南太平洋研究 SOUTH PACIFIC STUDIEScpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/publications/southpacificstudies/sps/sps26-1/... · buprofezin (Sitara) IGR’s 25 % WP 1500gm 0.406 0.469 0.531

南　太　平　洋　研　究

SOUTH PACIFIC STUDIES

Vol. 26, No. 1 2005

Contents ( 目　次 )

Research PapersAbida NASREEN, Ghulam MUSTAFA and Muhammad ASHFAQ: Mortality of

Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) after exposure to some insecticides; laboratory studies ………………………………………… 1

Abida NASREEN, Ghulam Mustafa CHEEMA and Muhammad IQBAL: Relative Toxicity of Different Fungicides Against Larvae of Green Lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Chrysopidae: Neuroptera) …………………………… 7

KAWAI Kei: Beach Litter in Amami Islands, Japan ………………………………… 15

Yukiko INOUE: Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences: The Case of An American Pacific Island University ……………………………………… 25

MaterialMORIMOTO Rie: Democracy: How Commoners Voted in ‘Eua Island,

the Kingdom of Tonga ……………………………………………………… 35

Instructions for Contributors ……………………………………………………… 53

ISSN 0916-0752

Mortality of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) after exposure to some

insecticides; laboratory studies

Abida NASREEN1, Ghulam MUSTAFA1 and Muhammad ASHFAQ2

1: University College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan2: University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan

Abstract

Eight Insecticides viz. diafenthiuron, buprofezin, thiodicarb, imidacloprid, carbosulfan, methamidophos, acetamiprid, thiamethoxam were tested for their toxicity against predator Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) through leaf dip bioassay method under laboratory conditions. Insecticides were applied at three levels of concentration i.e., low (C1), recommended (C2), high (C3) in a completely randomized manner. Low (C1) and recommended (C2) concentrations of diafenthiuron and buprofezin were found harmless while high concentration of both insecticides was found slightly harmful after 24 hours exposure. Thiodicarb was harmless at lower concentration (C1) but slightly harmful at recommended (C2) and higher (C3) concentrations. Acetamiprid and thiamethoxam were moderately harmful at lower concentration (C1) whereas were toxic at recommended and higher concentrations. All insecticides, at all concentrations were found toxic after 48 hours except buprofezin and thiodicarb. Pupation rates were lowest (0.00 %) in the acetamiprid and highest (71.7 %) in the buprofezin treatmentKey words: Chrysoperla carnea, leaf dip bioassay, mortality, selective insecticides

Introduction

Presence and role of natural enemy in orchards, field crops and vegetables have been studied (DEAN and STERLING 1992) to reduce the use of insecticides and environmental pollution. Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) has received much attention as a potential biological control agent because of its geographical distribution (NEW 1975), its tolerance to some insecticide (HASSAN et al. 1985) and its relative ease of mass production.

Chrysoperla carnea is predominant species of green lacewing. C. carnea has green cylindrical body, transparent wings with light green veins, long filiform antennae, golden eyes and stalked eggs that offer protection from predation (PEDIGO 1989). Larvae of C. carnea is polyphagous, voracious feeder of cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover; corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (LINGREN et al. 1968); Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (NORDLUND et al. 1991). Effectiveness of C. carnea as a biological control agent has been demonstrated in a field crops, orchards, green house (HAGLEY and MILES 1987).

In spite of all these preciousness C. carnea with many other beneficial organisms have almost eliminated from field due to frequent use of non- selective insecticides. Scientist all over the world are now condemning use of synthetic, organic insecticides.

South Pacific Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

Received July 12, 2004Accepted July. 25, 2005

2 South Pacific Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

However these insecticides were effective when pests exceed economic thresholds level (ETL) and economic damaged occurred. But these insecticides have harmful effect on natural enemies. Now insecticides with novel mode of action have been developed to control pests of economic importance. These pesticides represent the beginning of new era in integrated pest management (IPM).

In the present study eight insecticides extensively used to control insect pest of cotton and were selected to test their toxicity against first instar larvae of Chrysoperla carnea, with purpose to screen out some selective insecticides that can be used in compatible with biological control and to evaluate its potential use in IPM programs in Pakistan.

Materials and Methods

Common names, trade names, and concentrations of various insecticides tested in the present study are given in Table 1. Formulated products of eight insecticides viz. diafenthiuron, buprofezin, thiodicarb, imidacloprid, carbosulfan, methamidophos, acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, were selected to determine their toxicity against neonate of C. carnea under laboratory conditions. Larvae of C. carnea, which were originated from field, were obtained from Insect Rearing Laboratory, University College of Agriculture, B. Z. University, Multan. Three concentrations of these insecticides i.e. C1, C2 and C3 representing lower dose, recommended dose and higher dose were prepared in tap water and used throughout the experimentations. The insecticides were classified according to the recommendation of the International Organization for Biological Control, West Palaearctic Regional Section (IOBC / WPRS) working group (HASSAN 1989) as under:

Harmless (toxicity class 1) = less than 50 % mortality,Slightly harmful (toxicity class 2) = 50-79 % mortality,Moderately harmful (toxicity class 3) = 80-89 % mortality,Harmful (toxicity class 4) = more than 90 % mortality.Glass Petri plates (4.5 cm diameter) were used for experimentations. Cotton leaves

were collected from the unsprayed field and washed with tap water. Cotton leaf disks of 4.5 cm diameter were cut and dipped into insecticide solution for 5 seconds and allowed to dry in open air. Untreated control was dipped in tap water only. Moistened filter was placed beneath leaf disks to avoid the desiccation of leaves in the Petri plates.

The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design in three replicates. Twenty eggs per a replicate were used for each treatment. Gray eggs (three day old) of C. carnea were placed individually in Petri plates to avoid cannibalism. Eggs of Sitotroga cerealella Oliver were placed in Petri plates as a food for larvae of C. carnea. Eggs were kept at 27 ± 2 ºC and at 70 ± 5 % relative humidity. Mortality was observed 24 and 48 hours after hatching of C. carnea. Effect of insecticides was expressed as mortality of first instar larvae.

The larvae survived after exposure to insecticide moved to medium sized gelatin capsule along with 0.024 g eggs of Sitotroga cerealella. After completion of larval development, pupae in the capsules were kept in Petri plates for adult emergence. Rates of pupation and adult emergence were recorded.

3

Results and Discussion

Mortalities of C. carnea larvae 24 and 48 hours after exposure to three concentrations of eight insecticides under laboratory conditions are presented in Table 2. Low and recommended concentration (C1 and C2) of diafenthiuron and buprofezin were found harmless and caused less then 50 % mortality, while higher concentration (C3) and of both insecticides were found slightly harmful and caused 61 and 58 % mortality after 24 hours. Both chemicals were remained slightly harmful after 48 hours exposure with the exception that diafenthiuron caused more then 90 % mortality in higher concentration (C3). ABDELGADER (2000) reported harmful effects of diafenthiuron on predators. HASSAN et al. (1994) reported that buprofezin was harmless to C. carnea. ERKILIC and YGNN (1997) found that buprofezin has no or very limited detrimental effects on natural enemies. The higher concentrations of buprofezin are proved to have detrimental effects on C. carnea as compared to lower concentration.

Thiodicarb at low concentration (C1) was harmless after 24 hours, while recommended and higher concentrations (C2 and C3) were proved slightly harmful after 24 and 48 hours exposure respectively. MCCUTCHEON and DURANT (1993) evaluated toxicity of some insecticides against predaceous arthropods and reported that thiodicarb was tolerated by most of the predators.

All concentrations (C1, C2, C3) of imidacloprid, carbosulfan and methamidophos were found harmful after 24 and 48 hours exposure (Table 2). BADAWY and ARNAOUTY (1999) also reported that mortalities at first, second and third instar larvae of C. carnea against insecticides belonged to classes’ organophosphorous and carbamates. They reported that first and second instar larvae of C. carnea were most susceptible against organophosphate and carbamates.

Table 1. Insecticides with their commercial names, groups and formulation.Treat-ments n Insecticides Groups Formulation TQP/ ha

Concentration (%)C1 C2 C3

T1 60 diafenthiuron(Polo) Thiourea 500 SC 625 ml 0.25 0.375 0.5

T2 60 buprofezin(Sitara) IGR’s 25 % WP 1500gm 0.406 0.469 0.531

T3 60 thiodicarb(Larvin) Carbamates 80 DF 1000gm 0.8 1.0 1.2

T4 60 imidacloprid(Confidor) Chloronicotinyl 200 SL 625 ml 0.088 0.133 0.178

T5 60 carbosulfan(Advantage) Carbamates 20 EC 1250 ml 0.25 0.3 0.35

T6 60 methamidophos(Tamaron) Organophosphate 60 % SC 1200 ml 0.75 0.9 1.05

T7 60 acetamiprid(Raja) Chloronicotinyl 20 % SL 375 ml 0.05 0.1 0.15

T8 60 thiamethoxam(Actara) Chloronicotinyl 25 WG 60 gm 0.013 0.019 0.025

T9 60 Water(Control)

NASREEN et al. : Mortality of Chrysoperla carnea after Exposure to Insecticides


Data belonging to larval mortality of C. carnea reveals that lower concentrations (C1) of acetamiprid and thiamethoxam caused 88.3 and 86.7 % mortality respectively and found moderately harmful after 24 hours and harmful after 48 hours exposure (Table 2). Recommended and higher concentrations (C2 and C3) of both insecticides were found harmful after 24 and 48 of exposure. LAWSON et al. (1999) reported that thiamethoxam is classified as slightly harmful to beneficial insects and harmless to predatory mites. They further stated that it is often applied to the soil, which allows thiamethoxam to systematically protect the plant without contacting beneficial species, which remain on the plant surface. Therefore, flexibility in the application of thiamethoxam with limited leaf surface residues result in excellent pest control without disrupting natural enemies. But in our experiment thiamethoxam was toxic; it might be due to direct contact of C. carnea with insecticide. No mortality was observed in T9 control.

DUFFIE et al. (1998) demonstrated the survival of predaceous arthropods on cotton during 1996 and 1997 in growing seasons after insecticides spray. Insecticide classes included representatives from the following: Insect Growth Regulator (IGR), Carbamates, Pyrethroid, Chloronictinyl, and Organophosphate. The IGR had low toxicity while carbamates were moderately toxic to the predaceous arthropods. While, chloronicotinyl and organophosphate classes were the most toxic causing dramatic reductions in predator numbers.

Table 2. Mortality of neonate larvae of Chrysoperla carnea after exposure to different concentration of some insecticides.

Treatments

% Mortality after 24 (hrs)

% Mortality after 48 (hrs)

Toxicity Class (24hrs)

Toxicity Class (48hrs)

C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3

T1=diafenthiuron (Polo) 28.3 48.3 61.67 60 75 95 1 1 2 2 2 4

T2=buprofezin (Sitara) 20.3 38.3 58.3 28.3 51.6 65 1 1 2 1 2 2

T3=thiodicarb (Larvin) 40 53.36 61.67 61.67 61.67 65 1 2 2 2 2 2

T4=imidacloprid (Confidor) 98.3 100 98.3 100 - 100 4 4 4 4 4

T5=carbosulfan (Advantage) 100 100 100 - - - 4 4 4 - - -

T6=methamidophos (Tamaron) 95 98.3 100 96.67 100 - 4 4 4 4 4 -

T7=acetamiprid (Raja) 88.3 100 90 91.6 - 98.3 3 4 4 4 - 4

T8=thiamethoxam (Actara) 86.67 96.67 93.3 100 100 100 3 4 4 4 4 4

T9=Water (Control) 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

5NASREEN et al. : Mortality of Chrysoperla carnea after Exposure to Insecticides

Table 3. Pupation rates and Adult emergence rates of C. carnea treated with different insecticides.

Treatments n Pupation Rate (%) Adult Emergence Rate (%)C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3

T1=diafenthiuron (Polo) 60 48.4 25.0 5.0 41.7 11.4 3.4

T2=buprofezin (Sitara) 60 71.7 48.4 45.0 65.0 46.7 40.0

T3=thiodicarb (Larvin) 60 38.4 36.0 35.0 35.0 31.7 33.4

T6=methamidophos (Tameron) 60 3.4 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0

T7=acetamiprid (Raja) 60 9.0 0.0 2.0 6.7 0.0 1.0

T9=Water (Control) 60 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.4 96.7 98.4

Treatments T4, T5 and T8 were deleted as 100 % larval mortality after 48 hrs.

Pupation and adult emergence rates from treated larvae are given in Table 3. All larvae developed into pupae in T9. In the next pupation rate 71.7 % larvae were pupated in T2. None of the larvae succeeded to pupate in treatment T4, T5 and T8. Pupation rate decreased with the increase in insecticides concentration. Adult emergence rates from pupa are ranged from 96.7 to 98.4 in control. In treatments T1, T2, T3, T6 and T7 emergence rate were 41.7, 65.0, 35.0, 2.0 and 6.7 respectively. No effect of insecticides was recorded on adult emergence rate in treatments of lower concentration (C1).

A plant protection product (PPP) was considered harmless if mortality is less than 50 % of the larvae treated in initial laboratory test (HASSAN 1989) and no further test in semi field and field condition will recommended. According to general agreement when PPP proved harmless in initial laboratory test for a particular beneficial organism is most likely to be harmless to the same organism in the field. Further testing (semi field and field condition) is necessary when a pesticide is found to be harmful that it caused more than 90 % mortality to a beneficial organism in initial laboratory toxicity test.

However, the effect of insecticides on a particular natural enemy involves numerous biotic and abiotic factors. Therefore it would be regrettable to exclude toxic compounds without looking for their specific uses. Selection of a suitable insecticide in an IPM programs not depends only on its toxicity level to beneficial insects but also on its efficacy against the target pest, its weathering and persistency.

It was concluded that insecticides viz., thiamethoxam, acetamiprid, methamidophos, carbosulfan and imidacloprid, were found toxic to C. carnea larvae, and therefore recommended for semifield and field tests. It was also observed that once C. carnea larvae tolerated the insecticide exposure, they could pupate and adults emerge successfully.


ReferencesABDELAGDER, H. 2000. Effects of some insecticides on three predators in the Sudan IOBC/

WPRS Bull. 23 (9): 137-140.BADAWY, H. M. A. and ARNAOUTY, S. A. EL. 1999. Direct and indirect effects of some

insecticides on Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) s.l. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). J. Neuroptol.2: 67-76.

DEAN, D. A. and STERLING, W. L. 1992. Comparison of sampling methods to predict phenology of predaceous Arthopods in a cotton Agro-ecosystem. Tex. Agric. Exp. Stn. Misc. publ. p. 1931.

DUFFIE, W. D., SULLIVAN, M. J. and TURNIPSEED, S. G. 1998. Predator mortality in cotton from different insecticide classes. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conferences.2: 1111-1112.

ERIKILE, L. B and YGNN, N. 1997. Studies on the effects of some pesticides on white peach scale (Targ-Tozg) (Homoptera: Diaspidae) and its side effects on two common scale insects predators. Crop Prot.16: 89-75.

HAGLEY, E. A. C., and MILES, N. 1987. Release of Chrysoperla carnea Stephens Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) for control of Tetranychus urticate Koch (Acarina: Aphididae) on peach grown in a protected environment structure. Can. Entomol. 119(2): 205-206.

HASSAN, S. A. 1989. Testing methodology and the concepts of the IOBC/WPRS Working group. In. Pesticides and non target invertebrates. (P. C. Japson, Ed.) Intercept, Wimborn, Dorset, 1-18.

HASSAN, S. A., BIGLER, F., BOGENSCHUETZ., H., BOLLER, E., BRUN, J., CALIS, J. N. M., PELSENEER, J. C., DUSO, C., GROVE, A., HEIMBACH, U., HELYER, N., HOKKANEN, H., LEWIS, G. B., MANSOUR, F., MORETH, L., POLGAR, L., PETERSEN, S., SAUPHANOR, B., STAEUBLI, A., STERK, G., VEIR, M. V. D., VIGGIANI G., and VOGT, H. 1994. Results of sixth joint pesticide testing programme of the IOBC/WPRS Working group on pesticide and Beneficial organisms. Entomophaga. 39: 107-119.

