Focus Area 5A3 Issues in Australian Environments

Focus: Ways in which geographical understanding contributes to the sustainable management of issues affecting the Australian environment.

OutcomesA student:5.1 identifies, gathers and evaluates geographical information5.2 analyses, organises and synthesises geographical information5.3 selects and uses appropriate written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information5.4 selects and applies appropriate geographical tools5.5 demonstrates a sense of place about Australian environments5.6 explains the geographical processes that form and transform Australian environments5.10 applies geographical knowledge, understanding and skills with knowledge of civics to demonstrate informed and active citizenship.

Geographical tools in this focus areaThe geographical tools listed below are to be integrated into teaching and learning activities in this focus area.

Maps calculate the density of a feature calculate local relief identify the aspect of a slope measure bearings on a mapread and interpret synoptic charts

Photographs interpret satellite images

construct a cross-section calculate the gradient of a slope construct a transect construct a land use map

Students learn about: Students learn to:

Geographical issues geographical issues affecting Australian environments

including:– air quality– coastal

management– land and

water management

– spatial inequality– urban growth and

decline– waste

management

At least TWO geographical issues affecting Australian environments, selected from the list above (one study must include fieldwork):

– the geographical processes relevant to the issue– the perceptions of different groups about the issue– individual, group and government responses to the

issue– decision-making processes involved in the

management of the issue– management of the issue and implications for

sustainability, social justice and equity

investigate a geographical issue through fieldwork by developing and implementing a research action plan (as outlined on page 17)

describe each geographical issue in relation to:– its nature – its impacts – the responses by individuals, groups and

governments to the issue

outline how a range of geographical issues are affecting Australian environments

explain the interaction of the physical and human elements of the environment

recognise the responsibility of the levels of government to the issue

propose actions that promote:– sustainability– social justice– equity

evaluate the success of individuals, groups and the levels of government in managing the issue

develop a research action plan

apply fieldwork techniques

present geographical information in an appropriate format

demonstrate active citizenship by proposing individual/group action to address the issue

Air qualityThe quality of the air we breathe directly affects our general health and well being. The regular monitoring and maintenance of air quality is, therefore, extremely important for our overall quality of life.

A key environmental issue which Australia currently faces is reversing the degradation of our ambient (outside) and indoor air quality. Aside from affecting human health, the presence of air pollutants in high levels can also adversely impact upon wildlife and vegetation.The main cause of a build-up in air pollutants (and subsequent reduction in air quality) is the emission of exhaust fumes from motor vehicles. The quality of air is usually poorest, therefore, in highly urbanised areas. In Australia this is particularly true of larger cities such as Sydney, where fossil fuel emissions from cars contribute to 80 per cent of air pollution.

Air pollution in AustraliaIn comparison with some other parts of the world, air quality problems in Australia are less severe. This can largely be put down a small population (relative to the size of Australia), the chemical make-up of our energy resources and high wind flows in our nation's capitals. Cities such as Los Angeles, Mexico City and Athens, on the other hand, are notorious for possessing extremely poor air quality. Australia does, however, have a poor record when it comes to contributing to the greenhouse effect. In fact, we are one of the countries with the highest per capita levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Air pollutants fall into three main groups: criteria pollutants, air toxics and biological pollutants. The levels of each of these in the atmosphere are measured using the parts per million (ppm) index.

Criteria pollutantsThese air pollutants are the most closely regulated around the world. They include: carbon monoxide; lead; nitrogen oxide; particles; ozone; and sulphur dioxide. In Australia, the two criteria pollutants of greatest concern are particles and ozone.

ParticlesOtherwise referred to as PM (particulate matter), particles include substances such as soot, smoke, dirt and dust. High levels of PM can be generated from human-induced activities such as industry, mining, construction, agriculture and transport. They can also be a result of natural processes such as soil erosion caused by wind. The major concern associated with the high levels of PM in the air is its association with respiratory illnesses and cardiovascular disease.

OzoneThe other major criteria pollutant responsible for poor air quality in Australia is ozone. It is important to note, however, that this harmful ozone should not be confused with the type of ozone which forms the Earth's protective ozone layer. While the presence of ozone in the stratosphere (the second atmospheric layer from the Earth's surface) is essential for regulation of the Earth's temperature and protection against harmful ultra violet radiation, unnatural levels of ozone in the troposphere (the closest atmospheric layer to the Earth) can be dangerous to humans. This ground-level ozone is formed when nitrogen oxide reacts with organic chemicals in the air. The reaction only occurs in the presence of sunlight, which is why this problem is worse during the warmer months of summer. Again, motor vehicle exhaust fumes are the largest contributor to excess levels of nitrogen oxide and a build-up of harmful ozone.

Air toxicsAlso known as 'hazardous air pollutants', air toxics are pollutants which can be dangerous to humans and the natural environment when found in high quantities. Their presence has been related to increases in

the incidence of illnesses such as cancer and respiratory disease, as well as genetic and birth defects. Heavy metals are examples of air toxics that can be very harmful in this way. Air toxics can be emitted into the atmosphere from a variety of sources, so our exposure to them is largely dependent upon individual lifestyles and workplaces. People who work in factories where toxic fumes may be emitted would therefore have much more exposure to this type of air pollution than people who do not.

Biological pollutantsIncluded in this category are contaminants which are either living or produced by living things. Biological pollutants can include things such as mildew, mould, bacteria, viruses, pollen, decomposed plant and animal skin, and animal faeces. Heating and air conditioning systems can act as breeding grounds and catalysts for the distribution of biological pollutants if they become contaminated. Poor household cleaning routines can also contribute to the build-up of biological pollutants, which can cause illnesses and trigger asthma and allergic reactions in humans.

Other air quality issues in AustraliaBrown hazeSometimes on still winter days a layer of brown smog can be seen over the skyline of big cities. This type of air pollution is known as brown haze and it forms as a result of a 'temperature inversion'. This occurs when a layer of cold air becomes trapped underneath warmer air, preventing dust particles from rising into the atmosphere as they ordinarily would.

Photochemical smogSeen more during the warmer summer months, photochemical smog is formed by a similar chemical process to that which forms ozone (discussed above). In the presence of sunlight, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as chemicals emitted from pesticides, paints, paint thinners and varnish, react with emissions from cars and factories, forming a whitish haze.

