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FUN
DA
ME
NT
AL
ISS
UE
SIN
AR
CH
AE
OL
OG
Y
Ser
ies
Edi
tors
:G
ary
M.
Fei
nm
anT
hefi
eld
Mus
eum
,ch
icag
o,
Illi
no
isT.
Do
ug
las
Pri
ceU
niv
ersi
tyo
fW
isco
nsi
n-M
ad
ison
Edi
tori
alB
oard
:O
fer
Bar
-Yos
ef,
Har
var
dU
niv
ersi
ty.
Chr
isti
neH
asto
rf,
13
eyond
10
ragin
gU
nive
rsit
yo
fC
alif
orn
ia-B
erkel
eyJe
ffre
yH
antm
an,
Uni
vers
ity
of
Vir
gin
taP
atty
JoW
atso
n,W
ashi
ngto
nU
niv
ersi
tyL
inda
Man
zanf
fla,
Untv
ersi
dad
Nac
ion
atan
0ec
zng
AutC
uom
ade
Mex
ico
John
Par
ldng
ton,
Univ
ersi
tyo
f
Evolu
tionar
yC
han
ge
inH
un
ter-
Au
stra
lian
Nat
ional
Uni
vers
ity
John
Yel
len,
Nat
ional
Gath
ere
rS
ettl
emen
tS
yst
ems
BE
YO
ND
FO
RA
GIN
GA
ND
CO
LL
EC
TIN
GE
vo
luti
on
ary
Ch
ang
ein
Hu
nte
r-G
ath
erer
Set
tlem
ent
Sys
tem
sE
dit
edb
yB
enfi
tzhugh
and
Jun
ko
Hab
u
EM
ER
GE
NC
EA
ND
CH
AN
GE
INE
AR
LY
UR
BA
NS
OC
IET
IES
Edi
ted
byLi
nda
Man
zani
fla
FOU
ND
AT
ION
SO
FSO
CIA
LIN
EQ
UA
LIT
YE
dit
edb
yE
dite
dby
ID
ougl
asP
rice
and
Gar
yM
.fe
inm
an
FRO
MLE
AD
ERS
TO
RU
LER
SB
EN
FIT
ZH
UG
HE
dite
dby
Jon
ath
anH
aas
Univ
ersi
tyo
fW
ashi
ngto
nL
AN
DSC
APE
SO
fP
OW
ER
,L
AN
DSC
APE
SO
FC
ON
FL
ICT
Sea
ttle
,W
ashin
gto
nS
tate
form
atio
nin
the
Sou
thS
cand
inav
ian
Iron
Age
Tin
ai.
Thurs
ton
and
LE
AD
ER
SHIP
STR
AT
EG
IES,
EC
ON
OM
ICA
CT
IVIT
Y,
AN
DIN
TE
RR
EG
ION
AL
INT
ER
AC
TIO
NJU
NK
OII
AB
US
ocia
lC
ompl
exit
yin
No
rth
east
Chi
naU
niv
ersi
tyo
fca
lifo
rnia
Gid
eon
She
lach
Ber
kel
eyC
alif
orn
ia
liF
EIN
NE
OL
ITH
ICFA
RM
ING
CO
MM
UM
TIE
SS
ocia
lO
rgan
izat
ion,
Iden
tity
,an
dD
iffe
rent
iati
onE
dite
dby
Ian
Kui
jt0
Z
AC
on
tin
uat
ion
Ord
erP
lan
isav
aila
ble
fort
his
serie
s.A
cont
inua
tion
ord
erw
ilt
brin
gde
live
ryof
each
new
volu
me
imm
edia
tely
up
on
publ
icat
ion.
Vo
lum
es
are
bill
edonly
upon
actu
alsh
ipm
ent.
Kiu
wer
Aca
dem
icIP
lenu
mP
ub
lish
ers
For
furt
her
info
rmat
ion
plea
seco
ntac
tth
epu
blis
her.
New
Yor
kB
osto
nD
ordr
echt
Lon
don
Mos
cow
Co
nte
nts
Ch
apte
r1
•In
trod
uct
ion:
Bey
ond
fora
gin
gan
dC
oll
ecti
ng
:E
volu
tionar
yC
han
ge
InH
un
ter-
Gat
her
erS
ettl
emen
tS
yst
ems
1
Jun
ko
Hab
uand
Ben
fitz
hu
gh
PA
RT
I.R
EG
ION
AL
SCA
LE
PR
OC
ES
SE
SO
FS
Err
LE
ME
NT
PA
TT
ER
NC
HA
NG
E
Intr
od
ucti
on
toP
art
115
Ch
apte
r2
•G
oin
gby
Boat
:T
he
Fo
rag
er-C
oll
ecto
rC
onti
nuum
atS
ea19
Ken
neth
M.
Am
es
Ch
apte
r3
•Jo
mo
nC
oll
ecto
rsan
dfo
rager
s:R
egio
nal
Inte
racti
ons
an
dL
ong-t
erm
Chan
ges
inS
ettl
emen
tS
yst
ems
amo
ng
Pre
his
tori
cH
un
ter-
Gat
her
ers
inJa
pan
53
Jun
ko
Hab
u
Chap
ter
4•
Logis
tica
lO
rgan
izat
ion,
Soci
alC
om
ple
xit
y,
and
the
Co
llap
seo
fP
rehis
tori
cT
hule
Whal
ing
So
ciet
ies
inth
eC
entr
alC
anad
ian
Arc
tic
Arc
hip
elag
o73
Jam
esM
.S
avet
te
Chap
ter
5•
Nat
ufi
an:
AC
om
ple
xS
oci
ety
of
Fora
ger
s91
Ofe
rBar
-Yos
ef
xv
Xv
iC
ON
TE
NT
SC
ON
TE
NT
SX
vii
PAR
TU
.M
ICR
OE
VO
LU
TIO
NA
RY
AP
PR
OA
CH
ES
TO
Chap
ter
12•
Ex
pla
inin
gC
hanges
inS
ett
lem
ent
LO
NG
-TE
RM
HU
NT
ER
-GA
TH
ER
ER
SE
TfL
EM
EN
TC
HA
NG
ED
ynam
ics
acro
ssT
ransf
orm
ati
ons
of
Mo
des
of
Pro
ducti
on:
Fro
mH
un
tin
gto
Herd
ing
inth
eIn
troducti
on
toP
art
II153
South
-Centr
al
An
des
387
IM
ark
Atc
tend
erfr
rC
hap
ter
6•
Mobil
ity,
Sea
rch
Modes
,an
dF
oo
d-G
etti
ng
Tec
hn
olo
gy
:F
rom
Mag
dal
enia
nto
Ear
lyM
esoli
tifi
cA
fter
wo
rd:
Bey
on
dF
ora
gin
gand
Coll
ecti
ng:
inth
eU
pper
Dan
ub
eB
asin
157
Ret
rosp
ect
and
Pro
spec
t413
Lyn
nf.
fish
erT.
Dougla
sP
rice
Ch
apte
r7
•L
ong-t
erm
Lan
dT
enu
reS
yst
ems
inIn
dex
42
7C
entr
alB
razi
l:E
vo
luti
on
ary
Eco
logy,
Ris
k-M
anag
emen
t,and
So
cial
Geo
gra
ph
y18
1R
enat
oK
ipui
s
Ch
apte
r8
•C
entr
alP
lace
Fora
gin
gand
Pre
his
tori
cP
inyon
Uti
liza
tion
inth
eG
reat
Bas
in23
1D
avid
WZ
eantt
h
Ch
apte
r9
•R
esid
enti
alan
dL
og
isti
cal
Str
ateg
ies
inth
eE
volu
tion
of
Co
mp
lex
Hunte
r-G
ather
ers
on
the
Kodia
kA
rch
ipel
ago
257
Ben
fitz
hug
h
PAR
TU
I.B
EY
ON
DE
CO
LO
GIC
AL
AP
PR
OA
CH
ES
TO
HU
NT
ER
-GA
TH
ER
ER
SE
TH
EM
EN
TC
HA
NG
E
Intr
odu
cti
on
toP
art
UI
30
7
Ch
apte
r10
•S
acre
dP
ow
erand
Sea
sonal
Set
tlem
ent
on
the
Cen
tral
Nort
hw
est
Co
ast
311
Aub
rey
Can
non
Ch
apte
r11
•L
ong-t
erm
Chan
ge
and
Short
-ter
mS
hif
ting
inth
eE
con
om
yof
Phil
ippin
efo
rager
-Tra
der
s33
9L
aura
Lee
Jun
ker
Chap
ter3
Jom
on
coll
ecto
rsand
fora
gers
Regio
nal
Inte
racti
ons
and
Long-t
erm
Changes
inS
ett
lem
ent
Syst
ems
am
ong
Pre
his
tori
cH
unte
r-G
ath
ere
rsin
Japan
JUN
K0
HA
BU
Th:
i3eyorc
Ford
CoIt
ecin
:E
votc
Hro
ay
nH
±€—
-&a+
he’-
e,-
SetI
nin
9ystiis
Ezh-
8&
vv*o
Hab
u,
FP
.53
—7
2.
<(uiek-
Accevnic
7l’
lcho1,
Neu
u‘!
