Power was distributed very unequally:

› State was absolutist (did not acknowledge any power other than that of the King)

› Power of King and his representatives was unlimited.

› Main goal for the colony was to increase the power of France through commerce, war and expansion in New France.

› Another main goal was to hinder the growth of rival country Great Britain.

Chartered Companies Period: 1608-1663

› Initial administration was held by the major fur trading companies.

› The policy of mercantilism caused New France to become a trading colony, who main goal was to supply and export raw materials to France.

In 1663, King Louis XIV establishes Royal Government in New France:

› French state would administer the colony through the governor (responsible for war/diplomacy) and intendant (responsible for economy/finances) who held extensive powers.

› Laws could be created without the consultation of anyone in the colony

› But, if the Governor or Intedant did not satisfy the demands of the King, they would be sent back to France.

› Governor and Intendant ran the Sovereign Council (high court)

The main means of control was intimidation:

› Wanted to keep the population scared so that they would not disobey

› Military presence in the colony was important both to combat enemies on the border and to keep the settlers under control.

› Criminals were subject to public physical punishment, including execution for more severe crimes.

Relationships: The State and the Natives Alliances with the natives were essential to

the development of New France:

Built gradually through the fur trade and the exchange of goods

Natives traded with fur merchants from Montreal and fought for France.

› Natives were not subjects of the French Crown. Because New France needed these alliances for access to furs

and trade routes, they made compromises to keep them loyal to the French.

Relationships: The State and the Natives Natives were also important for warfare:

› They had their own reasons for fighting the British “Mourning Wars”, gain new goods, drive the British from

their lands.

Native warfare style actually benefitted the French:• Surprise attacks and ambushes/fought mainly from the

cover of bushes.• This helped the French because they were outnumbered

by the British.

Relationships: The State and the Natives Some of the compromises made to keep

the alliance with the natives were:› Natives were not subject to French law› French allowed them to keep their customs› French participated in peace pipe ceremonies, gift exchanges› Natives continued to use their language and the French would

have interpreters

In return, natives agreed to:› Fight for France› Not to fight one another

In 1701, the Great Peace of Montreal was signed by 40 native nations agreeing to these terms. Before the Great Peace, natives had been attacking Montreal. People refused to leave the walls of the city. This demonstrates the necessity of the native/french alliance.

Relationships: The State and the Natives Continued contact between the French

and the Natives took a toll on native populations:

› Disease spread rapidly wiping out entire native groups (ie: the Hurons)

› Many natives died fighting for France

Relationships: The State and the Catholic Church The State also had a strong relationship

with the Catholic Church:› Worked together to promote each others interests

› Catholicism was the only religion permitted by law› Government granted seigneuries to religious orders

(Sulpicians got Montreal/ Jesuits got Laval)› Tithe (a proportion of harvest granted to parish priest)› Shops had to be closed on the Sabbath and religious

holidays.› Church taught the people to obey the authorities.› Missionaries attempted to convert the natives or at least

keep the peace between them and the French.

Relationships: The State and the Nobility The role of the nobility was to serve the state

and the King:› All the governors, intendants, and members of the sovereign

council were noblemen.

› Nobles also held other high ranking positions such as military officers, naval commanders, judges, and engineers.

› These positions allowed them to exert sufficient power over the colony.

› Nobles guilty of crimes could have their punishments reduced or cancelled by the state.

Relationships: The State and the Peasants/Artisans Peasants and Artisans represented 80% of

the population and had no political rights.

› Whatever the state wanted from them it took› People paid regular taxes› Had to work on roads and/or for the military for free› State did not take their interests into consideration› They were still considered a threat due to their large

numbers› State’s main concern was to prevent rebellions

Problems within the colony:› Population was very low, so Intendant Jean

Talon (1665-1672) tried to promote settlement: Brought over Les Filles du Roi Gave free land to soldiers from the Carignan-Salières

Regiment Encouraged engages to work in New France

› Disputes between officials were common: Bishop Laval discouraged trade of alcohol with native

peoples Governor Frontenac supported it because he felt it

was important for the further growth and expansion of the fur trade

In 1760, British forces take control of Montreal › Britain and France were fighting in Europe

(Seven Year’s War) and thus fighting broke out within the colonies.