Indoor air problemsAustralians spend, on average, about 90 per cent of their time inside. Monitoring and improving the quality of our indoor air is therefore extremely important. Although in general there is less known about issues related to indoor air quality, it has become increasingly apparent that this is in fact one of our major public health concerns. Indoor air can be contaminated by particles and many of the biological pollutants and air toxics previously listed. Findings have even revealed that given the right conditions, aerosols (fine liquid droplets) generated by spa baths can spread bacteria related certain diseases. Smoking in confined spaces is another contributing factor to the degradation of indoor air quality, however this problem has declined in Australia as a result of the bans on smoking in certain areas of pubs and clubs that were introduced in 2005.

The greenhouse effectAustralia is one of the biggest contributors to global warming. Our levels of greenhouse gas emissions are among the highest in the world. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas emitted when fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, are burned to create energy. Coal provides around 45 per cent of Australia's energy and is therefore the biggest contributor to the country's greenhouse gas emissions. Queensland is the State that records the highest amount of greenhouse gases emissions per capita in Australia. In recent years Australia has fallen short of its targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which seriously threatens the global environment.

Improving air qualityEfforts to improve air quality in recent times have included banning the use of domestic incinerators, banning smoking indoors and in crowded public spaces, installing more environmentally-friendly exhaust

systems in new cars, phasing-out the use of leaded petrol, and encouraging people to walk, cycle or use public transport instead of personal motor vehicles. As industrial activity, the use of fossil fuel-driven energy sources and the use of motor vehicles increases, more needs to be done to improve air quality in Australia. Ensuring that indoor areas are properly ventilated, researching into better fossil-fuel combustion techniques and promoting alternative energy sources are some measures that could be taken to improve this situation. Enhancing citizens' understanding of how individuals can make a difference to air quality and displaying a much stronger commitment to improving Australia's poor track record of greenhouse gas emissions are also needed.

Individuals and Groups

Local Government

State Government Federal Government

• Raise awareness• Use Public

Transport• Use less

electricity

• Stop backyard burning• Build more Cycle

Ways

• Improve public transport• Help businesses to be

more energy efficient

• Tax major polluters • Build renewable

energy sources (Solar & Wind)

ActivityCreate a light switch notice raising awareness about how we, student on RTHS, can improve Air Quality

On a whole page state your ideas, draw pictures, use colour.

Coastal Management

13.5 cm

9 cm

In comparison with many countries of the world, Australia possesses an enormous continuous coastline. Including islands, Australia's coast stretches for about 60 000 kilometres and comprises over 10 000 separate beaches. About two-thirds of the population live in the towns and cities that have been built to take advantage of the many benefits the coastline brings. Coastal management refers to the use and protection of this vast area, which is made up of marine (saltwater) and estuarine (meeting point of fresh and saltwater) ecosystems. In a constant state of evolution, these areas are naturally affected by rainfall, wind, ocean currents, waves and tidal movements.Key human impacts and resultant environmental issuesOur coastal zone houses great potential in terms of its use for commercial, recreational and settlement purposes. It also holds many social and cultural values for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians alike. Sadly, human use and enjoyment of the coast over the past two centuries have greatly disrupted the processes which form its intricate ecosystems. Human activities have also reduced the biodiversity of our coastlines, which helps them to maintain their health. Small organisms in coastal ecosystems are often the first link in large food chains. The impact of their population reduction or extinction inevitably reverberates throughout the entire chain. The most significant ways in which humans have impacted upon Australia's coastline are outlined below.Housing and developmentThe construction of houses around lagoons and swamps, the use of wetlands for landfills and the development of sand dunes for 'prime' real estate and recreational purposes have all had negative effects on Australia's coastal areas. The removal of vegetation has seen a significant reduction in biodiversity and also disrupted the natural processes which form intricate coastal ecosystems. Beaches, for example, are formed by an ongoing cycle of erosion and deposition of sand. Storms erode beaches of their sand, which is then re-deposited by large waves. When humans attempt to use these areas for housing and recreation, this natural cycle is interrupted and sand banks become depleted. Over time, this has destroyed many of Australia's beautiful beaches. Cliff-top housing, although aesthetically pleasing for home-owners, is also dangerous because of its interference with these natural processes.

Ports and marinasIn order to enhance the navigational potential of our coastline, natural channels are often widened or deepened by removing earth from the bottom of waterways (a process known as dredging). This destroys the habitats of benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms that live in the sediment that is removed. Stone breakwaters stretching far out to sea are also constructed around ports and marinas to reduce the impact of waves and tidal fluctuations. This has the negative consequence of hindering natural erosion and mineral deposition processes, similar to those described above.

Stormwater run-off and pollutionVast areas of land covered in concrete and bitumen, particularly in large cities, generate an enormous amount of contaminated stormwater and rainwater run-off. This pollutes our waterways and damages fragile coastal ecosystems. Added to these contaminants are petroleum-related pollutants emitted from motorboats, ferries and large ships, which account for about 20-30 per cent per cent of all marine pollution.

Sand miningIn some parts of Australia particularly Queensland, northern New South Wales, parts of Western Australia and South Australia, certain minerals found in beach sand are mined for the production of paints and industrial tools. These sand minerals include zircon, ilmenite and rutile. In some areas of WA, calcareous sand beneath seabeds is also mined for the production of limestone and cement. Australia has the world's largest Economic Demonstrated Resource (EDR) of these mineral sands and they are an important source of export earnings. Their extraction, however, requires the quarrying of beaches, which disrupts the natural cycles that form sand banks and destroys the habitats of many plants and animals.Recreation and tourism

Australians have also utilised the coastline for recreational and tourism purposes. The construction of high-rise resorts, shopping esplanades, playgrounds, golf courses and beach car parks are a few common examples. While this development has undoubtedly enhanced the lifestyles of residents and the holiday experiences of domestic and overseas tourists, it has caused significant damage to Australia's precious coastal areas. Even in less-frequented areas, the use of sand dunes for recreational purposes (the now popularised four-wheel driving a prime example) damages sand dune formation and scares away wildlife. Excessive boating activity in river mouths and estuaries has also led to extensive erosion of river banks. It has also destroyed vegetation in these areas, which is important for the preservation of biodiversity and maintenance of soil structure and composition.