‘or
INT
RO
DU
Cfl
ON
200
%T
hepu
rpos
eof
this
chap
ter
isto
expa
ndth
eut
ility
ofth
efo
rage
r!co
llect
orm
odel
(Bin
ford
1980
,19
82)
byex
amin
ing
the
dyna
mic
sof
long
-te
rmsy
stem
chan
geon
anin
terr
egio
nat
scal
e.A
mon
gnu
mer
ous
mod
els
ofhu
nter
-gat
here
rbe
havi
or,
Bin
ford
’s(1
980,
1982
)fo
rage
r—co
llect
orco
nti
nuu
mha
sbe
enon
eof
the
mos
tfr
eque
ntly
cite
dm
odel
sof
subs
iste
nce
and
sett
lem
ent
orga
niza
tion
duri
ngth
epa
sttw
ode
cade
s.A
sw
ith
mos
tfo
rmal
mod
els
ofsu
bsis
tenc
ean
dse
ttle
men
t(s
uch
asop
tim
alfo
ragi
ngm
odel
s),
the
fora
ger!
coll
ecto
rm
odel
assu
mes
that
econ
omic
ratio
nalit
yis
the
basi
cpr
inci
ple
that
dete
rmin
eshu
nter
-gat
here
rsu
bsis
tenc
est
rate
gies
and
resi
dent
ial
mob
ility
.H
owev
er,
unli
keop
tim
izat
ion
mod
els,
whi
char
eded
uc
tive
and
form
alin
thei
rst
ruct
ure,
Bin
ford
’sm
odel
was
insp
ired
byet
hnog
raph
icex
ampl
es.
Bec
ause
ofits
info
rmal
and
indu
ctiv
eor
igin
s,th
e
JUN
KO
UA
BU
Dep
artm
ent
ofA
nthr
opol
ogy,
Uni
vers
ity
ofC
alif
orni
a,B
erke
ley,
Cal
ifor
nia
9472
0
53
54JU
NK
OH
AB
UJO
MO
NC
OL
LE
CT
OR
SA
ND
FO
RA
GE
RS
55
fora
ger
/co
llec
tor
mod
elis
flex
ible
enough
toac
count
for
vari
ous
an
om
alie
s.T
heco
nce
pt
ofse
rial
fora
gers
(Bin
ford
1980
:16
—17
),w
hich
refe
rsto
cotd
—en
vii-
onm
ent
hunt
er—
gath
erer
sw
ho
ado
pt
“map
ping
—on
”st
rate
gie
sto
po
siti
on
them
selv
esso
that
they
can
explo
itse
aso
nal
lyfl
uct
uat
ing
reso
ulce
s,is
ago
odex
ampl
eof
this
.S
imil
arly
,v
ario
us
none
nvir
onm
cnta
lfa
ctor
sth
atca
nin
flue
nce
hunt
er—
gath
erer
suhs
iste
nce—
settl
emei
-it
pra
ctic
e,su
chas
popula
tion
pres
sure
,tr
ade/
exch
ange
,an
dg
rou
pal
lian
ce,
are
not
nec
essa
rily
ignore
dby
the
mo
del
.W
em
ayne
edto
mod
ify
the
mod
elto
inco
rpor
ate
thes
efa
ctor
sas
part
ofth
esy
stem
,bu
tth
eco
reof
the
mod
elth
atou
tlin
esth
eba
sic
prin
cipl
esof
labo
rin
vest
men
tve
rsus
retu
rnw
ith
rega
rdto
reso
urce
dist
ribu
tion
,su
bsis
tenc
est
rate
gies
,an
dre
side
ntia
lm
obil
ity
can
still
heop
erat
iona
l.T
hus,
desp
ite
sonic
scho
lars
’cr
itic
alvi
ews
(e.g
.,W
iess
ner
1982
),th
efo
rage
r/co
llec
tor
iiio
del
rem
ains
usef
ul.
Thi
sdo
esno
tim
ply,
how
ever
,th
atth
em
odel
Clo
esno
tne
edex
pans
ion
orel
abor
atio
n.Is
sues
that
have
not
bee
nfu
llyad
dies
secl
sinc
eth
eor
igin
alap
pea
ran
ceof
the
mod
elin
clud
eth
eca
uses
,m
echa
nism
s,an
dco
nse—
dlue
nces
oflo
ng-t
erm
syst
emch
ange
inth
eco
ntex
tof
regi
onal
inte
l-ac
tion
sbet
wee
ngr
oups
.T
houg
hB
inlr
cl(1
983)
was
appa
rent
lyin
tere
sted
inlo
ng-
term
hunt
er—
gath
erer
beha
vior
,w
hat
hew
asaI
)le
toin
fer
from
Nun
amiu
tet
hnog
raph
icda
taan
dor
alhi
stot
yw
aste
mpo
rall
yan
dsp
atia
lly
lim
ited
.A
sa
iesu
lt,
we
have
very
little
know
ledg
eab
out
the
way
chan
ges
inon
esy
ste
mm
ight
affe
ctne
ighb
orin
gsy
stem
s,an
dw
hat
the
long
—te
rmef
fect
sof
thes
ech
ange
sm
ight
bedu
ring
the
coui
-se
ofse
vera
lhu
ndre
dye
ars.
Inth
isre
gard
,ar
chae
olog
ical
stud
ies
ofpr
ehis
tori
cJo
mon
hunt
er—
gath
erer
son
the
Jap
anes
eA
rchi
pela
gopw
vid
eus
wit
han
exce
llen
toppor
tuni
tyto
exam
ine
long
—te
rmse
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nch
ange
atth
ein
teri
-egi
onal
leve
l.In
Japan
,a
larg
en
um
ber
ofla
rge-
scal
esa
lvag
eex
cava
tion
sto
okl)
lace
dunng
and
afte
rth
e19
60s
folt
owin
gth
eim
plem
enta
tion
ofth
ena
tion
algo
vern
men
t’s
land
dev
elopm
ent
poli
cy(H
abu
1989
).T
ens
ofth
oti
sand
sofJ
om
on
site
sha
vebe
enex
cava
ted
wit
hsy
stem
atic
fina
ncia
lsu
pport
from
nati
onal
,pr
efec
tura
l,an
dm
unic
ipal
gove
rnm
ents
,as
wel
las
pilv
ate
dev
elo
per
s.In
man
yca
ses,
the
resu
lts
ofth
ese
exca
vati
ons
are
avai
labl
eas
publ
ishe
dre
port
s.A
sa
resu
lt,
we
have
hund
reds
,an
dso
met
imes
even
thou
sand
s,of
exca
vate
dsi
tes
from
each
ofth
ejo
mon
subp
erio
cls,
whi
chca
nhe
used
toex
amin
eth
eco
urse
oflo
ng-t
erm
chan
gein
subs
iste
nce
and
sett
lem
ent
prac
tice
.T
his
chap
ter
exam
ines
long
—te
rmch
ange
inre
gion
alse
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nsfr
omth
eE
arly
toth
eM
icld
lejo
mon
peri
ods
(ca.
6100
—40
00un
cali
brat
edb.
p.;
for
the
rest
ofth
ispa
per,
low
er-c
ase
b.p.
will
beus
edfo
run
cati
brat
ed‘C
date
s)in
the
cont
ext
ofth
efo
rage
r/co
llec
tor
mod
el(B
info
t-cI
1980
,19
82).
Thr
ough
this
case
stud
y,po
ssib
lefa
ctor
sth
attr
igge
red
chan
ges
bet
wee
nco
llec
ting
and
fora
ging
syst
ems
are
infe
rred
,as
are
thei
rm
echa
nism
s.T
he
impl
icat
ions
ofth
ese
chan
ges
are
disc
usse
din
rela
tion
toth
edev
elopm
ent
ofhu
nter
-gat
here
rcu
ltur
alco
mpl
exit
y.
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
TO
TH
ES
TU
DY
Jom
on
isth
ena
me
ofa
preh
isto
ric
cult
ure
inth
eJa
pan
ese
Arc
hipe
lago
that
foll
owed
the
Pal
aeol
ithi
cper
iod
and
pre
ced
edth
eag
ricu
ltur
alY
ayoi
peri
od.
Unl
ike
man
yot
her
preh
isto
ric
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
cult
ures
,th
eJo
mon
cult
ure
isch
arac
teri
zed
byth
epr
oduc
tion
and
use
ofpo
tter
y.T
heJo
mon
peri
odis
conv
enti
onal
lydi
vide
din
tosi
xsu
bper
iods
:In
cipi
ent,
Initi
al,
Ear
ly,
Mid
dle,
Lat
e,an
dfi
nal.
The
app
eara
nce
ofpo
tter
y(c
a.13
,000
b.p.
)m
arks
the
begi
nnin
gof
the
Jom
on
peri
od(N
akam
ura
and
Tsu
ji19
99;
Tan
iguc
hi19
99),
but
not
all
ofth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sth
atre
sear
cher
sco
mm
only
asso
ciat
ew
ith
the
Jom
on
cult
ure
wer
epre
sent
duri
ngth
eIn
cipi
ent
and
Init
ial
Jom
on
peri
ods.
By
the
Ear
lyJo
mon
,ho
wev
er,
adi
stin
ctiv
ese
tof
cult
ural
trai
tsth
atch
arac
teri
zeth
ere
stof
the
Jom
on
peri
odbe
gan
toem
erge
.T
hese
incl
ude
the
pres
ence
ofla
rge
sett
lem
ents
,va
riou
ski
nds
ofce
rem
onia
lfe
atur
esan
dar
tifa
cts,
food
stor
age,
and
long
-dis
tanc
etr
ade.
