1 The properties of economically important Earth materials formed from organic material

distinguish between the nature of renewable and non-renewable resources

process information from secondary sources to classify renewable and non-renewable resources commonly in use

identify data sources, gather information and perform a first-hand investigation to identify and classify a variety of fossil fuels commonly used and compare their properties and uses

assess estimates of known reserves of non-renewable resources in light of technological innovation

define fossil fuels as ‘useful organic-matter-derived Earth materials’

describe the changes in coal with increasing rank in terms of:– physical properties

– composition

– grade– energy yield

describe properties of liquid petroleum in terms of composition and energy yield

describe properties of gaseous fossil fuels in terms of composition and compare the energy yields of coal-derived gas and petroleum-derived gas

Renewable and Non Renewable- Renewable: can be replaced over a relatively short time

o For example solar and wind - Non renewable: are non renewed quickly – may take millions of years. When they have

been used they are effectively depleted as they take millions of years to be producedo For example coal and petroleum take many years to form

Fossil fuels are – useful organic matter derived earth materials

Estimates of known reserves for non renewable resources

- Coal is Australias largest energy reserve- At the current rate if usage the energy reserves lifetime in Australia is

o Coal – 176 yearso Natural gas – 63 yearso Oil – 14 yearso Uranium – 67 years

- The global reserves lifetime (2007):o Oil – 42 yearso Natural gas – 60o Coal – 133 yearso Uranium – 70 years

Type Carbon Content Properties Sulfur Content Energy Yield MJ/kg

Peat 60% Volatile matter (higher the more flammable)– 60%Looks leafy and relatively greenmoist

Variable 15

Brown Coal (lignite)

60 – 71% Volatile Matter 53 – 49%Brown moist

1% 25

Sub bituminous 71 – 77% Volatile Matter – 40%Many volatilescrumbly

0.2 – 1.2 % 30 – 35This coal is used in electricity

Bituminous 77 – 87% Volatile Matter – 15 – 30%Crumbly, some shiny parts black volatiles

0.3 – 1% 35Electricity

Anthracite 94% Volatile Matter – 5%Shiny – pure anthracite is totally shiny and smooth

0.7% 35Not energy efficient as a very low volatile matter

Rank and grades of different coals

Properties of liquid petroleum

Crude oil State Energy Yield MJ/kgNatural Gas Gas 49 - 55Petrol Liquid 48Kerosene Liquid 53Diesel Liquid 54Heating oil Liquid 54

Gaseous fossil fuels derived from coal and petroleum

Coal- Previously coal was processed the produce Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and

hydrogen. - Syngas, however, has a low energy yield of around 9kj per cubic metre- A more common gas derived from coal is coal seam gas (coal methane) with an energy yield

of around 40kj per cubic metre- Methane is produced as a bi product of the coalification process, in the pores of the coal

exist pores, the pores in the Sydney basin are roughly 95% methane (high composition)- To recover the methane boreholes are drilled into the coal seam, water is then removed

from in the coal reducing pressure allowing methane to escape through fractures from which it can be pumped to the surface

Petroleum- Natural gas is formed in petroleum- Natural gas produces about 39 kj of energy per cubic metre burnt- Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) produces about 105 kj of energy per cubic metre burnt

2 The environment, and process of coal and petroleum formation

outline the characteristics of coal-forming environments

analyse information from secondary sources, including resource maps, to: – identify coal-producing

localities

– identify petroleum-producing localities

gather and process information from secondary sources to analyse the similarities between environments in coal- and petroleum-producing localities

discuss the process of coalification — transforming vegetable matter into peat and coal

describe the characteristics of petroleum-forming environments

outline the maturation of petroleum — diagenesis, catagenesis, metagenesis

outline the process of oil and gas migration

describe the features of source rocks, reservoir rocks and cap rocks

analyse the conditions under which petroleum accumulates in structural and stratigraphic traps

Coal forming environments

- Coal forms in swampy areas with high vegetation- The swamps are stagnant – very little oxygen present, which stopped bacteria being present- The plant matter took a long time to partially decay forming peat