HASSAN, S. A., KLINGHAUF, F., and SHANIN, F. 1985. Role of Chrysoperla carnea as an aphid predator on sugar beet and the effect of pesticides. Zeitschrift fur angewandte Entomologie. 100: 163-174.

LAWSON, D. S., DUNBAR, D. M., WHITE, S. M., and NGO, N. 1999. Control of cotton pests with a new neonicotinoid insecticides, thiamethoxam. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conferences.2: 1106-1109.

LINGREN, P. D., RIDGWAY, R. L., and JONES, S. L. 1968. Consumption by several common arthropod predators of eggs and larvae of two Heliothis species that attack cotton. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 61: 613-617.

MCCUTCHEON, G. S. and DURANT, J. A. 1993. Survival of predaceous arthropods in caged cotton with residues of insecticides. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conferences: 1010-1012.

NEW, T. R. 1975. The biology of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera) with reference to their use as biological agents: A review. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London, 127: 115-140.

NORDLUND, D. A., VACEK, D. C. and FERRO, D. N. 1991. Predation of Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidea) eggs and larvae by Chrysoperla rufilabris (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) larvae in the laboratory and field cage. J. Entomolo. Sci.

PEDIGO, L. P. 1989. Common Green lacewing. In. Entomology and Pest Management. Prentice Hall. pp. 317-318.

Relative Toxicity of Different Fungicides Against Larvae of Green Lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea

(Chrysopidae: Neuroptera)

Abida NASREEN1, Ghulam Mustafa CHEEMA1 and Muhammad IQBAL2

1: University College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan2: Department of Agricultural Extension, Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract

Laboratory experiments were carried out to study the toxicity level of some fungicides against Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) larvae. Recommended concentrations of Carbendazim 50 WP, Mancozeb 80 WP and Ridomil 68 WP and water (control) were applied through leaf dip method in Petri plates. C. carnea larvae of 1st, 2nd and 3rd instars were exposed to these fungicides treated leaves in Petri plates. Results indicated that all fungicides were safer to all larval stages of C. carnea after 24, 48 and 72 hrs. Highest mortality was observed in Ridomil treated larvae. It caused 4.44 % mortality of 1st and 3rd instars larvae after 24 and 72 hrs. Maximum pupation rate (89.32 %) was recorded in Mancozeb treated 2nd instar larvae. Adult emergence was 95-97 % in all treatments. The longevity of adults of C. carnea was nearly similar (49-50 days) for all treatments. The maximum fecundity (950 eggs) was observed in adults, where larvae were treated with water, whereas minimum (897 eggs) was found in treatment where larvae were exposed to Ridomil. Fungicides had no toxic effect on larvae of C. carnea at any stage and found safer according to IOBC classification for measuring toxicity.Key words: Chrysoperla carnea, fungicides, toxicity

Introduction

Green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens), is a voracious and generalist predator of many soft bodies insect pests and has worldwide distributions (GEETHA and SWAMIAPPAN 1998, NEW 1975, ZELENY 1984). The daily feeding potential of larvae is 100-120 eggs of lepidoteran pests (GAUTAM and GUPTA 1998). Effectiveness of C. carnea as biological control agent has been demonstrated in field crops, orchards and in green houses (HAGLEY and MILES 1987). Conservation of natural fauna either through selective use of pesticides or by other means has been the main criteria for integrated plant protection. Many insecticides have been found moderately to very harmful to the larvae of Chrysoperla carnea in the field (VOGT 1994). MATHIRAJAN and REGUPATHY (2002) in an experiment observed that test concentrations of thiamethoxam, imidacloprid and methyl-o-demeton had no adverse effects on egg hatchability and lower egg mortality of C. carnea as compared to water, whereas the larval mortality ranged from 10 to 48.7 %. PAULIAN (1998) tested the activity of 28 pesticides in the laboratory on C. carnea. He stated that insecto-fungicides mixtures, generally for cereal seed treatment such as Difenoconazol + Lindane, Tirametox 90 PTS, Tebuconazol + Lindane, Gamavit 85 PSu, Supercarb T 80 PSu, Procarb L, Trialin showed medium toxicity at usual rates, whereas


Received July 12, 2004Accepted July 25, 2005

8

insecticides (Oleoekalux CE, Sintox 40 CE, Dimevur 52.5 Olerocarbetox, US 1 RV) were found toxic. GUVEN and GOVEN (2001) tested different pesticides on C. carnea in the laboratory including three fungicides and found that fenarimol, mancozeb+metalaxyl and micronized sulphur showed 45 %, 28 % and 16 % death rate, respectively. According to RIDGWAY and JONES (1968) and GEETHA and SWAMIAPPAN (1998), C. carnea can be well integrated in a pest management program that includes certain conventional or systemic insecticides as predaceous larvae are tolerant to insecticides. The intent of present studies was to evaluate the toxicity of different fungicides against different larval instars of green lacewing and subsequent effect of fungicides on pupation, adult longevity and fecundity of female under laboratory conditions.

Material and Methods

Experiments were conducted in C. carnea Rearing Laboratory of University College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. Field collected colony of C. carnea was cultured in the laboratory. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments and three replications with 30 larvae in each replication. The treatments prepared at recommended dose were Carbendazim 50 WP (T1, 800g/100 L of water), Ridomil MZ 68 WP (metalaxyl and mancozeb) (T2, 200g/100 L of water), Mancozeb 80 WP (T3, 120g/100 L of water) and water as control (T4

). All fungicides were broad spectrum and systemic with protective and curative action (Table 1).

Table 1. Trade name, common name, chemical class and rates of the pesticides used in this study.

Trade Name Common Name Group Dose (a. i.)

g/100 L

Recommended Dose g/100 L of water

Carbendazim 50 WP Carbendazim Benzimidazole 400 800

Ridomil MZ 68 WP Metalaxyl and Mancozeb

Acylalanine and Alkylenebis 136 200

Mancozeb 80 WP Mancozeb Alkylenebis (dithiocarbamate) 96 120

The concentrations of tested fungicides were prepared in 100 ml of tap water. Healthy leaves of mango were cut into 2 cm diameter disc and dipped in the prepared chemicals for five seconds and placed on a sieve for 20 minutes to remove deposits of fungicides on leaves. The treated leaves were placed in Petri plate of 2 cm diameter and 0.5 cm depth. Larvae of each instar were placed individually in Petri plate. Processed eggs of Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella were provided as larval food at 30 mg/larva. The tested larvae were kept under laboratory conditions (27 ± 2 oC and 60 ± 5 % relative humidity). The data concerning toxicity of fungicides were recorded as the


9

number of live larvae after 24, 48 and 72 hours. The live larvae were kept under laboratory conditions up to pupation. Number of pupae was recorded in each treatment. The overall effect of a test substance was judged on the basis of insect mortality levels.

Emergence rate, longevity of adults and fecundity of females were also studied. Ten pairs of adults from each treatment were transferred to cylindrical plastic jars of 21 cm diameter and 11cm depth. Semisolid artificial diet containing yeast, honey and water (1:1:0.5) streaked on a white chart paper strip of 22 cm length and 2.5 cm width and hanged inside the jars.

Results

The toxicity of tested fungicides was found very low against all instars of C. carnea larvae (Table 2). The effect of different fungicides was not significant (P≥0.05) on 1st instar larvae after 24, 48 and 72 hrs. The highest toxicity (4.44 %) was observed in the Ridomil treatment, whereas lowest (0 %) was recorded in control after 24 hrs. The IOBC toxicity class was remained “1” throughout all treatments in 1st instar. The influence of treatments including control was generally the same on 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of C. carnea as non-significant effect (P≥0.05) was noted after 24, 48 and 72 hrs. Daily mortality did not exceed 5.00 %. The IOBC toxicity class was remained 1 throughout all treatments also for 2nd and 3rd instars.

Table 2. Mortality of 1st, 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of Chrysoperla carnea caused by different fungicides.

Fungicides(Treatments)

Larval instar n

Mortality (%) after Toxicity class* after

24h 48h 72h 24h 48h 72hCarbendazim 1st 90 3.3 5.6 6.7 1 1 1(T1) 2nd 90 3.3 5.6 8.9 1 1 1

3rd 90 1.1 4.4 7.8 1 1 1

Mancozeb 1st 90 2.2 2.2 4.4 1 1 1(T2) 2nd 90 2.2 4.4 6.7 1 1 1

3rd 90 2.2 4.4 7.8 1 1 1

Ridomil 1st 90 4.4 5.6 6.7 1 1 1(T3) 2nd 90 2.2 3.3 6.7 1 1 1

3rd 90 2.2 3.3 7.8 1 1 1

Water 1st 90 0 1.1 1.1 1 1 1(T4, control) 2nd 90 3.3 4.4 5.6 1 1 1

3rd 90 1.1 2.2 3.3 1 1 1*Toxicity classes: 1= harmless, 2= slightly harmful, 3= moderately harmful, 4= harmful.

The highest (92 %) and the lowest pupation rate (81 %) were found in control and the Carbendazim treatments, respectively (Fig. 1). However, results were not significantly different (P≥0.05) in all treatments. Therefore there was no significant effect of fungicides

NASREEN et al. : Relative Toxicity of Fungicides to Larvae of Chrysoperla carnea


on pupation. Adult emergence rate was 95-97 % in all treatments (Table 3). The effect of fungicides on longevity of adults was not significant (P≥0.05). The highest longevity (50 days) was found in the Carbendazim treatment, whereas lowest (48 days) was found in the Ridomil (Table 3). The maximum fecundity (950 eggs) was observed in control, whereas minimum (897 eggs) was found in the Ridomil.

Table 3. Adult emergence rate, longevity and fecundity of C. carnea after exposure to some fungicides.

Fungicides (Treatments) N Adult emergence

rate (%) Longevity1 Fecundity2

Carbendazim (T1) 249 96.58 50.3 ± 0.72 n.s. 925.2 ± 38.02 n.s.Mancozeb (T2) 253 97.04 49.5 ± 1.11 n.s. 907.0 ± 46.9 n.s.Ridomil (T3) 251 94.53 47.6 ± 1.86 n.s. 897.1 ± 68.3 n.s.Water (T4, control) 271 96.37 49.6 ± 1.28 n.s. 950.0 ± 60.5 n.s.

1: Longevity = Mean duration ± S.D. 2: Fecundity = Mean number/female ± S.D.n.s.: Not significantly different between 4 treatments by One way ANOVA.

72

76

80

84

88

92

96

1st 2nd 3rdLarval Instar

Pupa

tion

rate

(%)

Carbendazim Mancozib Radomil Control

Fig. 1: Effect of different fungicides on pupation rate (%) of Chrysoperla carnea. Vertical bars indicate standard error. There is no significant effect among treatments (P≥0.05, one way ANOVA).

11

Discussion

The results were analyzed by IOBC/WRPS working group (HASSAN 1989) method as percent mortality was assigned a specific category. All the treatments were fallen in category “1” as all fungicides were found safer to all larval instars. Fungicides are sprayed for controlling fungal diseases on many vegetables, mango and citrus orchards. Previously, TODA and KASHIO (1997) tested 34 insecticides, six acaricides and nine fungicides and found that acaricides and fungicides showed no toxicity. In present studies, the applications of tested fungicides were found safer for all larval instars (1st, 2nd and 3rd). However, GUVEN and GOVEN (2001) found that fenarimol, mancozeb+metalaxyl and micronized sulphur showed 45 %, 28 % and 16 % death rate, respectively against C. carnea in the laboratory on larval mortality, whereas in our results it remained between 0 and 4.44 %. The recommended concentrations in the present studies had no lethal effect on the growth and development of the beneficial insect. The fungicides are mostly used in orchards, vegetables and other crops against fungal diseases. Effect of mixture of insecto-fungicides (Difenoconazol + Lindane, Tirametox 90 PTS, Tebuconazol + Lindane, Gamavit 85 PSu, Supercarb T 80 PSu, Procarb L, Trialin) showed medium toxicity at usual rates, whereas insecticides (Oleoekalux CE, Sintox 40 CE, Dimevur 52.5 Olerocarbetox, US 1 RV) were found toxic to C. carnea (PAULIAN 1998). Therefore, applying biological agents (C. carnea) with only fungicides will definitely helpful for integration of different pest controlling methods. It will help in keeping the population of predators unaffected.

Similarly, other parameters; pupation rate, adult emergence rate, longevity and fecundity also remained unaffected from fungicides. When there was no direct exposure of adults to fungicides, the indirect effect was minimal. Resultantly, emergence of adults was normal as found out by MORRISON (1977a, 1977b). The longevity of adult females fed on Macrosiphum euphorbiae during the larval stage was 46.16, with fecundity of 750.66 eggs/female. Females fed on Trialeurodes vaporariorum lived for 51.83 days and laid 818.16 eggs (YOLDAS 1994). TESFAYE and GAUTAM (2002) found that highest number of eggs/female (1245.2) was laid when adults were supplemented with baker’s yeast granules plus 50% honey followed by baker’s yeast granules plus castor pollen plus 50% honey (1069.2) and castor pollen plus 50% honey (450). The reproductive period of female was observed to reach up to 8, 9, 8 and 4 weeks when fed with baker’s yeast granules plus castor pollen and 50% honey, baker’s yeast granules plus 50% honey, castor pollen and 50%, honey and 50% honey, respectively. Therefore, differences of fecundity between these studies and ours did not depend on the effect of fungicides but depend on foods for the adult.

Knowledge of the effects of pesticides on biological control agents is required for the successful implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs (CABRERA et al. 2004). It was concluded that all the three fungicides have no toxic effect on larval, pupal as well as adult stage of C. carnea when applied at larval stage. The above-mentioned results suggest that these fungicides are safe to the predator (all stages) and can easily be manipulated in integrated pest management (IPM) programs.

NASREEN et al. : Relative Toxicity of Fungicides to Larvae of Chrysoperla carnea


References

BARTLETT, B. R. 1964. Toxicity of some pesticides to eggs, larvae and adults of common green lacewing, Chrysopa carnea. J. Econ. Entomol. 57(2): 366-369.

CABRERA, A. R., CLOYD, R. A. and ZABORSKI, E. R. 2004. Effects of Greenhouse Pesticides on the Soil-dwelling predatory mite Stratiolaelaps scimitus (Acari: Mesostigmata: Laelapidae) under laboratory conditions. J. Econ. Entomol. 97 (3): 793-799.

GAUTAM, R. D. and GUPTA, T. 1998. Potential of insect predators and parasitoids in vegetable ecosystem. In. D. Prasad and R. D. Gautam (eds.). Potential IPM tactics. Westvill Publishing House, New Delhi. pp. 77-81.

GEETHA, B. and SWAMIAPPAN, M. 1998. Improved adult rearing cages for the predator, Chrysoperla carnea. Madras Agric. J. 85 (5,6): 333-334.

GUVEN, B. and GOVEN, M. A. 2003. Side effects of pesticides used in cotton and vineyard areas of Aegean Region on the green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) in the laboratory. Proc. IOBC/WPRS Working Group “Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms” at Avignon (France), 8-11 October, 2002. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 26 (5): 21-24.

HAGLEY, E. A. C. and MILES, N. 1987. Release of Chrysoperla carnea Stephen (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) for control of Tetranychus urticate Koch (Acarina: Aphididae) on peach grown in a protected environment structure. Can. Entomol. 119(2): 205-206.

HASSAN, S. A. 1989. Testing methodology and the concepts of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group. In. P. C. Jepson (ed.). Pesticides and non-target invertebrates. Dorset, Wimborne. pp. 1-18.

MATHIRAJAN, V. G. and REGUPATHY, A. 2002. Effect of thiamethoxam 25 WG (Actara®) on Chrysoperla carnea. Ann. Pl. Prot. Sci. 10(2): 374 –375.

MORRISON, R. K. 1977a. A simplified larval rearing unit for the common green lacewing. Southwest Entomol. 2: 188-190.