Inth
isre
gard
,th
eE
arly
tofi
nal
Jom
oncu
ltur
essh
are
anu
mbe
rof
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hso
-cal
led
“co
mpl
ex”
hunt
er-g
athe
rers
inva
riou
spa
rts
ofth
ew
orld
(Pri
cean
dB
row
n19
85).
for
this
reas
on,
rese
arch
ers
inth
ebro
ader
fiel
dof
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
arch
aeol
ogy
have
bee
nin
ters
ted
inth
est
udy
ofth
eJo
mon
cult
ure
(Aik
ens
1981
;A
iken
san
dD
um
ond
1986
;A
iken
etal
.19
86;
Coh
en19
81;
Hay
den
1990
;P
ears
on19
77;
Pri
ce19
81;
Pri
cean
dB
row
n19
85;
Sof
fer
1989
).R
ecen
tdev
elo
pm
ents
inJo
mo
nst
udie
sha
vere
veal
eçl
that
regi
onal
and
tem
pora
lva
riab
ilit
yw
ithi
nth
eJo
mo
ncu
ltur
ew
asfa
rgr
eate
rth
ansc
hola
rson
ceas
sum
ed(I
kaw
a-S
mit
h19
98).
for
exam
ple,
atth
eIn
itia
lJo
mo
nU
enoh
ara
site
inK
agos
him
aP
refe
ctur
ein
sou
ther
nK
yush
u,so
phis
tica
ted
pott
ery,
such
asja
rsw
ith
long
neck
s,an
dor
nam
ents
,su
chas
clay
earr
ings
,w
ere
reco
vere
d(O
kam
ura
1995
).N
eith
erof
thes
etw
oty
pes
ofar
tifa
cts
had
bee
nre
port
edfr
omIn
itia
lJo
mo
nsi
tes
inoth
erpa
rts
ofJa
pan
.O
ther
line
sof
evid
ence
,su
chas
feat
ure
type
san
dli
thic
asse
mbl
age
char
acte
rist
ics,
also
indi
cate
that
the
Inci
pien
tan
dIn
itia
lJo
mo
ncu
ltur
esin
this
regi
onw
ere
quit
edi
ffer
ent
from
thos
ein
the
rest
ofth
eJa
pan
ese
Arc
hipe
lago
(Am
emiy
a19
99;
Shi
nto
1995
,19
99).
At
the
Ear
lyan
dM
iddl
eJo
mo
nS
anna
iM
aruy
ama
site
inA
omor
iP
refe
ctur
e,nort
her
nJa
pan
,an
extr
aord
inar
ily
larg
ese
ttle
men
tas
soci
ated
wit
hm
ore
than
700
pit-
dwel
ling
sha
sb
een
reco
rded
(Hab
uet
al.
2001
;K
idde
r19
98;
Oka
da19
95a,
b;O
kada
and
Hab
u19
95).
Rad
ioca
rbon
date
sin
dica
teth
atth
esi
tew
asocc
upie
dfr
omap
prox
imat
ely
5050
to39
00h.
p.,
or59
00to
4300
cali
brat
edB
.P.
(Tsu
ji19
99;
see
also
M.
Imar
nura
1999
).B
ecau
seth
esi
tew
asocc
upie
dfo
rm
ore
than
1500
year
s,
fIgure
3.1.
Map
ofJa
pan
show
ing
the
loca
tion
ofth
eK
anto
and
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
ons.
itis
unli
kely
that
all
ofth
e70
0pi
t-dw
elli
ngs
wer
ein
habi
ted
cont
empo
rane
ousl
y.N
ever
thel
ess,
the
num
ber
ofpi
t-dw
elli
ngs
and
othe
rfe
atur
esfr
omth
esi
teis
unus
ua]l
yla
rge
com
pare
dto
othe
rJo
mon
site
s.A
mon
gth
ese
regi
onal
vari
etie
s,th
eM
iddl
eJo
mon
cult
ure
inth
eK
anto
regi
on(e
aste
rnsi
deof
cent
ral
Hon
shu
Isla
ndin
clud
ing
Tok
yo)
and
the
adja
cent
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
on(i
nlan
dpa
rtof
cent
ral
Hon
shu;
Fig.
3.1)
have
attr
acte
dco
nsid
erab
leat
tent
ion
beca
use
ofth
eex
trem
ely
high
site
dens
ity,
larg
esi
tesi
ze,
and
the
com
plex
pott
ery
deco
rati
onin
thes
esi
tes.
Acc
ordi
ngto
K.
Imam
ura
(199
6:93
),70
%of
all
exca
vate
dJo
mon
pit-
dwel
lings
inth
eK
anto
and
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
ons
belo
ngto
the
Mid
dle
Jom
onpe
riod
,an
d50
%of
all
exca
vate
dpi
t-dw
elli
ngs
belo
ngto
the
latte
rha
lfof
this
peri
od.
Man
yre
sear
cher
sha
veal
sopo
inte
dou
tth
atth
eM
iddl
e
JOM
ON
CO
LL
EC
TO
RS
AN
DF
OR
AG
ER
S5
7
Jom
onsi
tes
inth
ese
regi
ons
are
char
acte
rize
dby
anab
unda
nce
ofso
-cal
led
chip
ped
ston
eax
es.”
Alt
houg
hth
ese
ston
eto
ols
are
call
ed“a
xes,
”m
ost
rese
arch
ers
beli
eve
that
they
wer
eus
edas
hoes
for
digg
ing,
eith
erto
col
lect
wild
plan
tro
ots
(Wat
anab
e19
76)
orpo
ssib
lyfo
rin
cipi
ent
plan
tcu
lti
vatio
n(e
.g.,
Fujim
ori
1950
;O
yam
a19
27,
1934
).A
rcha
eolo
gist
sha
velo
ngre
cogn
ized
the
pros
peri
tyof
the
Mid
dle
Jom
oncu
ltur
ein
the
Kan
toan
dC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
s,bu
tve
ryfe
wst
udie
sha
vesy
stem
atic
ally
exam
ined
the
proc
esse
sof
itsde
velo
pmen
t.B
ecau
seof
the
pres
ence
ofla
rge
sett
lem
ents
duri
ngan
daf
ter
the
Mid
dle
Jom
onpe
riod
inth
ese
regi
ons,
scho
lars
have
assu
med
that
the
dev
elop
men
tof
sede
ntar
ylif
ein
thes
ere
gion
sbe
gan
inth
eE
arly
Jom
onpe
riod
and
that
the
degr
eeof
Jom
oncu
ltura
lco
mpl
exit
yin
crea
sed
grad
uall
yan
dsm
ooth
lyfr
omth
eE
arly
toth
eM
iddl
eJo
mon
(e.g
.,W
ajim
a19
48,
1958
).H
owev
er,
deta
iled
exam
inat
ion
ofch
ange
sin
regi
onal
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
atth
een
dof
the
Ear
lyJo
mon
peri
odin
dica
tes
that
the
long
-ter
mdev
elop
men
tfr
omth
eE
arly
toth
eM
iddl
eJo
mon
may
have
been
mor
eco
mpl
exth
anpr
evio
usly
assu
med
.
SE
TrL
EM
EN
TPA
TrE
RN
SO
FT
HE
EA
RL
YJO
MO
NM
OR
OIS
OP
HA
SE
Ina
prev
ious
stud
y,I
exam
ined
regi
onal
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
ofth
eE
arly
Jom
onM
oroi
soph
ase
(ca.
5000
b.p.
)of
the
Kan
toan
dC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
s(H
abu
1996
,20
01)
from
the
pers
pect
ive
ofth
efo
rage
r/co
llec
tor
mod
el(B
info
rd19
80,
1982
).T
heM
oroi
soph
ase
isth
ese
cond
toth
ela
stph
ase
ofth
eE
arly
Jom
onpe
riod
and
isdi
vide
din
toth
ree
sub-
phas
es:
Mor
oiso
-a,
-ban
d-c
from
the
earl
iest
toth
ela
test
.T
hedu
rati
onof
the
Mor
oiso
phas
eis
esti
mat
edto
have
been
appr
oxim
atel
y20
0—30
0ye
ars
(Hab
u20
01).
Acc
ordi
ngto
the
fora
ger/
coll
ecto
rm
odel
,su
bsis
tenc
e-se
ttle
men
tsy
stem
sof
hunt
er-g
athe
rers
can
becl
assi
fied
into
two
basi
csy
stem
s:(1
)fo
rage
rsy
stem
sth
atar
ech
arac
teri
zed
byhi
ghre
side
ntia
lm
obili
tyan
d(2
)co
llect
orsy
stem
sth
atar
ech
arac
teri
zed
bylo
wre
side
ntia
lm
obili
ty.
Fora
gers
tend
toac
quir
efo
odon
ada
y-to
-day
basi
sne
arth
eir
resi
dent
ial
base
,w
here
asco
llect
ors
tend
toor
gani
zeth
eir
subs
iste
nce
activ
ities
logi
sti
cally
(i.e
.,th
eyse
ndsp
ecia
lize
dta
skgr
oups
toac
quir
efo
odre
sour
ces
loca
ted
far
away
from
thei
rre
side
ntia
lba
se,
who
then
brin
gth
ese
reso
urce
sba
ckan
dst
ore
them
).Fo
rage
rsy
stem
sar
eco
mm
only
foun
din
envi
ronm
ents
inw
hich
the
dist
ribu
tion
ofcr
itica
lre
sour
ces
isse
ason
ally
and
spat
ially
hom
ogen
eous
,w
here
asco
llect
orsy
stem
sar
ead
apte
dto
envi
ronm
ents
inw
hich
the
dist
ribu
tion
ofcr
itica
lre
sour
ces
isse
ason
ally
orsp
atia
llyun
even
(for
ade
scri
ptio
nof
the
fora
ger/
coll
ecto
rm
odel
,se
eal
soK
elly
1995
).
