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Jory

I€Jru

IBnlc.SIIO

SI€UI sol]lrun ilsil

and Brava) in the Sotavento group ofislands which are home to the occur-

rence and use by rural PoPulations,

especially of a wide varied diversity

of medicinal plants to treat a variety of

ailments such as heart diseases, intesti-

nal and kidney problems, and diarrhea

(Table 1). Most medicinal plants are

encountered in Santo AntSol and in

Santiago and Fogo. Several plants of

medicinal importance have been identi-

fied (GEF,2003).

Comoros benefit from the introduc-

tion of some 60 species of ornamental

plants in 1870 and yet is at a disad-

vantage as some of these exotic plants

have now a profile of invasive growth

(Ibrahim, 2003). These invasive plants

are considered as a menace in overall

conservation and management of agri-

cultural resources and the environment

in the Comoros islands.

Mauritius like Trinidad and Tobago is the

beneficiary of traditional healthcare systems that

have their origin in the cultural antecedents 0f

African, Chinese, European and Indian peoples

and their spices and medicines that were derived

from a variety ofaromatic and medicinal plants.

Close to 100 endemic medicinal plants, some

of which are hrghly endangered, have been

identified and documented in traditional phar-

macopoeia, (FAO, 1996). There is concern in

relation to the use and conservation ofmedicinal

plants in Mauritius since nearly 30 medicinal

plants are endangered, threatened or nearly

extilct as a result of over harvesting ln the wild

(Gurib-Fakim, 2004).

In Sao Tome and PrinciPe, some hun-

dred different orchids such as Angrae-

cum doratophyllum, Cribbia pendula

are on display in the Bom Sucesso

botanical garden of Obo National Park.

To counteract the scarcity of informa-

tion and the frustrations in accessing

such information, an undertaken study

established a list ofthe orchids in the

archipelago of Sao Tome (100 species)

and Principe (65 species) with relevant

details concerning their ecology, their

distribution and frequency of occur-

rence (St6var1, 1999)'.

About 350 folk medicinal and aro-

matic plants are widely used through-

out Sao Tome and Principe in the form

of whole herbs, extracts and powders

to treat a variety of ailments (Martins

et al., 2003).

Seychelles is an archipelago comprised

ofgranitic and coralline islands. Seychelles

has a rich variety ofplant life. Seventy five

species of plants are used medicinally

(FAO, 1995). Aromatic and fragrant spe-

cies such as Eucalyptus citriodora, the

ginger lily - Hedychium coronarium, wild

ginger- Zingiber zerumbet and cardamom

- Elettaria cardamomum exist.

l

l

.:

)l

:.:

:l

l-t

)

:

It

S

:

.I

I

:)

'l

Cape Verde

Comoros

Guinea-Bissau2

HaEives

Sao Tofi€ andhincipeSqtd|elles

Borreria vefticillata

Cymbopogoncitratus

Jatropha curcas

Psidium guajava

Dolabella auricularia

Ecte i n a s cid i a t u rb i n ata

Euphorbia prostrata

Ficus thonningii

Lantana camara

Sida rhombifolia

Adansonia digitata

Calotropis procera

Cochlospermumtinctorium

Guiera senegalensis

Hymenocardia acida

Leptadenia lancifolia

Parkia globosa

Pi liostigm a th on n i ngi i

Securidacalongipedunculata

Prosopis africana

Ricinus communis

Aerva lanata

Punica granatum

Rosa grandiflora

Eryngium foetidum

Commelinabenghalensis

Lodoicea maldivica

Locotane

Chali

Physic nut

Gorbeira

Sea slug

Tunicate(sea squirt)

FUtanl

FUtanl

Djandere

Fulani (gelode)

Coron-conde

safarodje

nere

barquedje

djuro

Tchelem-tchelemadje

Aamanaka

Hudhu huypilaa

Annaaru

Finifena

Herbe cochon

Double coconut

Euphorbiaceae

Myrtaceae

Aplysiidae

Perophoridae

Euphorbiaceae

Moraceae

Verbanaceae

Malvaceae

Bombacaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Cochlospermaceae

Combretaceae

Hymenocardiaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Mimosaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Polygalaceae

Mimosaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Amaranthaceae

Punicaceae

Rosaceae

Apiaceae

Commelinaceae

I Arecaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Purgative, soap

Intestinal parasites

Anti-cancer

Anti-cancer(Esteinascidin 743)