MORRISON, R. K. 1977b. Developments in mass production of Trichogramma and Chrysopa spp. In. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Production Research Conference, National Cotton Council. pp. 149-151.

NEW, T. R. 1975. The biology of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera) with reference to their use as biological agent: A review. Transactions of the Royal Entomol. Soc. London. 127: 115-140.

PAULIAN, M. 1998. Effect of some plant protection products on Chrysoperla carnea Stephens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Analele Institutului de Cercetari pentru Cereale Protectia Plantelor. 29: 137-144.

RIDGWAY, R. L. and JONES, S. L. 1968. Field cage releases of Chrysopa carnea for suppression of population of the bollworm and the tobacco budworm on cotton. J. Econ. Entomol. 61(4): 892-898.

STEEL, R. G. D. and TORRIE, J. H. 1980. Multiple comparisons. In. Principles and procedures of statistics: A biometric approach. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. pp. 172-194.

TESFAYE, A. and GAUTAM, R. D. 2002. Effect of adult food supplements on reproductive attributes and longevity of Chrysoperla carnea Stephens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae).

13NASREEN et al. : Mortality of Chrysoperla carnea after Exposure to Insecticides

Ann. Pl. Prot. Sci. 10(2): 198-201.TODA, S. and KASHIO, T. 1997. Toxic effect of pesticides on the larvae of Chrysoperla

carnea. Kyushu Pl. Prot. Res. 43: 101-105.VOGT, H. 1994. Effects of pesticides on Chrysoperla carnea Stephen (Neuroptera:

Chrysopidae) in the field and comparison with laboratory and semi-field results. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 17(10): 71-82.

YOLDAS, Z. 1994. Studies on the biology of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) feeding on two different preys. Turkiye III. Biyolojik Mucadele Kongresi Bildirileeri, 25-28 Ocak 1994, Ege Universitesi Ziraat Fakultesi, Bitki Koruma Bolumu, Izmir. pp. 375-380.

ZELENY, J. 1984. Chrysopidae occurrence in West Palaearctic temperate forests and derived biotopes. In. CANARD, M., SEMERIA, Y. and NEW, T. R. (eds.). Biology of Chrysopidae. Series Entomol. 27: 151-160.

Received May 12, 2005Accepted Aug. 2, 2005E-mail: [email protected]


Beach Litter in Amami Islands, Japan

KAWAI Kei

Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima UniversityKorimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-8580, Japan

Abstract

This study was performed to examine the types of beach litter in Amami Islands, Japan. The results of the study revealed that beach litter was more numerous in the northern parts of the islands than in the southern parts. Different types of litter were observed between the upper, middle, and lower levels of the beach. Pieces of broken glass dominated the lower part of the beach, while plastic materials were mostly found in the middle level. The upper level of the beach was mostly littered with formed plastic and plastic bottles. The origin of the litter was identified by labels on the litter, which were mostly in Chinese and Korean languages. About 70% of beach litter written in the languages originated from foreign countries in the spring (March - June), but the amount of beach litter from foreign countries decreased in Yoron Islands in November. These trends regarding beach litter are discussed as the Small Island Model and the Amani Islands Model.Key words: Amami, beach litter, Kuroshio

Introduction

The problem of garbage is an important topic in environmental pollution. Much garbage is discarded into the ocean and drifts ashore on the world’s beaches (MADZENA and LASIAK 1997, WILLOUGHBY et al. 1997, ALTER et al. 1999, SOMERVILLE et al. 2003). This garbage has adverse effects on wildlife and ruins beach scenery as well as having a negative impact on fisheries, etc. Floating garbage in the sea may contain PCBs and other chemicals, affecting birds, fish, and marine mammals that swallow the small plastic pellets in the sea and on the beach (DA-SILVA et al. 2003). These plastic materials may release chemicals in the stomachs of animals, resulting in death or injury.

Many small islands have no active industry, and rely on tourism making the scenery an important factor in their economy. Dirty beaches may adversely affect tourism in such areas. The Amami Islands are located in the southern part of Japan and include eight islands. Kikai, Okinoerabu, and Yoron Islands belong to the Amami Islands and have very small areas of 56.87, 40.35, and 20.49 km2, respectively (AOYAMA 2001). Each island has many beautiful beaches, which are very popular not only for local people but also for tourists. However, large amounts of beach litter were observed on these islands (ex.YAMAGUCHI 1998, FUJIEDA 2002), which might adversely affect tourism and wildlife. Therefore, the reduction of beach litter is very important for conservation of both wildlife and the tourism-based economies of such islands.

To decrease the amount of beach litter, it is important to determine both its distribution pattern and origin. Therefore, the purposes of this study were: 1) to determine trends in observed beach litter in each of the Amani Islands, 2) to discuss these trends as the Small Island Model and Amami Islands Model.


Materials and Methods

This study was carried out on Yoron Island from 11th to 12th March and from 11th to 12th November 2003, on Okinoerabu Island from 31st May to 1st June 2003, and on Kikai Island from 10th to 11th June 2003 (Fig. 1). Research areas were chosen in 2 beaches each in the northern and southern parts of each island. Research was carried out during low tide. Emerged area (from terrestrial fringe to wave break point) in each beach in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands was divided into 3 tidal levels (upper, middle, and lower). A quadrate (10m × 10m) was fixed in each level. On the other hand, a quadrate (30m × 30m) was fixed in the middle intertidal level in Kikai Island.

Fig. 1. Map showing the Amami Islands and the islands examined in this study (Yoron, Kikai, and Okinoerabu). Small arow showed research beach in each island. N and S showed northern and southern beach, respectively.

All artificial beach litter was collected in each quadrate of Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands and divided into 7 categories: broken glass, plastic materials, formed plastic, glass bottles, cans, plastic bottles, and other. As formed plastic is broken easily, only pieces larger than 3cm × 3cm × 3cm were counted.

The origins of the litter on the beaches of each of the 3 islands were determined from the language on the labels.

17

Results

Type of beach litterBeach litter was divided into 7 categories. Larger amounts of beach litter were seen

in the northern parts of the islands than in the southern parts.

Plastic MaterialsPlastic materials were more numerous in the southern as compared with the northern

parts of the three islands. They were mainly observed at the middle and upper intertidal levels in Okinoerabu and Yoron islands (Fig. 2). The majority of plastic materials were pieces of plastic materials and fishing floats.

Fig. 2. Average numbers (/quadrate) of plastic materials in a beach in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands. Yoron1 and Yoron 2 indicated a research in Yoron Island in March and November, respectively.

Broken GlassBroken glass was observed frequently in both northern and southern parts of all three

islands, and was mainly observed at the lower intertidal level in Okinoerabu and Yoron Islands (Fig. 3). The pieces of glass were most likely from bottles that had floated onto the beach and broken.

Formed plasticFormed plastic was greater in number in the northern than in southern parts of

the three islands. Formed plastic was observed mainly at the upper intertidal level in Okinoerabu and Yoron islands (Fig. 4).

KAWAI: Beach Litter in Amami Island, Japan


Fig. 3. Average numbers (/quadrate) of pieces of broken glass in a beach in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands. Yoron1 and Yoron 2 indicated a research in Yoron Island in March and November, respectively.

Fig. 4. Average numbers (/quadrate) of pieces of formed plastic in a beach in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands. Yoron1 and Yoron 2 indicated a research in Yoron Island in March and November, respectively.

Plastic bottles, Glass Bottles, CansPlastic bottles showed a pattern similar to that of formed plastic, with greater

numbers in northern as compared with southern parts of the three islands. They were mainly observed at the upper intertidal level in Okinoerabu and Yoron islands (Fig. 5a).

19

Although glass bottles were seldom observed on the beach, small glass bottles (50ml) were sometimes observed (Fig. 5b). There were no differences in number of floating glass bottles between the northern and southern parts of the islands.

Cans were sometimes observed only in the northern parts of islands (Fig. 5c).

Fig. 5. Average numbers (/quadrate) of plastic bottles, glass bottles and cans in a beach in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands. Yoron1 and Yoron 2 indicated a research in Yoron Island in March and November, respectively.

OtherElectric light bulbs and fluorescent lights were also observed on the beach, although

in relatively small numbers.

Origin of Beach Litter in Amami IslandsAbout 10% of collected beach litter in these islands was revealed the originated

country. About 70% of beach litter written in languages originated from foreign countries in the spring (March - June) as determined from the labels of the litter, which were mostly written in Chinese and Korean languages (Fig. 6), although the amounts of beach litter in Yoron from foreign countries decreased in November. Products written in both languages were mainly observed in fishing floats, plastic lighters, and plastic bottles. Other countries included Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Products written in these languages were mainly observed in plastic bottles. Products made in the USA, such as cigarette packs and plastic materials, were also observed. Products written in Japanese were observed in plastic bottles, cans, glass bottles and plastic materials.



Fig. 6. Frequency of beach litter related to original area which distinguished by language in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands. Yoron1 and Yoron 2 indicated a research in Yoron Island in March and November, respectively.

Discussion

The two islands showed similar trends in distribution of beach litter on each type of beach throughout the year (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5). The origin of beach litter showed similar trends in the three islands (Fig. 6).

Distribution Pattern of Litter on BeachesThe amounts of beach litter were greater in northern than in southern parts of all

islands, although each type of beach litter showed different trends. HIGASHIYAMA-GAKUEN (1996) discussed the relationship between environmental factors (wind, wave action, and current) and distribution of beach litter. Light and floatable materials were observed frequently in the northern parts of the islands (Figs. 4, 5a). However, relatively heavy materials (e.g., plastic materials) (Fig. 2) were observed frequently in southern parts of the islands. “Kuroshio” warm current passes through the Amami Islands but the slope countercurrent makes complicate current system in this area. These currents are probably closely related with these distribution patterns of the beach litter, however, the system is unknown. Further studies are required to reveal the relationship with the current and distribution of the beach litter. On the other hand, light and floatable materials were observed frequently at the upper intertidal level, while relatively heavy materials such as plastics were observed frequently at the middle intertidal level. Wave action carries both light and relatively heavy materials to the middle level of the beach. Winds might carry

21

light materials to the upper intertidal level, while relatively heavy materials would remain at the middle intertidal level.

The two islands showed similar trends in distribution of beach litter on each type of beach throughout the year. Therefore, the trend of observed beach litter on the beach in the Amami Islands was summarized as the Small Island Model (Fig. 7). Broken glass was observed frequently at the lower tidal level in both northern and southern parts of all islands. Plastic materials were more numerous in the middle intertidal level in southern parts of the islands. Plastic bottles, formed plastic, and floatable plastic materials were observed frequently in the upper intertidal areas on the northern parts of the islands.

Fig. 7. Summary (the small Islands model) of beach litter in Yoron and Okinoerabu Islands. Width of solid bar in three tidal levels showed amount of beach litter. The wider solid bar is, the more beach litter was observed.

Origin of Beach Litter in Amami IslandsProducts with labels written in Chinese, Korean, and English (made in Malaysia,

Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and the USA) were observed on the beaches of the Amami islands (Fig. 6). On the other hand, other researchers reported that products with labels written in Chinese, Korean, English, Russian, and Arabic were observed in



parts of Japan lying further north than the Amami Islands (HIGASHIYAMA-GAKUEN 1996, YAMAGUCHI 1998, FUJIEDA 1999). Therefore, the beach litter on the Amami Islands was characterized by a dominance of items with labels in Chinese and Korean floating in from Southeast Asia. The results of the present study were similar to research at Kagoshima Japan reported previously by FUJIEDA (1999), which indicated that beach litter originated in China and Taiwan.

Most of the beach litter originated from foreign countries. There are two possible explanations for this trend. First, the Amami Islands are located in the southern part of Japan and only two large Japanese cities (Naha and Naze Cities) are located nearby. Therefore, little Japanese litter floated onto the beaches of the Amami Islands. Second, a warm current arising near the Philippines passes through the Amami Islands and flows to southern Honshu. Large amounts of beach litter from foreign countries were observed on the Japanese coast beside the Japan Sea (THE MINISTRY of CONSTRUCTION 2000), suggesting that garbage may float in the Japan Sea and the East China Sea. Therefore, large amounts of beach litter originating in other countries were observed in the Amami Islands. A few products made in the USA were also found on these islands. These might have been consumed in Southeast Asia or might have been taken to these islands by both the “Equatorial” and “Kuroshio” Currents.

Fig. 8. The Amami Islands Model. This was made by the result of Fg.6 and showed flow of garbage near Amami Islands. Solid arrow showed flow of garbage. The wider solid bar is, the more beach litter was observed. Striped arrow showed flow of current.

23

Amami Islands ModelThe flow of beach litter in the Amami Islands was summarized as the Amami

Islands Model (Fig. 8). The pattern of litter on the Amami Islands was characterized by a dominance of litter from foreign countries. Large amounts of garbage might be floating in the East China Sea and might be taken to the Amami Islands by the current. Large amounts of beach litter were also from South East Asian countries or were dumped from fishing boats and passenger liners. The beach litter originating from Japan might have originated from the islands themselves and from southern Kyushu and Ryukyu Islands.

Beach litter is transported by current, wave action, and wind, and there are seasonal changes in all of these factors. Therefore, further studies are required to determine the seasonal changes in the patterns of litter.

Acknowledgments

This work was carried out as part of the KURCPI research project entitled “Social homeostasis of small islands in an island-zone” and supported by Kagoshima University Research Grants 2002 and 2003. Thanks are due to S. Fujieda for valuable advice.

References

ALTER, R. C., SHAKLEE, R. V. and BUCKLER, W. R. 1999. Beach litter survey of San Salvador Island. Bahamas Journal of Science. 6: 23-28.

AOYAMA T. 2001. Beyond Satsuma –Satsunan Islands Accepting the 21st Century Challenge-. (Ed.) AOYAMA T., RCPI Kagoshima University, pp138.

DA-SILVA, A. M. F., LEMES, V. R. R., BARRETTO, H. H. C., OLIVEIRA, E. S., DE-ALLELUIA, I. B. and PAUMGARTTEN, F. J. R. 2003. Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in edible fish species and dolphins from Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 70: 1151-1157.

FUJIEDA S., IKEDA J. and MAKINO F. 2002. Grounded and buried fragments of foamed plastic on the coast of Kagoshima prefecture. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi. 68: 652-658. (in Japanese)

FUJIEDA S. 1999. Large amount of drifted litter at the coast of Satsuma peninsula, Kagoshima, in August 1998. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Oceanography. 63: 69-76. (in Japanese)

HIGASHIYAMA-GAKUEN 1996. Resin pellet, lighter and filter of the tobacco on Kotohiki Beach. Bulletin of Higashiyama Gakuen. 41:19-39. (in Japanese)

MADZENA, A. and LASIAK, T. 1997. Spatial and temporal variations in beach litter on the Transkei coast of South Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 34: 900-907.

THE MINISTRY of CONSTRUCTION 2000. Research on beach litter in Japan on 1998. (in Japanese)

SOMERVILLE, S. E., MILLER, K. L. and MAIR, J. M. 2003. Assessment of the aesthetic quality of a selection of beaches in the Firth of Forth, Scotland. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 46: 1184-1190.



YAMAGUCHI H. 1998. Coastal pollution by foreign drifted garbage. Journal of the Society of Civil Engineers. 83: 60-63. (in Japanese)

WILLOUGHBY, N. G., SANGKOYO, H. and LAKASERU, B. O. 1997. Beach litter: An increasing and changing problem for Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 34: 469-478.