JU?l
KO
HA
BU
00
56 U
g
b
020
0km
Inte
rsit
eV
aria
bilit
yln
ters
ite
Var
iabi
lity
Site
Dis
trib
titi
onT
ype
inL
ithic
Ass
embl
ages
inSi
teSi
zeP
atte
rn
full
yse
dent
ary
Smal
lSm
all
Clu
ster
edco
llec
tors
Col
lect
ors
wit
hL
arge
Lar
geC
lust
ered
seas
onal
mov
esF
orag
ers
Smal
lSm
all
Dis
pers
ed
Inm
ypr
evio
usst
udy
(Hab
u20
01),
1po
inte
dou
tth
atco
llec
tor
syst
ems
wou
ldin
clud
efu
llyse
dent
ary
hunt
er-g
athe
rers
who
occu
pied
asi
ngle
res
iden
tial
base
thro
ugho
utth
eye
ar,
asw
ell
asre
lativ
ely
sede
ntar
yhu
nter
-ga
ther
ers
who
mov
edth
eir
resi
dent
ial
base
sse
ason
ally
.B
ecau
seth
epr
esen
ceof
larg
ere
side
ntia
lsi
tes
isch
arac
teri
stic
ofco
llec
tor
syst
ems,
the
Jom
onpe
ople
inge
nera
lw
ere
prob
ably
clos
erto
the
coll
ecto
ren
dof
the
fora
ger—
colle
ctor
spec
trum
.H
owev
er,
the
issu
eof
whe
ther
they
mov
edth
eir
resi
dent
ial
base
sse
ason
ally
has
yet
tobe
dete
rmin
ed.
To
addr
ess
this
issu
e,I
sugg
este
dth
atex
amin
ing
inte
rsite
vari
abili
tyin
lithi
cas
sem
blag
esan
dsi
tesi
zeco
uld
prov
eus
eful
(Hab
u19
96,
2001
;T
able
3.1)
.R
elat
ivel
yse
dent
ary
colle
ctor
s,w
hom
ove
thei
rre
side
ntia
lba
ses
seas
onal
ly,
wou
ldha
veus
edea
chof
thei
rre
side
ntia
lba
ses
for
seas
onal
lydi
ffer
ent
subs
iste
nce
activ
ities
.A
ccor
ding
ly,
the
lithi
cas
sem
blag
esfr
omea
chre
side
ntia
lba
sesh
ould
refl
ect
thes
ese
ason
aldi
ffer
ence
s.T
here
fore
,w
eca
nex
pect
larg
eva
riab
ility
inth
elit
hic
asse
mbl
ages
amon
gre
side
ntia
lba
ses.
Fur
ther
mor
e,th
ese
ason
alm
ovem
ent
ofre
lativ
ely
sede
ntar
yco
llect
ors
isof
ten
asso
ciat
edw
ithth
edi
sper
sion
and
amal
gam
atio
nof
resi
dent
ial
grou
ps.
The
refo
re,
we
can
also
expe
ctla
rge
vari
abili
tyin
the
size
ofre
side
ntia
lba
ses.
Acc
ordi
ngly
,if
the
Jom
onpe
ople
wer
eco
llect
ors
who
mov
edth
eir
resi
dent
ial
base
sse
ason
ally
,w
eca
nex
pect
tofi
ndla
rge
inte
rsite
vari
abili
tyin
both
(1)
lithi
cas
sem
blag
esan
d(2
)si
tesi
ze.
Inco
ntra
st,
inth
eca
seof
fully
sede
ntar
yco
llect
ors,
we
can
expe
ctth
atlit
hic
asse
mbl
age
and
site
size
vari
abili
tyam
ong
resi
dent
ial
base
sw
illbe
rela
tivel
ysm
all
beca
use
resi
den
tial
base
sof
fully
sede
ntar
yco
llect
ors
wer
eoc
cupi
edye
ar-r
ound
,th
usre
flec
ting
gene
rall
ysi
mila
rac
tiviti
es.
For
both
kind
sof
colle
ctor
s,w
ew
ould
expe
ctto
find
clus
ters
ofre
side
ntia
lba
ses
beca
use
colle
ctor
s’re
side
ntia
lba
ses
are
usua
llylo
cate
dne
arpr
imar
yre
sour
ceco
ncen
trat
ions
.Fi
nally
,in
afo
rage
rsy
stem
,lit
hic
asse
mbl
age
and
site
size
vari
abili
tyam
ong
resi
dent
ial
base
ssh
ould
besm
all
beca
use
func
tion
sof
resi
dent
ial
base
sar
ere
lativ
ely
sim
ilar
toea
chot
her.
Thi
sm
eans
that
,in
vari
abili
tyam
ong
resi
dent
ial
base
s,fo
rage
rsan
dfu
llyse
dent
ary
colle
ctor
sm
aysh
owsi
mila
rch
arac
teri
stic
s.H
owev
er,
itis
expe
cted
that
fora
gers
’re
side
ntia
lba
ses
wou
ldbe
muc
h
Reg
ion
Nor
thw
este
rnK
anto
regi
onS
outh
wes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
Cht
ibu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
“Fro
mH
abu
2001
.
Rel
ativ
ely
sede
ntar
yR
elat
ivel
yse
dent
ary
Rel
ativ
ely
sede
ntar
yco
llec
tors
coll
ecto
rsco
llec
tors
Rel
ativ
ely
sede
ntar
yR
elat
ivel
yse
dent
ary
fora
ger
sco
llec
tors
coll
ecto
rsU
nkno
wn
(sam
ple
Rel
ativ
ely
sede
ntar
yR
elat
ivel
yse
dent
ary
size
was
too
smal
l)co
llec
tors
coll
ecto
rs
smal
ler
than
thos
eof
colle
ctor
s,po
ssib
lyw
ithno
perm
anen
tdw
elli
ngst
ruct
ures
.F
urth
erm
ore,
fora
gers
’re
side
ntia
lba
ses
wou
ldbe
disp
erse
dth
roug
hout
the
rese
arch
area
,be
caus
eth
edi
stri
butio
nof
reso
urce
s,w
hich
iscl
osel
yre
late
dto
the
loca
tion
ofre
side
ntia
lba
ses,
isdi
sper
sed
even
ly.
Inm
ypr
evio
usw
ork
(Hab
u20
01),
1ap
plie
dth
ism
odel
tose
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nda
tafr
omth
eE
arly
Jom
onM
oroi
soph
ase
inth
eK
anto
and
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
ons
ofJa
pan.
The
resu
ltsof
this
anal
ysis
(Tab
le3.
2)su
gges
ted
that
the
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
ofth
eM
oroi
soP
hase
gene
rall
yco
rres
pond
wel
lto
the
mod
elof
rela
tivel
yse
dent
ary
colle
ctor
s.T
heon
lyap
pare
ntex
cep
tion
was
that
ofth
eM
oroi
so-c
subp
hase
inth
eso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
regi
on(f
ig.
3.2)
,w
hich
was
char
acte
rize
dby
asc
arci
tyof
dwel
ling
site
s(i
.e.,
site
sw
ith
pit-
dwel
ling
s).
Of
the
278
site
sid
enti
fied
from
this
subp
hase
,on
lyfi
vesi
tes
(1.8
%)
are
dwel
ling
site
s.H
owev
er,
the
pres
ence
ofa
num
ber
ofno
ndw
elli
ngsi
tes
(i.e
.,si
tes
that
have
nopi
t-dw
elli
ngs)
indi
cate
sth
atth
ere
gion
was
still
activ
ely
used
byJo
mon
hunt
er-g
athe
rers
.T
hese
nond
wel
ling
site
sw
ere
inte
rpre
ted
asre
side
ntia
lba
ses
ina
fora
ger
syst
em.
The
fact
that
thes
eno
ndw
elli
ngsi
tes
are
disp
erse
dth
roug
hout
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
also
supp
orts
the
hypo
thes
isth
atth
isw
asa
fora
ger
syst
em.
Non
eof
the
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
exam
ined
corr
espo
nded
toth
em
odel
offu
llyse
dent
ary
colle
ctor
s.B
ased
onth
ese
resu
lts,
Isu
gges
ted
that
the
peop
leof
the
Mor
oiso
phas
edi
dno
tst
ayat
the
sam
esi
teth
roug
hout
the
year
and
that
the
degr
eeof
sede
ntis
min
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tode
crea
sed
thro
ugh
time
asth
esu
bsis
tenc
e-se
ttle
men
tsy
stem
sin
the
regi
onch
ange
dfr
omre
lativ
ely
sede
ntar
yco
llec
tor
syst
ems
tofo
rage
rsy
stem
s(H
abu
2001
).
LO
NG
-TE
RM
CH
AN
GE
SIN
TIl
ES
OuT
HW
ES
TE
RN
KA
NT
OR
EG
ION
The
pri
mar
ypurp
ose
of
the
analy
isdes
crib
edab
ove
was
toex
amin
eth
ede
gree
ofse
dent
ism
ofth
eM
oroi
soph
ase
peop
le,
but
the
resu
ltof
the
anal
ysis
also
prov
ides
insi
ghts
inte
rms
oflo
ng-t
erm
chan
gein
58
JUN
KO
HA
BU
Tab
le3.
1.E
xpec
ted
Pat
tern
sof
Res
iden
tial
lyU
sed
Sit
es
JOM
ON
CO
LL
EC
TO
RS
AN
DFO
RA
GE
RS
59
Tab
le3.
2.S
um
mary
of
Subsi
sten
ce-S
ettl
emen
tS
yst
ems
inE
ach
Reg
ion”
Mor
oiso
-asu
bphas
e(O
ldes
t)M
oroi
so-b
subphas
eM
oroi
so-c
subphas
e(Y
oung
est)
Fig
ure
3.2.
Dis
trib
utio
no
fM
oroi
so-c
subp
hase
site
sin
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
.•:
dwel
ling
site
s.x:
nond
wel
ling
site
s.In
addi
tion
toth
esi
tes
repr
esen
ted
inth
edi
agra
m,
ther
ear
e37
nond
wel
ling
site
sin
the
Tam
aN
ewT
own
area
(ind
icat
edas
T.N
.T.)
and
five
nond
wel
llng
site
sin
the
Koh
oku
New
Tow
nar
ea(i
ndic
ated
asK
.N.T
.),
resp
ecti
vely
(mod
ifie
dfr
omH
abit
2001
).
pJO
MO
NC
OL
LE
CT
OR
SA
ND
FO
RA
GE
RS
61
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems.