Balm for vertebral column Pains

Balm for vertebral column Pains

Brucellosis; diuretic agent

Acne and arthritis

Urogenital infections

Sinusitis, influenza3

Liver cirrhosis

Catarrh, tuberculosis

Skin wounds

Sexually-transmitted diseases

Anti-infl ammation agent

Arthritis

Skin wounds

A nti-i nfl am matio n ; and a nti'afthitic agent

Constipation, diabetes mellitus

Urinary infections

Diarrhea, cholera

Boils, stress, heart disease

Anti-inflammatory agent

Anti-inflammatory drug to

calm abdominal pains and intreatment of dysentery

Drug (not used for several

decades)

Pharmacological agentSecamone schimpeiana Milkweed

2I3 : Prelude Medicinals Database4 (2005)

Table 1 Traditional medicinals of plant and marine origin used in African and Indian Ocean lslands

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Table 2. Traditional medicines used in the islands of the Caribbean region

Antigua andBarbuda

Bahamas

Barbados

Cuba

Dominica

DominicanRepublic

Grenada

Jamaica

St.Kitts and Nevis

St Lucia

St Vincent and theGrenadines

Trinidad andTobago

Botanical GardensofAntigua andBarbuda

HydroforaGardens

AndromedaGardens

INIFAT); and JuanTomas Roig stationfor medicinal plants

D'AuchampsGardens; BotanicalGradens Roseau(?)

National Parkof Sierra deBahoruco;Jaragua NationalPark; JardinBotanico NacionalRaphael MocosoHUeilO'

Grand EtangNational Park;

HopeGardens

Brimstone HillFortress NationalParks

Botanical Gardensof Nevis

DiamondBotanical

Achyranthes indicaAri sto loch i a tri I ob ata

Jacaranda caeruleaPhyllanthusntrun

Croton flavens

Euphorbia hida

Brosimum alicastrum

Talauma plumieri

Passiflora lauriflora

Richeria grandis

Boerhaavia erecta

Hyptis vefticillata

Cassia alata

Ricinus communis

Euphorbia hiftaSmilax officinalis

Asclepias curassavicaSpondias mombinAlamanda cathaftic

Exostema sanctae-tuctae

Herbe au Diable Lamiaceae

man-better-manSx slxty-s/x

CancerBushChanca piedra

Milkweed

Caucho macho

MaranonDe La Maestra

basique

Pomme diBolsbande

Patagon

Ringworm bushCastor oil plant

Pempe

Sasparilla

Milky-milkyHog plum

Yellow bell

Chinchona

Yellow thistlePhysic nut

Wild senna

Karilla

Amaranthaceae

Aristolochiaceae

Bignoniaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Moraceae

Magnoliaceae

Passifloraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Smilaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Anacardiaceae

Apocyanceae

Rubiaceae

Asteraceae

Papaveraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Colds; diabetes andhypertensionFever, diabetes andhypertension

Skin cancers

Laxative, vermifuge

Coughs and colds

Excrescence

Anticancer agent (Uterus)

Astringent

Used as sedative

Used as Aphrodisiac

Asthma

Headache

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pean-Trinidadians and Toboggans has

been the subject ofa detailed survey in

the control and treatment of diabetes

in Trinidad and Tobago (Mahabir and

Gulliford, 1997). Some 100 different

medicinal plants were reported to

have been used as bush medicines by

o\ er 600 people affiicted with diabetes

mellirus. An interesting finding of the

sun e\. ildicated that several medicinal

plant remedies used by the Indo-Fijian

ptpulation in Fiji u'ere also mentioned

t'1 the Trinidadian and Toboggans ofhdian origin in Trinidad and Tobago

thu-i ctnfirming the strong influence

Br-rtES gttl_J3:hiu-al iocation of cultural

beliefs and traditions in the use ofbush

medicines.

The use of medicinal plants is not

confined to humans alone. Ethnom-

edicines have been used by hunters to

treat themselves as well as their hunt-

ing dogs. Plant baths and decoctions, in

preference to conventional medicines

that involve the use of steroids, antibi-

otics and enzymatic applications (e.g.

ananase from the PineaPPle Ananas

comosus), have been used in Dominica

and Trinidad and Tobago to counteract

the ill-effects of external perasites, to

treat wounds caused by snakebites,

scorpion stings and other similar inju-

Ringworm

Laxative; anti-diabetic agent

Warts

Anticancer agent

Guineaworm and ringwormDiarrhea and dysenterySkin infections, ringworm

Fever

Colds

Anticancer agent

Ringworm:PurgativeMalaria; diabetes

ries encountered as occupational haz-

ards, and even to neutralize the demor-

alizing effects of witchcraft (Lans et

al., 2000, 200 1). More recently, there

has been an assessment of medicinal

herb use amongst asthmatic patients

in a Trinidadian healthcare facility(Clement et al., 2005).