Received March 2, 2005Accepted Aug. 31, 2005E-mail: yinoue@uog9. uog.edu

Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences: The Case of An American Pacific Island University

Yukiko INOUE

School of Education, University of GuamUOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA

Abstract

Critical thinking is an important learning outcome for college students. A review of the literature shows that this skill is affected by a number of factors, including exposure to cultural diversity. The University of Guam (UOG) located in the western Pacific is multicultural and multilingual. Using data from focus groups, this study examined the perceived influence of diversity experiences on critical thinking among UOG students in the College of Professional Studies (Business, Education, and Nursing). The study participants defined critical thinking as the act of independently and systematically weighing evidence to make an evaluation and judgment, to determine merits, and to increase a desirable outcome. Diversity experiences helped the participants to develop sensitivity and awareness of self. The findings of this study confirm the results of prior studies on diversity and critical thinking. Educational importance of the findings was discussed in detail.Key words: critical thinking, diversity experience, critical academic skills, focus group studies

Introduction

One of the most important aims of education, especially at the college level, is to foster students’ ability to think critically, to reason, and to use judgment effectively in decision-making (MCMILLAN 1987). Guiding students toward becoming critical thinkers has always been a primary goal of the university experience (GWARTNEY 2003); however, “Is critical thinking a way to think about subject matter, or is it a way of thinking about thinking? Is it a kind of knowledge or a skill or habit?”(p. 22). There is no agreed upon definition of critical thinking and many different instruments are used for its assessment (RYKIEL 2000). In management courses, “critical thinking skills are to do research, analyze data, critically evaluate the results, and present the findings in a well-argued paper or well-crafted presentation” (MALEKZADEH 1998, p. 590). “Critical academic skills are measures of student performance…. Critical thinking skills, speech, writing, reading, group interaction, and quantitative reasoning skills have many overlapping components” (LARSON and WISSMA 2000, p. 43). Critical thinking is an important learning outcome for college students, even though it seems that they are encouraged to learn or memorize what is written in textbooks.

Diversity is a characteristic of American higher learning; in fact, “one of the strengths of American higher education is its remarkable diversity” (RYKIEL 2000, p. 47). The profile of the student body in American higher education has drastically changed (MARCY 2004). Over the past three decades, people have witnessed the entrance of women


to American higher education in large numbers in the 1970s, the open recruitment of older students in the late 1970s and in the 1980s, and the active enticement of ethnic minorities in the 1980s and 1990s (MUSIL 1996). The Gladstone Web site (Summer Diversity 1999) has described “diversity” as follows:

The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means understanding that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual differences. These can be along the dimensions of race, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies. It is the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive, and nurturing environment. It is about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity contained within each individual.

Diversity should be embraced and celebrated; students should be encouraged to integrate a multicultural perspective that helps them become critical consumers of culture because openness for cultural learning is at the heart of building a multicultural society (ORTIZ and RHOADS 2000). GARMAN’s (2004) study found that factors associated with the development of greater multicultural awareness and sensitivity are openness to diversity, self-reflection, and intercultural experiences.

A variety of studies examined the influence of diversity experiences on critical thinking. For instance, students’ involvement in diversity experiences during college have statistically significant positive effects on standardized measures of critical thinking skills (PASCARELLA, PALMER, MOYE and PIERSON 2001). Academic and social integration plays an important role in college students’ perceived gains in critical thinking and communication skills: critical thinking refers to the ability to think analytically and solve problems effectively, whereas communication skills are commonly referred to as the ability to write and speak clearly and effectively (LI, LONG and SIMPSON 1999). The relationships between diversity experience and academic progress are similar for minority and non-minority students (EIMERS 2001). Aspects of the general college experiences, rather than particular disciplinary differences, influenced cognitive development, including critical thinking (INMAN and PASCARELLA 1998).

An American Pacific Island UniversityAs a U.S. institution of higher learning in the western Pacific and as the only four-

year university in Micronesia, The University of Guam (UOG) serves the communities of Guam, Micronesia, and the neighboring regions of the Pacific and Asia. Just as the United States has higher participation rates for women than for men in higher education (BANK 1995), as seen in Table 1, so at UOG the number of female students (1851, or 62%) is larger by far than that of male students (1137, or 38%). In fall 2003, the total student enrollment reached almost 3000 with a full time faculty base of 181 (UOG Human Resources Office). UOG students come from Guam, the U.S. mainland, the various islands of Micronesia, the Philippines, India, Korea, Japan, China, and Taiwan. Approximately 90% of the student body is either indigenous (called “Chamorros”), or Asian and Pacific Islander decent (see Table 1), while approximately 60% of the faculty is from a Caucasian background (Human Resources Office). UOG is a diverse university campus within the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC), as expressed

27

by Manuel Esteban, co-Chair of the WASC accreditation team, who visited UOG in 2000: “People in the mainland talk about diversity, and most struggle just to get a student body that is representative of a region. But here you have an exceptionally diverse population, both in terms of the students, the faculty, and the administration” (Triton’s Call, March 29, 2000, p. 2).

Table 1. Ethnic and Gender Profile of Students (Fall 2003).Gender

Male 1137Female 1851

EthnicityAm. Indian/Alaskan 5Amerind/Alaskanative 1Asian-Thailand 2Asian-Chinese 40Asian-Filipino 965Asian-Indian 10Asian-Japanese 27Asian-Korean 76Asian-Other 7Asian-Vietnamese 2Asian/Pacific Islander 15Black Non Hispanic 15Chamorro (CNMI) 1Chamorro (GUAM) 13Chamorro-Guam 1309Chamorro-Saipan, Rota, Tinian 56Hispanic 21Micronesian-Chuukese 54Micronesian-Kosraen 10Micronesian-Marshallese 8Micronesian-Palauan 80Micronesian-Ponapean 12Micronesian-Yapese 16Other 33Pacific Other 25Philippine-Other 1Tagalog 9Vietnamese 2White Non Hispanic 171Yapese 2

Total ========2988 records listed 2988

Source: Registrar’s Office, University of Guam

INOUE: Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences


Teaching at UOG is challenging and UOG provides an excellent setting for the study of cultural diversity and critical thinking. Two principal objectives of this study were:

• To achieve a better understanding of how undergraduate students define critical thinking.

• To achieve a better understanding of the perceived influence of diversity experiences on the development of critical thinking among undergraduate students.

Methodology

Sample and Data CollectionFocus groups were used for data collection in this study. The participants for the

focus groups were identified and recruited from the UOG undergraduate students enrolled in the fall 2003 semester in the College of Professional Studies. The College consists of the School of Business, the School of Education, and the School of Nursing. Six to eight students were selected based on the student rosters of each of the three schools—as recommended by KRUEGER and CASEY (2000): “The ideal size of a focus group for most non-commercial topics is six to eight participants” (p. 73).

Three focused interviews were conducted—one for each school. A focused interview is a special form of in-depth interviews in which the researcher attempts to focus the discussion on a particular experience (KRUEGER and CASEY 2000). The homogeneity of participants is, in general, an assumption of focus groups. This has the advantage of high face validity, but the generalization of focus group data can be limited. The goal of the focus study is to understand respondents’ points of view and to be able to communicate these to the audience, so from a strict sense (KRUEGER and CASEY 2000):

one cannot generalize, but what we suggest is the concept of transferability. That is, when a person wants to use the results, he or she should think about whether the findings could transfer into another environment. What we suggest is that you consider the methods, procedures, and audience and then decide the degree to which these results fit the situation you face. (p. 203)

To ensure that participants actually show up for the session, the following steps were taken: the establishment of convenient meeting times and places; the sending of a reminder e-mail one week before the scheduled session; and the telephoning of each potential participant two days before the session. Videotaping was used as recommended by WIERSMA (2000): “If focus groups are used, videotaping can be effective. It is difficult for an observer to pick up the entire discussion because of the rate at which it occurs” (p. 249). Videotapes also allow the researcher to review repeatedly for the purpose of obtaining more information. Because of the exploratory nature of this study, specific hypotheses had not been established. Each session continued about 80 minutes.

29

Findings and Discussion

On the days of the sessions, 5 female and 2 male (n = 7) students (3 Chamorros, 2 Phillpinos, 1 Chinese, and 1 Micronesian) showed up from the School of Education. From Business, 3 female and 2 male (n = 5) students (2 Chamorros, 1 Phillpino, 1 Chinese, and 1 Korean) came. From Nursing, 6 female and 2 male (n = 8) students (3 Chamorros, 2 Philipinos, 1 White, 1 Indian, and 1 Pacific Islander) showed up. Most of the participants were juniors and seniors.

Topic 1: Definitions of Critical Thinking When asked what critical thinking meant to the participants, the typical answers

of the students in the School of Business were “judgments and evaluations, involving life experiences, human interactions, and cultural awareness and, oftentimes, involving analytical thinking,” supporting MACPHERSON’s (1999) definition: critical thinking is the ability to perform assessment tasks based on evaluation and judgment. The participants’ points of view are similar to LARSON and WIERSMA’s (2000) categories of critical academic skills (problem solving, culture and society, oral communication, and group interaction). Students in Education defined critical thinking as “analysis, synthesis, and evaluation following Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives that reflects successive degrees of cognitive domain,” supporting LI, LONG and SIMPSON’s (1999) definition: “Critical thinking refers to the ability to think analytically and solve problems effectively” (p. 44). Students in Nursing defined critical thinking as “a situation analysis, which involves the way of knowing outside the box; in the nursing program, education is nothing but a process, involving rationales, principles, comprehensions, formulated goals, and alternative solutions.”

The definitions of the participants can be summarized as follows: critical thinking might be the act of independently and systematically weighing evidence to make an evaluation and judgment, to determine merits, and to increase a desirable outcome using cognitive skills and strategies. The goal of critical thinking is to arrive at a judgment, whereas problem solving is a process that comprises many decision points at which a judgment must be made (MACPHERSON 1999). Perhaps, for college students, to practice critical thinking is as important as being able to solve math problems, just as math skills apply to the everyday situation, critical thinking is a life-skill.

Topic 2: Diversity Experiences and Critical ThinkingWhen asked how or what diversity experiences influenced the perceived

development of critical thinking, the typical answers of the focus group participants were as follows:Biased generalization

• Prejudices, biases, and stereotypes are everywhere, even at UOG. People use a stereotype because of its easy application. Coping with these negative factors, I have learned how important for us to share our own cultural experiences in order to develop positive relations.

• Through interactions with ethnically diverse students and the faculty, I have particularly learned that we should not generalize people. We do, for instance,



Koreans are like this, or Japanese are like this…. This kind of generalization is wrong and dangerous.

• Many of the UOG students have dual-ethnic backgrounds (half Chamorro and half Philipino, for example), so we have a tendency to understand other cultures, and at the same time I have learned the importance of becoming confident with my own self-identity.

Stereotypes are “examples of categories of people… most stereotypes end up as negative labels placed on individuals simply because they are members of a particular group” (CUSHNER, MCCLELLAND, and SAFFORD 2000, p. 82). People use a stereotype (which is a biased generalization), not because it is widely known and perpetuated, but because people have learned it as part of their culture from generation to generation (LEFRANCOIS 1999). Specifically, “Knowledge of cultural diversity is largely constructed from stereotypical images fostered by families, friends, communities, and media” (SOMMER 2002, p. 276). It may be that issues that are most deeply related to a sense of self are the most profound cultural experiences on campus. As SOMMER (2001) put it, “Faculty and students bring their personal cultural experiences, biases, prejudices, and expectations to the classroom. Encouraging dialog and openness about cultural similarities and differences among faculty and students offers a tremendous opportunity” (p.276). Through these experiences, students can explore perspectives outside their own range of experiences, increasing their cultural awareness.Beyond black and white

• When talk about diversity in the United States, discussions usually involve the black and white populations. Here in Guam and at UOG the term diversity extends beyond black and white, including Asians and Micronesians.

• I appreciate the diverse population of the UOG students. Through class meetings and field experiences as well as out-of-class experiences (e.g., clubs, and social activities), I have learned that even facial expression and body language can help us understand one another.

• We have been aware of the differences in race and language since we are very young; UOG is valuable because we are able to practice cultural sensitivity, and critical self-reflection.

• Non-traditional aged students are welcome. They have lots of life experiences and thus associating with them helps us to enhance survival skills as well as people skills.

Most race discussions in the U.S. tend to end up as black and white, as if no one else really existed (KNEFELKAMP and DAVID-LANG 2003). The issue of race at UOG involves an eclectic sampling of ethnic backgrounds represented in the university community, providing a rich environment for student’s challenges in developing a critical consciousness relating racial, cultural, and ethnic diversity. Self-reflection and cultural critical consciousness, in GAY and KIRKLAND’s (2003) words, “are imperative to improving the educational opportunities and outcomes for students of color. They involve thoroughly analysing and carefully monitoring both personal beliefs and instructional behaviors about the value of cultural diversity” (p.182). Critical reflection is “a personal and challenging look at one’s identity as an individual person and as an active professional”(HOWARD 2003, p.201). As WARD (2002) put it, “Meaningful field experiences that further the expansion of

31

knowledge and appreciation of people coming from various cultural backgrounds” (p.22).The participants recognized that working on group projects with ethnically diverse

students promote their critical and creative thinking skills. This point of view supports LYNN’s (1998) observation: “One of the richest vehicles for enhancing student learning in the classroom is the diversity of students themselves” (p.123). DAVIS (1993) recommends giving assignments and exams that recognize students’ diverse backgrounds and special interests. In addition to the diversified student population (in terms of ethnicity and social status), non-traditional-aged students are greatly increasing in American higher education. UOG is not an exception. As the participants described, “It is beneficial to tap the knowledge and experiences of non-traditional students, allowing younger students to learn from older students, and vice versa” (FINKEL 1999, p.33).

Based on the discussion above, as THOMPSON, MARTIN, RICHARDS and BRANSON (2003) reviewed, critical thinking is a process that is reflective and imaginative; an intellectual function of adulthood, and a necessity for personal survival; and an interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, and explanation, which make up the interactive process of critical thinking.Teachers as facilitators

• UOG is small and students have lots of opportunities to interact with professors, learning a particular subject. Students also learn their critical approaches to teaching. UOG professors know student names, which makes it easier for the students to communicate with them.

• Good teachers facilitate students to think critically and analytically, providing knowledge and applications useful in real world situations, and using a classroom as community.

• Learning from ethnically diverse teachers is beneficial. Integrating their own cultural experiences into the learning climate makes the teaching process even better. Some professors’ instruction is based on the culturally pluralistic curriculum, using up-dated textbooks.

The participants appreciated the fact that UOG is small, which enables them to have informal contact with the faculty. Ongoing contact outside the classroom provides strong motivation for students to perform well in class, and students who come to office hours can get benefit from the one-to-one conversation and attention (DAVIS 1993). Students are rewarded by taking a more up-dated curriculum that teaches them about diversity, integration, globalization, and critical thinking (MALEKZADEH 1998). WARD (2002) maintains that teachers should be facilitators and authentic individuals who share relevant personal experiences in terms of racism, positive human relations, and critical thinking. Indeed, “Effective teaching strategies for multicultural education emphasize educating students to become critical thinkers…. Students are encouraged to discuss, debate, disagree, and ultimately teach one another” (SOMMER 2001, pp.277-278). Palmer’s notion of “we teach who we are” has significant implications for teachers of today’s learners (HOWARD 2003, p.198). Therefore, “Teachers knowing who they are as people, understanding the contexts in which they teach, and questioning their knowledge and assumptions are as important as the mastery of techniques for instructional effectiveness” (GAY and KIRKLAND 2003, p.181).



Conclusion

This study was not intended to generalize but to understand the participants’ points of view on two topics. Even though the findings are unique to the participants, this study has revealed:

• Ethnic diversity provides students with opportunities to enhance cultural sensitivity, which in turn can enrich the intellectual development including critical thinking.

• Students gain insight into how to maintain their own high ethnic values and behaviors and how to think about cultural and racial matters scholarly and critically.

• Students learn to attach positive feelings to multicultural experiences so that they feel respectful toward other ethnic and cultural groups, developing critical reflection.

In the final analysis, diversity is given in a university such as UOG, and such diversity represents an opportunity and a potential source of enrichment in higher learning. In other words, the findings of this focus study suggest that UOG is the best equipped to help students move from a denial or a minimization of difference to an acceptance, an adaptation, and an integration of cultural diversity into their own worldview. Faculty members at an institution of higher education like UOG must continuously challenge their perceptions and attitudes as well as their pedagogic practices in the classroom. In responding to the multicultural nature of UOG, the future study should focus on the faculty members’ actual practices of diversity and critical thinking.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported in part by grant from the University of Guam (The 2003 President’s Research Award). The author also acknowledges the assistance of the following faculty members of this University: M. Hattori-Uchima of the School of Nursing, R. McNinch of the School of Business, and J. Sanchez of the School of Education.

