty categories in In protolanguage the empty categories in nowhere in the utterance to be found. nowhere in the utterance to be found. Without structure, there cannot be empty Without structure, there cannot be empty categories.categories.

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If all there was an “epigenetic rule” that said If all there was an “epigenetic rule” that said “Seek structure amid chaos”, there would be “Seek structure amid chaos”, there would be no Creole languages. no Creole languages.

Creole languages come into existence when Creole languages come into existence when parents who speak a structureless early-parents who speak a structureless early-stage pidgin pass it on to their children.stage pidgin pass it on to their children.

The children change the original pidgin in a The children change the original pidgin in a single generation into a full-fledged single generation into a full-fledged language. If they were seeking structure in language. If they were seeking structure in the pidgin, they wouldn’t find any— the pidgin, they wouldn’t find any— they they impose structure from within their own impose structure from within their own mindsminds. .

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We may have acquired the capacity to create We may have acquired the capacity to create structure in language and that capacity then structure in language and that capacity then generalized to apply in other spheres.generalized to apply in other spheres.

The language function was likely to be mixed The language function was likely to be mixed up, location-wise, with some other functionsup, location-wise, with some other functions—that “language cortex” isn’t only doing —that “language cortex” isn’t only doing language tasks. language tasks.

There is an enormous overlap with oral-facial There is an enormous overlap with oral-facial and hand-arm sequencing, for example, and hand-arm sequencing, for example, suggesting that improvements in one might suggesting that improvements in one might have benefited the others, at least at some have benefited the others, at least at some stage in hominid evolution.stage in hominid evolution.

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Phrases and clausesPhrases and clauses

They were born as twins, and something They were born as twins, and something different has to underlie both phrases and different has to underlie both phrases and clauses. clauses.

Argument structureArgument structure does it: the basic task does it: the basic task of language is telling you who did what to of language is telling you who did what to whom (as well how and occasionally why). whom (as well how and occasionally why).

Each participant in the state of action has a Each participant in the state of action has a specific role to play (PATIENTS, TEHMES specific role to play (PATIENTS, TEHMES and GOALS, i.e. thematic roles).and GOALS, i.e. thematic roles).

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Before there was syntax there were only Before there was syntax there were only semantics. semantics.

So if one looks for the first stages in the So if one looks for the first stages in the development of syntax one must look in development of syntax one must look in semantics for whatever is the most semantics for whatever is the most syntax-like thing. syntax-like thing.

Argument structure is the most plausible Argument structure is the most plausible candidate (e.g.: PATIENT vs. AGENT).candidate (e.g.: PATIENT vs. AGENT).

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Aphasic patientsAphasic patients

Some can Some can swearswear like sailors. So like sailors. So exclamation seems to survive when the exclamation seems to survive when the usual lateral language areas (just above, usual lateral language areas (just above, and in front of, your left ear) are damaged. and in front of, your left ear) are damaged.

Only damages to a rather distant area of Only damages to a rather distant area of cortex, in the midline above the corpus cortex, in the midline above the corpus callosum, affects exclamations as well—callosum, affects exclamations as well—and that’s about where the cortical aspect and that’s about where the cortical aspect of monkey vocalizations seem to live, too.of monkey vocalizations seem to live, too.

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This seems to suggest that our kind of This seems to suggest that our kind of language didn’t arise from some language didn’t arise from some intensification of the usual ape vocal intensification of the usual ape vocal repertoire.repertoire.

Several reasons for that: Several reasons for that:

on top of the distance between the two areas, on top of the distance between the two areas, there is also the meaninglessness of our there is also the meaninglessness of our phonemes, in contrast to one-sound-one-phonemes, in contrast to one-sound-one-meaning obligatory interpretation of meaning obligatory interpretation of chimpanzees’ vocalization.chimpanzees’ vocalization.

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The emergence of ProtolanguageThe emergence of Protolanguage

It was likely to be a language system similar It was likely to be a language system similar to what can be taught to apes.to what can be taught to apes.

Homo habilisHomo habilis and and Homo erectusHomo erectus were were probably closer to apes in their behavior … probably closer to apes in their behavior … They had brains bigger than those of apes, They had brains bigger than those of apes, brain that grew steadily throughout the last brain that grew steadily throughout the last several millions years to a size within the several millions years to a size within the range of modern humans, made tools etc. range of modern humans, made tools etc. None of this makes it certain that they had None of this makes it certain that they had protolanguage then, but, given that they protolanguage then, but, given that they brains were not that much smaller than ours, brains were not that much smaller than ours, it is reasonable to suppose that they did.it is reasonable to suppose that they did.

