16

? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

  • Upload
    vuphuc

  • View
    214

  • Download
    1

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

���������������� ��������������������������� �!���"�#�%$'&(���)*#�,+-��.&/�.���0�1��2435�"��&6�

798 &/���"�#�;:<�'�0�%$�=/:<���"�'�#�

>@?BADCFEFGIHKJMLONMPBGRQ�ST AULVXWZY

[ GRW�EFGI\4]�GRAM^�_�`.^ba�a�Y

cXd egfihkjmlinioqpKrmsutwvxo-y4z|{}f~y4z6oqr��HmEU��Gg��GREFGI�|EU?BLH���HX��?�H�EFGRAUWXAUGREU�bEU?BLH�L������bEU����AUL\�����?�H�E}CFLV�A��|GICR`%��HX�mCULV�AD�|GIC}N�?BEU�m]XAD?����EM]����U���

��AULVXH��XCR`�?BE-?�CqGICUCFGIH�EU?���P�EFL5]�G��b]�PBG(EFL1�X?���GRAUGIH�EU?��bEFG(]�GRE�N�GRGIH<EU��GmCD?B�HX��P�L��~EU��G���GICU?BADGI��CFLV�AD�|G���HX���H�Q����R�|L\gW���H�Q�?�H��iHXL?�CFG��}����GkV�H�N���H�EFGI��H�L?�CFGk\q?����EM]�G��-ADGICUVXPBEML��#EU��GRAD\q��P"�.VX�|EUV��bEU?BLHXCR`��|LHXCFEU��H�E]����D����AULV�HX�KH�L?�CFG�`X��H��.�/L�A�� L?�CUCFLHKH�L?�CFG��#����G}��L��P%L��;EU�X?�C�G|¡0W�GRA�?�\gGIH�E�?�C�EFLq�XGR¢�GIPBL�WKEFGI�D�XH�?�£�VXGIC�EU�X�bEN�?�P�P"GIHX�b].PBGgVXC}EFLKG|¡�EFA����|E@LV�A@��GICU?�AUGI��CU?B�HX��P ��AUL\¤EU��G¥AUGICFE~L���EU��Gq���X�bEFEFGRAk��HX��\qGI��CUV�AUGg?BEUC~CFEFADGIH���EU���HX�(���R�RVXAD���|Q¦AUGIP��bEU?B¢�G@EFL-EU��G@H�L?�CFG����HK���X�X?�EU?BLH%`�EU�X?�C�P��b]KWXADLO¢0?���GIC���H(?�H�EFAUL0�XVX�|EU?BLHiEFLgEU��G~L�W�GRAD�bEU?�LH¦L��;EU��Gk§�§�¨ª©«§��X�bAU��GI�m§�LV�W�PBGI�

¨¬GR¢�?��|G/­��R��\gGRAD�0������?�C#G|¡0W�LCUV�AUGg©�H�L¥W�VXHi?�H�EFGIHX��GI�.­�?�H�¢�LPB¢�GIC�EU�b��?�HX�¥?�\q�b��GICR`�\q��HX?BW.VXP��bEU?�H��~EU�XGI\K`X��HX���GICU?��HX?�H��¥�¥N®GR]�W��b��G@VXCU?�HX��J¬��¯�°Z��HX��§�§�¨)�R��\gGRA��gW���L�EFLCR�®±MHKVXH���GRADCFEU��HX��?�H��4L�� EU��GICFG~W�AUL��|GICDCFGICN�?�P�P.W�AULO¢�G4?�H�¢b��P�VX�b]�P�G¬?�H¦��V�EUV�ADG~WXAUL6²FGI�|EUCR�

³%d ´¬µ¦¶@´}nizIv�´¬r�y·twv�´~yk¸�oqs����G�¹.ADCFE�W��bAUE�L��"EU�XG~G|¡�W�GRAD?�\qGIH�E�?�H�¢�LPB¢�GI�K��GREFGI�|EU?�H��¥W�V�P�CFGIC��ºADL\»������CU�X?�H��¥P�?B���E�GI\q?BEFEU?�H��¥�X?BL0��G

©�°"¼®¨@­½PBL0�R�bEFGI��?�HXCU?���G��~W.��L�EFL\kV�PBEU?BW�P�?�GRA EUVX]�G��½���XG�W�VXP�CUG�NM?���EU�XC½L���EU��G��.��CU�X?�H��~°"¼�¨¾N®GRAUGM�|LH�EFAULP�PBGI�]�Q¿�5JMGRN�PBGREFE¦�!���U�b�bAD�¾À0Y�YI^b±Á�®VXP�CFG T GIH�GRAD�bEFL�AO`�N��X?��D��N���C¦��L�L���GI�<VXWÂEFL1��HÃ?�H�EFGRAD�����|G�]�LI¡���AUL\EU��G-°;?�H�V0¡���§¬`"��HX�Ä�XGRW�?��|EFGI��LH5�(>@?B�0VXCUVX?#§�Å [ _ba^0YiÅ}CD�R?�P�PBLCU�|L�W�G��q���XGgW���L�EFL\�VXPBEU?BW�P�?BGRA}EUV�]�Gq��P�CFL�|LH�EU��?�H�GI�g�}�|LHXCFEU��H�E#°"¼®¨¿EU�X�bE½�|LVXP��k]�G��|LH�EFADLP�PBGI�g\q��H�VX��P�PBQ~��AUL\�LV�EUCU?���G®EU�XG�]�LO¡���Å}V�A W���L�EFL\qGREFGRAN���Cg�|L\gW�LCFGI�,L��M��J¬_Æ�ÆbÇ�W���L�EFL\�VXPBEU?BW�P�?BGRA4\gL0�XVXPBG�`½W.��L�EFLH1CFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RCg�XGI\gL�V�HX?BER`½W�VXP�CFG���\gW.P�?�¹�GRAI`�X?�CD�|AD?�\q?�H��bEFL�AI`.CU£�VX�ON���GRAI`"�|LVXH�EFGRA@��HX�Z§��UÅM�ȧ���É�a_�©��|LVXH�EFGRAk�R�bAD�.­��k±ÊCFGRAU¢�GRA@W�AUL���AD��\�LH�EU��G¥�ÈË�¯��§Ì©�PBL��R�bEFGI�m?�H¦EU��G@H�L0��G¬Í.Î0ÏÑÐ|ÒbÓRÔ�Î�Õ�Ò6Ð×Ö�ÓFØO­�AUGI���KLVXE�EU��G@�|LVXH�EFGRADCR���H@EU�XG®CFGI�|LHX�kW��bAUE;L���EU��G�G|¡0W�GRAD?�\gGIH�ER`b?�\q�b��GIC;�ºAUL\ÙEU��G�§�§�¨��R��\gGRAD�MN�GRAUG®��HX��P�Q�ÚRGI�%�!±Û���XL�EFL\gG|�

EFGRAD?��RC�°�EU�%�#� GIPBEU?BGRA�©�EU��GRAD\gL�GIPBGI�|EFAD?��R��P�PBQ�­®�|L�LPBGI�m§�§�¨��R��\qGRAD�gN���C�VXCFGI�K��H��(�gÜMV�Ë�V�C��R�bAD�K��GIH�GRA��bEFGI�EU��G~CFGI£�V�GIHX�|GIC���HX�iAUGI���¦LVXE�EU�XG¬�X�bEU�(©�P�L��R�bEFGI�K?�HiEU��G}H�L0��GgÝRÎXÒ6Ð|Ò�Ó|Ô�ÎÕ�Ò6Ð|Ö�Ó�ØO­����ÈE�N���C�H�GI�|GICUCD�bAUQ-EFLq�|L�LPEU��Gg§�§�¨Ì���X?BW,©�EFL��«Þ�_�ßO§�­�EFL�WXADGR¢�GIH�E¬GIPBGI�|EFAULHXCM��AUL\à]�GI?�H���P�?B]�GRAD�bEFGI�KEU��GRA�\q��P�PBQ������XG4° §�^ba�ai�|L�LP�?�H��VXHX?�ER`�NM�X?��D�¦N���C�V�CFGI�%`X�R?BAD�RV�P��bEFGI�K�gN��bEFGRAM¼#EU��Q0PBGIH�G T PBQ0�|LP�\q?B¡��

á«â�ã�ä�å�æèçBé�êOæìë«í�î«ï�ðbñ ò6ó×å�í�îôë«õ/ö ÷�ïÈë«ê×ï�çèïÈøRö ïFù/ò

Page 2: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�%d �®´}s s�f~y�f hqo����®´kh�ykz6oqr tuf�r�f������%z�����G�WXADL��|GI�XVXAUG���L�A��X�bEU�¥�|LP�PBGI�|EU?BLH¦?�H�¢�LPB¢�GI�i\q��H�V���P�PBQqCFGREFEU?�HX�kEU��G}W�V�P�CFG���GIH�GRA��bEFL�A�EFL�EU�XG¬��GICD?BAUGI�

W�VXP�CFGkNM?���EU����HX��ADV�HXHX?�H��i�¦WXAUL���AD��\Á?�H�MHX?B¡mEFL��|L\q\�VXHX?��R�bEFGgEFL(EU��Gq��¯�� EFL(�|LP�P�GI�|E4�|LVXH�EUCR�g����GW�VXP�CFGk��GIHXGRAD�bEFL�A4N���C@CFGRE~EFL(GI\-?BE¬�.��CU��GIC}GR¢�GRAUQ�L�EU��GRA4CD��\gW�PBG��¥����Gg�|LHXCFEU��H�E4°;¼�¨»N���C@EUV�ADH�GI����L/N�H�|L\gW�P�GREFGIPBQ�`®��HX�Û��E'N®L5CFGREUCgL��¥YRa�a�aÄCU��\gW�P�GIC¥N®GRAUGKEU�b��GIHÂ�bEq��CU��\gW�P�GiA��bEFGKL���YRa�aÄJMÚ�`�LHXGKN�?BEU�Û��.��CU��?�H��g°"¼®¨)W.VXP�CFG}N�?��XEU�¦L��!_ ��C���HX�KEU��G~L�EU��GRAMN�?BEU�K�¥����CU�X?�H��g°;¼�¨�W�VXP�CUG¬NM?���EU�¦L���Y���CR���®PBL�EFEU?�H��EU��G����bEU�4��GI\gLH�CFEFAD�bEFGIC#EU�XGM�X?��i�RVXPBE�QkL��%��GREFGI�|EU?�H��kEU��G��.��CU��?�H��@°"¼®¨ �bE�EU��GICUG�¢�GRAUQqCU\q��P�P0W�VXP�CFG�NM?���EU�XCR��ÈE�?�C�H�GI�bADP�Q�?�\gW�LCUCD?B]�PBGMEFLqEFGIP�P%EU��Gk°"¼�¨ ?�C�����CU�X?�H��g�bE���Y���C�W�VXP�CFG}N�?���EU�%�

�!?B���}Yb� � �®��L�EFLH��|LVXH�EU?�H��-�ºL�A�����CU�X?�H��q°;¼�¨ W�V�P�CFG�`�EU��GRAD\-��P"H�L?�CUG�`X��HX��� L?�CUCULH�H�L?�CUG��®¼������mCD��\gW�PBGW�GRAD?BL0�4N���C�YRa}\q?�P�P�?�CFGI�|LHX�XC�©�YRa�a~J�Ú/­;NM?BEU�k�¬����CU�X?�H��¬°"¼®¨�©�GR¢�GRAUQ�L�EU��GRA#CU��\qW�PBG/­�L���_���C½��HX�¦Y���C;W.VXP�CFGN�?��XEU�XCR`�AUGICFW�GI�|EU?B¢�GIPBQ����¥EFL�EU��P%L���YRa�agCD��\gW�PBGIC�N�GRAUG~EU�b��GIHK��L�A�GI���D��W�PBL�ER�#����GICUG¬E'N®L-W�PBL�EUC���GI\gLHXCUEFAD�bEFGEU��G¥�X?����RV�PBE�QKL����XGREFGI�|EU?�H��iW�VXP�CFGIC��ºADL\ EU�XG�°;¼�¨x�bE}¢�GRAUQmCU\q��P�P;W�VXP�CUG@N�?���EU��CR�M±�E}�iW�VXP�CFG4N�?���EU��L��MY��C�?BE�?�C�?�\gW�LCUCU?B].PBG�EFLqEFGIP�P%EU��G@°"¼®¨ ?�C��.��CU��?�H����

^

Page 3: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

����G@�X?����RV�PBE�Qi?�H(��GREFGI�|EU?�HX�qEU��G4CU?��HX��P��|L\gGIC��ºAUL\ H�L?�CFG~��GIHXGRAD�bEFGI��]�Q¦EU��GRAD\q��P%�.VX�|EUVX�bEU?BLH�C���HX�� L?�CUCFLHmCFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RCR�®���XG@H�L?�CFG@���X��C��|LVXH�EUC�EFLqLVXAM��GICU?�AUGI�KCU?B�HX��P �XCU?�HX�|G~LV�A¬CU?B�HX��P%?�C�¢�GRAUQ¦����?�H�Ek© � YRa�|LVXH�EUC�W�GRA�CU��\gW.PBG/­�`X?BE�]�GI�|L\gGIC��RP�LVX��GI�¦]�Q�EU��Gk���R�|L\gW���H�Q�?�HX�-H�L?�CFG���;Lq\q�b��G@��GREFGI�|EU?�H��gEU��G@CU?B�H���P.GR¢�GIHm\gL�AUG~�X?��i�RVXPBER`�EU��G@�|LHXCFEU��H�E�°"¼®¨ÙN���C����X�XGI�¦EFLgEU��G~G|¡0?�CFEU?�H��

H�L?�CUG¦��H��,CD?B�HX��Pô� [ ?�HX�|GiEU�X?�C�N���Cg�XLH�GK\q��H�V���P�PBQ�`#EU��GKCU£�VX�ON���GRAqN���CgVXCFGI�,EFLÄ��GREFGRAD\q?�H�G¦N���GIH,EU��G�|LHXCFEU��H�E}°"¼�¨ÌN���C¬�|L\gW��bAD�b].PBG@EFLiEU��G@�.��CD�X?�H��q°;¼�¨��ì�ÈH�?BEU?���P�PBQ�`X�b��EFGRA~CU��\gW�P�?�H��¥EU��Gk���bEU�0`�PBL0�R�bEU?�H���EU��GCFLV�A��|GkCU?B�H���P�N���C¬�XLH�G4]�QK¢�?�GRN�?�H��gEU��G�AUGICUV�PBEUC�EFL¦��GREFGRAD\q?�HXG4N���GIH�EU��Gk°;¼�¨ N���CM�.��CU�X?�H��q��HX�mN���GIH?BE®N���C�H�L�E~©�EU��G}°"¼®¨¾N���C�CFGRE®EFL��.��CD�-GR¢�GRAUQ-L�EU��GRA�CU��\gW�P�G/­��!JMLON�GR¢�GRAI`�V�CU?�H��@EU��?�C®\qGREU��L��i��PBLH�G¬N�LVXP��\q�b��G-?�E@?�\gW�LCUCU?B].PBG4EFLKEFGIP�P#N���GIH�EU��Gq°;¼�¨»N���C@�.��CU�X?�H��¦�ºL�A~¢�GRAUQ�CU\-��P�P!W�VXP�CUGkN�?���EU�XC��/����L�AUEUVXH��bEFGIPBQ�`�XV�GMEFL¥EU��GM�����|E�EU�X�bE�EU��G}°"¼�¨ÙN���C®�.��CD�X?�H���CFQ�H��D��AULHXLVXCUPBQ�`�?BE®N���C�W�LCUCU?B]�P�G�EFL¥\qGI��CUV�AUG¬EU��G}H�VX\k]�GRA®L���|LVXH�EUC½��AUL\ GI���D�gW.VXP�CFG�]�Q�VXCU?�HX�¬���F¯��bAU���4�|L\q\q��HX�g�bE½EU��G ¬HX?�¡¥�|L\q\q��HX�gP�?�H�G��;����?�C;��VXEFL\q�bEU?��R��P�PBQ���X��GI��^ S� �|LV�H�EUC¬EFLiGI���D��CU��\gW�P�G@EU�X�bE¬EU��G�°;¼�¨ N���C¬?�HXCFEFADV��|EFGI�(EFL��.��CU�%���ÈE�N���C¬EU��GIH��-CU?�\qW�PBG~EU��CF�EFL-N�AD?BEFG@�qW�AUL���AD��\·?�HK�Ȩ}°5EU�X�bE�ADGI�|L��HX?BÚRGI�mEU��G4�X?B����|LVXH�EUC¬��HX��G|¡�EFAD���|EFGI�mEU��G��|L�AUAUGICFW�LHX�X?�H��g�X�bEU�0����X?�C�N���CMG|¡0EFAUGI\gGIPBQ(VXCUGR��VXP«`�P��bEFGRA}?�HKEU��G�P��b]�`���L�A¬AUGI�|L��HX?BÚI?�HX�g�.��CU�X?�H��qCU?B�HX��P�C���GIH�GRAD�bEU?�H����|LVXH�EUCMEU�X�bEN�GRAUG@LHXPBQi�gEU?�H�Q���AD���|EU?BLH(L�� EU�XG@H�L?�CFG��Ã?BEU��EU��Gk�|LHXCUEU��H�E}°"¼®¨ ���X��GI�%` YRa�a�a�CU��\qW�PBGIC�L��½�X�bEU��N�GRAUG4EU�b��GIH�VXCU?�HX�qEU��G��F¯��bAU�����|L\q\-��HX��bEg�mCD��\gW�PBG�AD�bEFG�L��kYRa�a�JMÚK��HX�,�(�.��CD�X?�H��(W.VXP�CFGqNM?���EU�ÄL��kY�\qCI�����XGq¹�ADCUEkCFGI�|LHX�,L���CD��\gW�P�?�HX��?�CCU��L/N�HZ?�H �!?B�V�AUG-^��¦�ÈEk?�C@�RP�GI�bAk�bE4EU��?�C@�X?B��ÄW�VXP�CFGgNM?���EU��EU�X�bEkEU��G�°;¼�¨ª?�C}����CU�X?�H����iJ�L/N®GR¢�GRAO`½GR¢�GIHEU��LV����?BE}?�CML�]�¢0?BLVXCMEU�X�bE¬EU��G��|LV�H�E¬AD�bEFGg?�C¬��PBEFGRADHX�bEU?�HX��V�W���HX����LON�H��XV�GkEFL¦EU��G@�.��CD�X?�H��i°"¼�¨�`�EU��GCU?B�H���P½]�GIPBLH��?�H��KCFLP�GIPBQmEFLmEU��Gg�.��CD�Ä?�C@H�L�Ek£�VX?�EFGq��Ck�RPBGI�bAO���;L�L�]XEU��?�HÄ¢6��P�VXGIC@�|L�AUAUGICFW�LHX��?�H��¦LHXPBQ�EFLEU��Gq°;¼�¨x�.��CU�%`�EU�XG¥HXL?�CFGg\kV�CFE~]�G¥CDV�]XEFAD���|EFGI�%�¥±¬H����R�|LVXH�EkL���EU��Gg].���U����AULVXHX��H�L?�CFG�`"°"¼®¨Ì����CU�� ]����D����AULV�HX�(H�L?�CUG�`X��HX�KLV�A��XGICU?BAUGI�K°;¼�¨)�.��CU�(?�C���GRW�?��|EFGI�(?�H � ?��V�AUG4Ç��

�"d hqo-v�¶®finiz�;oqr ygo y4¸m´kogn ���dôcXd ¶����������������������! M´"���#�!�#$

�ÈE}?�CM?�\gW�L�AUEU��H�EMEFLiV�HX��GRADCFEU��H��(EU��G�G|��GI�|E@V�HX�|GRAUEU��?�H�EU?BGIC¬?�H(LV�A}\gGI��CUVXAUGI\gGIH�EUC~�X�I¢�G¥LHmEU��GkGRADAUL�AL��½EU��G@ADGICUVXPBE��R��P��RVXP��bEFGI�(��AUL\ EU��GICFG�\gGI��CUV�AUGI\qGIH�EUCR���ÈEM?�C�CU?�\gW�P�G~EFL��R��P��RVXP��bEFG4EU��G�CFEU��HX�X�bAD�m��GR¢0?��bEU?BLHL��!GI���D�mCFGRE�L��!LV�A��X�bEU�0����AUL\·°;�b]ZY&%

' �)( Y*,+¿Y-. /0 S©�1 / +321�­ �

4�576&895;:=<?> ( ' �����G�£�V�GICFEU?�LHm�bAD?�CFGICR`�N��X�bE}?�C¬EU��G¥�bWXW�P�?��R�bEU?�LH�N��XGIH�\�VXPBEU?�W�PBG4CFGREUC}L��®�X�bEU�¦�X�I¢�Gg]�GRGIH��|L\4]�?�H�GI�%�

�È�k]�L�EU� CFGREUC�L��¥���bEU���bAUGÄ?�HX�XGRW�GIH���GIH�E¦L���LH�GZ��H�L�EU�XGRA5©�EU�X�bEm?�C¦EU��GRAUGÄ?�C(HXL��|LO¢b�bAD?���HX�|G/­�`4��H�� EU��G\gGI��CUVXAUGI\gGIH�EUCMN�GRAUG�GI?BEU��GRA}���X��GI��L�A}CUV�]XEFAD���|EFGI��`�EU�XGIH�EU��G�¢b�bAD?���HX�|GIC}���X�%�¬± WXAUL�L��½L��#EU�X?�C�?�C¬CU��L/N�H@%ACB�î@D%åDí;ð/ïFåDë«çìøMæ äFE�õ�íôíôæè÷6çèï!î«õ�ð6õDî«æHG�ï!îI6ï!íôæèó�ðbå�ç�æèðKJ0æèó×ò/ë«ïML�ö

Ç

Page 4: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�!?B���#^�� � �®��L�EFLH-�|LV�H�EU?�HX�@�ºL�A#�.��CU�X?�HX�@°"¼�¨ÃW.VXP�CFG�`�|LHXCUEU��H�E�°"¼�¨�`�EU��GRAD\q��PXHXL?�CFG�`���HX��� L?�CUCFLHqHXL?�CFG��¼������ZCU��\qW�PBG¥W�GRAD?BL0��N���C-YRaK\q?�P�P�?�CFGI�|LH��XC�©�YRa�amJ�Ú/­MNM?BEU���i�.��CU�X?�H��K°"¼�¨¤©�GR¢�GRAUQ�L�EU��GRAkCU��\gW�PBG/­�L��~Y\qCMW�VXP�CUG4N�?��XEU�%��± EFL�EU��P!L���YRa�a�a¦CU��\gW.PBGIC�N�GRAUG¥EU�b��GIH �%EU��Gk¹�ADCUEkY�CFGI�|LHX��L���CU��\gW.P�?�H��q?�C¬CU��L/N�H1©�EU��G¹�ADCUE@YRa�aqCU��\gW�P�GIC�­��

��L�A¬�g�?B¢�GIH(CFGRE�L��;¡ Qi¢6��P�V�GIC4©�N���GRADG � ( 1�L�A��X­ %� ( 1����

� (� �� ( ���� ���� © � ­�� � ©�YO­

� � (�� © � + � �� ­ � ( � �� �© � + � �� ­ � � © � ­�� � ©ô^­

Þ

Page 5: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�!?B����Ç�� �9¨}�bEU�g��AUL\ �!?B�V�ADG~^��®��PBL�E~Y~CU��L/N�C�EU��G@H�VX\k]�GRA�L�� W���L�EFLHK�|LVXH�EUC���AUL\ GR¢�GRAUQiL�EU��GRA�CD��\gW�PBGN���GIHiEU��G¬�.��CD�X?�H��¥°"¼®¨ÙN���C�Lb� �®��PBL�E�^¥CU��L/N�C�EU��G@H�VX\4]�GRA�L��;W.��L�EFLH¦�|LVXH�EUC�N���GIHiEU��G¬�.��CU�X?�H���°;¼�¨N���C~LH%�q��P�L�E4ÇKCU��L/N�C~EU��GqCFEFADGIH���EU��L���EU��Gg�.��CU��?�H��¦°"¼�¨ ��PBLHXG � ?BE@?�C}EU��Gq�X?���GRAUGIHX�|Gg]�GRE�N�GRGIHZ�®PBL�EqY��HX�(�®PBL�E�^��

_

Page 6: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�È� N®G4��CDCUVX\gG}¡ Q¦�bAUG4?�HX�XGRW�GIH���GIH�E�EU��GIH@%� � ( ���� �

� � © � ­�� � ( � �� �� �� �©�1 ���X­ � ©�1�­ � © �X­�� 1 � �

� �� ( � �� �1 � ©�1�­�� 1 � �� �

� � © �X­�� � � � �� �� ©�1%­�� 1 � �� �

� © ��­�� ���AUL\·¼�£�VX�bEU?BLHXC~Y ^¥��HX�(EU��G}�����|E�EU���bE�EU��G@?�H�EFGR��AD��P%L��;�¥W�AUL�]��b]�?�P�?BE�QqL/¢�GRAM��P�P�W�LCUCU?�]�?�P�?BEU?�GIC#?�C;²UVXCFE~Yb`N�G@��GRE?% � � (� 1 � � � §���P��RV�P��bEU?�H��¥EU��G@VXH��|GRAUEU��?�H�E�Q � %