Coalification

- Coal forms its different grades and rank through coalification- Coalification involves increasing heat and pressure to form peat, brown, sub bituminous,

bituminous and anthracite- For Peat some pressure is needed- Brown an increase in heat and pressure- For Sub Bituminous – bituminous intense pressure and heat is needed- For anthracite often metamorphism takes place with extensive heat/pressure

Petroleum forming environments

- Geologists believe for petroleum to form there needs to be high global sea levels- Marine organisms such as plankton fall to the sea floor where they are buried by

sedimentation- Over millions of years the marine organisms decay into simple organic compounds whereby

heat and pressure transform the compounds into oil

Maturation of petroleum including

Diagenesis Catagenesis Metagenesis

Diagenesis

- Occurs from the surface of the depositing sediment to depths of a few hundred metres- Temperature of about 50o C and pressures more than 1000 atmospheres- Biogenic methane forms

Catagenesis

- Occurs at depths from 1km to about 3.5 – 5km - Temperatures 50 – 150o C- Pressures of 1500 atmospheres- This brings about the compaction of rock and expulsion of water - Organic matter is altered to produce liquid petroleum and kerogen

Metagenesis

- Below depth of 3.5 – 4km temperatures exceed about 150oC and pressure is about 1500 atmospheres

- Under these conditions early stages of metamorphism take place to the organic matter - Organic matter is converted to natural gas

Depths Type Result

0 – 1km Diagenesis

(immature zone)

Biogenic methane

1 – 3 Catagenesis

(oil zone)

Petroleum

Kerogen

3 - 4 Catagenesis and metagenesis

(wet gas zone)

Some possible oil deposits

Mainly natural gas

4km onwards Metagenesis Natural gas

(dry gas zone)

Oil and gas migration

Source rock – The rock in which the oil forms in

Migration – The process of oil and gas moving through pores in the sedimentary rock and upward towards the earths surface

Reservoir Rock – The rocks in which the oil is trapped

Cap rock – Impermeable rock which traps oil and gas

Trap – The resulting geological formation of the cap rock

- Most petroleum never reaches the surface- The hydrocarbons are typically trapped beneath the surface of impermeable rocks (cap

rocks) that are typically above the Source rock- As the hydrocarbons move upwards they displace sea water trapped in the sedimentary

rocks- When the hydrocarbons reach the cap rock they separate with the least dense gas going to

the top and the oil and sea water with the highest density at the bottom - There are two main types of traps: structural traps and Stratigraphic trap- Structural

o Caused by the folding or deformation of layers of rocko Can be either anticline or fault traps

- Stratigraphic trapso Change in the physical properties of the reservoir layer itselfo Could occur when sediments allowing petroleum to move through it become highly

compacted or pores decrease in size

Copy Diagrams pg 262 of Earth and Environmental science textbook

3 Searching for coal and oil describe the exploration methods

used to determine the existence and extent of coal deposits

gather information from secondary sources to outline the methods and technologies used to locate fossil fuel reserves

describe the exploration methods used to determine the location of oil, including geophysical methods and drilling

identify the location and main geological features of known coal and oil localities and relate this to the search for new ones

Exploration of coal deposits

- There are seven phases that make up the exploration of coal

Identification of a likely area obtaining legal license Gathering information through exploration evaluation of a deposit development of the mine extraction of the resource closure and rehabilitation

- Identification of a likely areao Involves developing knowledge of the areas geology which would indicate if there

are coal depositso NSW department of mineral resources and Australian Geological survey organisation

play an important role in providing basic information about areas- Obtaining legal license

o In Australia a license is required to explore an area prior to extraction o This license is obtained through the government and is usually always given, unless

another company owns the rights to an area of land- Exploration

o Involves mapping the areaso Buying land from landowners

- Evaluation of the deposito Involves the use of geophysics and geochemistry to determine more information

about the areao Geophysics

Magnetic methods – Geophysicists can map the magnetic field of a an area as different rocks have a different magnetic behaviour

Seismic methods – involve creating a shock wave which travel into the earth and recording them when they return to the surface. The waves hit boundaries and are reflected back to the surface. An accurate cross section of the area can be produced