Dance is an art form in Yap. Through

dance, legends are passed down,

history is recorded and entertainment

is created. The dances olYaP are

raucous, colourful and well-

orchestrated. Dancers Perform a

traditional dance dress.

Gardens; Mamiku Pluchea odorata

Gardens

Kingshill Argemone mexicana

Forest ReseNe Jatropha multifida

Ministry of Agri- Cassia alata

culture, LandMarineResources Momordicacharantia(MALMR)

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in cropping systems and animal hus-

bandry production systems.

Yling-ylang an important compo-

nent of essences and perfumes, clovers,

and vanilla are of significance in the

market economy of Comoros which

ranks amongst the world's top two or

three producers of scents and spices.

These valuable exports in the foreign-

exchange eamings of Comoros, though

significant, are nevertheless vulnerable

to the varying market demands and

climatic influences such as cyclonic

and marine pollution disasters.

The aqueous extracts ofTchunfki - the

local name for Securidaca longipedun-

culata, are used in religious rites by

the Balanta people in the island com-

munity of Guinea-Bisseau (Samorini,

1996). This plant used either singly

or in combination with other plants in

the African continent - for example

in Ethiopia by the Shimsha people

against tuberculosis and gonorrhea, in

Malawi to induce 'spiritual possession'

(Hargreaves, 1986) and in SouthAfrica

by the Ikung people 'as medicine forpeople possessed by evil spirits'(Win-

kleman and Dobkin de Rios, 1989)

- has been reported as extremely toxic

leading to death (Samorini, 1996).

The situation with Madagascar and

Mauritius is more promising. Plants offood value and income (inclusive ofaromatic spices and scents) are many

(Walter, 2001). Bakerella hoyifoliaand Erythroxylum laurifolium possess

economic potential as herbal remedies.

Examples are: the fruits of Cycas

officinalis (Comoros), Lodoicea mal-

divica (Seychelles), wild coffee Coffea

vaughanii (Mauritius); the Malagasy

clove - Syzygium aromaticum (Mada-

gascar); cinnamon Cinnamomum

aromaticum (Seychelles) and vanilla

- Vanilla planifolia (Madagascar,

Comoros and the French territory ofReunion).

The omamental plants Hibiscus lilii-fl orus and Trochetia boutoniana (Mau-

ritius)- the fern tree Cyathea sp., Ficus

sp-- r'arious orchids and the aquatic

plant Aponogeton sp. (Madagascar)

are important sources of foreign-

exchange income. Annual exportation

of some 276 000 ornamental plants

has been estimated at US$100 000.

The national omamental plant income

amouhts to 40 percent. The occurrence

and identification of over 600 aromatic

and medicinal plants in Mauritius and

Rodrigues Island along with their

corresponding ethnobotanical, phy-

tochemical, relevant pharmacologi-

cal and antimicrobial data have been

inventoried and compiled within the

framework of collaboration by the Uni-

versity of Mauritius, the Indian Ocean

Commission and the European Union

(Gurib-Fakim er al., 1994).

Exportation of medicinal plants from

Madagascar has been documented for

Drosera madagascariensis, Centella

asiatica, Catharanthus roseus, Eugenia

sp. Harongana madagascariensis.

Hazunta sp. Medemia nobilis, Voa-

canga thouarsii, Satrana madinika,

Moringa sp. and Prunus africana.

In 1993, exportation of 300 tons ofPrunus africana bark was estimated

at US$1.4 million and exportation ofCatharanthus roseus roots and aerial

parts amounts to 1000 tons.

In Sao Tome and Principe, traditional

healers use a variety of medicinal plants

to combat a number of ailments such

as common colds and sinusitis (Table

l). Traditional stew intakes use sev-

eral different aromatic and medicinal

plants in the daily sustenance ofgood

health and a good-feel healthy status.

Izaquente prepared from the seeds ofTreculia Africana - African breadfruit

is one such example that is used to treat

coughs, fever and anemia. Medicinal

plant products have long been used

as antimalarials by traditional healers.