References

BANK, B. J. 1995. Gendered Accounts. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 32(7-8): 527-544.

CUSHNER, K., MCCLELLAND, A. and SAFFORD, P. 2000. Human Diversity in Education. McGraw-Hill.

DAVIS, B. G. 1993. Diversity and Complexity in the Classroom: Considerations of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender. Retrieved May 20, 2004, from http://teaching.berkeley.edu/bgd/diversity.html

EIMERS, M. T. 2001. The Impact of Student Experiences on Progress in College: An Examination of Minority and Nonminority Differences. NASPA Journal, 38(3):

33

386-409.FINKEL, D.1999. Enhancing Student Involvement and Comprehension through Group and

Class Discussions. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 10(3): 33-48.GARMAN, A. M. 2004. Changing Perspective Teachers’ Attitudes/Beliefs about Diversity:

What are the Critical Factors? Journal of Teacher Education, 55(3): 201-213.GAY, G. and KIRKLAND, K. 2003. Developing Cultural Critical Consciousness and Self-

Reflection in Preservice Teacher Education. Theory into Practice, 42(3): 181-187.GWARTNEY, D. 2003. Teaching Thinking in the Information Age. Oregon Quarterly: The

Northwest Perspective University of Oregon (pp.21-26). Spring 2003. HOWARD, T. 2003. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Ingredients for Critical Teacher

Reflection. Theory into Practice, 42(3): 195-202.INMAN, P. and PASCARELLA, E. 1998. The Impact of College Residence on the Development

of Critical Thinking Skills in College Freshmen. Journal of College Student Development, 39(6): 557-568.

KNEFELKAMP, L. and DAVID-LANG, T. 2003, Encountering Diversity on Campus and in the Classroom. Retrieved May 20, 2004, from http://www.diversityweb.org/Digest/Sp.Sm00/development.html

KRUEGER, R. A. and CASEY, M. A. 2000. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

LARSON, E. and WISSMAN, J. R. 2000. Critical Academic Skills for Kansas Community College Graduates: A Delphi Study. Community College Review, 28(2): 43-56.

LEFRANCOIS, G. R. 1999. The lifespan. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA.LI, G., LONG, S. and SIMPSON, M. E. 1999. Self-Perceived Gains in Critical Thinking and

Communication Skills. Research in Higher Education, 40(1): 43-60.LYNN, M. 1998. Teaching through Diversity. College Teaching, 46(4): 123-27.MACPHERSON, K. 1999. The Development of Critical Thinking Skills in Undergraduate

Supervisory Management Units. Assessment and Evaluation, 24(3): 273-284.MALEKZADEH, A. R. 1998. Diversity, Integration, Globalization, and Critical Thinking in

the Upper Division. Journal of Management Education, 22(5): 590-603.MARCY, M. B. 2004. When Diversity and Dollars Collide: Challenges for Higher

Education. Innovative Higher Education, 28(3): 205-218.MCMILLAN, J. H. 1987. Enhancing College Students’ Critical Thinking: A Review of

Studies. Research in Higher Education, 26(1): 3-29.MUSIL, C. M. 1996. The Maturing of Diversity Initiatives on American Campuses.

American Behavioral Scientist, 40(2): 222-232.ORTIZ, A. M. and RHOADS, R. A. 2000. Deconstructing Whiteness as Part of a Multicultural

Educational Framework. Journal of College Student Development, 41(1): 81-93.PASCARELLA, E. T., PARMER, B., MOYE, M. and PIERSON, C. T. 2001. Do Diversity

Experiences Influence the Development of Critical Thinking? Journal of College Student Development, 42(3): 257-271.

RYKIEL, J. D. 2000. Does the Community College Experience Affect Critical Thinking and Moral Reasoning? The Michigan Community College Journal, 6(2): 47-60.

SOMMER, S. 2001. Multicultural Nursing Education. Journal of Nursing Education, 40(6): 276-278.

Summer diversity internships and objectives [Summer Diversity]. 1999. Retrieved



August 10, 2004, from http://gladsstone.uoregon.edu/~asuomca/diversityinit/definition.html

THOMPSON, S. D., MARTIN, L., RICHARDS, L. and BRANSON, D. 2003. Assessing Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Using a Web-Based Curriculum for Students. The Internet and Higher Education, 6(2): 185-191.

Triton’s Call (UOG campus paper), March 29, 2000, p. 2.WARD, C. M. 2002. Preparing K-12 Teachers to Teach for Social Justice. Multicultural

Education, 9(4): 22-24. WIERSOMA, W. 2000. Research methods in Education. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &

Bacon.

村長・地区長・人民代表選挙での庶民の関心：トンガ王国エウア島の事例から

Democracy: How Commoners Voted in ‘Eua Island,the Kingdom of Tonga

森本利恵MORIMOTO Rie

総合研究大学院大学　文化科学研究科〒 565‐8511 大阪府吹田市千里万博公園 10 番１号国立民族博物館内

School of Cultural Studies, Graduate University for Advanced Studies, NationalMuseum of Ethnology, 10-1 Senri Expo. Park, Suita, Osaka 565-8511 Japan

Abstract

This paper aims to examine the form of democracy practiced in Tongan society as evidenced by the way commoners voted in the 2001 elections in ‘Eua Island, the Kingdom of Tonga. The elections reveal what Tongan commoners think about democracy and what they seek for in elections. Three elections are described and examined in this study; namely, one for the Town Officer, one for the District Officer, and one for the People’s Representative, who is a member of the Tongan parliament. Each election is held once every three years.

The following are the results. Firstly, the result of the election for the People’s Representative in ‘Eua Island had religious significance. It was not truly democratic. The People’s Representative chosen by the commoners represents the commoners’ opinion of the king’s government. The candidates were all members of the Free Church (the former king’s church, but presently the church of those who are against the king). There was no candidate who belonged to the Free Wesleyan Church, the church of the present king. The Tongan democratic movement promotes only those leaders whose aim is to change the political system from a kingdom to a democratic society.

Secondly, the elections for the Town and District Officers represent the personal relationships between voters and the candidates. It favors those candidates who are related by kinship (based on the traditional extended family) and by religious party affiliation in the village community. It is clear that Tongan commoners do not vote according to their own free choice. It concludes that in ‘Eua Island, the kind of democracy that exists has been adapted by the commoners. It is not a western democracy whose purpose is to reflect the people’s right to choose their leaders freely.Key words: commoner, election, democracy, Tonga

はじめに

　トンガはポリネシアにあって現在も王政を保持する唯一の王国である。1875 年の

憲法制定以降今日に至るまで、王自ら政治を行う王政とウェズリアン系キリスト教の

宗教が政教一致する。そうしたトンガの国会は、王、各省大臣、知事、国会議員（貴

族議員と人民代表議員）で構成される。貴族議員は貴族から、人民代表議員は庶民 1)

から選出される。


受付 2005 年４月 18 日受理 2005 年８月 31 日E-mail: [email protected]

36 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

　従来、人類学の先行研究では 1980 年代から生起したトンガの民主化運動とその

推進者である人民代表議員を選出する選挙が議論されてきた (Campbell 1992, 須藤

2000)。そこでは、庶民は王や貴族が行う国家運営に対して、切実な問題意識を抱い

ておらず、民主的な政治体制への変革を求める運動への参加を積極的に行わないと報

告されている。その背景には、民主化を推進する人民代表議員に一票を投じても、当

選後の人民代表議員による改革は何も実現できないという庶民の認識があるためで、

この認識からくる倦怠感が影響しているといわれる (Campbell 1999, 須藤 2000)。　しかし、こうした議論の中心は、王国における民主主義の萌芽に着目するもので、

より詳細な状況を知るには、背景にある村レベルでの庶民が置かれている状況と彼ら

の投票事情を考慮に入れる必要がある。そこで本稿の目的は、トンガ王国で３年毎に

行われる３つの役職（村長、地区長、人民代表議員）の選出をめぐる立候補者と投票

者の関係、各選挙の得票数に考察を加え、王国という階層社会における選挙を庶民が

どのように捉え、何を求めて票を投じるかを比較・検討する。そして、トンガの離島

にあたるエウア島民にとっての民主主義の価値観の介在の在り方を明らかにする。

　方法論としては、文化人類学の調査方法である現地での参与観察とインタビューを

用いた 2)。筆者は、調査地エウア島 3) の選挙監理委員長である政府代表（他島の知事

にあたる）4）に同行して、各選挙（村長・地区長・人民代表）の投票日に島内の全て

の投票所を訪問した。選挙結果に関しては、即日開票の現場となった、エウア島の裁

判所内にて開票現場に立ち会い聞き取り調査により記録した。人民代表選挙の公式な

政府機関紙に発表された得票数は、開票現場での結果を政府代表が首都の総理府に電

話連絡したものである。尚、村長・地区長選挙については、各候補者の得票数は新聞

記事とならないため、本稿で提示したデータは、村落レベルの選挙記録を報告する貴

重なデータになると考えられる。

トンガ王国における民主主義の介在

　選挙は民主政治の根幹といわれる。民主政治にとって不可欠な条件のなかには、立

候補の自由、選挙運動の自由、政治活動の自由、思想と言論の自由など基本的人権に

関わる自由がなければならない。これらの自由が存在しなかったり、厳しく制限され

ているところでは民主政治が行われているとはいえない（森脇 1998）。しかし、この

ような民主政治の前提は、西欧の歴史的な経験から発生した運動の結果であって、そ

れはいわゆる非西欧社会で近年みられるようになった民主化運動とは必ずしも同一で

はない。このため、非西欧社会の民主化運動を議論する際には考慮を要する。これを

現代の政治の分析でしばしば用いられているポピュリズム 5) の概念に照らし合わせ

ると、現代世界でみられるのは、広い範囲にわたって存在している適応型の政治体

系 6) で、形態の点では最も一枚岩的な体系でさえも、実践の点では分裂的で、「前」

民主主義的なものであると指摘できる（ラクラウ 1985: p143）。　この指摘は、オセアニア地域の先行研究で 1990 年代に盛んに議論されてきた「歴

史的もつれあい」（historical entanglement）の議論 7) に類似する。それは、それまでの

37森本：トンガ王国エウア島の３つの選挙に見る庶民の関心（資料）

伝統社会は、植民地経験を経て、近代的なシステムを受容するが、それは外部から与

えられたものや制度であって、その社会の内部から生じたものではないということで

ある。従って、近代システムの定着は、一見すると西欧の概念の導入に見えるが、当

該社会での受容の過程で独自の変容をとげて存在する。

トンガの民主化とキリスト教の関係

　1875 年憲法の第６条では、「安息日はトンガにおいて永遠に神聖なもので、労働、

娯楽、商売を安息日に行うことを法的に禁止する。またこの日に結ばれたいかなる合

意や文書の作成は無効とし、政府はこれを保護しない」と規定された（Adsett 1989）。この第６条によって、現在も人々は教会に礼拝に出かけること以外の一切の活動を禁

止されている。商店やタクシーの営業、娯楽やスポーツ、航空機の離発着までが禁止

されている。トンガ人のほぼ 100 パーセントがキリスト教を信仰している。その大半

を占めるのは、王の所属する自由ウェズリアン教会である（Fig. 1）。

Fig.1. The population of the religious party in Tonga.

0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000

Free Weslyan Church

Free Church of Tonga

Church of Tonga

Tokaikolo Church

Roman Catholic

Latter Day Saints

Seven Day Adventish

Assembly of God

Anglican Church

Others

No Religion

Refused to answer

1986

1996

(Tonga Government 1996. Census 1996)Note: 1. “Tokaikolo Church” is a sect of “Free Weslyan Church”. 2. “Others” include “Constitution Free Church of Tonga” and “Bahai Church”.

38 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

　この第６条をめぐる近年の議論には、保守的な動きと緩和的な動きがある。2001年、

日曜の航空機の離発着の許可をめぐる国会での論議は、その保守的な例で、民主化運

動を先導する人民代表議員までもが、安息日の重要性を支持し、宗教的立場を優先さ

せたために廃案となった。多くのトンガ人が、出稼ぎなどの外国での生活経験がある

にもかかわらず、日曜に飛行機の離発着を認めないという立場をとったのである。こ

うしてみると、トンガの人民代表議員が進める民主化は、必ずしも西欧の概念に基づ

く民主主義の実行を求めている訳ではないといえる。また 2002 年、日曜に教会に礼

拝に出かけた婦人のタクシーの利用は、婦人を乗せたタクシーの運転手の行為が安息

日の労働に値すると話題になった。結局、運転手への警告とタクシー業界への注意勧

告で終わった。

　これに対して、パン屋と首都近郊のリゾート地の営業は、緩和的な動きの例である。

日曜の午後のパン屋には、夕方の礼拝を終えた人々で行列ができるほど賑わう。また、

日曜には海に入ることも禁止されているが、観光客に混ざってリゾート地で過ごす貴

族の姿は、「海に入るのはやめなさい、テボロ（悪魔）が来て連れて行かれるから」

と教会の日曜学校に向かう子供に言い聞かせる親のセリフとは、対照的な光景である

ことは間違いない。

近代的政治システムと伝統的政治システムの並立

　トンガ王国には、1875 年の憲法制定と王国の統一以降、王と政府によって導入さ

れた近代的な政治システム（政府代表、村長、地区長、人民代表議員）が存在する。

1965 年まで首相が任命してきた地区長と村長の任期は３年で、現在は庶民（トゥア）

の中から選挙で選ばれる。

　無人島を除く多数の島嶼は行政上５つの諸島群に分けられ、それぞれに知事が置か

れる（Fig. 2）。知事はトンガ政府の内閣を構成する。国会でこれら５つの行政区の代

表を務めるのは、庶民を有権者とする一般選挙で選ばれた人民代表（ファカフォフォ

ンガ･カカイ）と、貴族選挙で貴族から選出される貴族議員（ファカフォフォンガ･ホ

ウエイキ）である。

　こうした各島に配置された村長と地区長は、近代的な政治システムの象徴であるの

に対して、各村にはその土地の伝統的なチーフとチーフの従者（トーキング･チーフ）

の称号保持者が存在する。各タイトルの保有者は１名である。彼らは、トンガの伝統

的な慣習と深く関係している。本来、伝統的なチーフと庶民の関係は、チーフは自己

の所有地を親族や配下の家族に割当て、庶民は所属するチーフの土地に居住・耕作

し、租税を支払う義務（ファトンギア）を負った。庶民はチーフの命令に服従しなけ

ればならず、ときにチーフは庶民の土地を取りあげることができたという（Campbell 2001,Gifford 1929:pp174-175）。そして、親族集団を構成する各家族の家長は、婚姻、

土地の分配、労働についての決定をチーフに求めたといわれている。現在、各村に存

在するチーフは、儀礼や国事の際に庶民を先導し、王族や貴族の来島時には、政治的

な体現者となる。


Fig.2. The administrative districts in Tonga.

Note: There are five districts; from the north, (1) Niuatoputapu island and Niuafoou island, (2) Vavau islands, (3) Haapai islands, (4) Tongatapu island, (5) Eua island.

