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BASICS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
TIMBER IRON
STEEL
TIMBER
Oldest form of materials used in construction
Also used for other needs of human beings
Timber is obtained from trees
World timber is derived from the English world timbrian which means to build
Timber means wood that is good for building or carpentary which is having a circumference of 600mm
Converted timber means timber which is sawn into suitable commercial sizes
Rough timber means timber obtained after felling a tree
Standing timber means timber contained in a living tree
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER• Uniform colour• A Freshly Cut Surface should give a sweet smell• Regular annual rings• Straight and close fibers• Heavy in weight.• Durable• Possesses the property of elasticity• Fire resistant• Hard• Should be strong for working as a structural
member
USES OF TIMBER
Used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door window frames
Used for flooring, ceiling, paneling, and construction of partition walls
Used for formwork of concrete, centering for arch work, scaffolding, transmission pole and fencing
Wagon and coach building, marine installations and bridges
THE POWER OF TREE
It precipitates rainfall and lowers temperature
It prevents depletion of ozone layer It prevents soil erosion It purifies the air by producing oxygen .
It is estimated that a hectare of tree will produce about 10 tonnes of oxygen per day which is sufficient for 45 persons to live for one year
CLASSIFICATION OF TREE
TREES ARE CLASSIFIED AS ABOVE
Exogenous trees grow outwards and increase in bulk by forming concentric rings from the Centre. Outside rings are called annual rings as it grows per year
Exogenous trees are again classified into conifers and deciduous
Conifers are evergreen trees the leaves of which do not fall till a new ones are grown
They produce cone shaped fruits they are called conifers
They show distinct annual rings
• Deciduous trees- leaves fall in autumn and new ones appear in spring season
• Timber for engineering derive these type of trees
• These trees yield hard wood • They do not show distinct annual rings
example ,teak, jackwood, rosewood etc• Endogenous trees grows inward and fibrous
mass is seen in their longitudinal section– Very limited engineering use example
bamboo,cane,palm
CROSS- SECTION OF EXOGENOUS TREE
PARTS OF A TREE
1. Pith- innermost central portion of the tree is called pith. It contains cellular tissues and nourishes the plant in its younger age and when the plant becomes aged it dies
2. Heart wood –inner angular rings surrounding the pith constitutes the heart wood , usually dark in colour, it indicates dead portion of the tree and does not take part any role in the growth of tree
3. Sap wood –outer annual rings surrounding the pith constitutes the sap wood , it is light in colour and weight, it indicates recent growth , it takes active part in the growth of tree
4. Cambium layer-thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark are known as cambium layer. It indicates sap which are not converted into sap wood
5. Inner bark –inner layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark
6. Outer bark-outer cover of the tree is known as outer bark
7. Medullary layer- thin radial fibers extending from the pith to cambium layer is known as medullary rays
PROCESSING OF TIMBER
Felling of tree Seasoning of timber Conversion of timber Preservation of Timber
SEASONING OF TIMBER
• When a tree is cut , it contains about 50 % more of its weight as water . removal of this water is known as seasoning
• The timber is to be dried for attaining this • Seasoned timber should be kept away from
moisture content and from humidity
OBJECTIVES OF SEASONING
1. To allow the timber to burn if used as a fuel
2. To decrease the weight
3. To impart hardness ,stiffness, strength and better electrical resistance
4. To increase the resistance power of timber
5. To maintain shape and size
6. To make it easily workable and to facilitate operations during conversion
7. To make it fit for receiving treatment
8. To make it safe against attack of fungi
9. To make it easy for gluing
10. To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp
Methods of Seasoning of timber
Natural seasoning
Artificial seasoning
NATURAL SEASONING(AIR)
Timber is cut into planks or scantling They are stacked horizontally or vertically The ground for stack is to be leveled Brick support is constructed and over
which it is to be kept The timber logs are arranged in layers on
above the other as shown in figure. The timber of equal size should be kept in each stack
Each layer should be separated by spacers . Size of spacers should be 35mm*25mm to 50mm*35mm
The distance between the spacers depends on the size of the wood
The length of stack depends on the length of timber pieces
Stack to be protected from fast flowing wind, rain , extreme heat or sun . So it should be covered
NATURAL SEASONING
ADVANTAGES
The moisture content of wood can be brought down to about 10 to 20%.