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ThereThere must have been an intermediate state must have been an intermediate state between no language and full language.between no language and full language.

Any theory of cooperation suggests that, as a Any theory of cooperation suggests that, as a prerequisite, you have to be able to identify prerequisite, you have to be able to identify individuals. individuals.

Unspoken proper names—and particularly Unspoken proper names—and particularly for individuals that you don’t see everyday—for individuals that you don’t see everyday—might be a good start for evolving words. might be a good start for evolving words.

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Proper names were also needed to keep Proper names were also needed to keep track of those individuals for mutual support track of those individuals for mutual support and judge social interactions/situations. and judge social interactions/situations.

Cf. “signature whistle” of dolphins that seem Cf. “signature whistle” of dolphins that seem to be used like names for identification to be used like names for identification purposes. purposes.

But getting names doesn’t buy you words: But getting names doesn’t buy you words: monkeys already recognize one another as monkeys already recognize one another as individual and indeed have a clear map in individual and indeed have a clear map in their head that tell them which individuals their head that tell them which individuals are related to one another, without any kind are related to one another, without any kind of language to help them.of language to help them.

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Social intelligenceSocial intelligence

It’s the favored explanation for the trigger It’s the favored explanation for the trigger that set language going.that set language going.

The most remarkable thing about apes society The most remarkable thing about apes society is that it does so closely resemble our own. is that it does so closely resemble our own. We see the same maneuvering for status, the We see the same maneuvering for status, the same family feuds, we see parental and filial same family feuds, we see parental and filial affection, the forming and reforming of affection, the forming and reforming of alliances, altruism, loyalty, revenge, betrayal.alliances, altruism, loyalty, revenge, betrayal.

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Acts of calculation and deception on the Acts of calculation and deception on the part of several primate species become part of several primate species become more frequent among species closer to us.more frequent among species closer to us.

It seems hat the act of staying It seems hat the act of staying successfully selfish within a social successfully selfish within a social community, and competing with community, and competing with individuals some of whom were as smart individuals some of whom were as smart or smarter than oneself, required a lot or smarter than oneself, required a lot more intelligence than hunting or making more intelligence than hunting or making tools.tools.

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Complex social interactions/ competitions/ Complex social interactions/ competitions/ deceptions… may have triggered a theory deceptions… may have triggered a theory of mind.of mind.

This is a prerequisite for language as we This is a prerequisite for language as we know it.know it.

The capacity to understand another as an The capacity to understand another as an intentional individual seems to be linked intentional individual seems to be linked to linguistic capacity.to linguistic capacity.

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From protolanguage to languageFrom protolanguage to language

Once protolanguage had emerged and has Once protolanguage had emerged and has reached an appropriate (not necessarily a reached an appropriate (not necessarily a very high) level of sophistication, it was very high) level of sophistication, it was enthusiastically co-opted for manipulation, enthusiastically co-opted for manipulation, deception, enhancement of individual deception, enhancement of individual prestige, social grooming, gossip, and all prestige, social grooming, gossip, and all the other functions that social intelligence the other functions that social intelligence theorists have rightly assigned to it. theorists have rightly assigned to it.

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There are, though, good reasons to think There are, though, good reasons to think that protolanguage has very little to do with that protolanguage has very little to do with social intelligence.social intelligence.

If you take language away, it’s far from If you take language away, it’s far from clear that our social lives are any more clear that our social lives are any more complex than those of chimpanzees or complex than those of chimpanzees or bonobos.bonobos.

The selective pressure for language has to The selective pressure for language has to come from something that was unique to come from something that was unique to hominids and something that required the hominids and something that required the exchange of factual information.exchange of factual information.

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We have to look at hominid ecology and how We have to look at hominid ecology and how it differs from that of apes, ancient or modern. it differs from that of apes, ancient or modern.

Apes live mostly in heavily forested regions of Apes live mostly in heavily forested regions of the wilderness tropics.the wilderness tropics.

This mean that in their daily life they don’t This mean that in their daily life they don’t have to devote the time and energy that many have to devote the time and energy that many creatures do to the business of watching for creatures do to the business of watching for and evading predators. and evading predators.

