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Your first grade teacher?

Your first pet? Your mom’s

birthday? Your 7th grade

science teacher? First major

disappointment?

The last 5 presidents?

Who won last Super Bowl?

Last year’s school musical?

The first time you drove by yourself?

Your earliest memory?

Figure 7.2Three key processes in memory. Memory depends on three sequential processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Some theorists have drawn an analogy between these processes and elements of information processing by computers as depicted here. The analogies for encoding and retrieval work pretty well, but the storage analogy is somewhat misleading. When information is stored on a hard drive, it remains unchanged indefinitely and you can retrieve an exact copy. As you will learn in this chapter, human memory storage is a much more dynamic process. Our memories change over time and are rough reconstructions rather than exact copies of past events.

SHALLOW PROCESSING (ALSO KNOWN AS MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL)

Involves simple repetition of the material

NOT an effective way to encode material

Ex: Try to draw what the home screen of your smartphone looks like (which apps are where) or if you are old school… try to draw what the keypad of your phone looks like

DEEP PROCESSING (ALSO KNOWN AS ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL)

Coding by forming associations between new information and information already stored

Makes information more meaningful therefore it is an effective way to encode

Ex: If you relate information presented in class to your own life, it will be easier to remember

Defined as: memory devices for improving the encoding and retrieval of information

Single-use mnemonics are designed to improve recall of a particular bit of info

How do you remember the colors of the rainbow?

How do you remember which months have 31 days?

How do you remember which way to set the clock for daylight savings time?

Locations of objects in a room are used to memorize a list

Lets practice with a shopping list

Fig 7.1

VISUAL MEMORY ECHOIC MEMORY

How long does it last?Maintains an image of what we have seen for a few tenths of a second after the stimulus has appeared.

Research done by George Sperling (on the next couple of slides)

How long does it last? Maintains the sounds we have heard for about 3 or 4 seconds after the stimulus

Has anyone ever tried to catch you not listening? What happens when they say “What did I just say?” Why can we remember that when we REALLY aren’t paying attention

Invented by George Sperling

A letter array is shown briefly

After array is gone, tone signals which row to report

Subjects recalled more letters when signaled to recall only one row compared to trying to recall all the letters

Limited duration (some studies say it is limited to about 18 seconds)

About 7 items can be maintained at a time

Maintenance rehearsal retains information for longer periods of time

practice of intentionally rehearsing information

Limited capacity

Interference is one of the main reasons why information disappears from STM

when new information enters STM & overwrites information that is already there

Chunking is combining separate items of information into a larger unit and then remembering the chunks of information phone numbers are remembered in chunks 622-875-9211

Fig 7.1

Declarative memory Involves memories for factors or

events Includes semantic & episodic

memory episodic memory involves knowledge

of specific events, personal experiences, or activities (e.g., activities in college)

semantic memory involves knowledge of facts, concepts, words, definitions & language rules (e.g., what you learn in class)

Procedural or Nondeclarative memory Memories for motor skills, some cognitive skills (learning to read), and emotional behaviors learned through classical conditioning We cannot recall or retrieve procedural memories

Fig 7.7

Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally

significant moment or event

Where were you when you first heard: Princess Diana had been killed? That planes had flown into the World trade

center in New York?

The effect of leading questions on eyewitness recall. Subjects who were asked leading questions in which cars were described as hitting or smashing each other were prone to recall the same accident differently one week later, demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory. (Based on “Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of Interaction Between Language and Memory,” by E. F. Loftus and J.C. Palmer, 1974, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585–589. Academic Press, Inc. Adapted by permission of the author.)

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other informationProactive(forward acting)

Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on

recall of new informationRetroactive (backwards acting)

Interference disruptive effect of new learning on

recall of old information

Measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall across time

• Ebbinghaus– One of the 1st

psychologists to study memory & forgetting

– He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables

Forgetting refers to the inability to recall previously learned information

Ebbinghaus documented the rate of forgetting of information Initial rate of forgetting is

high and then trails off...

© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with

recall of information prior to a trauma Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with

recall of information after a trauma

Point of Trauma

Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia

Cortex Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the

forebrain Amygdala

Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex in the tip of the temporal lobe

Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our memories

Hippocampus Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the

cortex in the temporal lobe Transfers declarative information (words, facts

& events) from STM into LTM

Subjects were shown lists of words and asked to use one of three strategies: Visual: Is the word printed

in capital letters? Acoustic: Does the word

rhyme with _____? Semantic: Does the word fit

the sentence _________? The more thought

involved (elaborative rehearsal), the better was their memory.

Sleepy Sneezy Dopey Doc

Bashful Happy Grumpy

An Encoding problem A storage problem An interference problem An insufficient-cueing problem A repression problem