Sustainable coastal management The protection of Australia's coastline depends on our capacity to implement sustainable coastal management initiatives. This will need to include such considerations as balancing competing uses of the coast, increasing the amount of protected marine and estuarine reserves, restricting further development in coastal areas and conducting research into making the most of coastal areas in an ecologically sustainable manner. One factor which has hindered the protection of Australia's coastline in the past has been a lack of tight regulations placed on private sector developers. Another is that different levels of government in Australia manage separate areas of the coastline. Broadly speaking, responsibility for the coastline within three nautical miles (nm) of the shore rests with the local, State and Territory governments. The federal government is responsible for the management of waters for 200 nm beyond this. This division of powers can complicate matters because the environmental impacts of activities undertaken in coastal zones do not follow this jurisdictional division.On a positive note, in 2003 the federal government endorsed the 'Framework for a National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management'. This initiative has been a key milestone in addressing the need for coordinated efforts and tighter monitoring of development in the area of coastal management.

Newcastle Port: Showing sediment movement and build up ion Newcastle harbor due to Nobby’s break wall.

Stockton Beach: This satellite photograph shows sand dunes encroaching inland, the dune’s battle with vegetation, the red sands due to the Signa wreak and tracks into the beach.

Local Issues1. Dredging of Newcastle harbor2. Stockton beach Mobile sand dunes3. Hunter River and Storm Water pollution4. Merewether Coastline degradation due to development

Individuals and Groups

Local Government State Government Federal Government

• Raise awareness• Use Pathways• Donate

time/money

• Invest in Coastline rejuvenation

• Make awareness campaigns

• Improve public transport

• Limit development

• Fund Research• Promote

Awareness

Activity:Create a Poster that you would place on Stockton Beach raising awareness about how we, student on

RTHS, can improve our Coastline. On a whole page state your ideas, draw pictures, use colour.

Land Management

Land management refers to the way in which humans use the land, along with the plants and animals living on it, as a resource to fulfil the needs of society. The ways in which humans have utilised the land in Australia - the driest and least fertile inhabited continent of the world - have transformed markedly over the past 200 years. As discussed in previous chapters the Indigenous peoples who inhabited Australia for tens of thousands (or perhaps millions) of years prior to the European invasion, lived a nomadic existence. After spending time in a certain place tribes would relocate to another region, realising that the land and resources they had previously been utilising needed to rejuvenate. This pattern of existence and philosophy toward the environment ensured the conservation of natural resources and prevented the degradation of the Australian landscape. In contrast to this mode of land management, the European pattern of settling in permanent locations, using the land for agriculture and depleting natural resources for industry (often driven by economics rather than absolute need) was an entirely new concept. While increasing the productivity of the land has brought about economic gains and much richness in terms of food and material goods, vast areas of the Australian landscape have been degraded. Now, unable to rejuvenate, much of our land can no longer be considered a resource.

Key human impacts and resulting environmental concernsAll of the factors discussed below have significantly altered ecosystems and brought about a reduction in native plant and animal populations in Australia. The range of living organisms in an ecosystem is known as biodiversity

Agriculture and secondary salinityAgriculture can be defined as the process of cultivating plants and domesticating animals (livestock such as sheep, cattle and pigs) for the production of food and other goods intended for human consumption. Agriculture is one of Australia's most vital national industries. It plays a key role in the nation's economic well being (through exports), as well as the domestic population's well being (through providing food). Australia is now one of the world's largest exporters of farm commodities such as wool, wheat, sugar, cotton and beef. In terms of its impact on Australia's land, water and biodiversity (range of plant and animal species) agriculture has also been the most environmentally damaging industry, with economic and environmental interests in a perennial state of tension. The European methods of farming, pastoralism (the use of the land to graze livestock) and cropping introduced by early settlers did not suit the hostile climatic conditions of the drought and flood-prone Australian outback. These practices have probably had a more severe impact on the physical environment of Australia than anything else since 1788.

Agriculture is the major cause of Australia's salinity crisis, which is now one of the nation's most pressing environmental concerns. There are two types of salinity that affect Australian landscapes: primary salinity and secondary salinity. Primary salinity occurs as a result of natural processes such as low rainfalls and high levels of evaporation. Australia is naturally prone to this type of salinity in certain areas. Secondary salinity however, is caused by humans using the land in ways that interfere with the natural properties of the soil. Secondary salinity can be classed as either dryland or irrigation salinity.

Land clearing for agricultureIn order to establish an agricultural industry, vast areas of the Australian outback were cleared of their native vegetation. This was so that farmers could create pastures for their sheep and cattle, and fields to grow their crops. The large-scale clearing of forests and bushland has meant that, during periods of heavy rain, more water is able to seep into the ground, which causes water tables to rise. As water tables rise, they bring with them salts that are naturally found deep beneath the surface of the land. This excess salt then accumulates at the surface and increases the salinity of the top soil to unnatural levels, which makes it almost impossible for any remaining vegetation to survive. As more and more vegetation disappears, this cycle continues and the surface of the land becomes exceptionally dry and infertile.

This problem is known as dryland salinity and it has affected millions of hectares of land across Australia. The area most affected by dryland salinity in Australia, and possibly the world's worst example of the problem, is Western Australia's wheatbelt. Another rising concern in Australia is desertification. This occurs when increased salt levels in the soil turn once arable (useful) land into a dry, desert-like landscape.

Land clearing for timber harvestingEnormous areas of bushland have also been logged (cleared) in many parts of Australia so that the timber can be harvested for wood chipping and the building and construction industries. These processes have also exacerbated Australia's salinity crisis. As with the process of salinity described earlier, logging allows more water to seep into the deeper layers of earth. As water tables creep upwards, salt rises and accumulates at the surface. The process of logging also exposes top soil and makes the land extremely sensitive to wind and water erosion, particularly during dust storms and periods of heavy rain. Problems associated with water erosion are worse when vegetation is cleared in mountainous regions. This is because when it rains the water begins to flow in channels, which become progressively deeper and larger over time. This process is known as gully erosion.

Irrigation and the use of chemicalsAnother major cause of salinity is the use of river water to irrigate (water) crops and pastures. This is known as irrigation salinity. When water is pumped out of our rivers for these purposes, it absorbs the salts from the soil (which have already accumulated due to rising water tables) and then drains back into the river. The problems this causes for water management will be discussed in the next chapter. Since the early days of agriculture, farmers began to use chemicals and fertilisers in order to accommodate the harsh Australian soils, which were naturally unsuitable for the cultivation of European-style crops. As dryland salinity caused by land clearing made the problem of infertile soils worse, the use of chemicals became more and more widespread. This then led to the problem of acid soil and toxic soil. During periods of heavy rain, runoff from land where these products had been used began to contaminate our rivers, causing massive algal blooms (build-ups of toxic blue-green algae) - a problem for which Australia unfortunately held the world record during the 1990s.