Chimps aren’t strictly vegetarian, but meat is Chimps aren’t strictly vegetarian, but meat is a rare luxury.a rare luxury.

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On both predation risk and food availability the On both predation risk and food availability the lives of the first hominid were very different. lives of the first hominid were very different.

They inhabited grassy savannas with isolated They inhabited grassy savannas with isolated stands of trees and what “gallery woods”. stands of trees and what “gallery woods”. There is an obvious tradeoff between bipedal There is an obvious tradeoff between bipedal walking and the ability to climb trees. Our walking and the ability to climb trees. Our ancestors start walking on two legs at least 2 ancestors start walking on two legs at least 2 millions years before any serious brain millions years before any serious brain enlargement, so they were probably relatively enlargement, so they were probably relatively poor tree climbers by the time even poor tree climbers by the time even protolanguage emerged.protolanguage emerged.

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Savannas were, like today, prime predator Savannas were, like today, prime predator country. country.

Ancestors of 2 millions years ago, however, Ancestors of 2 millions years ago, however, were much smaller than we are. Yet, just like were much smaller than we are. Yet, just like us, they lacked the natural offensive us, they lacked the natural offensive weapons. A species so ill-equipped would weapons. A species so ill-equipped would soon have gone extinct if its members hadn’t soon have gone extinct if its members hadn’t devoted far more time to predator detection devoted far more time to predator detection and predator avoidance than apes do. and predator avoidance than apes do.

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Pragmatic intelligencePragmatic intelligence

Predator detection and predator avoidance Predator detection and predator avoidance depend not on social intelligence but on depend not on social intelligence but on what we might call pragmatic intelligence.what we might call pragmatic intelligence.

This is the noting of interpretation of clues This is the noting of interpretation of clues in the environment (footprint, crushed in the environment (footprint, crushed vegetation, and so on), something that apes vegetation, and so on), something that apes don’t seem to have.don’t seem to have.

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Social life didn’t get more complex for our Social life didn’t get more complex for our remote ancestor. remote ancestor.

What did get more complex was the What did get more complex was the interaction between our ancestors and interaction between our ancestors and their environment. their environment.

The strongest selective pressure would The strongest selective pressure would have come from the brute exigencies of have come from the brute exigencies of survival.survival.

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Anything, even the crudest and most Anything, even the crudest and most limited form of protolanguage consisting limited form of protolanguage consisting perhaps of a handful words and/or perhaps of a handful words and/or gestures, has to have had an immediate gestures, has to have had an immediate payoff for the individuals who used it. payoff for the individuals who used it.

If it didn’t the behavior wouldn’t have If it didn’t the behavior wouldn’t have continued and certainly not have been continued and certainly not have been fixed into the genotype.fixed into the genotype.

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Indirect evidence/support: Indirect evidence/support:

Most of the first 50 words any child learns Most of the first 50 words any child learns are nouns like “leopard”. are nouns like “leopard”.

Not words like “hello”, “good bye”, Not words like “hello”, “good bye”, “please”, “thank you”, we would predict if “please”, “thank you”, we would predict if the language had arisen to cement social the language had arisen to cement social networks. networks.

Cf. also hunting human accuracy compared Cf. also hunting human accuracy compared to that of primates.to that of primates.

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SyntaxSyntax

It’s the distinctive feature of human language. It’s the distinctive feature of human language.

It derives from social intelligence. It derives from social intelligence.

People usually didn’t sharply divide the People usually didn’t sharply divide the emergence of protolanguage from the emergence of protolanguage from the emergence of syntax. emergence of syntax.

These are entirely different things even if one These are entirely different things even if one did eventually lead to the other. The events did eventually lead to the other. The events weren’t even close in time.weren’t even close in time.

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Syntax and semanticsSyntax and semantics

Syntax couldn’t have emerged as a pure Syntax couldn’t have emerged as a pure novelty. novelty.

There was semantic before syntax, and if There was semantic before syntax, and if some aspect of semantics could be expressed some aspect of semantics could be expressed in terms of syntax, then these aspects make in terms of syntax, then these aspects make the prime suspect for the source of syntax.the prime suspect for the source of syntax.

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Semantic/thematic roles: AGENT, THEME, Semantic/thematic roles: AGENT, THEME, GOAL. GOAL.

E.g.:E.g.:

With verbs like “sleep”, “run” you have to With verbs like “sleep”, “run” you have to express one roleexpress one role

With verbs like “make”, “break” you have to With verbs like “make”, “break” you have to express two roles.express two roles.