Extracts from medicinal plants have

been examined for their antimalarial

protection against Plasmodium falci-

parum and P. berghei (Madureira et al.,

1999). Otherplants such as Pycnanthus

angolensis and Morinda citrifolia used

in traditional medicine haile also been

assessed for their antimalarial activity(Ancolio etaI.,2002).

In Seychelles, there exist several

medicinal and ornamental plant spe-

cies of potential market significance.

Endemic plants with medicinal prop-

erties are Erythroxylon sechellarum,

Plectranthus aromatica, Lodoicea

maldivica and Secamone schimperi-

ana. Market-oriented omamental plants

are Begonia sechellensis, Impatiens

gordonii, Dracaena reflexa, Angraecum

eburneum and Vanilla. phalaenopsis.

About 350 medicinal and aromatic

plants (Hamdy,2004) found in the

Indian Ocean islands of Comoros

and Seychelles have been described

with their distribution, pharmacology,

chemistry and use in traditional medi-

cine along with the chemical formulae

of the active compounds (Gurib-Fakim

and Brendler,2004). An inventory of59 medicinal plants in Comoros exists

in the Preludea database. An FAO

estimate indicates that there are 250

to 500 plants with curative properties

in the Seychelles which after survey

and analysis could necessitate the

establishment of a national data bank

conceming species distribution, chemi-

cal and pharmaceutical properties and

ethno-botanical knowledge. Plants

that are categorized as of'endangered

status' resulting from over-harvesting

and market exploitation in the Indian

Ocean islands are: Dracaena draco

(Cape Verde), Catharanthus coriaceus

(Madagascar), Lodoicea maldivicaand Toxocarpus schimperianus (Sey-

chelles).

Arab States

Recently at the Bahrain Garden Fair

(BGF) the beauty of the Bahrain rose

was in prominence in a traditional

Arabic courfyard. On-site workshops

in the fair's rose garden at the Bah-

raini intemational centre, focused on

Achafas - professional braiders dem-

onstrating their skills by braiding girls'

hair with rose buds and materials, and

women grinding petals for use in the

making of rose water, medicinal herbs

and perfumes (Ton, 2005). Another

feature of the fair was the revela-

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nal plants of economic significance as

new industrial crops are conserved and

maintained in the botanical gardens ofthe Athalassa government nursery. lncurrent times, the rising cost of allo-

pathic healthcare is paralleled with the

market demand for prescription-free

phytopharmaceutical s from medicinal

plants and herbs that are increasingiy

being regarded as new industrial crops6

lAkkelidou et al., 2004).

The Maltese islands constitute an apt

example where medicinal plants are

widely used in everyday life as part ofculinary practice and folk medicinal

remedies (Lanfranco, 1992). Buzbiez(Foeniculum vulgare) and Fidloqqom

(Boragio offi cinalis) commonly known

as fennel and borage respectively are

two such examples. Several examples

of folklore rnedicinal herbs in the

Argotti Herbarium ofthe University ofMalta have been exhibited for public

viewing as a means of sustainingprivate, public and pursuit scientific

interest in the medicinal flora of Malta(Table 3). Research studies indicate

that several aromatic and medicinal

plants in Malta are of potential sig-

nificance in socio-economic context

of the island.

Latin America and the Caribbean

The Caribbean region known for itscalypsos and cricketing excellence

is comprised of many sma11 islands

that are diversity-rich in piant genetic

resources. There are many botanicals

of socio-economic significance. Aro-

matic, medicinal. spice and omamental

species are widespread throughout

the region and are conserved and

maintained either in well-established

national botanical reserves or gene

banks of plant genetic resources

(Table 2). Other natural products are

edible, non-edible and essential oils.

Antigua and Barbuda participated

in a sexennial project on the economic

biology of under-exploited tropical

plants (EUBTROP) two decades ago

with a focus on the development ofherbaria; databases; phytochemical

studies on medicinal plants to safe-

guard against the loss of traditional

knowledge and medicine: and. toexplore through research underutilized

plant resources for their economic

potential as sources of food and medi-

cines (OAS, 1990). Today, the imporl,

market availability and monitoring

and sale of medicinal plants with local

and scientific names are regulated by

the country's Pharmacy Council. The

conserrlation and maintenance of orna-

mental and medicinal plants is foreseen

for continuation in the rehabilitation

of the 112-year old Botanical Garden.

Several medicinal plants are of tour-

ist interests and exporl significance.

Dried bark of Croton eleuteria used in

the preparation of digestive teas and

exported to Italy occurs in abundance

in the Eleuthera Island of the Bahamas.

