1

Literature Meaning and Scope

Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man

Francis Bacon

1. What is literature?

Literally translated, the word literaturemeans "acquaintance with letters",knowing letters or being familiar with letters. By letters we mean, words,because letters make words and words make sentences and sentences make paragraphs and thus, we get pages and pages of written work, called literature.

1.1 Literature as a fine art:

Just like music, dance, calligraphy, painting, sculpturing, embroidery and a host of other skills in arts and crafts, literature too is, essentially a fine art. And this is because literature entails a skill and talent to judiciously select and use words in a fine and pleasing way. As the function of all fine arts is to provide pleasure and entertainment to the beholder or listeners, so is the objective of literature. Literature provides aesthetic pleasure to the readers through words, by placing words in their best order; to describe scenes in nature to talk about feelings and passions and our life experiences in short to say what everyone feels but fails to say the way a writer is able to put it. When we hear a song or read a poem or any other work of prose or fiction, spontaneously, we say, yes, that is exactly the way I felt, but never could express it that way. That is because; this is exactly and exclusively, the domain and province of literature. To say what was often felt but never said so well.

Everybody uses words, both is speech and writing but the way a writer uses words, as the Bible says, the pen of a readywriter (Psalms 45:1) a writer uses words like a painter uses brushes to

A Study Guide to Literature Page 1

capture the imagination of the viewer with a portrayal through colors and shades. A writer captivates the thought and imagination of a reader or listener, through his expression that he / she creates with the choice of words he makes and a fine touch of syntax and composition.

1.2 Literature and Creativity

All fine art also entails creativity, and so does a work of literature or creative writing. Writers or poets, as Aristotle in his defense of poetry and literature says, are creators and thus share a noble and divine characteristic (creativity) with God / gods who are the creator(s) and thus must be respected and admired for their creative work. Creativity means, making something out of nothing, and God / gods have this divine prerogative (Bible, Psalm 33:6) to create, likewise, poets and writer create a work of literature from their own intellect and imagination. Hence, we conclude that literature is a fine art but unlike many other fine arts, it has an educational and edifying function along with its artistic value and the aesthetic pleasure it provides.

Interestingly, the parallel term for literature in French is belles letters, (beautiful words) certainly a befitting designation for literature as, literature is all about words; beautiful words in a beautiful order, rendering a soothing pleasure to the mind and soul of the reader.

1.3 What makes a piece of writing, literature?

Literature(from Latin littera, litterae (plural);letter)

Since everything written is made up of letters, and as we have seen above that letters are the units that make words and words in turn make sentences, then the question is, can we say that everything written is assumedly, literature? Well, the answer is, not really so. What qualifies a piece of writing or a work of an author as literature is far more than just all the words on a page or even in a whole book. Newspapers are also “all words” on wide sheets of paper, but a newspaper would hardly qualify to be even close to a wok of literature. Unless, it has a short literary piece or extract in some specially allocated space for such a text. Biology, Geography and Chemistry and myriads of science books are all made up of words but they cannot be called literature just because they are essentially made up of words.

When we purchase a gadget like an I Phone or a camera or a home appliance like microwave oven, a DVD player, a washing machine or an iron; we get a small booklet that goes with it, explaining how to use and operate the appliance or the gadget. This too is called literature of that particular machine. But again this is not to be confused with the term literature in its very strict meaning and scope, referring to a work of creative writing. So, what is literature then?

Literature is the art of written works that have the following four essential qualities:

1. a definite style of writing2. entertaining quality3. universality4. lasting value

Now let us look at each of these qualities exclusively.

A Study Guide to Literature Page 2

1. A Definite Style of Writing:

A famous writer once said, “style is the man”. What he meant by this rather strange sounding phrase is that every person has his/ her own style and this distinct style defines that person. Just like an actor has his own particular style that makes him unique in his own right and just like an artist or a singer has his / her own particular style and expression, likewise a writer, an author has his own distinct style of writing. Two different writers may have seen or experienced the same thing but the way they would describe or narrate it may very well be different from each other. Because each one of them will tell it in his own way and in his own style. The way each of these writers will set out to describe the same event or experience will depend on:

a. the choice of words (vocabulary) syntax (structure and length of sentences, phrases etc.) b. use of idiomatic language or figurative devices (similes, metaphors, personification etc.) c. the overall tone of language (humorous, ironical, thoughtful , serious, reflective, depressing

etc.) d. point of view (from what angle a writer views an experience or an event, or the approach

he / she takes to describe it)