Technological advancements in agricultureIn an economic sense, technological advancements throughout the twentieth century have also significantly changed the way the land has been managed in Australia. The creation of monocultures (large areas of a single crop) for example, has been enabled by the use of heavy machinery and sophisticated irrigation technology. While such advancements may have made farming less labour intensive and been economically advantageous in the short-term, they have been environmentally and socially negative. Impacts have included a further reduction in humans' contact and relationship with the land, further degradation of soil composition and structure, and a decrease in employment and population levels in rural areas.

Sustainable land management practicesIt has been posited by the United Nations that sustainable land management practices are: 

 Crucial to minimizing land degradation, rehabilitating degraded areas, and ensuring optimal use of 

land resources for the benefit of present and future generations. 

To achieve this goal, a number of different approaches to land management are highlighted below:

1. Sustainable agriculture2. Genetic engineering in agriculture

Sustainable agriculture In order to sustain life we are dependent upon our natural environment for food, water and raw materials. If there is to be any hope of meeting production needs and simultaneously alleviating the range of environmental problems caused by damaging land management practices, land use in Australia will need to shift towards using sustainable methods. In the commercial sector, however, only economically viable initiatives are considered. Pressure to maximise production and increase profit is an issue which influences the nature our agricultural and natural resource industries. Positively, recent trends show that more sustainable methods of farming and agriculture are experiencing an increase in popularity in Australia. Common examples are listed below:

1. Merging crops and farm animals together in mixed systems. 2. Many farmers now also opt to completely replace synthetic chemicals and fertilisers with natural

substitutes such as farmyard manure. This is known as organic farming. 3. Replacing unsuitable crops with legumes and cereals (which are more suited to Australia's physical

environment) 4. Replanting trees in areas that were cleared for agriculture.

Although these new approaches have been positive, many of the impacts of land degradation are unfortunately irreversible. Only changes that are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable will have the capacity to reverse this situation.

Genetic engineering in agricultureIncreasingly, although somewhat controversially, genetic engineering (sometimes referred to as biotechnology) is now being used in the Australian agricultural industry, particularly by cotton and canola growers. In 2001 around one-third of all cotton produced in Australia was from GM crops.There are, however, risks and benefits associated with this trend. 

Genetic EngineeringAdvantages Disadvantages

Create crop strains that are resistant to pests and weeds

Many farmers and environmentalists are against the use of biotechnology, believing that the potential dangers override the benefits

Reduce the need for farmers to use toxic chemicals Crop varieties engineered to be chemically resistant to certain pests may end up killing non-target species

Increased yields from genetically-modified (GM) crops

Threat to biodiversity

Less land is cleared to create crop fields and more of the Australian landscape can be revegetated

Individuals and Groups

Local Government State Government Federal Government

• Raise awareness• Purchase

sustainable, organic foods

• Invest in Land rejuvenation

• Restrict development

• Protect sustainable agriculture

• Limit development

• Fund Research• Create legislation on

unsuitable agriculture

Activity:

Create a pamphlet that can be dropped into people letterboxes outlining three ways they can help improve, sustain and/or manage land use in Australia

Water ManagementAs humans are unable to survive for more than a few days without fresh drinking water, it is our most important natural resource. A major concern both within Australia and around the globe is that demand for water currently exceeds supply, and more than a billion people on Earth already lack access to fresh drinking water. Rainfall patterns and the location of river basins naturally determine the settlement patterns of humans. In Australia, which has one of the highest levels of per capita water consumption in the world, water availability has played a key role in where our towns and cities have been built. Australia's largest river system is the Murray-Darling, which stretches from southern Queensland (Qld) to the Coorong Wetlands in South Australia (SA). It is no surprise, therefore, that the south-eastern area of Australia is the most densely populated. In addition to the consumption needs of humans and wildlife, water is also essential for the development of industry, agriculture and recreation. Irrigated agriculture accounts for the majority of our water use (around 75 per cent) in Australia, with the remainder utilised for industrial and recreational purposes (20 per cent) and household purposes (5 per cent). The way we manage our sources of water should be considered as closely related to the way we manage the land. Reducing water consumption and developing improved systems of land management are two fundamental ways in which we can improve upon the way we utilise water as a resource.

Major sources of water in AustraliaRainfall is the ultimate determinant of water availability. In Australia it divides the continent into two regions: the moist periphery and the arid (dry) centre. There are two main sources of water in Australia: surface water (the biggest provider) and ground water. Most water from our natural sources is impure and therefore needs to be treated before it is safe to drink or use on crops.The Murray-Darling river system is one of Australia's most important sources of fresh surface water. Approximately three million Australians in SA, Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales (NSW) are dependent on it for their water needs. Approximately 3750 km in length, it is the fourth largest river system in the world. Even though its large basin covers 14 per cent of mainland Australia, the Murray-Darling actually holds a relatively small amount of water.

The largest supply of ground water in Australia is found in the Great Artesian Basin, which extends under approximately 22 per cent of the mainland (spanning an area of 1.7 million km sq), mainly in Qld and

NSW, but also under parts of the Northern Territory and SA. It is three kilometres deep, and is a major source of water for towns, farms and industry in the surrounding areas.

Major water management problemsThe mismanagement of water over the past two centuries has severely depleted water supply and degraded water quality in Australia. Scarcity, salinity, damming and pollution are the key areas of concern regarding water management.

Water scarcityAustralia is the world's driest inhabited continent. Water availability (or lack thereof) is currently a pressing concern. Extremely variable rainfall patterns in the arid centre lead to Australia's cycle of droughts and floods, which have become more extreme with increased human impact since European settlement. Low rainfalls in the wetter periphery region, where the majority of the population resides, are also a major concern. In Sydney, for example, inflows into Warragamba Dam have been below average for the past ten years and the city's eleven dams are often below capacity. Added to the problem of low rainfall is the issue of evaporation. Due to Australia's extremely warm climate, all but 13 per cent of rain that does fall across Australia evaporates before it ends up flowing into rivers.

Water salinityApart from depleting water supplies, salinity is undoubtedly the biggest problem affecting the management of water resources in Australia. The alarmingly high and rising level of salt found in our water is related to the problems of dryland and irrigation salinity discussed previously. Since Europeans arrived over two centuries ago, massive areas of vegetation have been cleared in order to create pastures, grow crops and harvest timber. This has meant that when it rains, water tables rise and bring with them salts naturally located deep beneath the surface of the ground. This salt then flows back into the rivers during periods of heavy rain, often rendering the water useless (or at least unsafe) for users further downstream. The problem of saline water (water high in salt content) is particularly evident in Adelaide, where water drawn from the Murray-Darling River system has struggled to meet World Health Organisation standards for potable (drinkable) water in recent years.