Firs
t,th
esh
ift
inso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
from
rela
tivel
yse
dent
ary
coll
ecto
rsto
fora
gers
indi
cate
that
the
degr
eeof
seden
tism
ofhu
nter
-gat
here
rsin
this
regi
onde
crea
sed
thro
ugh
time.
Thi
ssh
ift
cont
radi
cts
the
gene
ral
expe
ctat
ion
that
incr
easi
ngse
dent
ism
thro
ugh
time
isan
impo
rtan
tin
dica
tor
ofcu
ltura
lde
velo
pmen
t.O
nepo
ssib
leex
plan
atio
nfo
rth
issh
ift
isth
ech
ange
inth
ena
tura
len
viro
nmen
t.T
heM
oroi
soph
ase
roug
hly
coin
cide
sw
ith
the
“Clim
atic
Opt
imum
,”th
etim
eof
max
imum
sea
leve
ltr
ansg
ress
ion
(Mat
sush
ima
1979
;M
atsu
shim
aan
dK
oike
1979
).T
hese
ale
vel
reac
hed
itsm
axim
umhe
ight
duri
ngor
just
befo
reth
eM
oroi
so-a
subp
hase
and
then
grad
uall
yre
trea
ted
thro
ugh
the
rest
ofth
eM
oroi
soph
ase
(Fuj
i19
84;
Sak
amot
oan
dN
akam
ura
1991
;bu
tse
eH
orig
uchi
1983
).So
me
rese
arch
ers
sugg
est
that
the
retr
eat
ofth
ese
ale
vel
resu
lted
ina
sign
ific
ant
decr
ease
inth
eha
bita
tof
litto
ral
shel
lfi
shsp
ecie
s(e
.g.,
Mat
sush
ima
and
Koi
ke19
79).
As
show
nin
Tab
le3.
3,th
efr
eque
ncy
ofsh
ell-
mid
den
site
sin
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tode
crea
sed
dram
ati
cally
from
the
Mor
oiso
-bto
the
Mor
oiso
-csu
bpha
ses.
Of
all
the
Mor
oiso
-asi
tes
inso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
,8.
4%ha
vesh
ell-
mid
dens
,w
here
ason
ly2.
2%of
the
Mor
oiso
-bsi
tes
have
shel
l-m
idde
ns.
No
shel
l-m
idde
nsha
vebe
enre
port
edfr
omth
eM
oroi
so-c
subp
hase
(Hab
u20
01).
Not
ehe
reth
atth
edi
ffer
ence
inth
eto
tal
num
ber
ofsi
tes
amon
gsu
b-ph
ases
may
refl
ect
the
diff
eren
cein
the
dura
tion
ofea
chsu
bpha
se.
Inpar
ticul
ar,
the
fact
that
the
tota
lnu
mbe
rof
site
sin
the
Mor
oiso
-bsu
bpha
seis
twic
eth
atfo
rth
eot
her
two
subp
hase
sm
ayin
dica
teth
atth
eM
oroi
so-b
sub-
phas
ela
sted
long
erth
anth
eot
her
two
subp
hase
s.N
onet
hele
ss,
the
decr
ease
inth
ere
lativ
epr
opor
tion
ofsh
ell-
mid
den
site
sth
roug
htim
eis
evid
ent.
Itse
ems
that
the
decr
ease
inth
efr
eque
ncy
ofsh
ell-
mid
dens
isa
dire
ctre
spon
seto
ade
clin
ein
shel
lfis
hre
sour
ces.
Ifso
,th
ede
clin
em
ayha
veca
used
sign
ific
ant
chan
ges
inth
eov
eral
lre
sour
cedi
stri
buti
onpa
tter
nsin
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
to.
Mor
esp
ecif
ical
ly,
the
decl
ine
inth
eav
aila
bilit
yof
shel
lfis
hw
ould
have
resu
lted
inle
ssde
nsel
ycl
umpe
ddi
stri
buti
ons
ofav
ail
able
reso
urce
sbe
caus
eth
edi
stri
buti
onof
shel
lfis
his
spat
ially
limite
dto
the
coas
tal
area
and
they
are
avai
labl
epr
imar
ilydu
ring
the
spri
ngto
earl
ysu
mm
er.
Tab
le3.
3.F
requencie
sof
Shel
l-M
idden
Sit
esIn
Sou
thw
este
rnK
an
to
Mor
oiso
-aM
oroi
so-b
Mor
oiso
-c
Num
ber
ofal
lsi
tes
273
631
278
Num
ber
ofsh
ell-
mid
den
site
s23
140
Per
cent
age
ofsh
ell-
mid
den
site
s8.
42.
20.
0
60JU
NK
OH
AB
U
62JU
NK
OH
AB
UJO
MO
NC
OL
LE
CT
OR
SA
ND
FO
RA
GE
RS
63
By
sugg
esti
ngth
is,
Ido
not
nece
ssar
ily
impl
yth
atth
epe
ople
ofth
eM
oroi
so-a
subp
hase
reli
edpr
imar
ilyon
shel
lfis
h.A
sin
dica
ted
bySu
zuki
(197
9),
the
calo
ric
valu
eof
shel
lfis
his
rela
tivel
ylo
wco
mpa
red
toot
her
kind
sof
food
avai
labl
ew
ithin
the
Japa
nese
Arc
hipe
lago
.F
urth
erm
ore,
man
yJo
mon
rese
arch
ers
agre
eth
atpl
ant
food
mus
tha
vebe
enth
est
aple
food
sour
cefo
rm
ost
ofth
eJo
mon
peop
le(e
.g.,
Wat
anab
e19
76),
wit
hth
eex
cept
ion
ofH
okka
ido
Jom
on(e
.g.,
Min
agaw
aan
dA
kaza
wa
1992
).H
owev
er,
the
prim
ary
impo
rtan
ceof
shel
lfis
hlie
sin
itsse
ason
ality
;it
ison
eof
the
few
food
item
sin
Japa
nth
atar
eav
aila
ble
from
the
late
win
ter
toth
esp
ring
,w
hen
othe
rfo
od
reso
urce
sar
esc
arce
(see
Erl
ands
on19
88).
Inth
isre
gard
,it
ispo
ssib
leth
atch
ange
sin
the
avai
labi
lity
ofsh
ellf
ish
may
have
had
asi
gnif
ican
tef
fect
onov
eral
lsu
bsis
tenc
e-se
ttle
men
tsy
stem
sat
that
time.
Mor
esp
ecif
ical
ly,
lack
ofsh
ellf
ish
reso
urce
sat
the
end
ofth
ew
inte
rm
ayha
vepr
even
ted
thes
epe
ople
from
form
ing
larg
eag
greg
atio
nse
ttle
men
tsfo
rth
ew
inte
r.If
this
was
the
case
,ev
enth
ough
the
calo
ric
contr
ibu
tion
ofsh
ellf
ish
was
smal
lin
the
over
all
Jom
onpe
ople
’sdi
et,
the
decr
ease
insh
ellf
ish
may
have
had
aca
tast
roph
icef
fect
onth
eov
eral
lsu
bsis
tenc
e-se
ttle
men
tsy
stem
sin
the
regi
on.
Fur
ther
anal
ysis
will
benec
essa
ryto
inve
stig
ate
the
inte
rrel
atio
nshi
psam
ong
envi
ronm
enta
lch
ange
,th
edi
sapp
eara
nce
ofsh
ell-
mid
dens
,an
dth
eco
llap
seof
logi
stic
ally
org
aniz
edsu
bsis
tenc
e-se
ttle
men
tsy
stem
sin
this
regi
on.
DE
VE
LO
PM
EN
TO
fA
NE
WSY
STE
MA
SS
OC
IAT
ED
WIT
HA
NA
BU
ND
AN
CE
Of
CH
IPP
ED
STO
NE
AX
ES
As
disc
usse
din
the
prev
ious
sect
ion,
curr
entl
yav
aila
ble
data
indi
cate
that
envi
ronm
enta
lad
apta
tion
may
acco
unt
for
the
shif
tfr
omco
llect
ing
stra
tegi
esto
fora
ging
stra
tegi
esin
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
to.
How
ever
,it
does
not
mea
nth
atth
ech
ange
had
noev
olut
iona
ryim
plic
atio
nsfo
rlo
ng-t
erm
chan
ges
inth
eJo
mon
cultu
re.
On
the
cont
rary
,se
vera
llin
esof
evid
ence
sugg
est
that
the
chan
gepl
ayed
acr
itica
lro
lein
the
deve
lopm
ent
ofth
e“M
iddl
eJo
mon
type
”of
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
that
wer
ech
arac
teri
zed
byan
abun
danc
eof
chip
ped
ston
eax
es.
firs
t,th
esh
ift
from
coll
ecti
ngto
fora
ging
syst
ems
inso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
seem
sto
have
been
asso
ciat
edw
ith
asi
gnif
ican
tpo
pula
tion
decr
ease
inth
isre
gion
.A
ccor
ding
toK
.Im
amur
a(1
992)
and
othe
rs(e
.g.,
Kob
ayas
hi19
73;
Shib
uean
dK
uro’
o19
87),
the
scar
city
ofdw
elli
ngsi
tes
inso
uthw
est
ern
Kan
tois
char
acte
rist
icof
the
Mor
oiso
-csu
bpha
sean
dal
soof
the
follo
win
gJu
sanb
odai
phas
e.In
part
icul
ar,
Imam
ura
(199
2)po
ints
out
that
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
ofth
eM
oroi
so-c
subp
hase
and
the
Jusa
nbod
aiph
ase
inth
eso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
regi
onsh
are
anu
mbe
rof
sim
ilari
ties,
incl
udin
g
(1)
scar
city
ofdw
elli
ngsi
tes
and
(2)
smal
lsi
tesi
zein
term
sof
both
the
num
ber
ofas
soci
ated
dwel
lings
and
the
amou
ntof
artif
acts
.B
ased
onth
ese
obse
rvat
ions
,Im
amur
a(1
992)
conc
lude
sth
atth
ede
crea
sein
the
num
ber
ofdw
ellin
gsi
tes
and
site
size
duri
ngth
eM
oroi
so-c
subp
hase
and
the
jusa
nbod
aiph
ase
inth
isre
gion
repr
esen
tsa
sign
ific
ant p
opul
atio
nde
crea
se.