The main reasons for the defeat were:› The extremely vast territory and low population

of New France› Britain’s stronger and larger military forces

(army and navy)› France’s inability to send reinforcements (too

expensive)› New France relied too much on the mother

country, while the 13 colonies were much more independent.

1760 -1763: Governed by

the occupying

army

In 1763, the Royal Proclamation, creates a system similar to that of New France:› A governor was appointed by the King, who would the select

members for an Executive council.

› British criminal and civil laws apply

› Encouraged trade to increase the wealth of the British empire.

› Had to fight off the French, the natives and the Thirteen Colonies

› Had to maintain internal order in a society composed of former enemies (the French)

Quebec under the Royal Proclamation - 1763 The Royal Proclamation was intended to assimilate

the French and favour the British:

› Roman Catholics were not allowed to hold public office and therefore could not participate in administration

› No new Roman Catholic Bishops could be appointed to serve the colony

› Protestant churches and schools were encouraged› Land was divided into townships for the occupation of British

and American colonists

Quebec under the Royal Proclamation - 1763 Though the system was set up in this way, not all of the

new policies were enforced (particularly by the first Governor James Murray):

› French laws were permitted

› Did not create an elected assembly because it would have favoured the English speaking merchants

› Selected people who were sympathetic to the French to be on his council.

Murray understood that the French greatly outnumbered the English (less than 1% of the population was English

speaking and Protestant.

In 1774, the Quebec Act was passed:

French civil law was reinstated English criminal law was to remain in force Seigneurial rights and system restored The Tithe (church tax) could be collected again The Governor had an advisory council, 8

members had to be French Canadian No elected assembly was required

Most power was still in the hands of the governor

Quebec under the Quebec Act - 1774 Colonists did have some new freedoms under British Rule:

Newspapers were authorized Petitions could be presented to the governor Had the right to form associations Criminals had the right to a lawyer and trial by jury

Of course, these freedoms could be suspended at any time by the state.

› Means of control was still intimidation and public punishments, as well as military presence was still common

Quebec under the Quebec Act - 1774 The British State had some allies:

The Natives (became the military partners of the English and would fight during the American War of Independence)

The French Canadian (Canadien) Nobility (state was forced to ensure the loyalty of these powerful people – French civil law as well as the seigneurial system)

The Catholic Church (Quebec Act grants toleration of Catholicism, even though it was illegal in England/ in return bishops and priests preach loyalty to the British crown)

Quebec under the Quebec Act - 1774 British colonists were upset with the political

system in Quebec:› The Quebec Act was particularly frustrating for the English

because it tolerated Catholicism and allowed for French civil laws.

› Because of their low numbers, they joined forces with the Canadien population as well as the Loyalists, who were also unsatisfied with the political system.

› They demanded the right to elect a legislative assembly (so that they could exercise influence over state decisions)

Canadien bourgeoisie & Catholic church continued to oppose these changes.

In 1791 the Constitutional Act allowed for the creation of the legislative assembly.› This was done to appease the Loyalists and the Canadiens.› It was also beneficial for the colony because the assembly

could impose taxes

› Britain divided Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada French civil law and religion was maintained in Lower Canada Canadiens could now serve in administration

System of Government after the Constitutional Act Governor had ultimate power over both Upper and Lower

Canada The Governor appointed two Lieutenant Governors for Upper

and Lower Canada The Governor appointed an Executive Council to advise him

(in each of the Canadas) The Legislative Council could approve or reject laws passed

by the Assembly (in each of the Canadas) The Legislative Assembly was elected by the people, but

since they were not paid most members were professionals› To be able to vote, you had to be at least 21 years old, had to own

property and earn over 20 shillings a year (most families had 1 vote, and women could vote if they met these qualifications)

Though the new system allowed for more people to have influence over the state’s decisions, there were still problems with the new system in Lower Canada:› Positions in the assembly were not paid, so only the richest

members of society could run› Poorest populations had no say› Assembly was made up of mostly upper class, therefore the

decisions made were in the interests of these people rather than the general population.

