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Chapter 12 – Motivation and Emotion Section 1: Theories of Motivation Section 2: Biological and Social Motives Section 3: Emotions

Section 1: Theories of Motivation1. Introduction

a. Although all psychology is concerned with what people do and how they do it, research on motivation and emotion focuses on the underlying why of behavior.

b. ___________________ (an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal) includes the various psychological and physiological factors that cause us to act a certain way at a certain time.

c. Because motivation cannot be observed directly, psychologists, like the rest of us, infer motivation from ________________________________.

d. Behavior is usually energized by many motives that may originate outside or inside of us. e. Psychologists explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways.f. We will discuss instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and cognitive theories of motivation.

2. Instinct Theorya. In the 1900s, psychologist William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were motivated by a variety

of instincts.b. ________________ are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to

certain environmental stimuli without involving reason. These are innate tendencies that determine behavior

3. Drive-Reduction Theorya. Something that motivates us moves us to action.b. That “something” that motivates us starts with a need and leads to a drive.c. A __________ results from a lack of something desirable or useful. It is a biological or psychological

requirement of an organism. We have both physiological and psychological needs.d. A need produces a drive.e. A ______________is an internal condition that can change over time and orients an individual toward a

specific goal or goals. It is a state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism toward a goal.

f. We have different drives with different goals.g. Drive-reduction theory emerged from experimental psychologist Clark Hull, who traced motivation back

to basic physiological needs.h. Thus, biological needs drive an organism to act. i. _______________________ is the tendency of the body to return to or maintain a balanced state.j. If a behavior reduces the drive, the organism will begin to acquire a habit.k. In short, drive-reduction theory states that physiological needs drive an organism to act in either

random or habitual ways until its needs are satisfied (until the organism returns to a preset optimal state).

l. Hull suggested that all human motives–from the desire to acquire property to striving for excellence and seeking affection or amusement–are extensions of basic biological needs.

m. The results of subsequent experiments suggested, however, that Hull had overlooked some of the more important factors in human–and animal–motivation.

n. Some drive theorists overlooked the fact that some experiences (such as hugging something or someone soft) are inherently pleasurable.

o. Many psychologists concluded that there could be no general theory of motivation of the type Hull suggested.

4. Incentive Theorya. The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the

incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.b. An ___________________ is the object we seek or the result we are trying to achieve through our

motivated behavior. It is an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior5. Cognitive Theory

a. Cognitive psychologists seek to explain motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.

b. They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.

c. __________________________ refers to engaging in activities to reduce biological needs or obtain incentives or external rewards.

d. __________________________ refers to engaging in activities because those activities are personally rewarding or because engaging in them fulfills our beliefs or expectations.

e. In many instances, you engage in an activity because of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.f. If you are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, do you perform more effectively or

persistently at a task?g. Psychologists have proposed the ______________________________ – when people are given more

extrinsic motivation than necessary to perform a task, their intrinsic motivation declines. Section 2: Biological and Social Motives

1. Introductiona. Eating serves both biological and psychological (social) needs.b. People spend much of their lives trying to satisfy biological and social needs.c. We choose what, how much, and when to eat because of both biological and social factors.d. Why is it, though, that some people seem more motivated than others when it comes to achieving

something, such as a win in basketball or success at a job?e. Social needs, such as achievement, also influence our lives.

2. Biological Motivesa. Some behavior is determined by the internal, or physiological, state of the organism.b. All organisms, including humans, have built-in regulating systems that work like thermostats to maintain

such internal processes as body temperature, the level of sugar in the blood, and the production of hormones.

c. The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state is known as __________________________.

3. Hungera. Your body requires food to grow, to repair itself, and to store reserves.b. To what is it responding? c. If the portion of the hypothalamus called the _____________________________ (the part of the

hypothalamus that produces hunger signals) is stimulated with electrodes, a laboratory animal will begin eating, even if it has just finished a large meal.

d. If the ______________________________________________ (the part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating) is stimulated, an animal will slow down or stop eating altogether, even if it has been kept from food for a long period.

e. This indicates that the VMH provides the “stop” signals: it tells you when you have had enough food.f. Other factors also influence your hunger:

i. The _________________________ suggests that the hypothalamus monitors the amount of glucose, or ready energy, available in the blood.

ii. Another factor affecting eating is the _______________ – the weight around which your day-to-day weight tends to fluctuate.

iii. The hypothalamus “interprets” at least three kinds of information: the amount of glucose entering the cells of your body, your set-point, and your body temperature.

g. Hunger–Other Factorsi. Besides the biological motives, other factors may be at work when you feel hungry or eat.

ii. ______________________ factors have a huge impact on our eating habits and sometimes contribute to eating disorders, such as binge eating, eating when depressed, or not eating enough.