Resistivity – measures how well a rock conducts electricity. Coals do not produce electricity

o Geochemistry Some potassium atoms are radioactive and produce radiation in the form of

gamma rays which can be measured through a gamma ray logger By measuring the natural gamma rays in a rock it is possible to determine

the rock typeso Assaying will also take place whereby a sample is collected and analysed to

determine its grade and quality o Through exploration companies can determine if the mine is going to be

economically viable o Companies also determine a way to mine the area and thus work out if the mining

itself is economical- Development of the mining site

o Infrastructure such as roads developedo Transport built up such as ports and airports

- Extractiono Coal/ore is extracted o Further deposits may be located during this timeo Environmental monitoring

- Closure of the mining siteo Under Australian law it is necessary to rehabilitate a siteo Companies such as Rio Tinto will do so regardless

Exploring oil and extracting

- Similar to coal

Identification of a likely area obtaining legal license Gathering information through exploration evaluation of a deposit development of the mine extraction of the resource closure and rehabilitation

- Similar to mining – see above- Exploring

o Assaying may take placeo If the geology of the area is known then possible geological structures such as

anticlines may have oilo Geophysics (seismic waves, resistivity) may be used o Rock samples give detailed information about the rock layers that the drill will pass

through

Identify the location of known coal and oil deposits and relate them to the search for new ones

- Similaritieso Both require anaerobic conditions with organic matter

- Coalo Coal in Australia is found in areas such as the Sydney Basin, New England Fold belt

and Gunnedah basino These areas all were swampy and had oceans nearby to compress sedimentationo Therefore, an area which previously had large volumes of water nearby as well as

swamps could potentially have coal- OIl

o Required a shallow oceanic environment to be in the area o Anticlines and faults are possible locations for oil and gas

- Conodont indexo Conodonts are extinct sea creatures that lived during the carboniferous (when most

fossil fuels formed)o Conodonts are found in the same rocks that oil and gas are found in and depending

on the level of heating of the rock based on metamorphic activity the remains of the conodonts will change colour

o If the rock is not heated, no fossil fuels are formed (condont index of 0 – 0.9) o If the rock is slightly heated (Conodont index 1-2) then oil could formo If the rock is very heated (conodont index 3-4) then gas could form

4 The uses of coal and oil

describe the refining of coal gather and present information from secondary sources to construct flow charts and diagrams of the processes used in refining fossil fuels

describe the refining of petroleum, including distillation and catalytic cracking

describe and evaluate the uses of coal and oil as fuels and raw materials for industry

The uses of coal and oil

Description of the refining of coal Description of refining of petroleum Evaluation of uses of coal and oil

- Refining of coalo Coal can be used without any processing, screening and crushing is often used just

only in order to reduce it to a useable sizeo Coal usually is washed to remove pieces of rock and minerals o The methods for washing vary from mine to mine and include sink – float

separation, froth flotation and shaking tables and are either physical, chemical or biological

Sink – float separation (physical) – crushed coal is added to a high density liquid in which it floats and can be recovered while the heavier rock and minerals sink and are discarded

Froth flotation (chemical) – The coal is chemically treated to stick to bubbles and floats to the surface to be skimmed off. The coal and bubbles are then separated. Inorganic matter sinks to the bottom of the tank

Chemical cleaning – used to remove organic sulfur combined with carbon in coal

Biological cleaning – involves using bacteria to eat off the sulfur on the coal Shaking tables – coal and waste rocks placed on a corrugated incline

allowing for separation between waste and coalRefining of petroleum

- Every refinery begins with the separation of crude oil by distillation into different parts called fractions

- These fractions are later treated to convert them into mixtures of high demand products- The main task of most refineries is to produce petroleum- There are two processes which are used to develop low demand fractions into high –

demand petrol including:o Distillationo Catalytic cracking

- Distillationo Because crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons with many different boiling points it

can be separated by distillation into groups of hydrocarbonso Distillation takes place in two stages including atmospheric and vacuum distillationo Atmospheric distillation

Takes place in a distillation column at or near atmospheric pressure The crude oil is heated to 350 – 400 o C and the water vapour and liquid are

piped into the distillation column The liquid falls to the bottom and the vapour rises whilst it passes through a

series of perforated trays The heavier hydrocarbons with lower boiling points settle on lower trays,

whilst the lighter hydrocarbons remain as vapour longer settling on the higher trays