Damming A common approach to water use and management in Australia, and indeed around the world, has been attempting to increase water supplies for human consumption through the creation of dams which hold a large amount of water. This solution has had both positive and negative consequences. The construction of dams (such as Warragamba Dam in Sydney, which holds approximately two million mega litres of water and Tomson Dam in Melbourne, which holds about half of this) disrupts the natural properties of water. It also disrupts the flow of water through our river systems and results in a loss of forests and wildlife in surrounding areas. This in turn reduces the biodiversity (range of plant and animal life) of waterways. An alternative to the construction of large dams like Warragamba Dam are smaller hydro-electric plants, which have less impact on the environment. They can also be used to generate hydroelectric power, a renewable source of energy, which can replace damaging greenhouse gas-emitting sources driven by fossil fuels.

PollutionRunoff from fertilisers used for agricultural purposes, along with sewage effluent and chemical pollutants from domestic and industrial areas, severely pollutes the water we depend on for survival. Sometimes it leads to the formation of toxic algal blooms (large populations of blue-green algae) in our river systems and wetlands. This problem occurs when algae use contaminated runoffs as a nutrient, which help them flourish. When the algae spread they can become toxic to humans, plants and animals. Australia was notorious for recording the world's largest algal bloom in the early 1990s. It stretched for 1000 km across the Barwon and Darling Rivers in NSW. In coastal areas, the development of sewage removal systems which deposit effluent several kilometres offshore has been one strategy adopted in an attempt to minimise the problem of human-induced contamination of our waterways.

Introduced speciesCertain types of introduced animal species, such as the European and American trout, have damaged Australia's waterways and started to dominate native freshwater fauna. Some problematic introduced plant species, such as the water hyacinth, have also transformed into weed populations and are currently devastating many of our rivers and lakes. As well as blocking waterways, these weeds form dense layers on the surface of the water. This prevents much-needed sunlight from reaching deep-rooted plants that grow under the water. This can potentially decrease fish populations and reduce biodiversity, which are vital for maintaining water quality.

Sustainable water management initiativesEnforcing water restrictions is one very simple and effective method of improving our water usage. In Sydney alone, water consumption has reduced considerably since the introduction of universal restrictions. Sustainable methods of water management currently being explored include increasing the use of domestic rainwater tanks and utilising stormwater and seawater for human consumption and irrigation. Although seawater is in abundance, desalinising it (removing the salt so that is safe to consume) requires extensive treatment in plants, which can be very costly. Another sustainable water management initiative is recycling sewage effluent for domestic consumption. In July 2006, a proposal to recycle water in this manner was put to the residents of Toowoomba in Queensland. In the referendum which was held to determine whether or not the new scheme, which has been proven safe, would be implemented, 60 per cent of the electorate voted 'no'. It is, however, becoming increasingly apparent that solutions such as this would be much more sustainable than the systems currently in place in Australia for managing water. The 'National Water Initiative' is the federal government's framework for water reform on a country-wide scale. It was implemented in 2004 and represents an integrated approach to the issue of water management because it has been signed by all governments of all Australia's States and Territories. Cooperation between State and Territory jurisdictions is essential in Australia because many of our water sources stretch across borders, meaning that use of water in one area can have very negative consequences in another. The principal aim of the National Water Initiative is to have different jurisdictions working collaboratively to improve Australia's current systems for water use. This will help to ensure that Australia's river water and groundwater sources are healthy and that our use of them is equitable and sustainable.

Individuals and Groups

Local Government State Government Federal Government

• Install water tanks• Use less water

• Recycle storm water• Restrict development

which impacts on water health

• Build more infrastructure

• Install water restrictions

• Fund Research• Create legislation on

recycling Sewage effluent

Activity:Create a house plan which includes several features of how the house is or can save water. For ideas,

look at the picture below.Please include in your house plans;

1. Bathroom - Water saving taps, nozzles, displacement devices2. Laundry – Energy efficient appliances, water saving taps and nozzles3. Kitchen - Energy efficient appliances, water saving taps and nozzles, Compost Bin4. Garden – Water Tank, Irrigation pipes, Native plants, Compost

http://www.thinkwater.act.gov.au/water_savingtips/water_saving_tips.shtml

http://www.thinkwater.act.gov.au/water_savingtips/visit.shtml

http://www.thinkwater.act.gov.au/more_information/publications.shtml#factsheets

Urban spatial inequality

Spatial inequality is most prevalent in larger cities because there is more demographic diversity and more inequity between distinct geographical areas, particularly in terms of access to infrastructure such as schools and hospitals Sydney provides an example of a large urban environment with a high level of spatial inequality. Suburban pockets of poverty can be found on the city's fringes, in certain parts of Sydney's south-west for example, and there are also pockets of poverty in much more central areas. The less-affluent (poorer) areas are generally higher in unemployment, welfare-dependency, single-parent families, substance (drug and alcohol) abuse and crime, than other Sydney suburbs. These are also often the areas in which overseas migrants and refugees chose to settle, because the real estate is much cheaper and the ethnic and racial composition is generally more diverse.Unemployment figures from the 2001 Census revealed vast differences between many areas of Australia. Particularly alarming were certain areas of Sydney. The Glenquarie Housing Commission Estate in Sydney's south-west had an unemployment rate of 26.4 per cent; the national unemployment rate at that time was only 7.1 per cent. The highly publicised riots which occurred in this same area in 2004-05 were an example of some of the violence-related problems that can result if social inequalities are not dealt with.

Effects of poverty on social cohesionPoverty has economic and social impacts. Sometimes, instead of being described as living in poverty, people in Australia who do not possess the living standards of the majority, are thought to be socially marginalised or socially isolated. This is because they may feel excluded from benefits of society that the mainstream enjoy, whether or not this is because of where they live or the amount of money they have. The widening the gap between rich and poor Australians is likely to increase this sense of social isolation, which will no doubt negatively impact upon social cohesion.

This is particularly true of larger urban centres because the inequalities between different areas are much more obvious when they are in the same town or city. The more observable inequalities become, the more likely people are to directly compare their standards of living with those of others around them. This can have the effect of reducing the sense of mutual belonging and respect that is important for maintaining social cohesion in any community, however large or small.