4. Obesitya. There is a growing body of evidence that a person’s weight is controlled by biological factors.b. Stanley Schachter (1971) and his colleagues at Columbia University conducted studies that show that

obese people respond to external cues.c. Obese people eat not because they are hungry, but because they see something good to eat or their

watches tell them it is time to eat.d. Schachter argued that overweight people respond to external cues, while normal-weight people

respond to internal cues. e. His work shows that, for people, even physiological needs like hunger are influenced by complex factors.

5. Percentage of Overweight Americans

a.6. Social Motives

a. Many psychologists have concentrated their research on social motives rather than on the unlearned, biological motives we have been discussing.

b. Social motives are learned from our interactions with other people.7. Measuring the Need for Achievement

a. The _____________________________ concerns the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in trying to reach those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks.

b. Researcher David McClelland’s main tool for measuring achievement motivation was the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

c. Critics have claimed that using McClelland’s TAT is not a reliable method of testing the need for achievement.

d. Fear of Failurei. While some people are motivated by a need for achievement, others may be motivated by a

fear of failure.ii. How does the fear of failure differ from the need for achievement?

iii. People display fear of failure when they choose _________________________________ in which failure is unlikely or difficult.

e. Fear of Successi. Matina Horner identified another dimension of achievement motivation – the

________________________________________ii. Horner discovered that bright women, who had a very real chance of achieving in their chosen

fields, exhibited a stronger fear of success than did women who were average or slightly above average.

iii. Fear of success is found in both men and women.f. Your Performance

i.g. Other Theories

i. J.W. Atkinson developed an ________________________ theory to explain goal-directed behavior.

ii. ______________________ is your estimated likelihood of success, and ______________ is simply what the goal is worth to you.

iii. Others have argued instead for a _________________________ theory; too easy a task or too difficult a task means we do not learn anything about how competent we are.

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needsa. Abraham Maslow believed that all human beings need to feel competent, to win approval and

recognition, and to sense that they have achieved something.b. He placed achievement motivation in the context of a hierarchy of needs all people share.

c. Maslow’s scheme incorporates all the factors we have discussed so far in this chapter and goes a step further.

d.e. Maslow asserted that people have to satisfy _________________________ (biological drives that must

be satisfied to maintain life) to live.f. The second level in Maslow’s hierarchy consists of _______________________________: the need to

belong and to give and receive love, and the need to acquire esteem through competence and achievement.

g. ______________________________ (the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential) are at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy.

h. These may include the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential.

i. Other research does not support Maslow’s conclusion that one need must be satisfied before another can be (Liebert & Spiegler, 1994).

j. Also, some people do not seem interested in fulfilling higher needs.k. These researchers are suggesting that perhaps Maslow identified types of needs that may operate in all

of us, but there is ___________________________ that the needs must be satisfied in order.

Section 3: Emotions1. Introduction

a. It is difficult to draw a clear line between ________________ and __________________.b. When we want to emphasize the needs, desires, and mental calculations that lead to goal-directed

behavior, we use the word “drive” or “motivation.”c. When we want to stress the feelings associated with these decisions and activities, we use the word

“emotion” or “affect.”d. Sometimes emotions function like biological drives: Our feelings energize us and make us pursue a goal. e. Anticipated emotions are the incentive for our actions.f. Emotions help us make decisions and communicate what is going on inside of us.

g. ____________________________________ is the ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in decision making.

h. Our emotional intelligence helps us gauge the situation and determine an _____________________________

2. The Range of Emotions

a.3. Expressing Emotions

a. An ______________________ is a subjective feeling provoked by real or imagined objects or events that have high significance to the individual. It is a set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior

b. Emotions result from four occurrences:i. you must __________________ some stimulus

ii. you have a ___________________, such as fear or happinessiii. you experience _____________________________________, such as an increased heart rateiv. you display an __________________________________, such as smiling or crying (Platnick,

1999)c. All emotions have three parts:

i. The __________________ aspect has to do with how the emotion affects the physical arousal of an individual.

ii. The _________________________ part is the outward expression of the emotion such as body language, hand gestures, and the tone of a person’s voice.

iii. The ___________________________ aspect concerns how we think or interpret a situation, which affects our emotions.

d. In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), Charles Darwin argued that all people express certain basic feelings in the same ways.

e. Studies have implied that certain basic facial expressions are __________________ – that is, part of our biological inheritance.