Just like a teacher has his / her own style of teaching, a writer has his own style of writing. Some writers are more popular than others just because their style of writing appeals to more readers than others. Writers like Earnest Hemingway and Thomas Hardy have a huge following and readership despite the fact that they depict a very pessimistic, nihilistic and negative worldview in their writings. But they have their own style and it is appreciated by millions of readers worldwide. Charles Dickens, one of the most read English authors, has a fine blend of humor and somberness in his writings. And Shakespeare, the undisputed master of literature uses very difficult words and unfamiliar terms, expressions and phrases and he also has a very difficult style of writing but still Shakespeare is by far the most read and esteemed writer in history of literature.

2. Entertaining Quality

Entertaining, from the word “entertainment” something affording pleasure or delight

By entertaining quality we do NOT mean ONLY something that provides an occasion for fun, laughter and amusement. In context of literature, entertaining quality has the capacity, both for fun and laughter and for discussing serious matters of life that arouse feelings of fear, pity and sorrow. This quality of arousing the so-called negative emotions in the reader or the viewer, is called, catharsis. The whole idea of catharsis is to provide us a change in our mood, be it one of amusement in the sense of fun and laughter (comedy) or in the sense of pity, fear and sorrow (tragedy) Catharsis is often associated with tragedy, but a good cry is also a good way to feel emotionally cleansed. For example, reading or watching a tragedy like Romeo and Juliet also provides us with an occasion to lighten our emotions, though it culminates at a very tragic turn of events, that is the death of both Romeo and Juliet. It’s just like listening to sad song when we are already very depressed and dejected. In this situation, even a sad song provides us with pleasure and relief by soothing our grief-stricken feelings, with its sad words (lyrics) and sad music.

Our sweetest songs are those that our saddest songs

A Study Guide to Literature Page 3

Hence in literature, the entertaining quality does not simply refer to a comic relief but also to the catharsis of emotions by first arousing them to a certain height and then in the end, purging us of those heightened and overcharged emotions. This may be termed as sort of homeopathic approach to dealing with gloomy and depressive situations and moods.

Thus, the entertaining quality in literature in both genres (tragedy or comedy), does have the capability to provide us pleasure, be that of happiness or sorrowfulness. When we miss someone or something important in our life, a sad song provides us relief by giving went to our nostalgic feelings that we wanted to pour out in words, but could not. A song with its sad lyrics says it all for us,along with the calming and soothing tune and the musical composition that provides us the healing touch we desperately needed.

3. Universality (True to Life)

By universality of literature or literature being universal in its nature, we mean that literature must be able to encompass themes and subjects related to human life and human experience that are by and large true about every human being everywhere in the world. That is to say, that literature must talk about the things that all human beings go through in their lives everywhere in the world, whether it is the modern and developed western civilization; the traditional and conservative Middle East or the ancient tribes of Amazon and Africa. Human beings everywhere go through similar stages and experiences throughout their life time. We are born; we learn how to walk and how to talk, we pass through various stages of childhood; from child hood we step into teenage, then from teenage to adult hood and finally reach the old age and then ultimately, face the absolute reality – death. Through all these ages and stages of life we go through all the rites of passage and live the cycle of life as all the people everywhere in the world do. The only thing that separates human beings is their culture and traditions and religion in certain ways. But as far as the essential experiences of life go, we all pass through similar shades and colors and ups and down of life. We all experience friendship in childhood and youth, love affairs, loss of someone in the family, betrayal of friends, spirituality, revenge, ambition, parenthood, shattered dreams, challenges, trials and tribulations of life , and a host of other things that we all go through in the journey of our life. No one can deny these phases and facets of life, as; after all, this is the stuff what life is made up of. These are the universals of life and theses are also the themes of literature that the writers and poets discuss in their writing so elegantly and eloquently, that they seem to us our own voice.

4. Lasting Value

By lasting value we mean that the worth of a literary work must be valued and esteemed not only for a very short and brief period of time but it must stand the test of time over years of appreciation, evaluation and criticism. Shakespeare plays were written in the 17th century, but their value and worth has not been diminished even in this age of super-fast cyber-technology. Shakespeare plays as Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet are not only performed on stage all over the world but are also read both in paraphrased versions and in their original Shakespearean language.