� �� (�� © � + � �� ­ � ( � �� �© � + � � ­ � � © � ­�� �

( � �� �� �� �©�1 + � 1 ��� + � � ­ � � ©�1�­ � © ��­��71 � �

( � �� �� �� �©�1�+ � 1 ­ � � ©�1�­ � © �X­�� 1 � � � � �� �

� �� �© � + � � ­ � � ©�1�­ � © �X­�� 1 � � �~^ � �� �

� �� �©�1�+ � 1 ­|© � + � � ­ � ©�1�­ � © ��­��71 � �

( � �� �©�1 + � 1 ­ � � ©�1�­��71 � � �� �

© � + � � ­ � � © �X­�� �� �� ( � �� � � ��

���X?�C#?�HX�ºL�AD\-�bEU?BLHq�R��H�]�GMVXCFGI�qEFL¥�R��P��RVXP��bEFG�EU��G¬VXHX�|GRAUEU��?�H�E�Qq?�HgLV�A�CU?B�HX��P���AUL\xEU��G��.��CD�X?�H��4°;¼�¨��§���P��RV�P��bEU?�H��@EU�XGM¢b�bAD?���HX�|GML���EU��G}�X�bEU�kN���GIHqEU�XG��.��CD�X?�H��4°;¼�¨ÙN���C�LHi��HX�-NM��GIHqEU��G}°"¼®¨¾N���C�Lb�m��HX��|L\gW��bA�?�H��gEU�X�bE�EFL-EU��G~¢6�bA�?���HX�|G@L�� EU��G4�X?B��GRAUGIH��|G~L��;LH(��H��KLb��Q�?BGIP���GI�¦EU��G~��LP�PBLONM?�H�� �#%

' ���� � ' ���� ( ÀbabÞ �Û^ÆbÇ ( YRa�Æ�Æ 4�'�� ' �� � � ����� ( YRa��������GRL�AUQq��HX�-GICFEU?�\q�bEFG¬N®GRADG¬���R�RV�A��bEFG¬EFL�LH�G¬��H�L�EU��GRA�EFL¥^����#Ë®L�EU��EU��G¬GRAUAUL�A�?�HqEU�XGMCU?B�H���P���HX��EU��G

GRAUAUL�AM?�H¦EU��G@]����D����ADLVXHX�(�|LH�EFAD?B]�VXEFGI�¦EFLqEU��G@EFL�EU��P"GRAUAUL�AI�

�"d�³�d �@��� � ������� ���Dr�� � $��n ���������H���GREFGI�|EU?�H��i����?�H�E}CU?B�HX��P�CR`.?BE}?�C¬H�GI�|GICUCU�bADQ(EFL�]�G¥�b]�PBGkEFL¦�XGREFGRAD\q?�H�G�?B�!Q�LV��bAUGiÓ��DÒbϺÏ��¥��GREFGI�|EU?�H��K�

CU?B�H���Pô`XL�AI`�?B�½?�HXCFEFGI����`XQ�LV��bAUGk��GREFGI�|EU?�H��q�.V��|EUVX�bEU?BLHXCM?�H(]����D����ADLVXHX�%`.EU��GRAD\q��P"L�A¬� L?�CUCULHmH�L?�CFG�������GCU?B�H���P;�R��H�]�G�GICFEU?�\q�bEFGI����C}EU��G¥\gGI��H�L��®EU��G�CULV�AD�|GgCU?B�HX��P;G|¡0EFAD���|EFGI����AUL\�EU��GgH�L?�CFG��@���XG�CFEU��H��X�bAD���GR¢0?��bEU?BLH4L��XEU��G�CU?B�HX��P�©���LON1\kV��D��EU��G®\qGI��HkL���EU�XG�CU?��HX��P��.V��|EUVX�bEFGIC �ºAUL\)EU��G�\gGI��H4¢b��P�V�G/­"�|LHXCFEU?�EUV�EFGIC

� I/ï½î«ïÈë«äÛæèð¬îI6ï#ùOïÈë«æ"!×åUî«æ õ�ð$#�%�&' & %(&' &*),+.-0/,+�132 ),45-6/,4713298.),+�298.),472;:<+=:<4 æèí�îI/ï G�õ>!×åUë«æ å�ð#GÈï×ö=?Iæ ð�G�ï D�ï#åUë«ï�å�íôíôò6ä�æèð/ó+ åDðbù 4 åDë«ï½æèð6ù/ï E�ï�ð6ù/ï�ðRî�@?D�ï#ù/õ�ð/õ�î"ð6ï�ï�ù�îI6ï G�õ>!×åUë«æÑåDð#G�ïBA õ�ë�îI6æèí=EbåUëôî«æ GÈò6ç åDë GFåDç GÈò6ç åDî«æèõ×ð�öC D íôæèð6ó�îI/ï!í«å�ä�ï#ù/åDî�åEAÑë«õ×ä J0æèó×òOë«ï�í LBFG#

Page 7: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

EU��G¬H�L?�CFG��½����G¬\gL�AUG¬�X�bEU�4N�G}���R�RVX\kV�P��bEFG�`0EU��GM�RPBLCUGRA®N�G¬�|L\qGMEFL�L�]XEU��?�HX?�H�� �½`�EU�XGMW��bADGIH�E®W�L�W.VXP��bEU?BLH\gGI��H%`�?�HX�|ADGI��CU?�H��qLVXAM�b]�?�P�?BE�Q¦EFL¦��GREFGI�|E}����?�H�EFGRA}CU?B�HX��P�CI���ÈE}?�C���P�CUL-W�LCUCU?B].PBG~EFL�GICUEU?�\q�bEFG�EU��G [ ?��HX��P��«EFLb�ÜML?�CFGm© [ ܬɬ­~AD�bEU?BL(]�Q�CUVX\q\-?�H��¦GI���D�,CFLV�AD�|G�CU?B�HX��P#��H��Z�X?B¢0?��X?�H��-]�Q�EU��G�CU£�VX�bAUG-AUL�L�E4L�����P�P#�|LVXH�EUCR�����G¬AUGI��CFLHiEU�X?�C�?�C®��P�CUL�����L�L��iGICFEU?�\-�bEFG¬L��;EU��G [ ÜMÉ ?�C®]�GI�R��VXCUG¬�X?��X��GIH-?�H-EU�X?�C�GI£�VX�bEU?BLHK?�C®GICUCFGIH�EU?���P�P�QEU��G}\gGI��H"©�CU?��HX��Pº­½��H��-EU��G¬¢b�bAD?���HX�|GML���EU��G}\gGI��H"©�H�L?�CUG/­ � MCU?�H��k� L?�CUCULH�CFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RC~© 4;5;6&8957:=<?> ( ��> 5;: ­N�G4�bAUG4�b]�P�G~EFL-CU��L/N¾EU�X?�C��|L�AUADGIP��bEU?BLH@%

� *�� ( ' 8��7:=5���:��#8C'�> ( ��> 57: © �#: + �� � ­ �� © 4���� ­� *�� (�� ��> 57: © �#: + �� � ­�� '�5������ >�'����� © 4���� � '�5������ >�' � ­� *�� ( � � � 5�� © �#: + �� � ­ �� © 4;5;6#8C57:=<?> © �#: + �! � ­ &'�5������ > ' ­��}© ' 5������ > ' ­� *�� ( � � � 5�� © �#: + �� � ­ � 4;5;6#8C57:=<?> © �#: + �! � ­��#" ' 5������ > '� *�� ( � � � 5�� © �#: + �� � ­ � 4;5;6#8C57:=<?> © �#: ­ � 4;5;6#8C57:=<?> © �� � ­$� " ' 5������ > '� *�� ( � � � 5�� © �#: + �� � ­ �� � ��> 5;: © ��: ­ � ��> 5;: © �� � ­ � � ' 5������ > '� *��&%(') / *,+ )-% ( � � � 5�� © �#: + �� � ­ �� � � � 5�� © �#: � �� � ­¬CU?�HX��]�L�EU�(\qGREU��L���C�EFL-�R��P��RVXP��bEFG [ Ü¬É Q�?�GIP���GI�¦EU��G@��LP�PBL/N�?�H��¥AUGICDVXPBEUC/.�%

� *0� ( Þ�_�Ç � *�� %(') / *,+ )-% ( Þ�^ba±)¢�GRAUQ¦��L�L0�KGICFEU?�\-�bEFGk?�HX�XGRGI� �����GkG|¡0W�GRAD?�\gGIH�E¬N���C}AD��H���L�A~CU\q��P�PBGRA¬W�VXP�CFG4N�?���EU�XCML���YRa ��CR`�Çba ��CR`�_ba���CR`½YRa�a ��CR`�Çba�a ��CR`���HX�

_ba�a ��C ��GI���D�-EU?�\gG�EU��GMCU��\gW�PBG�AD�bEFG�N���C®CFGRE��bE�YRa�akJ�Ú�`���HX�(YRa�a�a4CD��\gW�PBGIC!L��%�X�bEU�~N�GRAUG�EU�b��GIH�� � ?��V�AUG�ÞW�PBL�EUC�EU��G [ ÜMÉ¢�GRADCUVXC�W�VXP�CUG�N�?���EU�g��L�A�GI���D�iCFGRER�#Ë���CFGI�iLHqEU��G¬�X�bEU�0`��4EU��GRL�AUGREU?��R��P�PBQgWXAUGI�X?��|EU?BLH21�L��%EU��G[ ?B�H���P��«EFLb��Ü�L?�CFG4É��bEU?�L�?�C�W�PBL�EFEFGI�%��Ü�L�EU?��|G���L/NÙEU��G�CU?B�HX��P���GREUC¬CUEFAULH���GRAM��CMEU��[email protected]�CFG~N�?���EU�(?�HX�|ADGI��CFGICR�§�V�AD¢�GIC���L�A [ ÜMÉ�N�?�P�P%¢6�bADQKN�?BEU�mEU��Gk��\gLV�H�E¬L����|LHXCFEU��H�E~°"¼®¨k� ��L�A}EU��G�W��bAUEU?��RV�P��bA��|LHX�X?�EU?BLHXC�L���EU�X?�CG|¡0W�GRA�?�\gGIH�ER`�EU�XG�GICUEU?�\q�bEFGI��CU\q��P�PBGICFEM�XGREFGI�|EU�b]�PBGqCU?B�H���P"N���C~�bE@�b]�LV�E}Çba�aKH���H�LCFGI�|LHX�XCI�@J�L/N®GR¢�GRAI` �bEEU�X?�C�W�VXP�CFG~NM?���EU�%`�EU��GkGRAUAUL�A¬?�HKLV�A¬\gGI��CUV�AUGI\qGIH�E�?�C�CFL-\�VX������AUGI�bEFGRA¬EU�X��H�EU��G4L�]XEU��?�H�GI�(¢b��P�V�G~EU�X�bE¬?BEN�LVXP��i]�G}��?����RVXPBE®EFLqCU�IQiN�?BEU�i��AUGI�bEM�|LH0¹.��GIHX�|G}EU�X�bE��gCD?B�HX��P��X���¦AUGI��P�P�Qq]�GRGIHi�XGREFGI�|EFGI�%���È�"EU��G}GRAUADL�ADC?�H¦LV�AM\gGI��CUV�AUGI\qGIH�EUC��bADG4?�HX��GRW�GIHX�XGIH�E®L�� LHXG@��H�L�EU��GRAI`XEU�XGIHKEU��G~GRAUAUL�AM?�H¦LV�A [ ܬÉÙ�R��H�]�G~�|L\gW.V�EFGI�]�Q�%43#%

576 (98 ©!: 6: 1 5 1�­ � � �,�,� � ©;: 6: � 5 � ­ � ©ôÇ­

< D íôæèð6ó�îI/ï!í«å�ä�ï#ù/åDî�åEAÑë«õ×ä J0æèó×òOë«ï�í LBFG#= D íôæèð6ó�îI/ï!ï�í�î«æèä�åDî«ï½õ A�îI6ï5?;>@?�ù/ïÈë«æ"!|ï�ùMïFåUë«ç æèïÈë;æèð¬îI6æèí�íôï GÈî«æèõ�ðA åFøOçèõ�ë�@!B×õ I/ð&?#öÆ

Page 8: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�!?B���¬Þ�� � ��VXP�CUG <?���EU��¢0CR� [ ?B�HX��P;EFL¦Ü�L?�CUG�ÉM�bEU?BL�����L�A}GI���D��W�L?�H�ER`;YRa�a�aKCU��\qW�PBGICMN®GRAUG�EU�b��GIH���HX���AD�bEFG@L���YRa�aqJMÚ@��L�A �g�X?B��GRAUGIH�E�W�VXP�CFG}N�?���EU�XCI�

Ã��GRAUG 6 ?�C��g��V�HX�|EU?BLH¦L���©�1�� �,�,� � � ­����ÈE��R��H(]�G~CU��LONMHKEU�X�bE���L�A [ ܬÉ@`�EU��GkVXHX�|GRAUEU��?�H�E�QK?�C�� %5 6�� " * ���� >?6 > * (� �� '�5������ > ' ©�Þ�­

¬PBEU?�\-�bEFGIPBQ�`;EU�XG-N�GI�b��GICFEgCU?B�HX��P®��GREFGI�|EU�b]�PBGiN�?BEU��EU�XG��|LHXCFEU��H�E¥°"¼�¨àN���C¥�(Þa�a�HXC4W�VXP�CFGgNM?���EU�%�����G�CU?��HX��P�N���C!LH�G�����PB���}W�GRAD�|GIH�E L���EU��G��|LHXCFEU��H�E�°;¼�¨��b�'E#�X���g�}\gGI��HqL��;Yb� _}�|LVXH�EUCR`���H���� [ ÜMÉÛL���^��±¾W.PBL�E®L��;EU��G~CU?B�HX��P�?�C�CU��L/N�H¦?�H �!?B�V�AUG~_��#����G~H�GR��bEU?B¢�G~¢b��P�V�GIC��bAUG~��AUGICUV�PBE®L��;�;L?�CUCFLHKCFEU�bEU?�CUEU?��RC���HX�EU��GRAD\-��P!�.VX�|EUVX�bEU?�LHXC4?�HÄEU��Gq]����D����AULV�HX�ZH�L?�CFG �!EU��G-VXHX�|GRADEU��?�H�EU?�GIC@��CUCFL0�R?��bEFGI�5N�?BEU��EU��GICUG��R��VXCFGI�ZEU��GH�L?�CUG¬EFL-AUGR�?�CFEFGRA��X?����GRA�?�H¦CFL\gG@CU��\qW�PBGIC�EU�X��H¦EU��G@HXL?�CFG~��HX�¦W�VXP�CFG~?�HiL�EU��GRA�CU��\gW.PBGICR�½±MC�\gGIH�EU?�LH�GI�%`EU��G}GRAUAUL�A�?�H�EU�X?�C�\gGI��CDV�AUGI\gGIH�E�N���C�CFLg�X?���-EU�X�bE�?BE�N�LVXP��i]�G¬�X? ���RVXPBE#EFLq�|LH��RP�VX��GMN�?BEU�¦��H�Qi�|GRAUEU��?�H�E�QEU��G@EFA�V�G~WXAUGICFGIH��|G~L��!�gCD?B�HX��P %

5 6�� " * � 8 YRa�a�a^ � � ^�^

� JOë«æ ï�ù/ä�å�ð @��;ðbùIø F�� ò6íôí@���ï�ïÀ

Page 9: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�!?B����_�� � ¨}?���GRAUGIHX�|Gg]�GRE'N®GRGIH �!P���CD�X?�H��i°"¼�¨ÊLH���HX��Lb�1�bE@��Þa�a�HXC}��VXP�CUG Ã?���EU�%�k±ÌEFL�EU��P½L��¬YRa�a�aCU��\gW.PBGIC~N�GRAUG-EU�b��GIH,�bEk��AD�bEFG-L��~YRa�a�J�Ú��K���X?�C}N���CkEU��GqN�GI�b��GICFE¥CU?B�HX��P#�XGREFGI�|EU�b]�PBG�V�HX��GRA4CU��\qW�P�?�H���|LHX�X?�EU?BLHXCR�4ÜML�EFGgEU�X�bE~EU��GqV�HX�|GRAUEU��?�H�E�Q�?�H�EU��GqCU?B�HX��P!?�C}CFLK�X?���mEU���bE@?BE~?�C}�X?����RVXP�EMEFL(�|LHX�RP�VX��G�N�?BEU���H�Q¦�|GRADEU��?�H�E'Q¦EU�X�bE��qCU?��HX��P%�X���K]�GRGIH(��GREFGI�|EFGI���

��d f $?� �#������� ��� ����z�� �!��� � �Zs ��� �,h � � � ��� ���������!���<f������=$ ��$����G�WXAUL0�|GI�XV�AUG���L�A��|LP�P�GI�|EU?�H��@?�\q�b��GIC��ºADL\ EU��G¬§�§�¨<�R��\qGRAD�4?�H�¢�LPB¢�GI��\q��H�V���P�PBQ4��L0�RVXCU?�H��}EU��GMPBGIHXC