f. Psychologist Carroll Izard and his colleagues (Trotter, 1983) developed a coding system for assessing emotional states in people.

g. Another psychologist (Russell, 1994) concluded that there are ____________________________ facial expressions of emotions.

h. James Averill (1983) believes that many of our everyday emotional reactions are the result of social expectations and consequences.

i. We learn to express and experience emotions in the company of other people, and we learn that emotions can serve different _______________________________.

j. Learning explains the differences we find among cultures once we go beyond such basic expressions as laughing or crying.

k. Children are taught–either directly or indirectly–which emotions are appropriate in certain circumstances.

l. All of us are born with the capacity for emotion and with certain basic forms of expression, but when, where, and how we express different feelings depend in large part on learning.

m. Analyzing facial expressions helps us to describe emotions, but it does not tell us where emotions come from.

n. Some psychologists believe emotions derive from physical changes, while others believe that emotions result from mental processes.

4. Threatening Elementsa. When people from various cultures were asked to identify the threatening shapes in each pair, they

consistently selected the triangular and diagonal elements.

b.5. Physiological Theories

a. Trying to figure out the cognitive, behavioral, and physical parts of emotions has led to several theories of emotions.

b. In Principles of Psychology, a classic work published in 1890, William James attempted to summarize the best available literature on human behavior, motivations, and feelings.

c. We associate feelings with sudden increases or decreases in energy, muscle tension and relaxation, and sensations in the pits of our stomachs.

d. The James-Lange Theoryi. James concluded that we use the word “emotion” to describe our visceral or “gut” reactions to

the things that take place around us.ii. James argued that bodily reactions form the basis of labeling and experiencing emotions.

iii. Because Carl Lange came to the same conclusion at about the same time, this position is known as the James-Lange theory (Lange & James, 1922).

iv. Carroll Izard’s (1972) theory of emotions bears a striking resemblance to the James-Lange theory.

v. He believed that our conscious experience of emotion results from the sensory feedback we receive from the muscles in our faces.

vi. Critics of the James-Lange theory claim that different emotions such as anger, sadness, or fear are not necessarily associated with different physiological reactions.

vii. Although physiological changes do not cause emotions, they may increase the intensity of the emotions that we feel.

e. The Cannon-Bard Theoryi. In 1929 Walter B. Cannon published a summary of the evidence against the James-Lange theory.

ii. Cannon argued that the thalamus (part of the lower brain) is the seat of emotion–an idea Philip Bard (1934) expanded and refined.

iii. This theory states that the brain sends two reactions–arousal and experience of emotion. iv. Later, more sophisticated experiments showed that the thalamus is not involved in emotional

experience, but the _____________________________ is.v. Cannon was the first to describe the “______________________” reaction of the sympathetic

nervous system that prepares us for an emergency.vi. Some of the signs of physiological arousal are measured in one of the most famous applications

of psychological knowledge: ________________________.6. Cognitive Theories

a. Cognitive theorists believe that bodily changes and thinking work together to produce emotions. b. What you feel depends on how you interpret your symptoms.c. This, in turn, depends on labeling the physical arousal with an emotion to interpret our internal state.d. The Schachter-Singer Experiment

i. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer designed an experiment to explore this theory (1962).ii. They told all their participants they were testing the effects of vitamin C on eyesight.

iii. In reality, most received an adrenaline injection. iv. Their experiment showed that internal components of emotion (such as those adrenaline

produces) affect a person differently depending on his or her interpretation or perception of the social situation.

v. The experiment also showed that internal changes are important.vi. When people cannot explain their physical reactions, they take cues from their environment.

vii. Perception and arousal _________________ to create emotions.viii. Critics of this theory point out that you do not need to first experience physiological arousal to

feel an emotion.ix. Critics also say that you use processes other than environmental cues to interpret your

emotions. 7. Theories of Emotion

a. Opponent-Process Theoryi. Physiological processes clearly are controlled by homeostatic mechanisms that keep the body

within certain narrow limits.

ii. The body has sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.iii. The _____________________ system energizes the body for activity, while the

__________________________________ system calms and relaxes the body.iv. The opponent-process theory states that these two systems act in concert to regulate and

manipulate our emotions.v. Psychologists Richard Solomon and John Corbit (1974) proposed the opponent-process theory.

vi. This is a homeostatic theory of emotional reactions based on classical conditioning.vii. They proposed that the removal of a stimulus that excites one emotion causes a swing to an

opposite emotion. viii. Other emotion researchers believe that emotion may play an important role in our survival as

human beings and in our ability to achieve goals, precisely because it spurs us to action.ix. Emotions and physical changes are intertwined.

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