A source ofcascarilla a spicy resin

and a fragrance, it is used in infusions

to treat coughs and other ailments.

Kalanchoe tea derived from Kalanchoe

pinnata and Gamalamee 21 Gun Salute

Bush Tea - the aphrodisiac bush tea or

tourist tea obtained from Bursera sima-

ruba are popular with tourists.

As a result of the 1989 politicallandscape change in Europe, Cuba

embarked on the establishment of8000 organic gardens and over 200

green-based biotechnology institutes

to help sustain urban agriculture and

ensure national food security. The suc-

cess of the province of Cienfuegos as

the 'urban agriculture'capital of Cuba

results from the nation-wide provision

of accessible low-cost quality-control-

led biofertilizers, insect biocontrol

agents and biopesticides. One amongst

the few countries in the lvorld with a

command-market economy in lieu ofa free-market economy, Cuba has a

beehive biotechnology industry that

results from some 220 biotech insti-

futest2 and research centres with 30,000

plus workers that produces about 200

biotechnology products for export to

over 50 countries. Similar success

is envisaged with the research being

conducted with traditional medicinal

plants (Acosta de Luz et al., 2000;

Fuentes Fiallo,2001).

In the Caribbean region a variety

of herbal teas that are recommended

or administered by curanderas who

are generally well-meaning women

believed to possess some acquired

spiritual healing power in the use ofherbal-based medicinal balms and

rub-on potions. In village and tribal

Table 3 Research studies on medicinal plants in Malta"

Scientific name Research-targeted Molecule(s) Remarks

Ecballium elaterium Cucurbitacins

Crataegus monogyna Oleanolic acid

Drimia maritima Glycoside

Of significance in inhibiting ovarianand stomach cancer cell groMh

Potential Angiotensin-convertingenzyme inhibitor

Only Maltese plant that was exported;Used in cardiac malfunction; Now an

endangered species as a result of lossof rural areas to urban developmentisuccessfully regenerated throughmicropropagation

Anthelminthic agent in caninetreatment of significance in veterinarymedicine

Used in cardiac malfunction

Used in traditional medicine as an

astringent, urinary antiseptic anddiuretic; skincare health products nowbeing developed containing glycolic

actd

Used as a sedative, pain killer;authorized medical approval requiredpnor to use

Effective against gastrointestinal

lnfectioni reported to possess anti-cancer (breast) properties

Possesses culinary and medicinalpropertres

Cucurbita maxima

Nerium oleander

Erica multiflora

Hyoscyamus albus

t,t2n21i;gs charantia

Essential oils

Glycoside

Glycolic acididentified as active diureticcomponent

Hyoscyamine alkaloids

Lectins

Secondary metabolitesflavonoids, lerpenoids

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25 percent of the world production

and around 40 percent ofthe country's

export revenue. In the last two decades,

there has been a downturn in exports

and foreign-exchange earnings that

results from decreased world demand

for raw nutmeg and market competi-

tion with other producing countries.

In Jamaica, Pimenta racemosa, an

ingredient of perfumes is used as a fla-

vouring agent in cooking and as body

tonifier in baths. On the other hand,

Grenada's vast natural resource ofvir-tually untapped indigenous medicinal

plants, herbs and ornamentals provides

opportunities for market diversifica-

tion e.g. with cinnamon, cloves and

cocoa. Furthefinore, the establishment

ofa banana tissue culture laboratory a

decade ago is of potential economic

relevance in the production of edible

vacclnes.

Trinidad and Tobago, by virtue of its

peoples, its diverse societal customs,

and proficiency in the use oftraditional

medicinal knowledge, is the natural

repository of cultural inheritances

from earlyAfrican, Chinese, European,

Indian and Middle Eastern migrants.

This legacy of medicinal knowledge

is evident in the large number ofendemic naturalized medicinal and

aquatic plants that are of contemporary

economic and landscaping significance

in market-oriented activities and the

development of ornamental ponds.

Facilities for the conservation,maintenance and evaluation of aquatic,

cosmetic. medicinal, and ornamen-

tal plants of economic significance

have been established in Trinidadand Tobago. These are managed and

monitored by the Ministry of Agri-culture, Land and Marine Resources

(MALMR) in an interactive and 'net-

working' mechanism of conservation

of plant genetic resources in several

institutional, academic and commercial

facilities such as the ministry's agricul-

rural sen ices, the Eastern Caribbean

Instirute of Agriculture and Forestry

rECI-\I l. the Cocoa Research Insti-

rute- Caroni Ltd. and the Universitv

of the West Indies. Activities of field

genebanks are carried out within the

facilities of the MALMR, the UWIand Caroni Ltd.