› Governor, Legislative Assembly, and Legislative Council all had to approve a law for it to be passed.

The creation of an Assembly allows people to vote, but these decisions can still be overturned – not Responsible

Government.

The Parti-Canadien, later known as the Parti-Patriote, pushes for Responsible Government:

› In 1834, they drafted the 92 Resolutions and sent them to Britain (a list of their demands)

› Their demands were not met, so they used pressure tactics to force a change in the government: They dominated the Assembly at this time so they did not

support laws proposed by the opposing British Party, and refused to pass budgets and funding projects

This prevented the government from being able to function properly

They eventually began mass rallies and demonstrations to put further pressure on Britain

Under the leadership of Pierre Bedard, and later, Louis-Joseph Papineau.

The Governments’ response was to go after the Patriote leaders:

In 1839, 12 Patriote leaders were publically hanged in Montreal and 130 were deported, but the protests did not stop

Lord Durham was sent from Britain to propose a solution to the problems

› He recommended Responsible Government, but Britain did not follow through.

› Instead, they decided to unite Upper and Lower Canada

In 1840, the Act of Union, combined the two Canadas in an attempt to suppress the rebellions:

Created Canada East and Canada West Made the Canadiens a minority again so that they

could not longer influence the government English became the official language Encouraged the assimilation of the French The Legislative Assembly still had no influence over

executive decisions

In 1846, Britain applies a free trade doctrine, allowing for the mother country and the colonies to contend directly with global economic competition (Britain would no longer solely depend on its colonies for raw materials)

In 1848, the colonies are granted Responsible Government.› The Government of United Canada became bilingual, and was

governed by representatives elected by the people.› The Governor reserved the right to nullify laws, but did not

usually intervene the decisions of the Assembly.

As the government is now run mainly by the bourgeoisie and entrepreneurs, the goals of the government changed to suit their needs.› Economic development within the colony became a

priority: Construction of canals to benefit merchants and traders Construction of railways New areas of colonization opened up Creation of the Canadian dollar Abolishment of the seigneurial system Export markets for wood and wheat Primary and Secondary education system to train workers Catholic Church takes over social welfare and education

again

The idea of Confederation of Canada comes about in the 1860s.

Supporters included:› The Catholic Church (believed that their privileges

would be better protected in a Catholic Province rather than United Canada)

› Britain (colonies had become too expensive to maintain and felt that they needed to govern themselves)

Opponents were:› The Parti-Rouge (French feared that they would loose

their political power)

In 1867 the Dominion of Canada is created

Confederation occurs in 1867 with the British North America Act:› Division of power between the federal and provincial

governments becomes a major issue

› This results in Nationalist movements in Quebec

› Industrialization increases the power of financial and industrial groups

› Aboriginals, unions and women fought for more rights

These interest groups forced the government to become more involved

The roles of the Federal Government include:› Jurisdiction over trade, defence, diplomacy,

currency and banking › The right to collect various types of taxes› Enact laws (in emergencies, they could be provincial laws)

› Disallow any provincial law that is contrary to national interests

The roles of the Provincial Government include:› Education› Health › Roads› Natural resources

During the first 30 years, the rights of the Federal Government were diminishing and infringements were only made in crisis situations. More tax revenues were given to the provinces:The government was becoming decentralized and

provinces were gaining more sovereignty.

French Canadien Nationalism increased after Confederation:› In 1885, the hanging of Louis Riel ( a Metis

leader) was interpreted by many as an anti-French and anti-Catholic gesture

› French felt that the Federal Government did not protect the rights of Franco-Catholic minorities

› French Canadians wanted more autonomy

World War I had major consequences for Federal-Provincial relations:› War Measures Act in 1914 – Ottawa took ultimate

control over the provinces› Provincial tax revenues were reduced› Conscription Crisis in 1917 – Caused relations between

French and English Canadians to deteriorate (French felt that it was not their war to fight) About 40,000 French Canadian conscripts refused to serve

These events further encouraged the emergence of French Canadian Nationalism

Changes in Power for the Natives:› The Metis people led by Louis Riel protested against the