Individuals and Groups

Local Government State Government Federal Government

• Lobby and Promote awareness about needs

• Volunteer to help the less fortunate

• Allow more Urban housing development

• Provide development incentives

• Build better public infrastructure• Improve urban

planning and subsidise housing

• Builds More Hospitals and Schools•More funding to

States and Councils

Activity:Create a town plan which includes several needs and wants of a town or city. Remember to build things

that everyone can access. For ideas, look at the picture below.

http://www.listener.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/5.-Blueprint-Plan-with-key-2400x1620.jpg

Make sure these things are easily accessible1. Public transport2. Libraries3. Primary Schools4. Public Schools5. Shopping Malls6. Airports7. Hospitals8. Restaurants

9. Hotels10. Sports Fields11. Parks12. Gyms13. Museums14. Religious Buildings15. Police station16. Fire station

17. Pool or Beach18. Train station19. Housing20. Roads21. City Hall22. Power Plant23. Water Reservoir (Dam)24. Water Treatment plant

Urban Growth and Decline

Australia is an extremely urbanised country. About 85 per cent of the population lives in coastal areas, and most of these people live in urban areas with populations of over 100 000 people. Together, these areas only comprise about one per cent of Australia's total land mass. This level of urbanisation has meant that many of our cities are facing enormous pressure to keep up with the needs of their swelling populations. Generally, since the trend towards urbanisation began in the second half of the last century, our cities have been in a constant state of 'catch up' with the needs of their swelling populations.

Major impacts of urban growthUrbanisation has created many issues in Australian environments. While more people may translate to economic benefits, ever-expanding populations have brought with them a range of problems for both the physical and built environments. As our big cities have grown away from the centre to accommodate people's settlement needs, suburbs have mushroomed outwards, producing what is referred to as 'urban sprawl'. This process means that the natural environment suffers as more space is required for the construction of houses and the development of industry. As more ecosystems are disrupted and habitats are destroyed, urban growth leads to an even greater reduction in the biodiversity of areas surrounding cities. The problems of pollution and sewage disposal are also made worse by increases in population size.In terms of the pressures it places on the built environment, urban sprawl increases the monetary and environmental costs associated with infrastructure, waste disposal, the use of natural resources and energy consumption. It also has the potential to negatively affect the social cohesion of cities, as it often results in a lack of equity amongst urban residents, particularly in terms of access to infrastructure and other essential services provided by the city. Another impact is that, as fewer people live in the city centre, the quality of the original urban areas falls into decay. The process of cities expanding outward and then starting to deteriorate is known as 'urban growth and decline'.

Urban sprawl in SydneySydney could really be considered as the heart of urban Australia. The population of Sydney is predicted to reach 4.9 million by 2026, up from 3.9 million in just 20 years. The Sydney Greater Metropolitan Region (GMR) now extends from Port Stephens in the north to Kiama in the south. Some townships in the Blue Mountains, now also considered part of the Sydney GMR, are between 50km to 120km west of the Sydney CBD. Since 2000, however, Melbourne, Perth and Brisbane have recorded higher rates of population growth than Sydney.

Urban and human ecological footprintsIn order to assess the sustainability of a population, geographers sometimes use the ecological footprint (or eco-footprint) model. This determines the impact that a defined human population (for example one person, a city or a country) has upon its surrounding environment. An urban ecological footprint does this by providing an approximation of the total amount of land required by a city, to provide it with the resources it needs to sustain its population. In addition to accounting for the food, water and other natural resources people consume, the footprint also includes the space required to dispose of all the waste they generate. In a study conducted in 2005, it was estimated that Sydney's ecological footprint covered 49 per cent of NSW. It was also predicted that if current rates of growth continued without any drastic action being taken, the footprint would cover about 95 per cent of NSW by the year 2031. The human ecological footprints of individuals within a defined geographical area (such as a country) can also be calculated. The higher a country's human ecological footprint is, the less-sustainable its population is. The Australian population has an extremely large ecological footprint compared with other countries around the globe, which is indicative of our unsustainable consumption patterns, and reflective of the impact we have upon our surrounding environments. Our ecological footprint is in fact the eighth highest in the world, at 7.4 hectares per person (ha/p). In comparison to this, the ecological footprint of the USA is 9.7 ha/p and in Africa it is only 2.1 ha/p; the global ecological footprint is about 2.3 ha/p.

Major challenges presented by urbanisationIntense urbanisation has presented Australia with many environmental challenges which governments have tried to respond to with policies aimed at achieving 'urban consolidation' or 'urban renewal'.

Resource and energy challenges Larger cities demand more energy and place more strain on our already scarce natural resources, such as water and energy. In Australia, our already unsustainable household energy consumption levels are alarmingly on the rise. Urbanisation fuels this trend even further as larger populations need to be supported by more sophisticated infrastructure, which in turn demands more electricity. This is a problem in Australia as we are currently dependent upon using non-renewable fossil fuels, namely coal, oil and natural gas, for almost all of our energy needs.

Infrastructure challengesThe process by which urban areas sprawl outward places increased pressure on governments to keep up with the population's infrastructure needs. These needs include access to amenities such as quality housing, transport systems, roads, schools, hospitals and police and fire services. These are all fundamental parts of our everyday lives, without them we would be unable to maintain our generally high quality of life Australia. Urbanisation also demands more emphasis be placed on social infrastructure, such as community centres, youth centres, parks and sporting fields, so that our urban areas can maintain their social cohesion.

Social cohesion and equity challengesSocial cohesion can be defined as the level to which people in a society feel committed towards the well-being of others, and to the shared systems which form the foundations of the society. Although many people migrate to cities to find more or better employment opportunities, urbanisation usually brings higher unemployment rates and subsequent increases in criminal activity. This type of anti-social behaviour, along with vandalism and a lack of respect for public property, often symbolise a reduction in social cohesion. These problems are heightened by the isolation often felt in poorly-serviced fringe suburbs (dwellings on the outskirts of cities), which tend to become neglected. As they have less access to the benefits of the city (including employment opportunities, shared public places and other forms of infrastructure), suburbs on the outskirts often reflect the lack of equity inherent in many major metropolitan areas. Often they also have a higher level of poverty, which is one example of how urbanisation can lead to increased levels of spatial.