N

40 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

エウア島の人民代表選挙エウア島の状況

　エウア島の人口は、トンガタプ島の約 20 分の１にあたる 4,934 人で、世帯数は

863 軒が 15 カ村に分かれて居住する (TONGA GOVERNMENT 1996)。この島の人口増加は

著しく、1892 年当時、トンガの総人口が 19,193 人であったのに対してエウア島の人

口は 353 人であった ( 英国議会資料 2001)。つまり、エウア島の人口は約 100 年間で

14 倍に増加した。

　エウア島の土地は、王族地、貴族地、政府地の３つに区分され、全 15 村うち２村

は王族地に、残りの 13 村は政府地にある。政府地の 13 村のうち９村は、1950 年代

の火山噴火で強制移住となった王国の北部のニウアフォオウ島の人々の村である。ま

た 1960 年代にはエウア島に王の屋敷（パレス）が建設され、王と共にトンガタプ島

から来島した人々の村 1 村が新たに開設されている。これら 15 あるすべての村には

それぞれ村長（オフィサ･コロ）が置かれている。

　移住者を含むエウア島では、1950 年以前からの居住者とその村を「エウア」と呼び、

ニウアフォオウ島の人々とその村を「ニウア」と呼んでいる。これが現在の島北部の「エ

ウア」地区と南部の「ニウア」地区という、行政上の島の区分となっている。これに

対して、ニウアフォオウ島からの移住者は、自分たちとその住む村を「エウア･フォ

オウ」( 新エウア ) と呼び、｢ニウア｣とは呼ばない。一方、以前からの居住者とそ

の村を「エウア･モトゥア」（古いエウア、旧エウア）と呼んでいる。こうした呼称の

微妙なズレは、移住者と旧住民の意識の差だけでなく、土地の割当てをめぐる先住者

と後来者の確執を反映する。各地区には１名の地区長（プレ･ファカヴァへ）が任命

されている。

　国会でエウア島の代表を務めるのは、庶民選出のエウア島出身の人民代表議員と貴

族選挙でトンガタプ島で第四位となった貴族である。尚、エウア島にある貴族地の保

有者の貴族 W 氏ではない。エウア島には知事はおかれず政府代表（ファカフォフォ

ンガ･プレアンガ）が１名配置されている。政府代表は知事でないため内閣の構成員

ではない。

　各村のチーフ（少なくともエウア島の「エウア」地区の村々において）は、王族と

の親族関係にあり、「ニウア」地区におけるその関係は、出身地（移住以前）の島に

おいてのみ認められる (Table 1)。これに対して、トーキング･チーフ（チーフの従者）

のタイトルは、トゥポウ１世の時代以降に、新たに王が新設と授与を行っている。彼

らは、王族との親族関係も血縁関係を持たないことが確認された。村にはこの他に、

チーフの血縁者を意味するトト･エイキと呼ばれる人々が存在する(Table 2)。彼らは、

王族や貴族がエウア島に来島する時の実質的な世話役である。つまり、王は王族や貴

族との親族関係にある「村付き」のチーフを各村に配置することで、地方権力の組替

えと王国の統治体制の強化を図ったのである。


Table 1. The Chiefs and Talking Chiefs in Eua island.

Village Name of Chief Marriage with royal family

Name ofTalking Chief

Marriage with royal family

Eua DistrictHo Taka-i-Houma ○ Talihau -

Oh Manumua ○ Siakumi -Matangi-tonga -

Hafoka ○ Mau -Tu - ○ Fotu-a-ika-taale -Pa Vakauta ○ - -Ha Tupouata ○ Halahala -Ta Maafu ○ Tafakula -

Niua DistrictAn - ＊ Fotutata -Fu Langiloloa ＊ Mauo -Sa Houmafeo ＊ Taanga -Ei - ＊ Maea -Ma Tuia ＊ Tohekakala -Mu Takafua ＊ Tangaloa -To Maluamaka ＊ Filiai -Fa Pongi ＊ Katoa -Pe Lihau ＊ Masila -

Notes: 1. Each name (Chief and Talking Chief) holds a titleholder.2. (*) means it could not confirm at this research.3. The name of chiefs and talking chiefs at Niua district exist also at Niuafo’ou

island.4. ○ means check mark of applicable items.

Table 2. Toto-eiki (person who related with royal family ) in “Oh” Village.Name sex Marriage partner Relationship with royal familyT.H. man commoner（wife） maternalF.U. woman commoner（husband） paternalT.U. man single paternalM.F. woman chief（husband） illegitimate child

エウア島の人民代表選挙

　人民代表の立候補者になるためには、一人 200 パアンガを登録料として政府に支

払わなければならない。2001 年の人民代表議員選挙では、受付開始の時点で 10 人の

立候補者があると伝えられた。しかし、最終的に登録料 200 パアンガを支払って、正

式な候補者になったのは、現職の A 氏を含む４名であった（Table 3）。この選挙の立

候補者４人の出身と居住地は表の通りである。

42 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

Table 3. The election of the People’s Representative in Eua Island. (March 2001)Candidate A B C D

Village (comes from) Oh OutsideEua island An Sa

Residence Oh Oh An Sa Church (belongs to) FCT * FCT FCT

The polls Village Vote TotalOh Oh、Ho、Ta 280 14 215 35 544An Pa、Tu、An、Fu 108 127 170 83 488

Mu Mu、Pe、Ma、To、Sa、Ei、Fa、Ha 292 35 93 133 553

Total 680 176 478 251 1,585Note: 1. 　 means Eua District.

2. (*) means Candidate B does not belong to the Free Wesleyan Church.3. Votes do not include the residences outside Eua Island.4. FCT means “the Free Church of Tonga”.

　A、C、D 氏が共に出身村と現在の居住地が一致しているのに対して、B 氏は出身

が他島である上に現在の居住地の滞在年数は３年以下であった。

　人民代表選挙の投票日の前夜（この日は貴族議員選挙が行われた）、エウア島では、

選挙の立候補者が主催するカヴァ飲みの会（ファイカヴァ）が、ニウア地区 An 村の

FWC 教会のホールで開かれた。夜８時からのファイカヴァの開催に関して、事前に

島民に参加を呼びかけるラジオ放送が行われた。カヴァの飲み会には、地区や村を問

わず、島の男性が参加した。

　一方、村に残った女性の間では、ある婦人は、「A 氏以外は、ニウア（地区）の人

間だから再任されるに決まっている。他には考えられない」と語り、またある男性は、

「A 氏は自分の親戚にあたるから再選される」といった。またある夫人たちは、立候

補者 B 氏に対して「議員選挙に立候補したのは、外国（アメリカ、ニュージーラン

ド、オーストラリア）行きのビザ（渡航許可証）が欲しいからだ」といった。渡航ビ

ザが無ければトンガでは国外へは渡航できない。実際、議員になると外国への渡航ビ

ザは、通常申請するよりも迅速に、容易に手に入る。B 氏は労働省の公務員で、独身

の 20 代の青年であった。島では非常に限られた現金収入の職場で好待遇にある公務

員は、人々の羨望の的であるが、20 代の若者の立候補にほとんどの村人は関心を示

さなかった。

　投票日、夕方４時で締め切られた投票は、エウア島の裁判所内で即日開票された。

この選挙結果から次の二点が指摘できる。第一に、有権者の票が親族関係に傾斜して

いる。例えば、A 氏の親戚にあたる Oh 村の L 家では、有権者の５人全員が A 氏に投

票した。A 氏の当選について、「立候補者 A 氏の母が、（エウア地区の）Ha 村の出身

だから、（ニウア地区の）Mu 村の投票所で行われても、その得票数が最も多かった」

と満足そうに語った。また、ニウア地区の An 村の投票会場で立候補者 A 氏の得票数

が３位で、立候補者 C 氏が最多の得票数を得たことを Oh 村の人々は、「An 村に立候

補者 C 氏の家があるからだ」とひどく残念そうに語った。


Fig. 3. The history of the Wesleyan Church in Tonga.Region Wesleyan Mission Start

(1822)

Tupou I and S. BakerIndependence from AustralianWesleyan Church andestablished Free Church (1873)

Wesleyan Church

Tupou II

Queen Salote (Tupou III) Unification to Free Church and Wesleyan Church

Establish Free Wesleyan Church (1924)

Tupou IV Free Church Free Wesleyan Church

Free Church Church of Tonga CFCT Free Wesleyan Church Tokaikolo Church

Note: 1. CFCT means “the Constitution Free Church of Tonga”.2. Tokaikolo Church is Wesleyan.

　第二に、立候補者（不明な B 氏を除く）の所属教会は自由教会（Free Church of Tonga, 以下 FCT）であった。歴代のエウア島選出の人民代業議員の多くは、FCT に

所属していた。1822 年、ウェズリアン教会の布教開始後、1873 年になるとトゥポウ

１世は、オーストラリアの支部であったトンガのウェズリアン教会を独立させ自由

教会（Free Church of Tonga, 以下 FCT）を設立した。しかし、サローテ女王（トゥポ

ウ３世）の成婚を機に、ウェズリアン教会へ改宗すると、1924 年には教会の統合が

行われ、自由ウェズリアン教会（Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga, 以下 FWC）が創設さ

れた（Fig. 3）。こうして、それまで王の教会であった自由教会の信徒たちは、次々と

FWC に改宗し、王にとっての教会は FCT から FWC へ移行した。FWC へ移行した人々

自由教会の信徒と、それまで弾圧されてきたウェズリアン教会の信徒は、FWC が王

の教会であると信じて疑わなかった。一方で、FWC へ移行しなかった人々（そのま

ま自由教会に残った人々）は、少数派となった。ここにトゥポウ１世からサローテ女

王が成婚するまで続いた FCT の全盛期は終わりを迎えた。1920 年代以降、FCT の弱

体化は進んだ 8)。

　エウア島選出の人民代表議員は、庶民の中から庶民が選ぶ人民代表のことで、その

役割は、庶民の意見を第一に反映すること、政府に対しての庶民の不平不満の意見の

44 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

代弁者に他ならない。つまり、王の教会で、信徒数が最多の FWC の信徒の中から立

候補者が現れないこと。そして、FCT の信徒が積極的に立候補する状況は、人民代

表議員という立場が宗教的な意味を反映しているといえる。

　エウア島の人々は、人民代表議員の発言が、たとえ一般的に我々が民主的であると

考えるものであっても、王や貴族に対して不適切で批判的な発言に対しては、容赦な

くその議員に講義を行う。例えば、2001 年６月の国会で、エウア島代表の人民代表

議員 A 氏が、島の居住地域の周辺で、化学薬品を使うカボチャ栽培を法律で規制す

べきだと提案した。A 氏は同様の化学薬品の使用で過去に数人が亡くなっているとい

う事実を出しながら、エウア島のHa村とOh村がその対象地域であることを名指した。

これは明らかに島のカボチャの輸出業者、T 業者 9) の代表者、王妃が始めようとして

いるパレスでのカボチャ栽培に対する村人の苦情を代弁する形となった。しかし、こ

の発言に対する島民の反応は二分した。それは、「ですぎたまでだ」という冷ややか

な反応と、生活に関わる状況改善を願う人々の評価を得たことである。前者の反応を

示した人々の多くは、王の教会に所属する FWC 信徒で、後者はその他の宗派に属する

人々であった。

村長・地区長選挙

　先にあげた人民代表選挙と比較するために、同時期に行われた村長・地区長選挙を

検討する。

村長選挙とその特徴

　エウア島に 15 ある村には、任期３年の村長がおかれている。2001 年３月に行われ

た村長選挙では、15 村の村長を選出が行われた。村長は、地区長と共に 1965 年以降、

立候補者も有権者も庶民の中から一般選挙で選出されるようになった。

　2001 年のエウア島の村長選挙の立候補者は、15 村のうち８村（エウア地区で３村、

ニウア地区で５村）が前任者の他に新たな立候補者がなく、無投票で再選された（Table 4）。選挙が行われた７村（エウア地区で３村、ニウア地区で４村）で、このうち再選

されたのは３村（Ha、Fu、Pe 村）、前任者退任による新人選挙が行われたのは３村（Tu、Sa、An 村）、前任者が敗れ交代したのは１村（Ho 村）であった。この選挙結果から、

再選された村長は 15 村のうち 10 村に及び、立候補者が投票という手段を使わなくて

も、多数の村で既に村人の了解を得ていたといえる。

　村人の間では、村長は政府の連絡事項の伝達者、村内の世話係という位置づけが共

有されている。このため村長に立候補する者は、政府からの小額の給与支給を得られ

る反面、村の雑事を積極的に行わなければならない。

　では、村長の統制力はあるのだろうか。村長は 1875 年憲法以降のトンガ政府の成

立とそれに伴う自治組織の運営者として設置されたで役職である。世話係に留まる村

長は、首相が任命するとはいえ、村のチーフとトーキング･チーフほど権威を持たない。

村人は、村長よりも村内に存在するチーフとトーキング･チーフに村の権威の所在が

あると感じており、そのためチーフやトーキング･チーフが行う行動規定を優先する。


Table 4: The election of town (village) officer in 2001.Village Candidate Result

Eua District

HoS.F (incumbent)T.L.A.K.

T.L.

Ta S.V. (incumbent) returnedOh T.P. (incumbent) returned

Tu S.K.H.A. S.K.

Pa S.L. (incumbent) returned

Ha M.H. (incumbent)T.M. returned

Niua D

istrict

Mu S.F. (incumbent)* returned

Sa M.L.S.F. M.L.

Fa S.T. (incumbent) returnedEi M.L. (incumbent) returnedMa T.F. (incumbent) returned

Fu P.H.V.M. (incumbent) returned

To S.F. (incumbent) returned

AnS.S.L.S.S.L.

S.S.

Pe F.S. (incumbent)L.T. returned

Note: 1. (*) means the candidate originally appointed by Prime Minister.

　例えば、各村で開かれる村会議に注目した場合、政府代表（１名）、地区長（２名）、

村長（15 名）は、毎月末に連絡会をもち、そこで政府の決定事項が伝えられる。そ

れはさらに毎月第１月曜日の早朝に各村で開かれる「村会議（フォノ）」を通じて王

族、貴族、庶民からなる村人に伝えられる。村会議の成り立ちは古く、かつては高位

のチーフ（大首長）の命令が、最初に招集された低位のチーフ（小首長）に伝えられ、

次いでチーフが配下にある村人を召集して伝達した。それは上意下達の機関として大

きな役割を担っていた(Martin 1817: p230, Ferdon 1987: p36, 青柳 1991: p141)。しかし、

トゥポウ１世王によるチーフ社会の変革は、村会議でのチーフの役割を変化させ、政

府からの連絡は地区長を経て村長に伝えられ、村長は村会議においてもそれを庶民に

伝達するようになった。現在の村会議は、村人すべてが参加権をもつという点で本来

の村会議を継承しているが、村長は村人に対する拘束力をもたないため、彼らの村会

議への参加が少なくなっている。例えば、人口約 800 人の村の場合、毎回の参加者は

20 人程度にすぎない。しかも村会議を通して伝えられる事柄を実施するのは、村長

とその親族に限られている。こうした村会議への関心のなさ、とりわけ政府地の村に

顕著なこの現象は、村レベルでの政治への無関心さを表すものとみられる。

46 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

地区長選挙とその特徴

　2001 年村長選挙と同時にトンガ全土で行われた地区長選挙は、エウア島のエウア

地区とニウア地区の各地区長が選出された。

　表５と６は、両地区長選挙の候補者と得票数結果である。有権者数は、前回３年前

の 1999 年に行われた選挙の際に登録された有権者数（男性 16 歳以上、女性 21 歳）

である。

　エウア地区の場合、今回の選挙で実際に投票を行ったのは、その 37 パーセントの

758 人であった。有権者の総数 2,043 人に対して、これは決して高い投票率であると

はいえない。投票者の大半は、30 歳代以上の男女で、若者の姿を投票所で見かける

ことはほとんどできなかった。

Table 5: The election of Eua District OfficerCandidate F.H

(incumbent)O.M H.H Total vote Voters

（*）Village (comes from) Oh Oh OhChurch (belongs to) LDS FWC TC

The PollsHo 43 40 29 112 252Ta 17 20 － 37 89Oh 175 139 5 319 1,031Tu 34 31 7 72 125Pa 39 45 17 101 195Ha 84 21 12 117 351

Total votes 392 296 70 758 2,043Note: 1. LDS (Latter Day Saints), FWC (Free Wesleyan Church), TC (Wesleyan

Tokaikolo Church)2. (*) means the registration number of the 1999 People’s Representative. Men over 16 years old, women over 21years old.