The Bible, although a religious book of Christians and *Jews (The Old Testament) is not just revered as a sacred text but is also esteemed for its magnificent literary style and the grandeur of language.

A Study Guide to Literature Page 4

Charles Dickens’ novels like, Tale of Two Cities, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, and many other of his literary works, stand towering among the evergreen masterpieces of literary world.

Among numerous other great works of literature that claim a lasting value, a few to mention are, Moby Dick, Divine Comedy, Dr. Faustus, The Canterbury Tales, My Fair lady, Paradise Lost and numerous other great works in literature.

A good work of literature qualifies the norm:

A thing of beauty is a joy foreverIts loveliness increases; it will never

Pass into nothingness

(John Keats)

1. Definitions of Literature:

1. The body of written works of a language, period, or culture.2. The body of written work produced by scholars or researchers in a given field3. Imaginative or creative writing, especially of recognized artistic value

The two most basic divisions of literature are fiction and non-fiction.

Fiction is any form of narrative which deals, in part or in whole, with events that are not based on facts or real life, but rather, imaginary and invented by its author(s). Although fiction often describes a major branch of literary work, it is also applied to theatre, cinema, and music (lyrics).

In contrast to this, non-fiction, deals with real people and real events, e.g.: biography, history, newspaper stories, science and any other subject of studies that is based on facts and plain truth. These may have a touch of fiction to bestow a quality of literary value but essentially it must be based on crude facts and realty.

Once a work of literature bears the seal of the first three essential qualities stated above, the fourth is likely to fall in place. By lasting quality we mean that it must survive the test of time. Like Shakespeare’s plays, that were written about five hundred years before, still are read and performed round the world. They are like old wines, the older they get the better they be. Works of Shakespeare, John Keats, PB Shelley, Lord Byron, John Milton, Dante, William Wordsworth and of many more, have survived the test of time and tide and continue to charm and captivate the readers’ imaginations to this day. The works of literature that never lose charm and charisma over the years become classics and are valued and venerate for their sheer appeal and merit everywhere in the world.

3. Writing Forms in Literature

A work of literature may be written either in prose or in verse. By prose we mean writing in sentences whereas writing in verse means writing in lines, like a song, mostly words that rhyme with each other at the end of the lines, e.g.,

A Study Guide to Literature Page 5

Woods are green, dark and deep. But I have some promises to keep,

Miles before I go to sleep and miles before I g to sleep

(Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Eve, Robert Frost)

Day after day, day after day, We stuck, nor breath nor motion;As idle as a painted ship, Upon a painted ocean.

Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink;Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink.

(The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner, ST Coleridge)

Prose

***********************************

***********************************

**************************

***********************************

***********************************

***********************************

***********************************

************

***********************************

***********************************

Poetry

********************

********************

********************

********************

********************

********************

********************

********************

A Study Guide to Literature Page 6

*********************************

2.1 Prose is the most common form of written language, making use of ordinary grammatical structure, syntax and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry). Prose is commonly used in literature, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, text books, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and many other forms of communication. The word prose actually means, ordinary. Thus, in writing prose is an ordinary, plain or a regular mode of writing. (from Prose (noun) the word , Prosaic (adjective)

2.2 Prose Structure

Prose is the ordinary form of spoken and written language whose unit is the sentence, rather than the line as it is in poetry. The term applies to all expressions in language that do not have a regular rhythmic pattern. The word prose literally means, ordinary. Thus, unlike poetry it is an ordinary or regular way of writing. Poetry, in contrast has much more sophisticated and refined mode of expression.

3. Historical background

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest known literary works. This Babylonian (modern day Iraq) epic poem arises from stories in Sumerian language. Although the Sumerian stories are older (probably dating to at least 2100 B.C.), it was possibly composed around 1900 BC. The epic deals with themes of heroism, friendship, loss, and the pursuit of eternal life.

4. Essay: The word essay comes from the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to attempt". In English essay first meant "a trial" or "an attempt", and this leads us to assume that essay may mean, to attempt or try to write. . An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view. The word 'Essay' in English means 'attempt, that is, an attempt (try) to write.