Ass
umin
gth
atth
isw
asth
eca
se,
aqu
esti
onth
enar
ises
whe
ther
this
occu
rred
thro
ugh
agr
adua
lor
cata
stro
phic
incr
ease
inth
em
orta
lity
rate
orth
roug
hem
igra
tion
toot
her
area
s.C
hang
esin
the
num
ber
ofsi
tes
inea
chre
gion
seem
toin
dica
teth
epo
ssib
ility
ofpo
pula
tion
mig
rati
onfr
omth
eK
anto
toth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
s.A
ssh
own
inT
able
3.4,
the
tota
lnu
mbe
rsof
site
sfr
omth
eM
oroi
so-b
toM
oroi
so-c
subp
hase
sin
the
nort
hw
este
rnan
dso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
regi
ons
decr
ease
d,w
here
asth
enu
mbe
rin
the
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
onin
crea
sed.
Det
aile
dan
alys
isof
sett
lem
ent
patt
ern
chan
ges
inth
eso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
regi
onal
soin
dica
tes
that
the
shif
t fro
mth
eco
llec
tor
syst
emto
the
for
ager
syst
emoc
curr
edgr
adua
llyth
roug
hout
the
Mor
oiso
phas
eal
ong
wit
hpo
pula
tion
mov
emen
tfr
omco
asta
lto
inla
ndar
eas.
As
show
nin
Tab
le3.
5,th
ese
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nof
the
Mor
oiso
-asu
bpha
sein
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
isch
arac
teri
zed
bya
rela
tive
abun
danc
eof
larg
ean
dm
ediu
mdw
elli
ngsi
tes
com
pare
dto
the
othe
rtw
oph
ases
.T
hepr
esen
ceof
larg
ese
ttle
men
tsis
char
acte
rist
icof
rela
tivel
yse
dent
ary
coll
ecto
rsw
hofo
rmla
rge
resi
dent
ial
grou
psdu
ring
ace
rtai
ntim
eof
the
year
(oft
enfa
llto
earl
ysp
ring
)an
ddi
sper
sein
smal
ler
sett
lem
ents
for
the
rest
ofth
eye
ar.
How
ever
,by
the
Mor
oiso
-bsu
bpha
se,
the
perc
enta
ges
ofla
rge
and
med
ium
site
s
Tab
le3.
4.C
han
ges
inth
eT
ota
lN
umbe
rof
Sit
esIn
Each
Reg
ion
Reg
ion
Mor
oiso
-bM
oroi
so-c
Nor
thw
este
rnK
anto
regi
on12
$69
Sou
thw
este
rnK
anco
regi
on63
127
8C
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
7697
Tab
le3.
5.S
ite
Size
Vari
abil
ity
among
Dw
elli
ngS
ites
InS
outh
west
ern
Kan
to
Num
ber
ofas
soci
ated
Site
Size
pit-
dwel
ling
sM
oroi
so-a
Mor
oiso
-bM
oroi
so-c
Smal
l1—
441
(83.
7%)
84(9
2.3%
)5
(100
.0%
)M
ediu
m5—
95
(10.
2%)
6(6
.6%
)0
hirg
e10
3(6
.1%
)1
(1.1
%)
0T
otal
49(1
00.0
%)
91(1
00.0
%)
5(1
00.0
%)
64JU
NK
OH
AB
UJO
MO
NC
OL
LE
CT
OR
SA
ND
FO
RA
GE
RS
65
decr
ease
d.T
his
indi
cate
sth
atth
ese
ttle
men
tsy
stem
ofth
issu
bpha
sew
asle
sscl
osel
yas
soci
ated
with
the
annu
alam
alga
mat
ion
ofre
side
ntia
lgr
oups
.F
urth
erm
ore,
man
yof
the
dwel
ling
site
sof
the
Mor
oiso
-bsu
bpha
sear
elo
cate
din
the
inla
ndar
eaof
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
(i.e
.,cl
oser
toth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
).T
his
isin
shar
pco
ntra
stto
the
sett
lem
ent
pat
tern
ofth
eM
oroi
so-a
subp
hase
,in
whi
chdw
elli
ngsi
tes
are
prim
arily
con
cent
rate
din
the
coas
tal
area
ofso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
.T
hus,
byth
etim
eof
the
Mor
oiso
-bsu
bpha
se,
ther
ew
asa
maj
orpo
pula
tion
shif
tfr
omth
eco
asta
lto
the
inla
ndar
eas
wit
hin
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
to.
Bec
ause
the
inla
ndar
eais
the
gate
way
from
the
coas
tal
area
toth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
,su
cha
popu
lati
onsh
ift
isco
nsis
tent
with
the
assu
mpt
ion
ofem
igra
tion
from
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
toto
the
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
on.
Sec
ond,
exam
inat
ion
oflit
hic
asse
mbl
age
chan
ges
thro
ugh
time
inth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
indi
cate
sth
at,
inth
isre
gion
,th
esh
ift
toth
e“M
iddl
eJo
mon
type
”of
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
(i.e
.,th
ose
char
acte
rize
dby
anab
unda
nce
ofch
ippe
dst
one
axes
)oc
curr
edas
earl
yas
the
Mor
oiso
-csu
bpha
se(t
hese
cond
toth
ela
stph
ase
ofth
eE
arly
Jom
onpe
riod
).N
one
ofth
edw
elli
ngsi
tes
from
the
Mor
oiso
-aan
dM
oroi
so-b
phas
esis
char
acte
rize
dby
anab
unda
nce
ofch
ippe
dst
one
axes
,bu
tth
eyar
eth
em
ost
abun
dant
type
ofst
one
tool
sin
four
out
ofth
eth
irte
endw
elli
ngsi
tes
from
the
Mor
oiso
-csu
bpha
se(F
1g.
3.3)
.T
his
isth
efi
rst
phas
ein
whi
chth
edo
min
ance
ofch
ippe
dst
one
axes
insi
teas
sem
blag
esca
nbe
obse
rved
inth
isre
gion
.A
sno
ted
abov
e,an
abun
danc
eof
chip
ped
ston
eax
esis
ofte
nco
nsid
ered
ach
arac
teri
stic
ofM
iddl
eJo
mon
sett
lem
ents
inth
isre
gion
(e.g
.,Fu
jimor
i19
50).
Man
yar
chae
olog
ists
sugg
est
that
this
refl
ects
the
impo
rtan
ceof
eith
erpl
ant
food
colle
ctin
gor
poss
ibly
plan
tcu
ltiva
tion
inth
esu
bsis
tenc
esy
stem
sof
the
Mid
dle
Jom
onpe
ople
inth
isre
gion
(Fuj
imor
i19
50,
1970
;O
yam
a19
27,
1934
;T
subo
i19
62).
Unl
ike
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
,w
here
envi
ronm
enta
lde
teri
ora
tion
inth
eco
asta
lar
eam
ayex
plai
nth
ech
ange
from
colle
ctin
gto
fora
ging
syst
ems,
nocl
ear
evid
ence
ofen
viro
nmen
tal
chan
gein
the
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
onha
sbe
enfo
und.
Inst
ead,
the
prev
ious
lyde
scri
bed
lines
ofev
iden
cein
dica
teth
epo
ssib
ility
ofpo
pula
tion
mig
ratio
nfr
omth
eso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
toth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
.If
this
wer
eth
eca
se,
the
mig
ratio
nw
ould
have
resu
lted
ina
sign
ific
ant
incr
ease
inpo
pula
tion
pres
sure
wit
hin
the
Chu
buM
ount
ain
regi
on.
Itis
quit
epo
ssib
leth
atth
ein
crea
sed
popu
lati
onpr
essu
reca
used
am
ajor
syst
emch
ange
,w
hich
resu
lted
inth
ebe
ginn
ing
ofth
e“M
iddl
eJo
mon
type
”of
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
char
acte
rize
dby
anab
unda
nce
ofch
ippe
dst
one
axes
.B
ecau
sebo
thth
epr
evio
usan
dth
ene
wsy
stem
sw
ere
coll
ecto
rsy
stem
s,th
esh
ift
may
have
initi
ally
seem
edin
sign
ific
ant.
Nev
erth
eles
s,fr
omth
epe
rspe
ctiv
eof
long
-ter
mde
velo
pmen
tw
ithin
the
Jom
oncu
lture
,th
esh
ift
was
criti
cal.
Tho
ugh
this
shif
tfi
rst
100 %
\J/\
--
Nis
hiba
yash
iA
(n=
80)
100 •h 5C
A /\
lUG
AN
NS
SC
AW
LC
AI
PAX
PBC
MIR
GA
ON
SAO
RN
0T
hL
iuoo
Too
l
Fig
ure
3.3.