It does not require skilled supervision For thicker sections, artifical seasoning is
uneconomical where natural seasoning can be adopted.
Cheap and simple
DISADVANTAGES
Less control over air The drying of different surfaces will not
be even or uniform Chance of attack by fungi and insects
during seasoning.
ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
To make the drying more uniform and even, by controlled conditions, artificial seasoning is adopted
It reduces the time for seasoning shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized in artificial seasoning.
The wood with desired moisture content may be obtained by this.
ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
The various methods used are, Boiling Chemical Seasoning Electrical seasoning Kiln seasoning Water seasoning
1. BOILING
Immersed in water and then boiled for about 3 to 4 hours
Dried very slowly under a shed The periods of seasoning and
shrinkage are reduced In place of boiling steam is also
used but expensive
2. CHEMICAL SEASONING(SALT)
Immersed in solution of suitable salt Taken out and seasoned in the ordinary
way The interior surface dries in advance the
chances of formation of external cracks reduced
3.ELECTRICAL SEASONING
High frequency AC current is used The resistance increases as the wood
becomes more and more dry This is the most rapid method of
seasoning Initial maintenance cost is very high
4. KILN SEASONING
In this seasoning is carried out in a chamber Timber is arranged inside the chamber with space for
circulation of air Air which is fully saturated with moisture at 350 C to
380C admitted in to the chamber by some arrangement The forced air is allowed to circulate round the timber
as air is fully saturated with moisture the evaporation from the surface is prevented and the heat gradually reaches inside the timber pieces
The relative humidity is gradually reduced The temperature is then raised and maintained till the
desired degree of moisture content is reached
KILN SEASONING
WATER SEASONING
Timber is cut into small pieces They are immersed in water ,
preferably in running water Thicker end is pointing upstream Timber is taken out after 2 to 4
weeks and allowed to become dry
ADVANTAGES
Handling and transportation cost of wood can be reduced
Improve the Engineering properties of wood
Dimensional stability of finished products can be maintained
Eases the workability of timber Before the application of paints,
varnishes, preservatives ,glues etc. seasoning of wood is a prerequistite.
Sl no
item Natural seasoning
Artficial seasoning
1 Moisture content
Dificult to reduce below 15 to 18%
Can be reduced to any level
2 Nature Simple and economical
Expensive and technical
3 Quality of timber
More liable to attack by insects and fungi
Kiln seasoned timber are less liable for attacks
4 space Requires more space for stacking
Less space
5 Speed slow quick6 strength Stronger weaker
TIMBER DEFECTS
• Defects due to conversion• Defects due to fungi• Defects due to insects • Defects due to natural forces • Defects due to seasoning
DEFECTS IN TIMBERDEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
While converting in to commercial forms the following defects may occur
Chip mark- marking due to chips on the finished surface Diagonal grain-due to improper sawing of timber,
diagonal mark on the straight grain Torn grain-This defect is caused when small depression
is formed on the finished surface of the timber by falling a tool
wane – original rounded surface on the manufactured piece of timber
2)DEFECTS DUE TO FUNGI
Fungi are minute microscopic plant they attack only when certain conditions are satisfied
Moisture content of the timber above 20%
There is presence of warmth and air for the growth of fungi
Rot – physically weak Blue stain , brown rot, Dry rot, heart rot . Sap stain ,wet rot ,white rot
3. DEFECTS DUE TO INSECTS Beetles – insects having beating mouth, Due to
this timber is converted into fine flour like powder.
Marine borers- insects that bore the wood, found in salt water, timber loses colour and strength due to this.
Termites- these are also white ants, live in colonies and eat way the timber in different ways.