��HX��ADVXHXH�?�H��@��WXAUL���AD��\»?�H�MH�?�¡qEFL��|L\-\kVXH�?��R�bEFG}EFL�EU�XG~§�§�¨ EFL¥EU�b��G@��H�?�\-�b��G�������G~§�§�¨¾L�]�EU��?�H�GI�EU��GICFG¬?�\q�b��GIC®VXCU?�H��~EU�XG�W���L�EFL�GIPBGI�|EFAD?���G|��GI�|ER�®¼�PBGI�|EFAULH�C#N�GRAUGMP�?�]�GRA��bEFGI�¥]�Qq?�H��|L\q?�H��~W��XL�EFLHXC#��HX�-EU��GIH�R�bWXEUV�ADGI�1]�Q1H�GI�bAU]�QZW�?B¡�GIP�C�N�?�EU�,�bEFEFA����|EU?B¢�G�¢�LPBEU�b��GICI�1����GKW�?�¡0GIP�CkEU��GIHÛ�|L\q\�VXHX?��R�bEFG(EFLÄ��HÛ��H���PBL���X?B�?�EU��P#�|LH�¢�GRADEFGRAkN���?��D�Ä�|LH�¢�GRAUEUCkEU��G����bEU�(?�H�EFL���HZ?�H�EFGR��GRA¥�bAUAD�IQ��b��EFGRA�\-��HX?BW�VXP��bEU?�H��iEU��G-�X�bEU��N�?BEU�CFL\gG¬���?�H%�½�ÈE�?�C�EU�XGIH�W�LCUCD?B]�PBG�EFL¥��GIH�GRAD�bEFG@��Hi?�\q�b��G}N��XLCFGM?�H�EFGIHXCU?�E�Q-�bE��X?���GRAUGIH�E�W�L?�H�EUC®?�C®�k��V�HX�|EU?BLHL��!EU��GICFG@?�H�EFGR��GRADCR�®����G@?�\q�b��GICM�R��HKEU��GIHK]�G~¢0?BGRN�GI�(��HX�(\q��H�?BW�VXP��bEFGI�¦?�H¦��¨}°ZL�A��� ��¨}�bEU�¥N���C��|LP�PBGI�|EFGI�¦CFQ0HX�D��ADLH�LVXCUPBQg��AUL\ÊEU��G4§�§�¨¾�bE~Y}\qCR`�YRa¥\qCR`�YRa�ag\qCR`�^�_ba¥\qCR`XÇba�a¥\qCR`���HX�

Ç�_ba�\qC4P�?����E@G|¡0W�LCUV�AUG-EU?�\gGICR� ��L�A�GI���D�1�|LP�P�GI�|EU?BLH%` E�N�L�?�\-�b��GIC4N�GRAUG-EU�b��GIH,N�?�EU�ÄEU��GiCU��VXEFEFGRA4L�W�GIH%`��HX�¦��H�L�EU��GRAM?�\q�b��G}N���C�EU�b��GIH(N�?BEU�iEU��G~CU��V�EFEFGRA��RPBLCFGI�%�½��H¦��HK�bEFEFGI\gWXE�EFLq���R£�VX?BAUG}�¥��VXP�PBQq?�P�P�VX\q?�H��bEFGI�?�\q�b��G�`0EU��G@§�§�¨¾N���C�W�L?�H�EFGI�-�X?�AUGI�|EUPBQq�bE��4NM�X?BEFG�W.?BGI�|G�L���W.�bW�GRA�W�P����|GI�i]�GIH�GI�bEU�i�@��V�L�AUGICU�|GIH�E��|GI?�P�?�H��P�?B���ER�����G�CFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RC#�bWXW�PBQ0?�H��¬EFL@EU��G�?�HX�X?B¢0?��XVX��P�?�\q�b��GIC#�XL@H�L�E#��LP�PBLON�� L?�CDCFLHqCFEU�bEU?�CUEU?��RC½¢�GRAUQ¥N�GIP�Pô�!���X?�C

Page 10: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

?�C~\gL�ADG¥�bW�W��bAUGIH�E~N���GIH�EU��Gg\gGI��HÄ��H���¢6�bAD?���HX�|Gq�bAUGq�R��P��RVXP��bEFGI����HX���|L\gW��bAUGI���b� �!?B�V�ADG �iW.PBL�EUC}EU��G�X�bAU�¦�RV�AUADGIH�E���?�CFEFAD?B].V�EU?BLH%� [ ?�\-?�P��bADPBQ�`�EU��G4�|LV�H�E¬�X?�CFEFAD?�]�V�EU?BLH��ºL�AMEU��G4?�P�P�VX\q?�H��bEFGI�i?�\q�b��GIC���P�CULq����?�P�C�EFL�RPBLCFGIP�Qq�ºLP�PBLONÃ� L?�CUCFLHiCFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RCR�#���X?�C�N®LV�P��-]�G¬G|¡�W�GI�|EFGI�¦CU?�H��|G�EU��G}?�\q�b��GIC�AUGI�|GI?B¢�GI�¦]�QqEU��G@§�§�¨)�bAUG���b]XAD?��R�bEFGI�m��HX�(�R��HmEU�b��GkLHm��H�QK?�H�EFGIHXCU?BE'QK�X?�CFEFAD?�]�V�EU?BLHi��GICU?BADGI�%� �!?B�V�ADGkÆgCU��L/N�C��-�|L\gW��bAD?�CULHKL��½EU��G�X?�CUEFL���AD��\ª��L�A��-Ç�_ba-\-C�?�P�P�VX\-?�HX�bEFGI��G|¡�W�LCUV�ADG@��HX�KEU��G@�|L�AUADGICFW�LHX�X?�H�� T ��V�CUCU?���HK�X?�CFEFAD?B]�VXEU?BLH%�

�!?B��� ��� � §�LVXH�EM�X?�CFEFAD?B]�VXEU?BLH¦L��#�X�bAU�(�RV�ADAUGIH�EMEU�b��GIH�N�?BEU��§�§�¨ �R��\gGRAD��N�?BEU�m�mYk\qC�G|¡0W�LCUV�AUG4EU?�\gG������G~�X?�CFEFAD?B]�VXEU?BLHq�X��C��g\gGI��H¦L���Y����¥�|LVXH�EUC���HX�K��¢b�bAD?���HX�|G~L��;Þ�Þq�|LVXH�EUC �b�#����G~�X?�CFEFA�?B]�V�EU?BLH���GR¢0?��bEFGIC��AUL\à� L?�CUCFLHmCFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RCR`�H�L�EU?��|Gk��LON�?BE�CFW�?B��GIC�CU�X�bAUW�P�Q�����P�P%EU�XG4�|LVXH�EUC��bAUG��|LHX�|GIH�EFA��bEFGI��N�?�EU�X?�H¦�q¢�GRAUQCU\q��P�P�AD��H���G��

�XL�AUEUVXHX�bEFGIPBQ�`�EU��GRAUGk?�C��qN��IQKEFL�G|¡�EFA����|EMEU��GkCFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��R��P"WXAUL�W�GRAUEU?BGIC�L�� W.��L�EFLHXC���AUL\·EU��GICFGk?�\q�b��GICR�[ ?�H��|G�E'N®L�?�\q�b��GIC~EU�b��GIH5CFGI�|LHX�XCk�bW��bAUE~N�?�EU��?���GIH�EU?��R��P!G|¡�W�LCUVXAUG¥EU?�\gGIC@CU�XLVXP���]�GqH�GI�bADPBQmGI£�VX?�¢6��PBGIH�ER`CUV�]�EFAD���|EU?�H��KEU��GICUGgE�N�Lm?�\q�b��GIC4CU��LVXP���W�AULO¢0?���Gg�(�X?�CFEFAD?B]�VXEU?BLH�EU���bE4\q?BAUADL�ADC}� T ��VXCUCD?���H��X?�CFEFA�?B]�V�EU?BLH���!?B�V�AUG�À¬��GI\gLH�CFEFAD�bEFGIC½EU��G��|LVXH�E#�X?�CUEFAD?B]�V�EU?�LH~L��.E'N®L@CDV�]XEFAD���|EFGI�g?�P�P�VX\q?�H��bEFGI�4?�\q�b��GIC!EU�b��GIHqN�?BEU�q§�§�¨�R��\gGRAD��NM?BEU�5��Ç�_ba�\qC�G|¡0W�LCUV�AUGiEU?�\gG��5Ŭ¢�GRAgW.PBL�EFEFGI�1?�C�EU��GK�|L�AUAUGICFW�LHX�X?�H�� T ��V�CUCU?���H,�X?�CFEFA�?B]�V�EU?BLH��ÜML�EU?��|G4��L/NÙEU��G~E'N®Li\q�bEU�D�mV�W���P�\gLCUE�W�GRAD�ºGI�|EUPBQ �

� ?Iï�ï J0æèó×òOë«ï�� GFå EOî«æèõ×ð*A õ�ë å G�õ×äFE6åDë«æèíôõ×ð�öYRa

Page 11: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�!?B���®Æ�� � §�LVXH�E®�X?�CFEFAD?B]�VXEU?BLH�L��"?�P�P�V�\q?�HX�bEFGI�¥?�\q�b��G¬EU�b��GIHiN�?BEU�¦§�§�¨¾�R��\gGRA��kNM?BEU�-��Ç�_ba�\-C�G|¡0W�LCUV�AUGEU?�\gG��KŬ¢�GRA4W.PBL�EFEFGI�Z?�C@EU��G��|L�AUADGICFW�LHX�X?�H�� T ��VXCDCU?���HZ��?�CFEFAD?B].V�EU?BLH%�gÜML�EFG���L/NxEU��G-?�P�P�VX\q?�HX�bEFGI��?�\q�b��G��GR¢0?��bEFGIC���AUL\ª� L?�CUCULH(CFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RCR�

�!?B���gÀ�� � §�LVXH�E@�X?�CFEFA�?B]�V�EU?BLH(L��®E'N®L�CDV�]XEFAD���|EFGI��?�P�P�VX\q?�H��bEFGI��?�\q�b��GIC@EU�b��GIH�N�?BEU�Z§�§�¨Ê�R��\gGRA��¦N�?BEU��-Ç�_ba�\qC�G|¡0W�LCDV�AUG~EU?�\gG���Ŭ¢�GRA�W�PBL�EFEFGI��?�C�EU��G4�|L�ADAUGICFW�LHX�X?�HX� T ��V�CUCU?���H(��?�CFEFAD?B].V�EU?BLH%�!Ü�L�EU?��|G4��LON)EU��GE�N�L�\-�bEU�D��VXW(��P�\gLCFE�W�GRAU��GI�|EUPBQ �

Y�Y

Page 12: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

��d h ��� ���!�#��$ � � � �5y�� �;��� ¼®���D��W�?�¡0GIP"����CMCFL\qG���\gLV�H�E¬L��#AUGI����LVXEMH�L?�CUGk��CUCFL0�R?��bEFGI��N�?BEU�m?BER�M����Gk£�V�GICFEU?BLH�?�CM��LON \�VX�D���

¬CU?�H��(� L?�CUCULHZCFEU�bEU?�CUEU?��RC~N�G��R��HZ�XGREFGRAD\q?�H�Gq�XLONÊ\�VX���ÄAUGI����LVXE4H�L?�CFGq?�C@���X��GI��EFLmGI���D�,CU?B�HX��P«�q����G�|LVXH�E�?�H¦GI������W�?B¡�GIP�?�C��?�¢�GIHK]�Q %

� � ��: � �!8 1 >;� ( © 5;6�� 8 � 6 5 � �� � @'#> � ­���� � % � ��� '����(% �;5;8:< 5 ��5�< 8 � 5;:=<?> ����� + ��� � % � ��� '���� % �;5;8:< 5 ��5;< 8 � 5;:=< >Ë�Q¥CUV�]XEFA����|EU?�H��~?�\q�b��GIC�N®G��R��H��|L�AUAUGI�|E#EU��G�CD?B�HX��P0��L�A���H�Q¥�bAU]�?�EFAD�bAUQ4Lb�%CFGRE���H��q�X�bAU���|LVXH�EUCI�#±���EFGRA

�|L�AUAUGI�|EU?�H��q��L�A�EU��GICFG�`XN�G@��GRER`' 8��7:=5�� ( �� � % � �� '���� % �;5;8:< 5;� 5;< 8 � 57:=<?> ©ô_­

[ ?�HX�|GiGI���D�1W�?�¡0GIP�AUGRWXAUGICUGIH�EUC¥��� �UÒ��ZH�VX\k]�GRA�L��M�|LVXH�EUCI`�]�Q5� L?�CUCFLH1CFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RCR`#EU�XGi¢b�bAD?���H��|GiL���(�|LVXH�E4?�H��KW.?�¡�GIP½?�C}�?B¢�GIH�]�QmEU�X?�C@\gGI��H%�qJMLON�GR¢�GRAI`½?�H�EU��Gq�R��CFG�L��®EU�XG�§�§�¨ �R��\gGRAD�0` EU��GRAUG-?�C~��P�CFLAUGI����LVXEMH�L?�CUG4��HX�(EU�XGk�|LH�¢�GRADCU?BLH������|EFL�A}L��½���?�H.�6�R�bW.���R?BEU��HX�|G�� [ L-EU��G4¢b�bAD?���HX�|G4L��#�-�|LVXH�EM?�Hm�qW�?B¡�GIP]�GI�|L\gGIC|S��&%

' �)( ©�� � % � � � � �� % + � � �;) � � / ' % ­ �;5;8: �< 5 ��5�< 8C5 � 57:=<?> �EU�X?�C��?�¢�GIC�VXCR`

' �)( �� � % � � �;5;8: �< 5 ��5;< 895 � 57:=<?> � � � �� % + � � � ) � �/ ' % �;5;8: �< 5;� 5;< 895 � 5;:=<?> �

��AUL\à¼�£�VX�bEU?BLHm_�`' � ( ' 8��7:=5�� �;5;8:< 5 ��5�< 8C5 � 57:=<?> � � �� % + � � �;) � �

/ ' % �;5;8: �< 5 ��5�< 8C5 � 57:=<?> � ©3�­ÜML�EU?��|G@EU�X�bE�EU��?�C�GI£�VX�bEU?BLH(�X��C�EU��G~�ºL�A�\ªL��'`

� / ( � 1 / � � ©«Æ�­

[ ?�HX�|G�N®G��X�O¢�G�¢6��P�VXGIC���L�A 1¾��HX� ��`�EU��G�CU?��HX��PM��H��ÂEU�XG�¢b�bAD?���H��|G�`MN�G��R��H �R��P��RVXP��bEFG�EU��G�]�GICFEW�LCUCU?B].PBG®¢b��P�V�GIC��ºL�A�EU��G�CUPBL�W�G���HX�-?�H�EFGRA��|GRWXER�#���X?�C½?�C#��LH�G�N�?�EU�q�~WXAUL0�|GICUC#�R��P�PBGI� � �DÒ6Ð×Ö"!�ÝRÎXÒbÓ>�×Ð$#&%�ÖôÖ�%'��Õ�¬CU?�H��qEU�XG4WXAUL�].�b]�?�P�?BE'Q-L��½L�]XEU��?�HX?�H��q��H�QKW��bAUEU?��RV�P��bA�¢b��P�V�G@��L�A 1 / `�N�Gk�R��H��|L\gW�V�EFGkEU��G4WXADL�]��b]�?�P�?�E�Q-L��\gGI��CUVXAD?�H��¥EU��G4�|L�ADAUGICFW�LHX�X?�HX� � / �½�'� N�G4��CUCUVX\qG@� T ��VXCUCD?���H(�X?�CUEFAD?B]�V�EU?�LH@%

� © �/­)( > � áA+*-,�. ' ,/ .10 A ( > � áA2*3,�. ' ,5476�.'8/ . 0 A

� © � S � � � � �,�,� � � � ­ (:9 � © �/­

á<; �"íôíôò6ä�æèð6ó>=@?BACAD=@EGF@HGI

YI^

Page 13: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�XAUL\·¼®£�VX�bEU?�LH�Æ�`

9 � © � / ­&( > � áA����.�� á * , . '�� 6 . '�/ . 0 A�È� N®G4�XG|¹.H�G�`

� ( -. /0 S

� � / + � 1 / + ��/ � �

EU��GIH�N®G¬�R��H¦��CUCUVX\gG�EU�X�bE®EU�XGM\gLCFE�P�?B��GIP�Qk¢b��P�V�GIC®L�� � ��HX� � ��AUL\ʼ®£�V��bEU?BLHiÆ@N�?�P�P0L0�R�RV�A�N���GIH ��?�C��\q?�H�?�\kV�\K�;�È�È`0?�H������|ER` T ��V�CUCU?���HKCFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��RC���Lq�bWXW.PBQ�`0EU��GIH¦EU�X?�C ��$ \gLCFE�P�?B��GIPBQqN��XGIH �}?�C��¥\q?�HX?�\�VX\K`]�GI�R��VXCFGgEU�X�bEk\gGI��HXC@EU�XGgWXAUL�]��b]�?�P�?BE�Qm?�C~�bE4�(\q�6¡�?�\�VX\K�q� �b��?�H��KEU��GgW��bAUEU?���P½��HX�ÄCFGREFEU?�HX�(?BE~GI£�V���P½EFLÚRGRAULqEFL�\q?�HX?�\-?BÚRG �}�?B¢�GIC�V�CR`