Some light gasses such as methane, ethane and propane which pass out the top and do not settle on trays

Petrol is collected in the top trays, gas oils in the middle and fuel oils at the bottom

o Vacuum distillation

This occurs to process the heavier oils that collects at the bottom of the atmospheric distillation process to be processed into lubricating oils, waxes and bitumen

Vacuum distillation allows heavy hydrocarbons to be separated without producing unwanted bi products

o Catalytic cracking Used to convert the heavy hydrocarbon fractions obtained by vacuum

distillation into more useful products The large hydrocarbons undergo a chemical breakdown under heat and

pressure from a catalyst (a substances that causes a reaction without being chemically changed itself)

o Catalytic re – forming Is a process that used heat, pressure and catalyst to bring about chemical

reactions that produce a higher octane petrol

The uses of coal and oil for fuel and industry

Coal PetroleumSteaming – Heat for electricity generation Fuels - transportationDomestic – Heating, shampoos and medicine Lubricants – Oil, Vaseline, GreasesCoking – Steel production Industrial – Packaging, plastics, rubber, bitumenDistillates – Explosives, dyes, plastics Domestic – Fabrics, adhesives, paint, plastics,

synthetic rubberFuel – Coal gas Military – defoliants, incendiary devicesOther industrial – soaps, rubber

Advantages and disadvantage of coal

- Advantageso One the most abundant resources in the world as well as one of the least expensiveo Much higher energy potential then renewable resources such as solar and windo High amounts of coal in Australia making it ideal for Australia as Australia has less

other resourceso Coal reduces the reliance on oil and natural gas which are decreasing at an alarming

rate- Disadvantages

o It is non renewable and at the current rate will be depletedo It produces harmful air pollution such as CO2

Advantages and disadvantages of Oil

- Advantageso Highly combustible and high energy yieldo Large amounts of energy can be produced to power a large area from one small

locationo Oil is easily accessible through easy transportation

- Disadvantageso Rapidly depleting

o Produces large quantise of harmful CO2 emissions o Price of oil is rising

5 The environmental impacts of fossil fuel use – complete versus incomplete combustion

analyse and evaluate the types and effects of products of burning fossil fuels – gases, water, particulates

identify data sources, select equipment, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to distinguish between the products of complete and incomplete combustion

identify data sources, analyse information and use available evidence to determine the effects of fossil fuel combustion products, using a variety of media

analyse information and use available evidence to predict the economic and environmental effects of removing all sources of fossil fuels

analyse the dependence of modern society on fossil fuels and assess attempts to limit emissions

describe and evaluate arguments concerning the greenhouse debate

Evaluation of:

Types and effects of burning fossil fuels

- Fossil fuels used in electricity, transport and the production of raw materials produce vast amounts of pollution

- Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Nitrous Oxide(NO), Water Vapour, Methane (CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

- The burning and combustion of coal, petroleum and gas all produce Carbon dioxide other gases such as carbon monoxide mainly form as a result of burning fossil fuels such as in incomplete combustion

- Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapour, methane and Nitrogen oxide are all greenhouse gases which cause global warming

o During the 20th Century the average temperature of the globe increased by 0.58o Co Sea levels have risen between 0.1 – 0.25 metres in the last hundred years

- Sulfur Dioxide (burning of coal) and nitrous oxide are causes of acid raino Potentially damaging to agriculture and environmento Health risk

- Particulates mostly dust, soot and unburnt coal are released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels

o Very small particulates can be inhaled and penetrate the long causing respiratory illnesses as well as sometimes a reduced life expectancy

- These issues come as a cost to society (especially health related issues)- They cause the potential for the melting of ice caps and flooding of island nations- Cost to agriculture and primary industries associated

Dependence on fossil fuels

- Traditionally society has been highly dependent on fossil fuels as a means for transportation, energy and the use of raw materials such as plastics

- Whilst this is still very much true, this dependence is decreasing as more alternative sources become increasing viable

- At present fossil fuels are the only real option for energy, as alternatives have not quite reached the point where they can be implemented, however, at the current rate, with new research being committed to alternatives then in the future alternatives pose a real possibility