MALMR has several important

ongoing plant biodiversity programs

Such as 1) the development and main-

tenance of a germplasm bank of spices

and herbs; 2) development and main-

tenance of floriculture germplasm to

feed 'cut flowers' market demand; 3)

ex-situ conservation of endangered

and rare medicinal plants;4) landscape

management; and 5) initiation ofpublic

awareness programs to inculcate an

appreciation of green box technology

in the conservation and management

of the environment.

In recent times the Caribbean region

has witnessed a number of initiatives in

relation to medicinal plants that range

from a series of stock-taking and for-

ward-looking international conferences

to some entrepreneurial initiatives and

educational activities (Table 4).

The Pacific

Traditional herbal medicines have been

used in all the Pacific islands since

time immemorial, and, have been rec-

ognized as part of the culture and way

of life. Examples of area locations ofthe culture, customs and traditional

resource management practices of the

Pacific island communities are: 'Mo'

areas in the Republic of the Marshall

Islands, 'ra'ui' in the Cook Islands,

'tabu' areas in Fiji and 'tapu' and

'fono'areas in Niue. These traditional

area locations are repositories of rich

medicinal plant diversity that are har-

nessed to conserve the healthcare needs

of the island communities in the Pacific

region GTNEP, 2005).

Kava in the Pacific island countries

is widely consumed as a medicinal, a

ceremonial drink and as an anti-stress

beverage. Prior to the ban of kava in

Europe and the USA ( DaSilva et al.,

2004) annual revenue of export sales

in the Pacific region amounted to € 50

million p.a. In Vanuatu, Kava foreign-

exchange amount to 20 per cent. Kava-

kava is of ceremonial, social, ritual and

health significance in island culture

is widely consumed throughout the

Pacific island communities. Offered as

a mark of warm welcome of neighbour-

ing tribal chiefs, kava has been used as

a ceremonial drink at village weddings,

as a beverage that tones down in ten-

sions in conflict situations resulting in

the inducement of empathy and good-

will and as a folk medicine that makes

the unbearable bearable.

Medicinal plants and herbal rem-

edies aka as bush medicines are widely

popular with the middle-income strata

of the populations of the island com-

munities as in the Caribbean resion.

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Table 5 The Socio'Cultural Appreciation and

Caution of Traditional Medicine and Healers

Source Quotes of Appreciation and Caution

African proverb Do not adore the smoothness of the bitter-apple: it is acrid jnside

When a knowledgeable old person dies, a whole library

orsappears

Garlics, though used by the French are better adapted to the

uses of medicine than cookery

Attributed to Avicenna There are no non-healing herbs - only the lack of knowledge

Apocrypha, Ecclesiasticus, Honor the healer for his services,

Chaoter 38 for the Lord created himHis skill comes from the Most High,

and he is rewarded by kingsThe healer's knowledge gives him high standing

and wins him the admiration of the greatThe Lord has created medicines from the earth,

and a sensible man will not disparage them

l\/uch virtue /ls) in Herbs, little in men

Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean: wash me, and I shall

be whiter than snow

The garden is the poor man's apothecary

Botany and medicine came down the ages hand in hand until

the seventeenth century; then both arts became scientific, their

ways parted, and no new herbals were compiled The botanical

books ignored the medicinal properties of plants and the

medical books contained no plant lore

Let thy kitchen be thy apothecary; and, Let foods be your

medicine

An old-fashioned vegetable soup, without any enhancement, is a

more powerful anticarcinogen than any known medicine

Hold fast to the treasures of the ancestors

For they are that have been handed down to us by God

Aromatic plants bestow No spicy fragrance while they grow; But

crush'd or trodden to the ground, Diffuse their balmy sweets

around

I firmly believe that if the whole materia medica could be sunk to

the bottom of the sea, it would be all the better for mankind and

all the worse for the fishes

Like the breadfruit of Kayangel, just one rotten piece will spoil

the whole bunch

The strangers'treatments will work for the strangers' illnesses

and the Samoan treatments for the Samoan illnesses

Learn'd he was in medic'nal lore,

For by his side a pouch he wore,

Replete with strange hermetic powder

That wounds nine miles point-blank would solder

Thy Lord taught the BeeTo build its cells in hills.On trees and in man's habitations;Then to eat of all

The produce of the earthFrom within their bodies comes a drink of varying colors,

Wherein is healing for mankind

"This herb, born of honey, dripping honey, sweet honey, honied,

is the remedy for injuries; moreover it crushes insects"

Trust not the physician, His antidotes are poison

scented flowers. The investigation ofthe medicinal value of orchids as a

source of traditional medicines (Kong

et al.. 2003) is of concem to conser-

\ ationists who fear that these plants

ri ili soon be considered as endangered

sl-cies as a result of demands in the

3\rariing markets ofnew sources of:-::, n3,i1alnes.