4)DEFECTS DUE TO NATURAL FORCES
Abnormal Growth Rupture of Tissues Most important is knot and shake
DEFECTS DUE TO NATURAL FORCES
Knots , shakes and rind gall(abnormal swelling)
Classification of knots(branches which are broken or cutoff from tree)
Dead knot- connected with surrounding wood- not safe to use for engineering purposes
decayed knot – due to fungi Live knot-sound knot- difficult to remove
- ,makes sawing difficult, can be used for Engineering purposes
Loose knot-preliminary stage of dead knot
Round knot-shape is round Tight knot-preliminary stage of live knot
2.Twisted fibers- happens due to twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind. - Fibres are twisted in one direction , not suitable
for engineering purposes.
3.Shakes –cracks which are partly or completely separate the fibers of wood
a) cup shakes
b) heart shakes
c) Ring shakes
d) Star shakes
e) Radial shakes
4.Water stain- wood is sometimes discoloured when it comes into contact with water, found in converted timber
5.Wind cracks- if wood is exposed into atmospheric agencies
-its exterior surface shrinks, results into cracks.
6. Rind galls- these develop at places from where branches are improperly cut.
-Swelling due to abnormal growth is the reason for this
-Timber at this part is very weak.
KNOT AND RIND GALL
SHAKES
RADIAL SHAKE AND TWISTED FIBRES
CUP SHAKE AND HEART SHAKE
SHAKES
DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING
Defects due to seasoning 1)bow- curvature formed in the direction of
length 2)case hardening-exposed surface dries up
speedily and the inside will be under tension 3)check-crack which separates fibers of wood 4)collapse-uneven shrinkage the wood
sometimes flattens during drying. 5) cup- curvature is formed in the transverse
direction 6)Honey combing-due to stresses developed
during drying various radial and circular cracks develop in the interior portion of the timber
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
Objective To increase the life To make it durable To protect the timber from attack
of destroying agents such as fungi and insects
TYPES OF PRESERVATIVES
1) Ascu treatment 2) Chemical salts 3) Coal tar 4) Creosote oil 5) Oil paints 6) Solignum paints
ASCU TREATMENT 1) Developed in forest research
institute Dehradun and consist of the following
Parts by weight of Arsenic pentoxide Parts by weight of copper sulphate The material available in powder form Six parts by weight of Ascu mixed in 100
parts by weight of water and applied in the wooden surface
2)CHEMICAL SALTS Water borne preservatives mostly salts
dissolved in water Commonly used are copper sulphate,
Mercuric chloride ,Sodium fluoride and Zinc chloride
COAL TAR
When coal tar is applied on the surface of wood it is called tarring
Unpleasant smell and appearance Adopted only for unimportant work Fire resistant
CREOSOTE OIL
Obtained by distillation of tar Process is as follows 1. Timber is thoroughly seasoned and
dried 2. It is then p laced in an air tight
chamber 3. Air is pumped out fro the chamber 4. Creosote oil is pumped in to the
chamber 5. After a period of about 1 or 2 hours
when timber is completely absorbed the oil it is to be taken out
OIL PAINTS
Timber surface is coated with 2 or 3 coats of oil paints
Oil paint preserve timber from moisture and make it durable
SOLIGNUM PAINTS These paints preserve timber from
white ants as they are toxic in nature Mixed with colour pigments and applied
with the help of a brush
METHOD OF PRESERVATION 1)Brushing- applying preservative by
using brush 2)Charring-kept wet for an half an hour
and then burning 3)Dipping and Steeping(Let sit in a
liquid to extract a flavor or to cleanse) 4) hot and cold open tank treatment 5) injecting under pressure 6) spraying
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF TIMBER Abnormalities of growth Faults in seasoning Invasion of insects Irregularities of grain Moisture content Presence of knot, shakes etc Way in which the timber piece is cut
from the log
DECAY OF TIMBER-CAUSES Alternate wet and dry condition Bad storage and stacking of timber Attack of fungi Improper seasoning Insects beetles ,marine borers, termites Keeping in contact with damp wall,
damp earth etc
Use of timber without taking out sap wood from the structure
use of seasoned timber without using preservative
Use of unseasoned wood with the application of protective of paint or tar