5. Drama

William Shakespeare

A Study Guide to Literature Page 7

26 April 1564 -23 April 1616

A play or drama offers another classical literary form that has continued to develop over the years. It’s generally made up of dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic / theatrical performance rather than at reading. During the 18th and 19th centuries, opera developed as a combination of poetry, drama, and music. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. Shakespeare could be considered as the master of the art of drama. His famous play, Romeo and Juliet, for example, is a classic romantic drama generally accepted as one of the best works of literature.

Shakespeare’s, Globe Theatre

7. Main Branches of Literature:

A Study Guide to Literature Page 8

Fiction Non-FictionShort story Novel Poetry Drama Epic

History Biography Autobiography Diary Newspaper etc.

8. Types of Fiction (Literature genres based on factuality)

8.1 Realistic Fiction

Realistic fiction, although untrue, talks about things that could actually happen. Some events, people, and places may even be real. Also, it talks about things that can be possible in the future though presently they may seem an impossibility or a remote possibility. For example, Jules Verne's novel, From the Earth to the Moon, which at the time it was written (1958) was believed to be just a product of a rich imagination, however, later in 1969, when Neil Armstrong set foot on the moon, and the team returned safely to earth, it turned out to be one of the most fascinating and wonderful a reality of history. Realistic fiction appears to the reader as something that is actually happening.

8.2 Non-realistic Fiction

Non-realistic fiction is the work in which the story's events could not possibly happen in real life, because they are , superficial , supernatural, or involve an alternate form of history of mankind other than that is recorded; or for this to happen, it may need an almost impossible innovation in technology. A good deal of Hollywood movies, such as Avatar, Transformer, Guardians of the Galaxy, Star Wars, War of the Worlds, Spider Man, Iron Man and many more have been produced in this genre of fiction.

Children’s Fiction: Most of the children stories, as Alice in Wonderland, Charlotte’s Web, The Little Mermaid and many other tales and fables by writers like Hans Christian Anderson, along with a host of animated movies as Lion King, Tin Tin, Winnie, the Pooh Rio, Madagascar, Frozen and other cartoon series that are equally popular with children and adults, may all belong to this category of fiction.

Science Fiction may come very close to this form of writing but in science fiction there is an element of probability in future, not necessarily in all science fiction. The movie, Back to the Future is a good science fiction but even in one’s wildest stretch of imagination, one cannot believe anything as such to ever actually happen, that is, traveling back and forth in time span stretched over centuries.

8.3 Non-Fiction

Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject which is presented as a fact. This presentation may or may not be accurate; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject they write about. However, it is generally believed that the authors of such stories believe

A Study Guide to Literature Page 9

them to be truthful at the time of their composition. Biography, autobiography, history, and newspaper may be included in this category.

8.4 Semi-fiction

Semi-fiction is fiction making use of a great deal of non-fiction, for example: a fictional representation "based on a true story", or a fictionalized account, or a reconstructed biography. Stories constructed round the adventures of Robin Hood, a legendary folklore character, (13th -14th Century?) are a good example of this genre.

9. Elements of Fiction / literature

9.1 Plot

Plot, or storyline, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. It is the ordering of the events and actions of a story. On a general level, plot consists of action and reaction, also referred to as the cause of an action and the following response. On a bigger level, plot has a beginning, middle, and an ending, that make up the structure of the whole story. Plot of a story is like a brainstormed outline of an essay.

The word plot also means a piece of land that is meant for constructing a house or a building on. Likewise, in literature, the plot is the ground or groundwork on which the whole story is built. It provides the main foundation for building up the whole structure of the story.

9.2Exposition

The word exposition, from expose, means to uncover, to reveal, to show or to open. Exposition refers to a fiction story's early setup, where, setting is established, characters are introduced, and conflict is established. Exposition is the way a writer opens or introduces the story to us. It is the first thing that comes to our view. For example:

It was a dark and stormy night. The old woman looked at the shadowy man walking passed her old wooden hut, located in the valley of the surrounding green hills.