Similarities exist in the use of plant

medicines across geographical dis-

tances as women 'doctors' are more

engaged than their male counterparts

in the practice of Aboriginal, African

and Caribbean island traditional medi-

cine. As concerns mode[n diseases

like HIV/AIDS, traditional healers are

in demand which eventually adds to

their attainment of high social status

in urban societies.

Traditional medicine is an integral

and indisputable component of the

daily economic, political and culture

life ofPacific islanders (Parsons, 1 985)

It constitutes the response of simple

island communities cut off from the

mainstream of advanced technologies

and medical care to illnesses that inter-

fere with social, economic, political

and religious activities. Finau (1994)

in his consideration of traditional

medicinal knowledge used in treating

illnesses within the social and physical

environments of a society identified

the following three precepts in the

practice of traditional medicine of the

Pacific islands:. Social interactive communication

and acceptance through the use oftime-honored rituals that reinforce

social relationships and strengthen

bonding between related and diverse

groups (Parsons, 1984),

o Interactive bonding through 'gifts'

of financial significance bestowed

before, during and after treatment;

and which in some cases Providelivelihood means for families (Finau,

I 98 1),

. Reliance on a verbal pharmaco-

poeia and storehouse of traditional

knowledge about plants, animals,

beliefs, seasons, religions etc that

perpetuates and that reinforces the

imponance of these parameters in

society and the interrelationships ofits constituents (Whistler, 1 985).

In comparison to the regions of the

Caribbean and the Pacific islands,

documented information and reports

concerning the African islands and

the Maldives (Table 1) are scantY,

scarce, and inaccessible. Landlocked

developing countries in the African

and Asian continent seemingly fare

much better in coverage by the public

and technical press. Notwithstanding

that small islands like those found

in the Indian Ocean and elsewhere

are often porlrayed as attractions of

Amelia Simmons

Benjamin Franklin

Bible Psalm 51;7

German Proverb

Hilda Leyel(leading expert on herbalism)

Hippocrates

James Duke M D

Maori saying

Oliver Goldsmith

Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.

Palauan proverb

Samoan saying

Samuel Butler in poem

HudibrasEnglish poet and satirist

Qur'an, Surah XVI: 68 - 69

Vedas: Hymns of the Atharva-Veda2l

William Shakespeare

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fumery html)

Walter S 2001. Non-wood Forest Products in Africa:

A Regional and National Overview (http:/iwwwfao.

org/documents/show_cdr asp?url_fi le=/D0CREP/003/

Y151SB/y1515b08 htm)

Whistler, WA, 1985. Traditional and herbal medicine

in the Cook lslands Journal of Ethnopharmacology,

Vol 13(3):239.

Winkleman, lV and Dobkin de RIOS, M, 1989 Psycho-

active propefties of lkung Bushmen Medicine Plants.

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, Vol 21: 51 -59.

World Health Organization (WH0). 2002. WHO Tradi-

tional lvedicine Strategy 2002 -2005, 62 pgs Geneva,

Switzerland: WHO/EDIV/TRI\4 2002

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Notes1 Further information may be obtained from:

a) Stevart T, 1998. Etude sur les orchiddes de S5o

Tomd et Principe. M6moire de licence, Universite libre

de Bruxelles, Laboratoire de botanique syst6matique

et de phytosociologie, 117 p + 191 p. annexes.

b) Stevart T. 1 999,Rapport de mission sur les orchid6es

de S5o Tom6 et Principe Projet ECOFAC (Conserva-

tion et utilisation rationnelle des 6cosystdmes forestiers

d'Afrique centrale), AGREC0-GElE, Bruxelles, 364 p2 Guinea Bissau land-bounded on the north by Senegal,

on the east and south by Guinea, and on the west by

the Atlantic Ocean includes about 60 offshore islands

amongst which are the nearby Bijagos (Bissagos) Ar-

chipelago and other islands in the Atlantic and amongst

which are encountered the Orange National Park, the

Joao Vieira & Poilao National Park and the Cantanhez

protected area Guinea-Bissau is included inthis article

as itis a memberof the Small lsland Developing States

Nehvork (SIDSNET) and oftheAlliance ofSmall lsland

States (AOSIS),

3 Several plant species (1) - Cassia sieberiana (Fam-

ily name (FN): Caesalpiniaceae), local name (LN):