- Government agencies fund research into fossil fuels - There has been the implementation of schemes such as the solar rebate as well as wind

turbines in NSW- Australia is a signatory to the Kyoto protocol which aims to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions- The Federal government recently passed the carbon tax which aims to bring about clean

energy in industries- There are emission standards for cars

For greenhouse debate – see Caring for the country

Complete and incomplete combustion

- Completeo With excess oxygen, hydrocarbons combust (burn) to produce carbon dioxide gas

and water vapour

- Incompleteo With insufficient oxygen present, hydrocarbons combust (burn) to produce carbon

monoxide gas, solid carbon or both as well as water vapour

Fossil Fuel + oxygen Heat + Carbon dioxide + water vapour

Note : Some oxygen is still needed

6 The search for alternative sources of energy

identify and discuss alternative sources of energy — solar, wind, hydro-electric, nuclear, synthetic oil, ethanol, wave power — and evaluate the relative importance and future potential of each as an alternative energy source for local communities

gather information from a secondary source to investigate alternative sources of energy

solve problems and perform first-hand investigations to test the energy efficiency of various non-fossil fuels and alternative energy sources

describe and evaluate methods of conserving energy, including architectural design

Alternative Fuel Sources

Solar

- Thermal o Produces heated water o UV enters a small glasshouse and absorbs heat

- Solar electricityo Photovoltaic cells are layers of silicon semiconductors producing voltage

- Positiveso No greenhouse gases producedo Renewable energy sourceo Cost effective in country areas, not close to major power stationso Competitive price to other renewable energy sources

- Negativeso No sun – powero Expensive option at presento Damaged in poor weathero Does not produce a great deal of power ie it could not power a city

Wind

- Wind carries kinetic energy which moves the wind turbine leading to a rotor powering a generator through the spinning motion

- Positiveso No greenhouse gases

Fossil Fuel + Oxygen heat + Carbon + water vapour + Carbon monoxide

o Renewable energyo Competitive price to other renewable energy sources

- Negativeso Aesthetic problemso Noisyo No wind – no powero Cannot power an entire city

Hydroelectricity

- Flowing water is fed down a pipe where It causes turbines to spin which power a generator- Positives

o No greenhouse gaseso Renewable energyo In most cases there is always flowing water

- Negativeso Interference with environment and natural flowso Very dependent on terrain, needs a hilly environmento Could not power a whole state or city, ie the snowy mountain hydro electric scheme

– the largest engineering project ever undertaken in Australia produces only 10% of NSW energy

Nuclear

- Fission o Splitting of the nuclei of large atomso A mass defect occurs with the loss of the neutron, this loss is released in energyo 1kg of uranium = 2000kg of coal

- Positiveso Little costs are requiredo No greenhouse gases producedo High energy output

- Negativeso Radioactive waste is produced which must be disposed ofo Potential for meltdown causing radiation problems across a wide areao Uranium is not renewableo Very expensive

Synthetic oil

- Fuels such as petroleum can be produced from coalo Coal is crushed at high temperatures and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to

produce hydrocarbons- Positives

o Can be used in the current built up industries and transport- Negatives

o Non renewableo Production is inefficient

o Greenhouse gases

Ethanol

- Produced from the process of fermentation or from petroleum- Fermentation is yeast converting sugar to ethanol- Competing with hydrogen as fuel of the future

- Positives

o Energy efficiento Renewable energyo No excess CO2 emissions as same amount released as was taken from the

vegetationo Decreasing price making it quite competitive

- Negativeso High energy required to produce ethanol only 20% more released than required to

make ito More farmland is required than what is currently requiredo Cars would need to be modified

Architectural design

- Windows allowing high amounts of natural light- Installing better insulation

o 10 – 20 % heat is lost through the floor- Sidusis trees

o Shade the house during summer and when winter comes their leaves fall off so sun can come

- Double glazing on windows- Gas heating produces less greenhouse gases- Wearing warm clothes- Solar thermal and power- Energy efficient shower heads- Keep fridge away from stoves

o 100kg less emissions- Turn standby mode off on TV’s and computers- Fluorescent lights use 80% less energy- Use compost