Rel
ativ
efr
eque
ncie
sof
lith
icto
ols
per
cate
gory
inas
sem
blag
esfr
omfo
ursi
tes
(Onbir
,N
ishi
baya
shi,
Fun
tyas
hiki
,an
dT
akei
baya
shi)
inth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
.A
RH
:ar
row
head
s;SS
C:
stem
med
scra
pers
;A
WL
:aw
ls;
CA
X:
chip
ped
ston
eax
es;
PAX
:po
lish
edst
one
axes
;PB
L:pe
bble
tool
s;M
TR:
ston
em
orta
rs;
GR
D:
grin
ding
ston
es;
NSK
:ne
tsi
nker
s;O
RN
;or
nam
ents
;O
1’H
:ot
hers
.
occu
rred
inth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
atth
een
dof
the
Ear
lyJo
mon
peri
od,
byth
eM
iddl
eJo
mon
peri
od,
asi
mila
rsy
stem
was
adop
ted
byth
epe
ople
ofth
eso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
regi
on.
As
are
sult,
the
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
inso
uthw
este
rnK
anto
shif
ted
back
from
fora
ging
toco
llect
ing
syst
ems.
K.
Imam
ura’
s(1
992)
anal
ysis
isqu
ite
sugg
estiv
eof
the
natu
reof
the
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
char
acte
rize
dby
anab
unda
nce
ofch
ippe
dst
one
axes
.A
ccor
ding
tohi
san
alys
is,
Mid
dle
Jom
onsi
tes
asso
ciat
edw
itha
larg
enu
mbe
rof
chip
ped
ston
eax
esar
edi
stri
bute
don
lyin
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
toan
dC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
s.In
cont
rast
,M
iddl
eJo
mon
site
sin
the
nort
heas
tern
Kan
tore
gion
are
char
acte
rize
dby
anab
unda
nce
ofla
rge
stor
age
pits
.Im
amur
apo
ints
out
that
the
dist
ribu
tion
ofth
ese
two
type
sof
site
sis
mut
ually
excl
usiv
ean
dsu
gges
tsth
atth
ech
ippe
dst
one
axes
wer
eus
edto
Onb
ira
(n=
95)
H 50
\A
A0
AR
HS
SC
AW
LC
AX
PAX
PBL
UT
RG
RO
NSA
OR
N0T
HCA
Sio
Too
lA
SHS
SC
AW
LC
AX
PA
lPB
LU
TR
OR
GN
SAC
AN
0TH
LiI
h.o
Too
l
Fur
uyas
hiki
(n=
19)
Tak
eiba
yash
t(n
=58
)
ASH
SS
CA
WL
CA
lP
Al
PGL
UT
RG
RO
NSA
OR
N0T
HL
ithio
Too
l
66JU
NK
OH
AB
UI
JOM
ON
CO
LL
EC
TO
RS
AN
DF
OR
AG
ER
S67
colle
ctw
ildro
otcr
ops
such
asya
m(D
isco
rea
japonic
a),
whe
reas
stor
age
pits
wer
em
ore
clos
ely
rela
ted
toth
ehe
avy
relia
nce
onnu
tssu
chas
acor
nsan
dch
estn
uts.
Furt
her
stud
yis
hece
ssar
yto
iden
tify
the
type
(s)
ofst
aple
food
asso
ciat
edw
ithth
ese
two
type
sof
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems.
DIS
CU
SS
ION
The
anal
ysis
pres
ente
dab
ove
has
seve
ral
impl
icat
ions
for
stud
ying
long
-ter
mch
ange
sin
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
.Fi
rst,
the
resu
ltsin
dica
teth
atth
esh
ift
betw
een
colle
ctin
gst
rate
gies
and
fora
ging
stra
tegi
esm
ayha
veoc
curr
edfa
irly
freq
uent
ly.
Inpa
rtic
ular
,th
ear
chae
olog
ical
data
from
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
toin
dica
tes
that
the
shif
tfr
omco
llect
ing
stra
tegi
esto
fora
ging
stra
tegi
esth
roug
hth
eM
oroi
soph
ase
was
grad
ual
and
cont
inuo
us.
Thi
sco
rres
pond
sw
ell
with
Bin
ford
’s(1
980)
sugg
esti
onth
atfo
rage
ran
dco
lle
ctor
syst
ems
are
not
pola
rop
posi
tes
ofse
ttle
men
tsy
stem
sbu
tra
ther
are
agr
aded
seri
esfr
omsi
mpl
e(f
orag
er)
toco
mpl
ex(c
olle
ctor
).A
lso,
ifth
esh
ift
from
colle
ctin
gst
rate
gies
tofo
ragi
ngst
rate
gies
was
trig
gere
dby
ade
crea
sein
the
avai
labi
lity
ofsh
ellf
ish,
whi
chpr
obab
lyw
asno
tth
est
aple
food
ofth
eM
oroi
soph
ase
peop
le,
itim
plie
sth
atth
esh
ift
betw
een
colle
ctor
san
dfo
rag
ers
can
beca
used
byon
lya
min
orch
ange
inav
aila
ble
reso
urce
s,no
tnec
essa
rily
bym
ajor
envi
ronm
enta
lch
ange
s.In
othe
rw
ords
,hu
nter
-gat
here
rs’
deci
sion
-mak
ing
proc
esse
sfo
rth
eir
subs
iste
nce
stra
tegi
esm
aybe
extr
emel
yin
tric
ate;
am
inor
chan
gein
the
qual
ityan
d/or
quan
tity
ofav
aila
ble
reso
urce
sm
ayre
sult
infu
ndam
enta
lsy
stem
chan
ges.
Pre
viou
sst
udie
sha
veem
phas
ized
such
Jom
oncu
ltura
lch
arac
teri
stic
sas
the
pres
ence
ofla
rge
sett
lem
ents
and
food
stor
age,
both
ofw
hich
are
typi
cal
ofco
llect
ing
syst
ems.
How
ever
,gi
ven
the
evid
ence
ofsy
stem
fluid
itydi
scus
sed
abov
e,it
ispr
obab
leth
atth
eJo
mon
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
wer
equ
ite
flex
ible
and
incl
uded
vary
ing
com
bina
tion
sof
coll
ect
ing
and
fora
ging
stra
tegi
es.
Sim
ilar
vari
abili
tyin
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
sys
tem
sm
ayal
soha
vebe
enpr
esen
tam
ong
man
yot
her
preh
isto
ric
hunt
er-g
athe
rers
,w
hoha
dto
cope
wit
hco
nsta
ntly
chan
ging
envi
ronm
ents
.Se
cond
,th
eca
sest
udy
pres
ente
dhe
resu
gges
tsth
atre
gion
alin
tera
ctio
nsm
ayha
vepl
ayed
acr
itica
lro
lein
long
-ter
msy
stem
chan
ges
and
that
arch
aeol
ogic
alan
alys
esof
sett
lem
ent
patt
erns
atth
ein
terr
egio
nal
leve
lca
nre
veal
the
mec
hani
sms
ofth
ese
chan
ges
wit
hin
the
cont
ext
ofa
dyna
mic
cultu
ral
land
scap
e.B
ecau
seth
eco
reof
the
Bin
ford
’sm
odel
isec
olog
ical
,on
ete
nds
toth
ink
that
the
mod
elas
sum
esa
dire
ctre
lati
onsh
ipbe
twee
nre
sour
cedi
stri
buti
onan
dhu
nter
-gat
here
rsu
bsis
tenc
ean
dse
ttle
men
tor
gani
zati
on.
How
ever
,th
roug
hth
eca
sest
udy
pres
ente
dhe
re,
itis
clea
rth
athu
nter
-gat
here
rsy
stem
sdo
not
exis
tin
acu
ltura
lva
cuum
and
that
inte
ract
ions
betw
een
regi
onal
syst
ems
can
bean
impo
rtan
tfa
ctor
indet
erm
inin
gth
eco
urse
oflo
ng-t
erm
syst
emch
ange
s.T
his
impl
ies
that
we
may
need
tore
eval
uate
the
scal
eof
regi
onal
sett
lem
ent
patt
ern
anal
ysis
inar
chae
olog
ical
stud
ies.
Sinc
eW
illey
’s(1
953)
pion
eeri
ngV
imV
alle
ypr
ojec
t,nu
mer
ous
stud
ies
ofre
gion
alse
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nsha
vebe
enpu
blis
hed.
Inm
any
case
s,ho
wev
er,
regi
onal
sett
lem
ent
patt
ern
anal
yses
are
base
don
the
resu
ltsof
surv
eys
cond
ucte
dat
the
“loc
al”
leve
l,fo
rex
ampl
e,w
ithi
na
sin
gle
valle
yor
rive
rdr
aina
geba
sin
(e.g
.,A
dam
s19
65;
Sand
ers
etal
.19
79;
Wil
eyet
al.
1965
).T
he
case
stud
ypr
esen
ted
here
clea
rly
dem
onst
rate
sth
ere
sear
chpo
tent
ial
ofse
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nan
alys
isat
the
inte
rreg
iona
lle
vel.
Fina
lly,
the
prev
ious
expl
anat
ion
for
the
deve
lopm
ent
ofth
e“M
iddl
eJo
mon
type
”sy
stem
spr
ovid
esin
sigh
tsin
the
light
ofpr
evio
usdi
scus
sion
son
the
evol
utio
nof
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
sede
ntis
man
dcu
ltura
lco
mpl
exity
.Fo
rex
ampl
e,se
vera
lre
sear
cher
sha
vesu
gges
ted
popu
lati
onpr
essu
re(i
.e.,
nece
ssity
)as
am
ajor
cond
itio
nfo
r,or
caus
eof
,th
ede
velo
pmen
tof
hunt
er-
gath
erer
sede
ntis
man
dcu
ltura
lco
mpl
exit
y(e
.g.,
Coh
en19
81),
whe
reas
othe
rsha
vesu
gges
ted
that
reso
urce
abun
danc
e(i
.e.,
oppo
rtun
ity)
was
am
ore
criti
cal
fact
or(e
.g.,
Hay
den
1995
)(f
ordi
scus
sion
son
oppo
rtun
ity
vs.
nece
ssity
,se
eal
soC
anno
n19
98;
Yes
ner
1987
).A
ssum
ing
that
the
“Mid
dle
Jom
onty
pe”
syst
ems,
whi
char
ech
arac
teri
zed
byan
abun
danc
eof
chip
ped
ston
eax
esan
dla
rge
sett
lem
ents
,ar
ehi
ghly
logi
stic
ally
orga
nize
dsy
stem
s,th
epr
esen
tst
udy
can
beus
edas
anex
ampl
eto
supp
ort
the
popu
lati
onpr
essu
reth
eory
.H
owev
er,
supp
orte
rsof
this
theo
ryty
pica
llyas
sum
eth
atth
epo
pula
tion
pres
sure
incr
ease
sna
tura
lly
(i.e
.,w
ith
nosp
ecif
icca
uses
orco
nditi
ons)
,an
dth
eyte
ndto
inte
rpre
tth
epr
oces
sof
the
deve
lopm
ent
inte
rms
ofa
gene
ral
mod
el.