9.3 Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a technique used by authors to provide clues for the reader to be able to predict what might occur laterin the story. In other words, it is a technique in which an author drops hints about plot developments to come later in the story. It’s like first seeing the shadow before the seeing the actual figure. “Foreshadowing” is a compound word, made up of two words Fore and shadowing fore, means before or in front and shadowing from shadow, thus it may be concluded that foreshadowing means seeing the shadows of the things to come later. In other words, foreshadowing is what the reader is anticipating or expecting to come later in the story but the reader gets an air of these things from the writer’s partial depiction of the things to come.

Soap opera (daily soaps) stories heavily employ and manipulate this technique by ending a segment or part (episode) of a story at such a crucial but exciting point that the viewer is

A Study Guide to Literature Page 10

compelled to watch the following episode in anticipation of what could possibly happen next. In this case the foreshadowing technique serves as a bait and hook. Soap operas earn handsome profits for the TV channels as some of these daily soaps run for years. Indian TV serials have millions of viewers addicted to these daily soaps which make an ingenious use of foreshadowing technique to run their stories for years and years. In many cases, the characters in the story may not be aware of certain facts or something dramatic coming their way but the audiences already know it because the writer has revealed it to the audiences (or readers) but the character in the story remain incognizant of these vital but startling truths and facts. By exploiting such situations, the writer employs the technique of foreshadowing, allowing the reader or the audiences to know something (partially) but holding back the consequences of such revelation to the concerned characters in the story. To the reader or the audiences, the events of the story serve to foreshadow something highly volatile, explosive and catastrophic at an impending and forthcoming stage, but the writer very shrewdly and elegantly keeps procrastinating the inevitable to keep the interest of the reader or viewer intact.

9.4 Rising Action

The Rising action, in a story follows the exposition and leads up to the climax. The purpose of rising action is usually to build suspense and anticipation all the way up the very end. It is the downward trajectory of events beyond the climax to the denouement(d n -mä , day noo ma). All sorts of complications arising from the conflict constitute Rising Action.

9.5 Climax

In a work of fiction, the climax often comes near the end of the text or performance, after the rising action and before the final phase of the falling action. It is the moment of greatest significance for the protagonist(hero / the main character) and usually surprises the reader to the point that gets the reader excited to see what is to come in the end.

The climax is the most gripping and suspenseful moment in the story. It comes at the point when it is a make or break situation for the protagonist. It is the turning point and the most crucial juncture (stage) of the story where fate of the protagonist is to be sealed because of the move or the step that he decides to take. This step that s/he takes may lead to a happy ending of the story or to a disaster and tragedy. There is no reversal to the events and no turning back for the protagonist once this stage has been reached because here the protagonist has taken the final decision or made the final choice. The dice has been rolled and the arrow has been released, so now, come what may come.

The climax or the turning point in the story will lead the events of the story to a happy ending if the choice or the decision made by the protagonist turns out to be the “right” or “judicious” one, but it may prove catastrophic (tragic) in the end if the decision or the choice of the protagonist turns out to be “wrong”, “miscalculated or misjudged” or “taken in blind haste”.

A Study Guide to Literature Page 11

Climax triggers a non-stop course of events that culminates, only at the denouement

The outcome or the ending (the denouement) of the story will very much depend on the choice, decision or step taken by the protagonist at the crucial juncture (the climax) of the story. Aristotle in his Poetics, calls this “error of judgment” as Hamartia. However, Aristotle contends that this error of “error of judgment” or “Hamartia” may not be attributed to the protagonist’s moral failing, vice or depravity but it may be the result of three following possibilities.

a. The protagonist is unaware of certain vital facts or ground realities b. The protagonist misjudges (miscalculates / misinterprets) the situation or circumstances c. The protagonist voluntarily or knowingly takes a step that has grim and serious potentials

to bring about a very disastrous and tragic ending, but the protagonist does it for a noble and honorable cause. Charles Dickens’ novel, A Tale of two Cities, has the ending of the novel representing this situation in a most befitting manner, when Sydney Carton voluntarily decides to take the place of the convict Charles Darnay in order to save Darnay’s life; he chooses to do this out of his love for Lucie Manette, Charles Darnay’s wife.  

9.6 Falling Action

Falling action is the part of a story, usually found where the story is settling down and we start to feel that all the problems are now going to get solved and all the questions answered. However, it is not necessary that all the problems and conflicts in the story will be resolved in a “happy ending”.