　エウア地区の地区長選挙（Table 5）の場合、立候補者は全員が Oh 村に居住している。

地区長に再選された F.H. 氏の再選要因として次の三点を指摘できる。第一に、立候

補者 F.H. 氏への村人の信頼が票に繋がっていることである。F.H. 氏は、過去３期（９

年）に渡ってエウア地区長を務めてきた実績がある。さらに、F.H. 氏の発言は常に冷

静で論理的な人物で、毎月各村で開かれる村会議や寄付集めの場では、参加者の意見

の取りまとめを行っている。

　第二に、モルモン教徒の F.H. 氏に反 FWC 教会の信徒（モルモン教徒、FCT 教徒、

トンガ教徒）の票が集中したためである。村人の半数がモルモン信徒の Ha 村では

F.H. 氏への投票数が圧倒的に際立っている。エウア島およびトンガタプ島で最多の

信徒数を占める FWC 教会に所属し教会の世話係も務める O.M. 氏の得票数は、全体

の 39 パーセントにあたる 296 票で、F.H. 氏の 392 票には及ばなかった。Oh 村では、

FWC 信徒の O.M. 氏と FWC 系トウカイコロ教徒の候補者 H.H. 氏の合計得票が 144


票であるのに対して、F.H. 氏は 175 票を得た。

　第三に、エウア地区の投票所の中でも唯一 F.H. 氏が１位を獲得できなかった Ta 村

は、ほとんどの村人がFWC信徒であることと関係する。注意深くその票割りをみると、

FWC 信徒の立候補者の圧勝と思われた村では、以外にも Ta 村の有権者 89 人のうち、

実際に投票に参加した 37 票のうちの F.H. 氏（モルモン教徒）が 17 票を獲得している。

これは Ta 村に居住する FWC 信徒の村人が、所属宗派よりも F.H. 氏自身に評価を下

したことを意味している訳ではない。Ta 村の F.H. 氏の親族が、所属宗派よりも親族

関係をもつ F.H. 氏に投票したのである。つまり、参加した有権者の関心は、所属宗

派による優先よりも立候補者の親族関係を優先しているといえる。このことは、次ぎ

にあげるニウア地区の選挙結果からも裏付けられる。

Table 6. The election for officers of Niua District.

Candidate S.T（incumbent）

P.T V.N M.F

Total votesVillage (come from) Fa Ma Fu To

Church(belong to) FWC FWC FWC FWC

The PollsMu 17 9 １ 26 53Sa 24 18 4 － 46Fa 78 9 １ 1 89Ei 3 20 40 3 66Ma 19 56 5 1 81Fu 3 4 60 1 68To － 5 － 49 54An 15 20 50 26 111Pe 16 12 3 42 73

Total votes 175 153 164 149 641Note: 1. FWC means “the Free Wesleyan Church”.

　ニウア地区の地区長選挙（Table 6）の場合、立候補者の全ては FWC 教徒のため宗

派による得票差は生じていない。例えば、立候補者 M.F. 氏は To 村の出身で、To 村

の有権者の９割は彼に投票している。従って、最終的な立候補者の得票数は、出身

村の人口規模に比例する。有権者は自分の所属教会の候補者がいない場合、同村出

身村と親族関係者に票を投じている。ニウア地区で最多の投票率は An 村（111 票）

で、各候補者への票はほぼ同じ割合であったあった。これは An 村からの立候補者が

なかったためである。Pe 村の場合、Pe 村出身の立候補者はおらず、隣の To 村出身

の M.F. 氏に 57 パーセントの村の得票数を得た。これは隣接する Pe 村と To 村の世帯

の半数が、互いの村に親族関係を持ち、それが立候補者の得票数に影響した。これは

Ei、Sa、Mu 村の場合も状況が類似する。Fa 村と To 村に隣接する Mu 村は、これら

48 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

両村出身の立候補者への支持が二分された。

　ここで興味深いのは、現職で再選を目指す S.T. 氏への村人の評価があった。彼は

村長も兼任しており、村一番の豪華な家を築くほど換金作物で大きな利益を出してい

た。また、カヴァの現金化の過程で必要なカヴァの製粉機械を唯一所有していた。村

人は、S.T. 氏に金を支払って、カヴァの製粉を行った。日頃から村人から広く利益を

得て、さらに村長兼地区長の役職とそれに支払われる給料を一人で掌握する S.T. 氏を快く思わない人々の不満が彼への得票数に表れた。つまり、ニウア地区の場合でも、

候補者の出身村と親族関係がその得票数に大きく影響をしている。

考察

　トンガ社会の全体に存在する、王と政府によって導入された近代的な政治システム

（政府代表、村長、地区長、人民代表議員）と伝統的なチーフ（村付きのチーフとト

ーキング･チーフ）という並立する二重構造は、共に王国の権力構造の持続のために、

王によって組み替えられたものである。エウア島の庶民生活における民主主義の介在

は、ラクラウ（1985）が適応型の政治と指摘するような、トンガ的（型）な介在の仕

方である。そこでの人々の関心とエネルギーは、ローカルな親族と教会へ向けられて

いる（森本 2005）。　トンガに関する人類学の先行研究では、エウア島での民主化運動の支持者は 1993

年の選挙までおらず、1999 年の選挙で 2,194 人の有権者のうち民主化の支持者は 76

人に過ぎなかったと報告されている（Campbell 1999: p268）。しかし、本稿の事例の

投票結果からは、島の人々は人民代表議員に民主化への改革を強く求めて票を投じて

いるのではなく、むしろ親族関係や同一村の出身者といった関係に強く傾斜している。

これは、先行研究で言われている、人々の民主化に対する倦怠感とは別のトンガ独自

の民主主義のあり方として十分に議論される余地を残している。

　政治における象徴の持つ意味は大きい。それは、政治が権力や組織といった、見え

ざるものを可視化するからである。当該社会の政治は、歴史的な発展過程において、

経験による自己解釈をしながら、象徴体系を内部から発生させてきた。例えば近代国

家の成立にともなうナショナリズム、民族の自己意識（エスニック･アイデンティー）

などがそうである。神川（1961: p52）は、政治を「物理的強制的に担保されつつも、

色濃く心理的強制に依拠し、絶えず分化していく利害の対立を何らかのフィクション

によって統合・同質化していく機能」と指摘する。本稿でとりあげたトンガ王国エウ

ア島における３つの選挙で選出された３つの役職（人民代表（１名）、地区長（２名）、

村長（15 名））は、いずれも王と政府によって導入された近代的な政治システムの象

徴である。

　王（王族）、貴族、庶民からなるトンガ社会における、近代的な政治システムの象

徴（者）を選ぶ３つの選挙を扱った本稿の視点は、庶民にとっての民主化の介在の仕

方を問うものであった。有権者の庶民は、同じく庶民出身の立候補者の選出に際して、

村長選挙では親族集団と宗派が重視され、地区長選挙では他村と宗派に対する競争意


識が働き、人民代表議員選挙では親族関係が優先された。一方で、立候補者にとっては、

村長・地区長選挙は、村付きのチーフのようには威厳を持たず、役職を得ることのメ

リットはほとんどない。しかし、村長が不在という事態を回避するために、チーフた

ちが村人の中から、村長という役職をかってでる者を後押しするのである。これに対

して、人民代表議員の立候補者には、教会宗派の明確な目的意識が背景にあることが

認められた。それは、エウア島民を代表する人民代表議員は、民主化という名のもと

の王政への批判を行う象徴であると言い換えることができる。エウア島の場合、人民

代表議員の立候補者は、「人民代表議員＝民主化＝反 FWC( 自由ウェズリアン教会 )」

という、宗派的対立を背景とした構図が成立している。このため、島民の民主化への

関心が、必ずしも当選した人民代表議員によって代弁されている訳ではないし、島民

の側もそれを承知しているのである。

　先行研究で指摘される庶民の民主化への倦怠感は、トンガ的な民主主義を展開する

庶民の指導者としてのリーダーシップと説得力の不在が原因であると考えられる。本

来、民主主義のリーダーとは、一定目標をかかげ、人々に連帯感を与え、協力をかち

とる共同目的と課題を持つ。しかし、エウア島の人民代表立候補者に、このようなリ

ーダーシップは残念ながら認められない。従って、彼らの行う政治的指導が、本来多

義的であいまいになる性質 10) を持っていても、村人への説得力に繋がらないのであ

る。

　最後に、筆者の今後の課題として、今回とりあげた３つの選挙は、王国における庶

民レベルの民主化の萌芽に繋がる重要な視点である。従って、今後もその動向を長期

的に調査し、分析と考察を行ってゆきたいと考えている。

注

１）この場合の「庶民」とは、トンガの階層社会における平民層の人々をさしている。

トンガ語では tu’a、英語では commoner にあたる。先行研究では「平民」という

言葉で使用されている。しかし、本論では選挙における投票者という視点から、

あえて「庶民」という言葉を用いた。

２）筆者は博士論文の調査のために、2000 年９月から 2002 年 12 月までトンガに滞

在して現地調査を行った。本稿で提示したデータに加えて調査村の全世帯を対

象に家系図、収支、農業に関する調査を行っている。

３）トンガ王国は、西経 174 ～ 176 度、南緯 16 ～ 22 度の範囲にあり、そこに点在

する 150 以上の島々からなる。調査地のエウア島（Eua）は、首都があるトン

ガタプ島の南東およそ 40 キロに位置する。その面積は 87.44 平方キロメートル

で、トンガタプ島の約７分の１に過ぎない。火山島であるエウア島には、トン

ガの島々の中でも自然植生が広く残る島であるといわれ (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998)、島の南北に緩やかに広がる山には 1992 年に国立公園が開設され

ている。島の施設には空港と港湾のほか、警察・病院・刑務所・学校（小学校

は政府系、中学校と高校は政府系と教会系）・農業省事務所（２箇所）・電話局・

50 南太平洋研究 vol. 26, No. 1, 2005

銀行（政府系と民間）・郵便局がある。土地はトンガ全土と同様に、王族地、貴

族地、政府地の３つに区分される。王族地と貴族地はトフィアと呼ばれる。エ

ウア島の面積の３分の１をトフィアが占め、３分の２は政府地にあたる。エウ

ア島のトフィアに、王、王族、貴族は住んでおらず、その代わりにパレスとよ

ばれる王族専用の宿泊施設が存在し、首都から来島する王および王族の滞在用

に使用される。貴族地の広さは 1,000 エーカーに及び、その保有者で貴族の W氏は首都に住み、現在この土地では、ノーペレ W 氏の親族や友人にあたる有力

者が換金作物の栽培を行っている。この土地は内乱を鎮圧した功績としてサロ

ーテ女王の時代にノーペレ W 氏の父に与えられた。それが正方形をなすのは

1960 年代に土地測量省の大臣が境界確定にあたって地図上でこの形にしたため

である。

４）北部より①ニウアトプタプ島とニウアフォオウ島、②ヴァヴァウ諸島、③ハアパ

イ諸島、④トンガタプ島、⑤エウア島の５行政区である（図２）。現在この職に

あるＴ氏は、警察官を経て刑事裁判官となった。

５）「ポピュリズム」とは、人々の怨恨、嫉妬を刺激して、その支持に乗って、より

恵まれた階層を攻撃するという形をとり、参加民主主義、草の根の声を政治に

直接反映する形式をとる。

６）「適応型の政治体系」（ラクラウ 1985: p143）とは、アプター（1968:32）を引用

したもので、それによると民主主義的諸制度が、大部分の近代化過程にある社

会で、急激な変形作用を受けているという状況を認識しても、満足のゆく解答

はない。それは広い範囲に渡って存在している適応型の（accommodated）政治

体系であるゆえだと述べている。

７）「歴史的もつれあい」（Thomas 1991, 杉島 1999）とは、トーマスでいえば植民地

主義の分析において、欧米勢力と現地の権力構造との「もつれあい」を分析す

ることであり、杉島（1999: p27）は「中核」諸国起源の規則や信念と「辺境」

の地域社会の規則や信念が多様な解釈を介してせめぎあい、からみあう過程と

定義した。現在目にしている現象を説明し解釈を行う際には、その議論される

事象が西欧の概念では十分に説明されることは不可能であり、当該社会での歴

史的もつれあいを考慮に入れて分析する必要がある。

８）1928 年には一部の信徒が、FCT から新たに「トンガ教会」（Tonga Houeiki、Church of Tonga: CT）」を組織し分離した。また 1984 年には「立憲自由教会（Siasi Kolisitutone、Constitution Free Church of Tonga: CFCT）」が組織され更に分裂が進

んだ。

９）エウア島にカボチャの輸出業者は３社（T 業者、H 業者、農民組合）あり、いず

れも首都の輸出業者のエウア島支部にあたる。

10）永井（1961: p71）は、民主的指導における目標価値の提示が多義的であいまいと

なる理由は、民主的指導における目標価値が、各個人の自己目標や課題といっ

た目標価値を含み、高次の立場から正統づける包括的で一般的なものにならざ


るを得ないからであると指摘している。

[謝辞 ]本稿は、筆者がトンガ政府の調査許可を得て、2000 年９月から 2002 年 12 月

まで行った調査結果の一部である。調査は、財団法人大和銀行アジア･オセアニア財

団の助成により可能となった。トンガ政府と財団に記してお礼をささげたい。

参考文献ADSETT, N. J. 1989. Law of Tonga: 1988 Revised Edition. The Eastern Press, Berkshire.CAMPBELL, I. C. 1992a. Islands Kingdom: Tongan Ancient and Modern. Canterbury

University Press, Christchurch.CAMPBELL, I. C.1992b. “The Emergence of Parliamentary Politics in Oceania.” Pacific

Studies, 15(1): 77-97.CAMPBELL, I. C.1994. “The Doctrine of Accountability and the Unchanging Locus of

Power in Tonga,” The Journal of Pacific History, 29(1): 81-94.CAMPBELL, I. C. 1999. “Democracy Movement and the 1999 Tongan Election,” The

Journal of Pacific History, 34(3): 265-222.CAMPBELL, I. C. 2001. Island kingdom: Tonga ancient and modern. 2nd rev. ed.

Christchurch: Canterbury University Press.CHAPPELL, D. A. 1999. “Transnationalism in Central Oceanian Politics: A Dialectic and

Nationhood?” The Journal of Polynesian Society, 108(3): 277-303.FERDON, E. N. 1987. Early Tonga: as the explorers saw it, 1616-1810. University of

Arizona Press, Tucson.GIFFORD, E. W. 1929. Tongan society. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu.MARTIN, J. 1817. An account of the natives of the Tonga Islands, in the South Pacific

Ocean: with an original grammar and vocabulary of their language / compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of William Mariner. Printed for the author, and sold by John Murray, London.

MUELLER-DOMBOIS, D. and FOSBERG, F. R. 1998. Vegetation of the tropical Pacific islands. Springer, New York.

THOMAS, N. 1991. Entangled objects: exchange, material culture, and colonialism in the Pacific Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

TONGA GOVERNMENT 1996. Census 1996, Government Printer, Nuku’alofa.アプター，D. E. 1968.「近代化の政治学（上）」内山秀夫訳，未来社 , 東京．

青柳まちこ 1991.「トンガの文化と社会」，三一書房，東京．

英国議会資料 2001. 京セラ文庫「英国議会資料」資料集 . 国立民族学博物館地域研究企画交流センター , 吹田 .

神川信彦 1961. 政治からみた人間 : 1. 政治的人間像「人間と政治」（丸山真男編）， 1-36，有斐閣，東京．

ラクラウ，エルネスト (横超英一監訳 ) 1985.「資本主義・ファシズム・ポピュリズム：

マルクス主義理論における政治とイデオロギー」拓殖書房，東京．

丸山真男編 1961.「人間と政治」，有斐閣，東京．

森本利恵 2005. 教会に傾斜する庶民：トンガ王国エウア島の事例から「総研大文化

科学研究」創刊号．56-68，総合研究大学院大学，神奈川．

森脇俊雅他 1961.「比較・選挙政治：90 年代における先進 5 ヶ国の選挙」，ミネルヴ

ァ書房，京都．

永井陽之助 1961. 政治からみた人間：2. イデオロギーと組織象徴「人間と政治」（丸

山真男編），37-78，有斐閣，東京．

須藤健一 2000. トンガ王国の民主化運動「オセアニアの国家統合と国民文化」JCAS連携研究成果報告 2. 国立民族学博物館，大阪．

杉島敬志 1999.「土地所有の政治史：人類学的視点」風響社，東京．

Instructions for Contributors

1. Editorial policyThe Kagoshima University Research Center for the Pacific Islands’ South Pacific

Studies is an international and multidisciplinary journal publishing original papers on all aspects of the South Pacific and its surrounding regions. South Pacific Studies is open to all scholars and scientists. The South Pacific Studies accepts research papers, reviews, research notes and material. All the review articles are solicited.