With verbs like “give”, “persuade” you have With verbs like “give”, “persuade” you have o express three roles.o express three roles.

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Given a verb one knows in advance if one Given a verb one knows in advance if one ought to look for one, two, or tree obligatory ought to look for one, two, or tree obligatory arguments.arguments.

The number of thematic roles is in the vicinity The number of thematic roles is in the vicinity of seven. of seven.

The more often obligatory are: AGENT, The more often obligatory are: AGENT, THEME, GOAL. THEME, GOAL.

Then we have the optional ones: TIME, PLACE, Then we have the optional ones: TIME, PLACE, BENEFICIARY, and INSTRUMENT.BENEFICIARY, and INSTRUMENT.

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Syntax began when people began to map Syntax began when people began to map thematic roles onto their protolinguistic thematic roles onto their protolinguistic output.output.

By mapping argument structure onto By mapping argument structure onto utterances, you get recursion for free. And utterances, you get recursion for free. And recursion is one of the defining characteristics recursion is one of the defining characteristics of true language:of true language:

S → NP VPS → NP VPVP → V (NP)VP → V (NP)

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Linearization is not something we wanted: it Linearization is not something we wanted: it has been forced to us by the physical has been forced to us by the physical medium for linguistic communication: we medium for linguistic communication: we cannot make more that one sound at a time.cannot make more that one sound at a time.

The really crucial relationship in language The really crucial relationship in language are not horizontal but vertical: horizontal are not horizontal but vertical: horizontal linear relationships cannot explain why linear relationships cannot explain why “Bob’s sister hurt herself” is grammatical “Bob’s sister hurt herself” is grammatical while “Bob’s sister hurt himself” isn’t.while “Bob’s sister hurt himself” isn’t.

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There are very fast links between verbs There are very fast links between verbs and the nouns people habitually associate and the nouns people habitually associate with them: if you say “knife” one says with them: if you say “knife” one says “cut”, “bicycle”-“ride”, …“cut”, “bicycle”-“ride”, …

Argument structure on its own cannot Argument structure on its own cannot remove all ambiguities from syntax. remove all ambiguities from syntax. Hence the need of parsing.Hence the need of parsing.

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MinimalismMinimalism

Chomsky removed the distinction between Chomsky removed the distinction between deep and surface structure. We now have deep and surface structure. We now have just one level of syntax which is a projection just one level of syntax which is a projection of the lexicon. of the lexicon.

This mean that in the dictionary of your own This mean that in the dictionary of your own language that you carry around in our head, language that you carry around in our head, stored in the distributed patterns of neural stored in the distributed patterns of neural resonances, there is stored along with each resonances, there is stored along with each words all the features of that words. words all the features of that words.

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A word’s features include its meaning, its A word’s features include its meaning, its number and gender (if it has one), the word-number and gender (if it has one), the word-class or classes it belongs to, its function (if class or classes it belongs to, its function (if it’s a grammatical morpheme), the thematic it’s a grammatical morpheme), the thematic roles it assigns (if it’s a verb), etc. roles it assigns (if it’s a verb), etc.

Some of these features take the form of Some of these features take the form of requirements (e.g.: “the” requires a NP after requirements (e.g.: “the” requires a NP after it). What happens is that one tries to merge it). What happens is that one tries to merge words to make larger units (phrases and words to make larger units (phrases and clauses) by matching features. If the positive clauses) by matching features. If the positive features of one word match the requirements features of one word match the requirements of the other, you can merge them and move of the other, you can merge them and move onto the next merger. If not, the derivation onto the next merger. If not, the derivation crashes.crashes.

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This model is a lot closer to how the brain This model is a lot closer to how the brain works, i.e. how it handles language than the works, i.e. how it handles language than the old (deep/surface structure) model. old (deep/surface structure) model.

It makes no neurological sense to say that the It makes no neurological sense to say that the brain first shaped up some very abstract brain first shaped up some very abstract sentence structure and then fooled around sentence structure and then fooled around with them to make something completely with them to make something completely different come out of your mouth, which is different come out of your mouth, which is that the old deep-structure/surface-structure that the old deep-structure/surface-structure model was implicitly claiming. model was implicitly claiming.

Brains aren’t that subtle. If they can do it the Brains aren’t that subtle. If they can do it the straightforward way, they do it the straightforward way, they do it the straightforward way.straightforward way.