9.7 Resolution / Denouement (day noo ma)

Resolution or Denouement occurs after the climax, where the conflict is resolved, (happily or sadly)

9.8 Conflict

Conflict is the main problem or source and cause of confrontation in any work of fiction and it is often classified according to the nature of the protagonist or antagonist, as follows:

Types of conflict: External and Internal Conflict

External conflict is generally between two (or more) opposing forces with contradictory aims and interests. Most stories are based on this genus(ˈdʒiːnəs,ˈdʒɛnəs/ ) of fiction. Movie industry (Hollywood, Bollywood, Lollywood etc.), TV serials and soap operas heavily rely and thrive on creating stories and producing movies based on this type of conflict between a hero and a villain, that is, “good guy vs. bad guy” or, in strict literary sense, “protagonist vs. antagonist” Since these are commercial productions aiming at providing a “mood-changing” sort of entertainment, in most cases, in the end , the hero wins and the villain is defeated or punished. In literary sense, this is called poetic justice, a term devised by Aristotle in his Poetics. The “good”, in the end, are rewarded for their goodness and the wicked are punished for their wickedness. The audiences (or the readers) having experienced a sort of catharsis and relief at the ending, are pleased and satisfied with the whole affair.

1. Person vs. Person (Protagonist vs. Antagonist)

A Study Guide to Literature Page 12

2. Person vs. Him or Herself

3. Person vs. Society

4. Person vs. Nature (natural disasters, tsunami, earthquake, floods, storms etc.)

5. Person vs. Supernatural (ghosts, monsters etc.)

Person vs. Himself (internal conflict)TO BE OR NOT TO BE

Internal conflict can be a much more serious affair than the external conflict, because the conflict here is within the mind and psyche of the protagonist. The main character has no (external) enemy but himself. The dilemma or struggle that he finds himself in is not against anyone but against himself. This may occur when a person (protagonist) has to make a very difficult choice or a decision that is based on so much of uncertainty of the consequences of the decision. This can also be true for the antagonist. In rare and exceptional situations the protagonist and the antagonist might be one and the same person. In such cases the internal conflict becomes even more intense and profound. This is what exactly happens in Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Macbeth is subtle blend of protagonist and antagonist into one “single” character. Internal conflict takes place in the heart and mind of the protagonist. In most cases it can be a war-like situation between the heart and the mind. It can also be a catch22 situation where pros and cons of both options and choices outweigh each other without tipping the balance either way. The protagonist is left to take the final step based on his / her gut feeling. However, (in retrospect) this step may or may not have been the best when finally, the ultimate outcome of the whole affair lies bare before us.

Internal conflict can also occur when the protagonist is faced with a challenge or duty to do something that s/he is morally or legally bound to carry out but fails to do so owing to his inability to act promptly. This indecisiveness may rise from his/ her essential nature or disposition that keeps him from carrying out what he ought to, instead , he keeps procrastinating it to the extent , that ultimately it turns out to be too late to act or too problematic and dangerous to act. But since, act he must, the protagonist does act, but only when the time has almost run out for him and on him, and thus, his action proves to be more self-destructive (or even all-destructive) then proving expedient and pragmatic in the end.

Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a typical example of this type of conflict. Hamlet is duty bound (both morally and legally) to avenge the death of his late (deceased / dead) father but Hamlet’s own disposition and nature stands in his way and by the time he is able make up his mind, it is too late for him and for all others around him. In the end, he does succeed in fulfilling his duty, (that is of taking revenge of his father‘s death by killing his uncle Claudius, the murderer of his father) but at the cost of his own life and the lives of many others that he loved so dearly. Truly, Hamlet is the story of a man who couldn’t make up his mind. And that is because of the desperate internal conflict he experiences all along.

Person vs. Society (external conflict)

A Study Guide to Literature Page 13

A Society is made up of various community-groups that are founded upon race, color, class, caste, religion, ethnicity or status. Whereas, these factors lend diversity to the cultural fabric of any society, they also have an inherent potential and tendency of dividing the society along dangerous red lines which a person may dare not cross, and if he does he may find himself poised up against a formidable and hostile situation. A member of an upper caste in India may not find himself in very “comfortable” situation if he / she tries to marry a person from a lower caste and vice a versa. Aside for the caste system or religious differences, the world is very much made up of three universal castes, the upper, (elite) the middle, (bourgeois) and the lower and yet there are also the lowest of the lowest. Daring to cross over may result in a dire situation that may provide a rich material for a Person vs. Society conflict. These social factors and divisions may not be found everywhere in the world with the same intensity but they will be found with some measure and degree of severity everywhere in the world. No denying, no escape.