2. Submission of manuscriptsAll manuscripts must be sent to the Editorial Board for consideration. Manuscripts

submitted must not have been published, accepted for publication, or be under consideration elsewhere. All manuscripts are to be written either in English or in Japanese. For non-native English speakers, it is the author’s responsibility to see that the language of the text is linguistically correct before submission.

Send two hard copies of the manuscript together with a 3 1/2 inch diskette and/or CD containing a Microsoft Word file and a plain text (ASC II) file. Authors may send the files as e-mail attachments. Figures should be drawn on white paper as photo-ready materials in separate sheets and/or electronic files.

Request of reprints (No. of copies) and the running title written within 50 letters should be submitted to the Editorial Board with the manuscript.

There is no page charge. The costs of reprint are payable directly to the printer.

3. Preparation of manuscriptAll manuscript will be printed by offset process in black and white, however, at

author’s expense, art pages, color prints and other special materials can be used.Manuscript should be typed in English or in Japanese on one side of A4 size (210

x 297mm) bond paper or the near equivalent with double spacing throughout, leaving a margin of at least 3cm all around. Font of ‘Times New Roman, 12pt’ should be used throughout otherwise mentioned (Title; 18pt, Abstract and Key words; 10.5pt).

4. Layout of manuscriptsManuscripts should, in general, be arranged in the following order: 1) Title 2)

Authors 3) Affiliations 4) Abstract (200 words) 5) Key words (six words or less) 6) Text (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion or Results and Discussion, 7) References. Acknowledgements for grants, people, etc. should be placed before the References. Table and Figure captions should be placed at the end of the text.

1) TitleTimes New Roman, 18pt, Centered.

Satellite, Air and Ground Observations of Volcanic Clouds over Islands of the South Pacific


54

The title should be concise and informative.Insert two lines between title and author’s name.

2) Author’s complete nameTimes New Roman, 12pt, Centered.

Andrew TUPPER1, 2 and KINOSHITA Kisei2

Insert a line between author’s name and affiliation.

3) AffiliationAcademic affiliation and address (Times New Roman, 12pt, Italic, Centered). In

addition to the postal address, provide fax number and e-mail address of the corresponding author.

1: Bureau of Meteorology, Darwin, Australia, and Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

2: Faculty of Education, Kagoshima University 1-21-24 Korimoto Kagoshima 890-8580 Japan

4) AbstractAbstract must begin with the heading ‘Abstract’ (Times New Roman, 10.5pt, Bold,

Centered). The abstract should not contain any undefined abbreviations or unspecified references and must not exceed 250 words (Times New Roman, 10.5pt, double spaced).

Abstract

Volcanic ash is dangerous to aircraft. In response to this, a warning system has been created: the International Airways Volcano Watch. Many of the ---.

5) Key words Key words must begin with the heading ‘Key words’ (Times New Roman, 10.5pt,

bold) followed by six words or less in alphabetical order (Times New Roman, 10.5pt).

Key words: aviation safety, eruption height, volcanic ash, volcano

6) TextTimes New Roman, 12pt, double spaced. Headings such as Introduction, Materials

and Methods, etc.; Times New Roman, Bold, 12pt, Centered. Second and lower level headings should be left-justified and clearly distinguishable but not numbered.


55

Introduction

The majority of the islands of the western Pacific are part of the ‘Ring of Fire’, the zones of ----.

The complete scientific name (Genus, species and authority), and cultivar or strain where appropriate, must be cited for every organism on first mention. The generic name may be abbreviated to its initial thereafter, except where reference to other genera could cause confusion. Vernacular names may be added, but should be used alone only when they are unambiguous.

If a non-standard abbreviation is to be used extensively, it should be defined in full.

SI units should be used, e.g.: mg, g, kg, km, m, cm, mm, ppm, cpm, l (liter), ml, s (second), min (minute), h (hour) and mol, etc. If non-SI units have to be used, the SI equivalents should be added in parentheses on first mention. Units should abbreviated when preceded by a numeral: g, mg, ml, d, h, etc. (not followed by full stops). Use the minus index (m-2, I-1, h-1) except in such cases as ‘per plant’ or ‘per plot’. If elaborate use is made of units, symbols and abbreviations, these may be explained in the paper.

Standard chemical symbols and abbreviations for chemical names may be used if they are concise and widely accepted. Numbers up to ten should be given in words except when referring to measurements; give 11 and upwards as numerals, except at the beginning of a sentence. Fractions should be expressed as decimals. Use ‘%’ not ‘per cent’ in the text. Dates should be cited thus: 1 Sept. 2003.

Mathematical equations will not necessarily fit within a single typeset column and should be subdivided appropriately in the manuscript. Authors should also make any special typography which may be required.

Citations in the text should take the form: JOHNSON and CASADEVALL (1994) or (SAWADA 1987, KINOSHITA 1990a, b). When papers are written by three or more authors, abbreviate to the name of the first author followed by et al. throughout.

7) ReferencesAbbreviation for journal names should follow the convention accepted in the author’

s discipline. Each entry of citations in the list must conform as nearly as possible to one of these three styles in alphabetical order, according to the type of publication cited:

References

Journal articleSATSUMA, T. 1986. Plants of Sakurajima Volcano. Veg. Sci., 2: 1-23.

BookPARMENTIER, R. J. 1987. The Sacred Remains: Myth, History, and Polity in Belau. 341 pp.,

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.



WUERCH, W. L. and BALEENDORF, D. A. (ed.) 1994. Historical Dictionary of Guam and Micronesia. 172 pp., The Scarecrow Press, Metuchen.

Chapter in a publicationLEVIN, D. A. and WILSON, J. B. 1978. The Genetic Implications of Ecological Adaptations

in Plants. In: Structure and Functioning of Plant Populations. (Ed. FREYSEN, A. H. J. and WOLDENDORP, J. W.), 75-100, North-Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam.

Citations such as papers ‘in press’ may appear in the list, but not papers ‘submitted’ or ‘in preparation’. In the text refer to paper ‘in press’ by the expected year of publication. Avoid ‘unpublished work’. A ‘pers. comm.’ may be cited in the text, but not in the list.

8) FiguresFigures (diagrams, graphs or photographs) should be drawn on white paper separately

so that they are photo-ready images. Authors may provide figures as the electronic version in either JPEG, TIFF or Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) format as original figures. Figures should be saved in separate files without their captions, which should be included with the text. The optimal resolutions are from 300dpi (photographs) to 1200dpi (line figures). Higher resolutions will cause file size problems and lower resolutions compromise quality.

5. Procedure after acceptanceA manuscript considered for South Pacific Studies is reviewed by referees. The author

should make appropriate changes according to suggestions proposed by the referee and the editor. The editor retains the right to modify the style and length of a manuscript.

The corrected proof with a floppy disk of the revised version should be returned to the editor immediately. You may send the corrected version as e-mail attached files. The author receives the galley proofs for final checking.

6. CopyrightsUpon the acceptance of the manuscript, all the copyright with respect to the

publication, mechanically, electronically (off-line and on-line) or otherwise, reprinting and translation are reserved by the Kagoshima University Research Center for the Pacific Islands.

For more information on preparing manuscripts, please contact Editorial Board.

Editorial BoardResearch Center for the Pacific IslandsKagoshima University1-21-24, KorimotoKagoshima 890-8580JapanTEL: +81-99-285-7394FAX: +81-99-285-6197E-mail: [email protected]

57

「南太平洋研究」投稿規定

１．「南太平洋研究」の出版目的：南太平洋海域（メラネシア，ミクロネシア，ポリ

ネシア）およびその周辺地域に関する自然科学，社会科学，人文科学の諸分野

における未発表論文，総説，研究ノート，資料を掲載・発表し，学術研究に寄

与するものである。

２．投稿資格：多島圏研究センターの専任教官，兼務教官，協力研究者および出版広

報部会が適当と認めた者とする。

３．原稿の受理：出版広報部会は，この規定に従って書かれ，直ちに印刷しうる状態

にある原稿を審査の上，受理する。条件に適合しない原稿は出版広報部会が投

稿者に訂正を求める。受付締切日を過ぎたものは次号の原稿として扱う。

４．原稿の用語：英文を主体とする。本文が英文の場合と，本文が和文の場合の英文

摘要（Abstract）は，投稿者が英語を第一言語とする人の校閲を受けるのを原則

とする。英文校閲者が得られない場合は出版広報部会が校閲者を紹介する。校

閲料は全額著者負担とする。

５．印刷費の負担額：カラー印刷等の特殊印刷については著者が負担する。別刷り代

も著者負担とする。

６．原稿の提出及び部数：原稿はマイクロソフト Word で作製し，テキストスタイル

のファイルも同時に入ったフロッピーディスク（3.5inch）あるいは CD 等を同封

する。図，写真等を電子ファイルとする場合は，テキストとは別のファイルと

すること。電子ファイルでない場合は別紙にトレースあるいは貼ったものを原

図とする。原稿（ハードコピー）は本文，図，表を問わずすべて２部製作する。

また，ランニングタイトル（和文で 30 字，英文で 50 字程度）及び別刷り必要

部数を明記したものを同封する。

７．原稿の用紙と書き方：印刷は原則として電子ファイルを利用するので，それを考

慮して原稿を作成すること。用紙はすべてＡ４判とし，１行 37 字，１ページ 21

行程度で，横書きとする。表題及び Abstract 以外は，和文は MS 明朝，12pt，英

文は Times New Roman 12pt を用いる。余白は上下，左右とも３cm とする。

８．記述

１）原稿の構成：表題，著者名，所属機関名とその所在地（郵便番号を含む），英

文表題，英文著者名，英文所属機関名とその所在地（郵便番号を含む），英文

要約（Abstract），Key words，本文（緒言，材料及び方法，結果，考察等），文

献の順に配列する。謝辞は文献の前に置き，図の説明は最後に置くこと。図，

表が電子ファイルでない場合は，原図は別紙とする。

２）表題：MS ゴシック 18pt を用い，中央揃いとする。英文表題は Times New Roman 18pt を用い，同様に中央揃いとする。冠詞，接続詞，前置詞以外は第

１文字を大文字とする。

３）著者名：和文は MS 明朝 12pt，英文は Times New Roman 12pt，和文，英文と



も中央揃いとする。連名著者の所属が異なる場合，著者名の右肩に数字をつ

けて所属を示す（村上万知子 1）。英語表記は，Times New Roman 12pt を用い，

姓の２番目以降の文字はスモールキャピタルとする（Peter KING）。日本人の場

合は，姓名の順とする（MURAKAMI Machiko）。４）所属機関名とその住所：和文は MS 明朝 12pt，中央揃い，英文は Times New

Roman 12pt，イタリック，中央揃いとする。投稿責任者は，連絡先の fax 番号

および e-mail アドレスを付記すること。

５）Abstract：見出しとも Times New Roman 10.5pt とし，見出しはボールド，中央

揃いとする。250 語程度以内にまとめる。

６）Key words：Abstract のあとに１行あけ，Times New Roman 10.5pt を用い（見出

しはボールド），左から本文の内容を表す語６つ以内を選び，アルファベッド

順に示す。語と語との間にはコンマを入れる。

７）本文：Key words のあと２行あけて書きはじめる。緒言，材料及び方法等の大

見出しはボールド，中央揃いとする。中見出し，小見出し等は左寄せボール

ドさらにはイタリック等で区分けし，番号はつけないこと。

生物名，人名，単位など：生物名はラテン語の場合は属及び種名はイタリッ

クとし，命名者名も明記する（例：Oryza sativa L.）。和名は片仮名とする。人

名は外国人の場合は２番目の文字以下をスモールキャピタルとし，LEVIN の

ようにすること。単位は SI ユニットを用いる（mg, g, kg, km, m, cm, mm, ppm, cpm, l (liter), ml, s (second), min (minute), h (hour) , mol 等）。

８）文献：本文中の引用は２名の共著の場合は氏名を挙げ，その発表年号を示す

（SATSUMA and OSUMI 1986, 薩摩・大隅 1986）。３名以上の場合は第一著者だけを

挙げ（SATSUMA et al. 1986, 薩摩ほか 1986）とする。“in press”または“印刷中”

という用語はその報文が受理されている場合のみに使用すること。それ以外

のときは，本文中では“Unpublished”または“未発表”とするにとどめ，文

献にいれない。雑誌名の省略形は慣例に従う。引用した文献は著者名のアル

ファベット順に，年代順に配列し，以下の例に従って記載する。

（１）雑誌からの引用

SATSUMA, T. 1986. Plants of Sakurajima volcano. Veg. Sci., 2: 119-123.薩摩忠度 1986. 桜島火山の植物．植物科学，2: 119-123.

（２）著者の引用

上屋久町郷土誌編集委員会 1984. 上屋久町郷土誌．1918 頁．上屋久町教育委

員会，宮之浦．

MIYAWAKI, A. and OKUDA, S. (ed.) 1979. Vegetation und Landschaft Japans. 459 pp., Yokohama Phytosoc. Soc., Yokohama.

（３）論文集からの引用

江口　卓 1984. 屋久島の気候．「屋久島原生自然環境保全地域調査報告書」（環

境庁自然保護局編），3-26，出版社名，東京．

59

LEVIN, D. A. and WILSON, J. B. 1978. The genetic implications of ecological adaptations in plants. In: Structure and Functioning of Plant Populations. (Eds. FREYSEN, A. H. J. and WOLDENDORP, J. W.), 75-100, North-Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam.

９）図，表：原則として，英文で作製するが，余白も入れた用紙１枚（Ａ４縦）に

収まる形にする。Ｂ５版に縮小されることに留意すること。図は１枚ごとに

原図（説明等の文字が入っていないもの）を作製し，表題，説明等は本文の

最後に記入すること。図及び表，写真の番号は「Fig. 1」及び「Table 1」，「Plate 1」とする。図や写真等を電子ファイルで提出する場合は，そのまま印刷される

ので，図毎に、説明文の入っていない JPEG あるいは TIFF，EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) ファイル形式とする。説明文はテキストの最後に入れる。解像度は

300dpi（写真等）から 1200dpi（線画）の範囲とする。高解像度のものは編集

作業に支障をきたし，また，低解像度のものは，印刷が低質なものとなるの

で避ける。

９．別刷：投稿時に必要部数を請求すること。別刷りの印刷代は著者負担とする（前

出）。

10．校正：原則として著者校正は再校までとする。３校は出版広報部会で行う。著

者校正は迅速に行い，書き直した原稿及び図，表等が入った電子ファイルと

ともに指定期日までに出版広報部会へ返却するものとする。止むをえない事

情で校正の期間不在の場合は，著者の代理をたて，出版広報部会に連絡する

ものとする。

11．著作権：著作権は，印刷物及び電子媒体，その他の媒体とも，すべて多島圏

研究センターに帰属する。

12．規定の適用・改訂など：この規定の改訂は出版広報部会で行う。

13．投稿先および連絡先

〒 890-8580 鹿児島市郡元一丁目 21 番 24 号

鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター

出版広報部会

Tel: 099-285-7394Fax: 099-285-6197E-mail: [email protected]


Documents

南 太 平 洋 研 究 SOUTH PACIFIC STUDIEScpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/publications/southpacificstudies/sps/sps26-1/... · buprofezin (Sitara) IGR’s 25 % WP 1500gm 0.406 0.469 0.531

南太平洋研究 SOUTH PACIFIC STUDIEScpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/publications/southpacificstudies/sps/sps26-1/... · buprofezin (Sitara) IGR’s 25 % WP 1500gm 0.406 0.469 0.531