The need for 'urban renewal' and 'urban consolidation'To counteract the many challenges created by urban decline, governments have started to introduce housing and planning policies aimed at achieving 'urban renewal or 'urban consolidation'. These terms describe how planners have begun trying to halt the spread of populations outward into fringe suburbs, by focusing on rejuvenating buildings, roads and public spaces that have gone into decline closer to the city centre. This planning strategy can decrease some of the infrastructure and equity problems previously discussed, by allowing more people to access the services provided in the city.

Individuals and Groups

Local Government State Government Federal Government

• Support local businesses

• Start local festivals and markets

• Subsidise local businesses

• Diversify town/city incomes, i.e. Tourism

• Build better infrastructure

• Improve policies for rural towns

• Increase government and business spending• Promote Australia

overseas

Activity:You town is facing the problem of Urban Decline. You are given the task to create an event which will

bring people and investors into your town. Remember;

• Who are you targeting?• Why them?• How will you target them?

• How will it improve the economy?

• How will it improve the town?

• What are some negative side effects?

• What is you event?

http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007-06-04/dungog-film-festival-seen-as-example-for-rural/57564

http://www.regional.org.au/au/countrytowns/global/collits.htm

Waste Management

Australians are among the world's largest producers of waste. With the exception of the USA, Australia produces more waste per person each year than any other country. We are a highly consumerist society driven by what we want just as much as by what we need. The millions of tonnes of waste disposed of into our environment every year are symbolic of our presently unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. Many of Australia's major urban centres seem to be in a continual state of growth, expanding to accommodate their residents and the high standard of living they enjoy. Sophisticated waste disposal systems are therefore required to deal with the enormous quantities of ensuing rubbish and pollution. Finding sustainable methods of waste disposal, while simultaneously upholding the comforts of Australians' current lifestyles, is no simple feat. It has been estimated that each day Australians produce about 3 kilograms of waste per person. This waste can be in the form of solid (or dry) waste, liquid waste, or gaseous waste. As urban growth continues to take hold in many of Australia's capital cities, our levels of all these types of waste, combined with the problems created when it comes to disposing of them, are constantly increasing.

Key waste disposal issuesAs levels of waste in a community increase the amenity (or liveability) of that community declines. Waste therefore needs to be disposed of in ways which minimise its negative impacts. Much of the waste humans produce is not bio-degradable (or decomposable).

Even with increased public awareness of waste issues and a greater level of general recycling, Australia's level of per capita waste production is not declining. Household waste generation in Perth, for example, grew by approximately 30 per cent between 1998 and 2002. Australia's major waste disposal issues are outlined below.

Solid waste and limited landfillsDisposing of solid waste, such as household garbage and industrial by-products, has traditionally involved dumping it in a landfill (commonly referred to as a 'tip'). The use of landfills as a waste disposal method does, however, present a number of environmental management problems. Finding new and appropriate landfill sites is becoming much more difficult and the concept of a landfill itself is not sustainable, as it will not last forever. In Sydney, for example, the problem of finding new landfill sites has led to suggestions that the city's waste could be dumped in other areas of the State, such as at an abandoned mine near the regional town of Goulburn. Approximately 250 kms south-west of the city, using this landfill as a method of waste management would essentially increase Sydney's already large 'ecological footprint'. This is the total amount of land required by a city to accommodate for the needs of its residents.

Liquid waste and polluted waterwaysSewage effluent (run-off) and other household waste that is produced, for example, by dishwashing and car washing detergents, are all categorised as liquid waste. Liquid waste is also produced by industrial processes and can include toxic chemicals. Most liquid wastewater is disposed of in coastal regions and only about one per cent is recycled. Proposals to introduce domestic wastewater recycling systems to service urban areas are currently receiving much more attention in Australia, as the problems of liquid waste disposal and availability of drinking water supplies are simultaneously presenting concerns for residents in many parts of the country. Solid waste is also another contributing factor to polluted waterways. Around six billion tonnes of waste is discarded into oceans around the world each year. The majority of this rubbish is some form of plastic matter. Common examples are shopping bags, drink bottles, fishing equipment and polystyrene materials (such as tea and coffee cups). The amount of plastic waste found in our oceans poses a major threat to marine wildlife. Many species can suffocate and die if they consume plastic or become entangled in other forms of debris dumped at sea, such as abandoned fishing nets.

Gaseous waste and air pollutionOur increasing levels of energy consumption have also resulted in higher levels of atmospheric waste, mainly in the form of harmful greenhouse gases. Although this type of waste may not be as visible as solid or liquid waste, air pollutants pose no less threat to humans. Australia does not boast a good track record when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions, which is mainly due to the fact that coal, oil and natural gas are our three major sources of energy. All of these naturally occurring non-renewable resources are contributors to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

Hazardous wasteSometimes referred to as 'toxic waste', hazardous waste is that which requires special handling when being disposed of because of the threat it poses to humans and the environment. Nuclear waste is an example of hazardous waste. Much of the controversy surrounding the use of nuclear energy has arisen

because there is still no known effective way of disposing of the radioactive waste generated. Mismanagement of this type of waste can be detrimental to living organisms.

Thinking about wasteA factor contributing to Australia's waste problem is the way in which we conceptualise (think about) rubbish and our established patterns of production and consumption, which are presently unsustainable. A dominant mentality has emerged that waste does not really affect us, as long as it can be hidden away in a landfill or washed down the drain. Adopting a more considered (or more conscious) attitude towards the waste we produce and what is done with it is essential. Not only will a change in waste disposal methods improve our environment aesthetically, it will also help to restore biodiversity and improve the quality of our land, air and water.

Sustainable waste management initiativesQuestions surrounding the issue of waste disposal have traditionally received a great deal of attention. It is becoming more apparent, however, that the focus needs to be on the more sustainable goals of waste minimisation and waste recovery - reducing, reusing and recycling our waste. These goals are much more in line with the principles of ecological sustainability and have the potential to significantly reduce human impact on the environment.

Most people are familiar with the concept of recycling when it comes to household items such as paper, plastic bottles and food scraps. Another example of recycling on a larger scale, which is starting to receive more attention in Australia, is the concept of recycling wastewater. In July 2006, residents of Toowoomba in Queensland cast their vote on a new proposal which would have seen 25 per cent of the town's water sourced from recycled sewage. Although in this case a little over 60 per cent of the electorate voted 'no' to the environmentally-friendly plan, proposals such as this (already operating in other countries) are starting to receive more consideration, particularly in areas of Australia where the provision of potable drinking water has become a major problem.