Sambasintche-andje); (2) - Dichrostachys glomerata

(FN: lvlimosaceae; LN: Burle); (3) - Entada abyssinic

(FN: Mimosaceae; LN: Fulani) and (4) - Erythrina

senegalensis (FN: Mimosaceae; LN: Fulani) are used

in treatment of sinusitis and influenza,

' Prelude (Programme for Research and Link between

Universities for Development), recognized by UNESCO

and updated January 26, 2005, is an initiative ofthe Belgian Directorate Generale for Development Cooperation

IGDC, in collaboration with the Belgian Royal Museum

':' ?+".:a Afnca (RMCA) that concerns the use of

::--= ^ :adrtional human and veterinary medicines;

a-,: A- - s "keC tothe propnetarydatabase softlvare

www metafro be ofthe N4etadata African Organization

The Prelude database deals with the use of about 1 900

plants in traditional veterinary and human medicine in

more than 13000 recipes from Sub-Saharan Africas The National biodiversity and Action Plan of the Mal-

dives was developed by the Ministry of Home Affairs,

Housing and the Environment (IVHAHE) with support

from the United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) and the Global Envifonmental Facility (GEF)

within the framework of the following projects:

a) National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and

Action Plan and Report to the CBD including Clearing

Housing lVechanisms (CHNI) - project No: 649; and,

b) Atoll ecosystem-based conservation of globally

significant biological diversity in the l\4aldives' Baa Atoll

- project No: 1 0446 Report from the Republic of Cyprus in framework of

INFORRMa-|ENlCAb project funded under the Fifth

Framework Programme by DG Xll of the European

Commission

a) INFORRM = Industry Network for Renewable Re-

sources and lVlaterials

b) IENICA = Interactive Eurooean Network for Industrial

Crops and their Applications7'El Proyecto Mediano TRAN4IL-UNEP titulado:

Conservacion de la Bioversidad e Integracion del

Conociemento Tradicional de Plantas Medicinales a las

Politicas de Attencion Pdmaria de Salud en Centroa-

merica y Caribe'es ejecutado por enda-caribe, trav6s

del Programa TRAMIL (GFL/271 3-01 -4356)'8 Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ol

historical, cultural and architectural sjgnifl cance.s The Asian Development Bank provided assistance

in 2000 towards the oreoaration of the Mastet

S&T plan that was finalized in draft form in 2001

for consideration of deliberation and adoption10 Squalene is used as a bactericide, an intermediate in the

manufacture of pharmaceuticals and aromatics, Nowadays

it is extensively used as an additive in phafmaceutical

preparations, cosmetics and health foods As squalane it is

also used in skin care products, as it is a natural emollient

and is considered to be efficient in healing wounds and in

prevent,ng the multiplication of bacteriar1 Adapted from Research reports -Aromatic and Medici-

nal Plants, Institute of Agriculture, University of lVlalta

(http J/www.home um edu mUioa/amp,html)12Does not include Cenke for Genetic Engineering and

Biotechnology (CIGB) a globally recognized institute at

Havana as one of the world's best biopharmaceutical

research institutes outside the US and Europe, and

which has a staff of about 700 people nor the Centro

Nacional de Biopreparados (Bl0CEN), Instituto Cados

D Finlay, Centro de Inmunoensayo (ClE), and the Centro

de Inmunologia Molecular (ClM) BI0CEN for example,

markets 55 products complying with lS0 standards,

Four production facilities of the Finlay institute supply

Cuba and customers from developing countries with

vaccines and sera and there are 82 CIE labs: some of

them located in the former Soviet Union. Ghana, Brazil

and Colombia Moreover, Cuba through a generous

biennial donation to UNESCO makes possible the award

by UNESCO of the Carlos Finlay Prize in Microbiology

- the only prize in the UN System for this discipline13 The Caribbean Association of Researchers and Herbal

Practitioners was established in 1998 to ensure that

all Caribbean national authoritres recoqnize that some

medicinal olants oossess. therapeutic properties in treating and preventing

disease in humans and animals. supportthe emergence ofa safe sustainable medicinal

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