Federal government and demanded more rights.› The rebellions prompted the Government to take action

to prevent this from happening in the other provinces. › The Federal Government encouraged natives to give up

their lands, for the establishment of reserves.› This allowed for further expansion and colonization in

the West

In 1876 the Canadian Government adopted the Indian Act which considered native people to be minors and took away most of their rights and

influence

Changes in Power for Industrialists and workers:› Economy and industrialization is essential for increasing

a country’s wealth› Governments supported initiatives to improve business:

Subsides Laws Infrastructure development The National Policy in 1879: promoted industrialization

But workers were fighting for better conditions and wages:› Previously workers had little or no means to improve

their working conditions› After Confederation, the number of unions increased

drastically and workers demanded: Better wages Shorter work week Better safety conditions Child labour laws Protection against unemployment

Capitalists attempted to prevent the creation of unions and laid off striking workers or those who were

involved

Increasing pressure was being put on employers and the Government:› Government did not want to support workers, because

of the important contributions of capitalist employers, but could not ignore the workers because of their voting powers.

› Various acts are introduced over the years to improve conditions, but they were not always enforced

› Governments tended to repress strike movements by force and still sided with the employers

Changes for the power of women:› In 1918 all women were granted the

right to vote in Federal elections› This was a direct result of the

imposition of the Conscription Crisis (PM, Robert Borden used women’s suffrage to increase his popularity )

› In Quebec, political and religious leaders opposed the feminist movements Women in Quebec only gain the right

to vote in provincial election in 1940

Some Important Events The Great Depression and WWII:

› The depression and WWII required greater state intervention in areas of health, welfare, and education

› Most provinces support this, but Quebec did not

› The second conscription crisis in 1944 made matters worse Prime Minister Mackenzie King promised not to enforce

Conscription and won because of this promise Eventually though, conscription was necessary Quebec members of Parliament resigned in protest and formed

their own party, Bloc Populaire

Some Important Events Duplessis (Union Nationale) and the “La Grande

NOIRCEUR”:› After the War, the state continued to intervene in the

provincial economy: Duplessis refused Federal funding for major projects He encouraged traditional society through the spread of

Catholicism and agriculture

› This caused Quebec society to remain backwards with respect to other provinces and support for him diminished: Intellectuals, unions, feminists opposed Duplessis’ policies Duplessis died in 1959, and soon after Jean Lesage and the

Liberals took over

Some Important Events Jean Lesage and the Quiet Revolution:

› Transforms power relationships in the province More government involvement and funding Government becomes a major employer (public

service sector) New ministries and institutions (health care and

insurance systems, Ministere de la Culture, Ministere de L’Education)

Catholic Church looses most of its power Emergence of a powerful Francophone business class Unions exercise more influence over the government

Some Important Events Quebec Nationalism and the Linguistic Crisis:

› In the 1960s the average salary of a French Quebecer was 65% less than that of Anglophone Quebecers

› Immigrants were adopting the English language rather than French, and sending their children to English Schools

› Language legislation tried to prevent Quebec from becoming Anglicized Bill 22 (Robert Bourassa): French official language of Quebec Bill 101 (Rene Levesque): Immigrants had to attend French

schools, companies had to adopt French, French on all signs

Language laws were not met without controversy and caused many Anglophones to leave Quebec in fear of separation

Some Important Events Quebec Nationalism and the Linguistic Crisis:

› Many nationalists began to think that the only way to preserve the French culture was through sovereignty Three separatist groups joined forces in 1968 to form the

Parti Quebecois (came to power in 1976) FLQ and the October Crisis (powerful demonstrations for

sovereignty) Trudeau’s invocation of the War Measures Act further

infuriated Nationalist who felt it was unnecessary for the Federal Government to intervene in such a way

Some Important Events Quebec Nationalism and the Linguistic Crisis:

› A Referendum was called in 1980 splitting Quebec’s population No side won with 59.56% of the vote Yes side had 40.46% of the vote

› The close call fuelled more Nationalist debates, but there would not be another referendum until 1995 No side won again with only 50.6% of the vote