Individuals and Groups

Local Government

State Government Federal Government

• Buy environmentally friendly

• Recycle everything• Compost

• Provide more recycling opportunities

• Promote recycling procedures

• Support business to be environmentally friendly

• Create stronger recycling laws

• Increase government and business spending• Create stronger

recycling laws

Activity:You are to create a set of instructions for a household. This instructions will show what is recyclable

and what is not. It will also show houses how to reuse items that are usually thrown away.

http://wmnorthwest.com/guidelines/gif/allinone07.jpg

http://twistedsifter.com/2013/01/50-life-hacks-to-simplify-your-world/

http://www.tams.act.gov.au/recycling-waste/recycling_and_waste_disposal/a-z_waste_and_recycling_guide

Calculate the density of a feature

Calculate local relief

Identify the aspect of a slope

Aspect is the direction a slope is facing. This is important because it dictates the amount of sunlight an area of land receives. This has a big impact on its microclimate, whether it is warmer or cooler, moister or drier than surrounding areas. This is important when investigating vegetation communities or buying a block of land. In Australia, land with a northerly aspect will generally be warmer than land with a southerly aspect

Measure bearings on a map

A "bearing" is a term used in navigation. Bearings are measured in degrees. It is used to refer to simply our direction of motion. It typically refers to the direction of an object, as seen by us.

Construct a cross-section

To create a cross section we need to know and understand contour lines. Contour lines connect points that are of the same elevation. They show the exact elevation, the shape of the land the steepness of the land. Contour lines never touch or cross each other.

AB

250° SW

Essentially, the whole process looks like this…

Calculate the gradient of a slope

Gradient in geography is different to gradient in maths.

It is always expressed as 1:x, ie 1:4, or 1:1.

The second number in the expression is run/rise, so the way to calculate is:

Run / Rise (where the run and the rise are measured in the same units).

Tricks and traps1. Not expressing the gradient in the form 1:x2. using rise over run as in maths

With a contour map, the contours are likely to be expressed in metres (for the rise) whereas the run is likely to be measured in km.

So, make sure the rise is also in km (ie 700m = 0.7km) before applying the formula. 1: run/rise

Step 1: Measure the rise (difference in height between 2 points)Step 2: Measure the run (the distance between 2 points).Step 3: Make sure that you convert the scale into metres

Types of Slopes

If a slope is not Convex (A) and Concave (B), it is then Linear (C)

Contour lines and slopes

The picture below shows you what an area would look like in real life and as contour lines on a map. Notice the closer the lines are together, the steeper the ground is.

Construct a transectA transect is a line following a route along which a survey or observations are made.

The transect is an important geographic tool for studying changes in human and/or physical characteristics from one place to another.

An urban transect, usually following a street or several streets, may show changes in land use, the nature of buildings such as houses and shops, or features such as schools, churches, community centres, and parks.

A rural transect might follow a road, section line, or stream, and show the kinds of crops in adjoining fields, farm buildings, vegetation, or changing features along a riverbank.

Transects may show features that are along the actual line selected (line transect) or, more commonly, may show what is on either side of the line (belt transect). Depending on the kinds of features being observed, transects can be a single straight line, straight line segments, or curved lines.

Next is a sample transect. It is a strip of land used to monitor plant distribution, animal populations, etc, within a given area.

Transects are just long, narrow, quadrats. They show changes in vegetation communities such as down a slope or across a valley.

If you were mapping vegetation communities from the vertical aerial photograph below, an experienced veg. mapper may pick different communities at A,B,C and D. To check your accuracy you need to do a field survey to 'ground truth' your work.

You have chosen to do 3 transects going across the hill in the vicinity of A to C. You need to do a number of transects, by doing only one you may miss important plant species.

Once you have selected areas which represent your different plant communities, you need to randomly select a number of transects so you do not have a biased survey.

To do this go to the map at the bottom of this page, click on the transect line and drag it to the vicinity of the transect area of A, B and C then drop the transect line without looking at the map. Record your results.

Suggestions for Students:

Planning: Select the transect route carefully and identify the start and end points. It is important to be familiar with the transect route to ensure that it passes through a variety of zones so that the completed transect will provide meaningful information.

Mapping: Once the route has been selected, it should be drawn carefully on an appropriate map of the area of interest. Then, follow the route and, on the field copy of the map, note the features that you see as you progress along the selected line. This will be the first draft of your transect. It’s a good idea to write brief notes on what you see along the way to ensure that you have all the information you will need to complete the transect.

Creating: Now it’s time to prepare the final presentation of the transect. Once back in the classroom, copy the route onto a new map and, using appropriate symbols and shading, show the features and changes along the route. Brief notes can be written in appropriate spaces on either side of the features and symbols along your transect route. Make sure that the transect presentation has a title and legend.

Analyzing: The completed transect can be used to analyze the changes and the possible relationships between physical and human features along the route. If another student has selected the same route or segment of a route, the two transects can be analyzed in terms of the similarities and differences and the varying perceptions that different people may have of the same area

Construct a land use map

Land use maps are maps which provide information about land use.

There are a number of different applications for such maps, and in many nations, land use maps are prepared by several government agencies, for a variety of reasons.

Individual groups and organizations can also generate maps with land use information. Often, such maps are publicly available, so that people who are interested in land use trends can access them.

One way to construct a land use map, is to use a photograph (a satellite photo) and replicate the photo, colouring in sections by what they are used for.

Read and interpret synoptic charts

Synoptic charts are simply weather maps. Synoptic charts show the atmospheric conditions of a location on a particular day including rainfall, air pressure (atmospheric pressure), wind speed and wind direction

Firstly, air pressure means the weight of the air.

• Air pressure is measured in hectoPascals (hPa) and indicated by isobars which are lines joining places of equal pressure.

• High air pressure (> 1013 hPa) means the air is heavy/sinking; associated with calm conditions and fine weather; winds move in an anti-clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.

• Low air pressure (< 1013 hPa) means the air is light/rising; associated with unstable conditions and rainy weather; winds move in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.

A front is the boundary between two air masses.

A cold front is when a mass of cold air moves towards a mass of warm air pushing it upwards and is indicated by a line with spikes (think of freezing cold icicles); generally brings north or north west wind and a drop in pressure leading to falling temperatures, wind and rain but this depends on the actual temperature and water content of the air masses, which depend on the region over which the air masses originate.

A warm front is when a mass of warm air moves towards a mass of cold air pushing it downwards and is indicated by a line with bumps (think of melting icicles); moves at half the speed of a cold front; warm fronts generally occur in high latitudes and are not common in Australia

A trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending out from the centre of the pressure system.