9.9 Character

A character is a person or an agent that performs the action. Characters may be of several types:

1. Protagonist: The leading performer of the action of the story and therefore responsible for achieving the story's objective and goal (the surface journey). Protagonist, in other words, is usually the Main Character, or the person round who the whole story moves.

2. Antagonist: The character that stands in opposition to the protagonist. He/ she / it is the opposing force to the protagonist.

3. Static character: A character that does not significantly change during the course of a story, but remains pretty much the same throughout. E.g. a grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, servant etc.

4. Supporting character: A character that plays an important part in the plot, but his role, is not a very major one. E.g., brother, sister, a close friend , mother , father, teacher, etc.

5. Minor character : A character in a bit of cameo part. It appears only for a very short time or intervals. E.g., a servant, a taxi driver, a policeman, etc.

6. Dynamic character: A character that goes under a significant change from the beginning to the end. It could be a good person in the beginning but may end up being a very wicked or a criminal-like individual by the end of the story, or vice versa.

9.10 Methods of developing characters

1. Appearance : explains or describes the character's outward appearance for the readers to be able to identify them, e.g. facial features,

2. Dialogue : what they say and how they say it3. Action : what the character does and how he/she does it4. Reaction of others: how other characters see and treat him/her

A Study Guide to Literature Page 14

9.11 Setting, the location and time of a story, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction.

9.12 Theme, is the central idea or concept serving as a unifying element, creating unity and is an answer to the question, 'What did you learn from the piece of fiction?'

9.13 Style, is not so much what is written, but how it is written and interpreted. Style in fiction refers to language conventions used to construct the story or article.

10. Categories

Types of prose fiction:

1. Flash fiction : A work of fewer than 2,000 words. (1,000 by some definitions) (around 5 pages)2. Short story : A work of at least 2,000 words but under 7,500 words. (5-25 pages)3. Novelette : A work of at least 7,500 words but under 17,500 words. (25-60 pages)4. Novella : A work of at least 17,500 words but under 50,000 words. (60-170 pages)5. Novel : A work of 50,000 words or more. (about 170+ pages)6. Epic : A work of 200,000 words or more. (about 680+ pages)

11. Forms of fiction

Traditionally, fiction includes novels, short stories, fables, fairy tales, plays, poetry, but it now also encompasses films, comic books, and video games.

12. Uses of fiction

Although fiction may be viewed as a form of entertainment, it has other uses. Fiction has been used for instructional purposes, such as fictional examples used in school textbooks. It may be used in propaganda and advertising. Although they are not necessarily targeted at children, fables offer an explicit moral goal.

A whole branch of literature crossing entertainment and science speculation is Science fiction. A less common similar cross is the philosophical fiction hybridizing fiction and philosophy, thereby often crossing the border towards propaganda fiction. These kinds of fictions constitute thought experiments exploring consequences of certain technologies or philosophies.

13. Semi-fiction

Semi-fiction spans stories that include a substantial amount of non-fiction. It may be the retelling of a true story with only the names changed. Often, however, even when the story is claimed to be true, there may be significant additions and subtractions from the true story in order to make it more suitable for storytelling.

The other way around, semi-fiction may also involve fictional events with a semi-fictional character. Semi-fiction, at last, relies on author's imagination or interests to fill the gaps between reality and the final story.

A Study Guide to Literature Page 15

14. Comedy and Tragedy

A, branch of drama, often in poetic form that deals with a serious or sorrowful theme, typically about of a great person, who, because of the circumstances beyond his control, or through the weakness of his own character faces an unavoidable downfall or destruction. Comedy, on the other hand is a form of drama that is light and often funny or mocking in tone and that usually contains a happy resolution of the conflict in a story or drama. According to Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher, in tragedy men appear to be higher than average men, whereas, I tragedy they appear to be lower than average. This is the reason the viewers laugh at them. They present life in caricature.

Characters appear to be lower than average in a comedy

and higher than average in a tragedy

Aristotle

A Study Guide to Literature Page 16