The
anal
ysis
pres
ente
dhe
re,
onth
eot
her
hand
,de
scri
bes
aca
sein
whi
chpo
pula
tion
incr
ease
and
resu
ltin
gsy
stem
chan
ges
inon
ere
gion
was
aco
nseq
uenc
eof
popu
lati
onm
igra
tion
caus
edby
sys
tem
chan
ges
inan
adja
cent
regi
on.
Inth
isre
gard
,th
epr
esen
tst
udy
sug
gest
sth
atth
ede
velo
pmen
tof
the
“Mid
dle
Jom
onty
pe”
syst
ems
was
ahi
stor
ical
lyun
ique
even
t.
CO
NC
LU
DIN
GR
EM
AR
KS
Thi
sch
apte
rpr
esen
ted
aca
sest
udy
oflo
ng-t
erm
sett
lem
ent
patt
ern
chan
ges
inw
hich
ash
ift
from
coll
ecto
rsto
fora
gers
inon
ere
gion
(so
uth
wes
tern
Kan
to)
trig
gere
da
syst
emch
ange
inan
othe
rre
gion
(Chu
buM
ount
ain)
.A
sa
resu
ltof
this
syst
emch
ange
,th
e“M
iddl
ejo
mon
type
”of
subs
iste
nce-
sett
lem
ent
syst
ems
deve
lope
dfi
rst
inth
eC
hubu
Mou
ntai
nre
gion
and
wer
eth
enad
opte
din
the
sout
hwes
tern
Kan
tore
gion
.T
hese
new
syst
ems
wer
ech
arac
teri
zed
byan
abun
danc
eof
chip
ped
ston
eax
es,
68JI
]NK
OH
AB
UJO
MO
NC
OL
LE
CT
OR
SA
ND
FO
RA
GE
RS
69
whi
chsu
gges
tsso
me
kind
ofsu
bsis
tenc
ein
tens
ific
atio
n,po
ssib
lyin
tens
ive
coll
ecti
ngof
wil
dro
otcr
ops,
and
also
byth
epr
esen
ceof
extr
emel
yla
rge
sett
lem
ents
and
high
site
dens
ity.
The
sech
arac
teri
stic
sin
dica
teth
atth
esy
ste
ms
wer
ehi
ghly
logi
stic
ally
orga
nize
dco
llec
tor
syst
ems,
even
thou
ghde
tail
edse
ttle
men
tpa
tter
nan
alys
esfr
omth
ispe
riod
have
yet
tobe
con
duct
ed.
The
com
bina
tion
ofen
viro
nmen
tal
fact
ors
and
popu
lati
onpr
essu
rew
assu
gges
ted
asth
eca
use
for
the
deve
lopm
ent
ofth
isne
wsy
stem
.It
shou
ldbe
note
dth
at,
unli
kepr
ehis
tori
chu
nter
-gat
here
rcu
ltues
inC
alif
orni
a(e
.g.,
Arn
old
1992
,19
95)
and
the
Nor
thw
est
Coa
stof
Nor
thA
mer
ica
(e.g
.,A
mes
1995
;A
mes
and
Mas
chne
r19
99;
Mat
son
and
Cou
plan
d19
95),
curr
entl
yav
aila
ble
data
from
the
Mid
dle
Jom
onpe
riod
inth
eK
anto
and
Chu
bure
gion
sla
ckcl
ear
evid
ence
ofso
cial
stra
tifi
cati
on.
Acc
ordi
ngly
,ev
enth
ough
the
Mid
dle
Jom
oncu
ltur
esh
ares
anu
mbe
rof
char
acte
rist
ics
wit
hso
-cal
led
“com
plex
”hu
nter
-gat
here
rs,
itm
ayno
tbe
“com
plex
”in
ast
rict
sens
eif
we
take
the
posi
tion
that
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
cult
ural
com
plex
ity
shou
ldbe
defi
ned
onth
eba
sis
ofth
epr
esen
ceof
here
dita
ryso
cial
ineq
ual
ity(e
.g.,
Arn
old
1996
;se
eal
soH
ayde
n19
95).
Nev
erth
eles
s,th
eM
iddl
eJo
mon
cult
ure
isch
arac
teri
zed
bylo
gist
ical
lyor
gani
zed
coll
ecto
rsy
stem
s,an
dal
soby
soph
isti
cate
dm
ater
ial
cult
ure,
larg
ece
rem
onia
lfe
atur
es,
and
long
-dis
tanc
etr
ade.
Inth
isre
gard
,sy
stem
atic
exam
inat
ion
ofth
eca
uses
and
cons
eque
nces
ofth
ede
velo
pmen
tof
this
uniq
uecu
ltur
ew
illhe
lpan
swer
anu
mbe
rof
gene
ral
ques
tion
sre
gard
ing
the
long
-ter
mdev
elop
men
tof
hunt
er-g
athe
rer
cult
ural
com
plex
ity
ina
dyna
mic
land
scap
e.
AC
KN
OW
LE
DG
ME
NT
S
Ith
ank
Ken
neth
M.
Am
es,
Ben
fitz
hugh
,an
dJa
mes
M.
Save
lle,
all
ofw
hom
read
earl
ier
draf
tsof
this
pape
ran
dga
vem
ein
valu
able
com
men
tsan
dsu
gges
tion
s.T
hepa
per
also
bene
fite
dgr
eatl
yfr
omth
eco
mm
ents
ofT.
Dou
glas
Pri
cean
dot
her
part
icip
ants
ofth
e“B
eyon
dF
orag
ing
and
Col
lect
ing”
sym
posi
umat
the
2000
SAA
mee
ting
.R
awda
taw
ere
obta
ined
prin
cipa
lly
thro
ugh
libr
ary
rese
arch
atth
eN
ara
Nat
iona
lC
ultu
ral
Pro
pert
ies
Res
earc
hIn
stit
ute,
the
Arc
haeo
logy
Mus
eum
ofM
eiji
Uni
vers
ity,
and
the
Dep
artm
ent
ofA
rcha
eolo
gyof
the
Uni
vers
ity
ofT
okyo
.fu
ndin
gfo
rth
eda
taco
llec
tion
was
prov
ided
thro
ugh
the
Soci
alS
cien
ces
Res
earc
hC
omm
itte
eof
McG
illU
nive
rsity
.I
exte
ndm
ygr
atit
ude
toth
ese
orga
niza
tion
s.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Aik
ens,
C.
M.,
1981
,T
heL
ast
10,0
00Y
ears
inJa
pan
and
Eas
tern
Nor
thA
mer
ica:
Par
alle
lsin
Env
iron
men
t,E
cono
mic
Ada
ptat
ion,
Gro
wth
ofSo
cial
Com
plex
ity,
and
the
Ado
ptio
nof
Agr
icul
ture
.In
AJj
?uen
tfo
rag
ers:
Pacic
Coa
sts
Eas
tan
dW
est,
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edby
S.K
oyam
aan
dD
.H
.T
hom
as,
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273.
Senr
iE
thno
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cal
Stu
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o.9,
Nat
iona
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Eth
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fflu
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Col
lect
ors
atth
eE
dges
ofE
uras
iaan
dN
orth
Am
eric
a:S
ome
Com
pari
sons
and
Obs
erva
tion
son
the
Evo
luti
onof
Soc
iety
amon
gN
orth
-Tem
pera
teC
oast
alH
unte
r-G
athe
rers
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Pre
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oric
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ter-
Gat
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aral
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rcha
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anan
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este
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Am
eric
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niM
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Jom
on
Tei
juS
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aish
u-m
inS
ekai
Uom
onS
eden
tary
Hun
ter-
Gat
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Sou
ther
nK
yush
ul.
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anK
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ou
nd
atio
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lin
equa
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The
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athe
rer
Set
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Sys
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dA
rcha
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gica
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rcti
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anto
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y,P
ens.
Bur
eau
ofA
mer
ican
Eth
nolo
gy,
Bul
leti
n15
5,S
mit
hson
ian
tnst
itut
ion,
Was
hing
ton
DC
.W
iltey
,G
.R
.,B
ulla
rd,
W.
R.,
Gla
ss,
J.B
.,an
dG
iffo
rd,
J.C
.,19
65,
Pre
hist
oric
May
aSe
ttl&
men
tsin
the
Bel
ize
Val
ley.
Pap
ers
ofth
eP
eabo
dyM
useu
mof
Arc
haeo
logy
and
Eth
nolo
gy,
Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity,
54,
Cam
brid
ge,
MA
.Y
esne
r,D
.R
.,19
87,
Lif
ein
the
“Gar
den
ofE
den.
”In
food
and
Evo
luti
on,
edit
edby
M.
Har
ris
and
E.B
.R
oss,
pp.
285—
310.
Tem
ple
Uni
vers
ity
Pre
ss,
Phi
lade
lphi
a.