: �: � ( ^ -. /0 S

� � / + � 1 /� �/� © +)1 / ­ ( a

: �: � ( ^ -. /0 S

� � / + � 1 /� �/� © +4YO­ ( a

G|¡0W���HX�X?�HX��EU��?�C�LV�E�AUGICDVXPBEUC�?�H%`-. /0 S

1 / � /� �/ + � -. /

0 S1��/� �/ + �

-. /0 S

1 /� �/ ( a

-. /0 S� /� �/ + �

-. /0 S

1 /� �/ + �

-. /0 SY� �/ ( a

���X?�C"?�C0²UVXCFE E�N�L¬GI£�VX�bEU?BLH�C"N�?�EU�@E�N�L~VXH��0H�LONMHXC<� ¬CU?�HX��EU��G��X�bEU�MEU�X�bE!N���C!�|LP�PBGI�|EFGI�¥CFQ0HX����AULH�LVXCDPBQ��AUL\ EU��G�§�§�¨»�bEqYg\qCR`#YRaK\-CR`#YRa�a(\qCR`"^�_ba�\qCR`"Çba�a(\qCI`���HX�ÄÇ�_ba(\qC}G|¡0W�LCUV�AUG�EU?�\gGIC}EFL��R��P��RVXP��bEFGEU��G¥CUVX\qCI`.�iPBGI��CFE}CU£�V��bAUG4¹.EFEU?�H���P�?�H�G@N���C}��GRAD?B¢�GI��¢�?��i\q�bEFAD?��|GICR�M���XG4AUGICUV�PBEUCM�bADG��X?�CFW�P��OQ�GI��?�H � ?��V�AUG�g��PBLHX�gN�?BEU�¦EU��G4�|L�ADAUGICFW�LHX�X?�HX��P�?�H�GI�bA�PBGI��CFE�CD£�VX�bADG}¹�EFEU?�H��¥GI£�VX�bEU?BLH%���H(L�A���GRA�EFL¦�R��P��RVXP��bEFGkEU��G4GRADAUL�ADC¬?�HKLV�A¬AUGICUVXP�EU?�H��qCUPBL�W�G@��HX��?�H�EFGRAD�|GRWXER`.N®G¥\kV�CFE�LHX�|G��b���?�HmEUV�ADH

EFLKWXAUL�W.�b��bEU?BLH�L��®GRADAUL�ADCR� [ ?�HX�|G�EU��G¥¢6��P�V�GIC"1 / ��HX� � / �bAUGq�iAUGICDVXPBE}L��®�X?B��GRAUGIH�E~\gGI��CUV�ADGI\gGIH�EUC~V�HX��GRA�X?���GRAUGIH�E��R?�AD�RVX\qCFEU��H��|GICR`�EU�XG}CUWXAUGI���¦?�HqEU�XGI?BA�W��bAUEU?��RVXP��bA�¢b��P�V�GIC�����?�P�C�EFLg��G|¹�H�G¬�XLON ���R�RV�AD�bEFGIPBQ�N®G~�X�O¢�G�bWXWXADLI¡�?�\q�bEFGI�K�gP�?�HXGI�bA��|L�AUAUGIP��bEU?BLH��#J�L/N®GR¢�GRAI`.GI���D�m\gGI��CUV�AUGI\qGIH�E�L�� � / ��GR¢0?��bEFGIC���AUL\ª?BEUC��|LV�H�EFGRAUW.�bAUE� 1 / � � ]�Q¦CUL\gG@CFEU��HX�X�bA��(��GR¢0?��bEU?BLH%` ' � �#����VXCR`�N�G4�R��H(�|L\gW.V�EFG@EU�X?�C��XGR¢�?��bEU?�LHK]�Q.SFS %

' � ( ��� Y*,+5^-. /0 S© � / + � 1 / + � ­ �

áôá åFøOçèõ�ë�@!B×õ I/ð&?#öYIÇ

Page 14: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

�!?B���B��� � #�bAD?���HX�|G�¢�CI� �®��L�EFLb��¼�PBGI�|EFADLHg�|LVXH�ER�½¨}�bEU�}���R£�V�?BAUGI�k�ºAUL\̧�§�¨��R��\gGRAD�¬��L�A ¢b�bAD?BLV�C"G|¡0W�LCUV�AUGEU?�\gGICI�����XG�EFGI���XHX?�£�V�G¥L���PBGI��CFE@CU£�VX�bAUGIC}N���C@VXCFGI��EFL¦¹.E@�KCFEFAD��?B���E@P�?�H�G�EFLKEU��GgW�L?�H�EUCR�k¼®���D��W�L?�H�E~?�CEU��G4\qGI��HKL��!E�N�L-CFGREUC�L��½�X�bEU�qGI���D���|LH�EU��?�H�GI�5YRa�aqCU��\gW.PBGICR�

¬CU?�HX�(¼�£�VX�bEU?BLHZÇ�` EU��G-GRADAUL�A4?�H�EU�XG-CUPBL�W�Gq��HX�Ä?�H�EFGRAD�|GRW�E4�R��HZ]�Gq�|L\gW.V�EFGI�%������GqAUGICUV�PBE~L���EU�X?�C�|L\gW�VXEU�bEU?BLH(?�C���C��ºLP�P�LON�C|S9�#%

' * ( ' � Y� -/ 0 S 1 � +© �

/0 S * 1�­ �

'�� ( ' � �/0 S *�1 �

� -/ 0 S 1 � +© � -/ 0 S 1%­ �á A åFøOçèõ�ë�@!B×õ I/ð&?#ö

Y|Þ

Page 15: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

����GgGRAUAUL�A@��L�A4EU�XG-�X�bEU�KN���C4�R��P��RV�P��bEFGI�%`!��HX��GRAUAUL�A4]��bADC~N�GRAUGqW�P�L�EFEFGI�Z?�H �!?B�V�ADG6����¼®���D�Z�|L�ADAUG|�CFW�LHX�X?�H��K�X�bEU�(W�L?�H�E@����P�P�C~W�GRAU��GI�|EUPBQ�N�?BEU�X?�H�AD��H���GqL���EU��GiPBGI��CFE�CU£�V��bAUGIC~¹�EFEU?�H���P�?�HXG�`�EU��V�Ck�|LH0¹.AD\q?�H��EU��G@EU�XGRL�AUGREU?��R��P�PBQ¦P�?�HXG�����X?�C"P�?�H�G��X��C!�M¢�GRAUQ4?�\qW�L�ADEU��H�E ?�H�EFGRADWXAUGREU�bEU?BLH%�!¼�£�VX�bEU?BLH �M?�C"EU�XG®��GRQkEFL}V�HX��GRADCFEU��H��X?�H���EU��GICUG®¢b��P��

V�GICR� ����G#CUP�L�W�G½�|L�AUADGICFW�LHX�XC�EFL�EU��G � +/�

� +��;+�� / ) +>��� % `b��HX�}EU��G®?�H�EFGRA��|GRWXE��|L�AUAUGICFW�LHX��C�EFL � �� % + � � �;) � � / ' % � +/� A

� +��;+�� / ) +>��� % A ����X?�C�\q�OQ�CFGRGI\�¢�GRAUQ(¢b�b�V�G¥�bEM¹.ADCFER`�].V�ER`�VXW�LHm?�HXCFW�GI�|EU?BLH�`�EU��G�\gGI��HX?�H��CML��#EU��GICUGk¢b��P�V�GIC¬�R��H�]�G���G|�EFGRAD\q?�H�GI�%� [ ?�HX�|G�EU��G¬?�H�EFGRAD�|GRW�E�?�C�LV�A�¢6��P�VXG�N���GIH�EU��GRAUG}?�C®H�L�CD?B�HX��Pô`�EU��GIH�?�E®�R��Hi]�GM?�H�EFGRAUWXAUGREFGI�i��C�EU��G¢b�bAD?���HX�|G¥?�H�EU��G�AUGI����LV�E~H�L?�CUGkN��XGIHmEU�XGRAUG�?�C¬HXLiCU?��HX��Pô`�L�AI`�]�Q�� L?�CUCFLH�CFEU�bEU?�CUEU?��RCR`�EU��Gg\gGI��H���\gLVXH�EL��½AUGI����LVXEMH�L?�CUG@W�GRA�W�?�¡0GIP%N�?�EU�KEU��GRAUG�?�C�H�L�CU?B�HX��Pô�����XG4CUPBL�W�G4��GREFGRA�\q?�H�GIC��XLON�EU�X?�C���\qLVXH�E¬�D�X��HX��GIC��C�EU�XGk\gGI��Hm?�HX�|AUGI��CFGICI��±¬C��R��Hm]�G@CFGRGIH%`�EU�XG@¢6�bA�?���HX�|G@AD?�CFGIC�CUPBL/N�PBQiN�?BEU�KEU�XGk\gGI��HmH�VX\k]�GRA�L��½�|LVXH�EUCR�����VXC�N�G@�X�I¢�G4��?�CU�|LO¢�GRADGI�KEU��G@��HXCFN�GRA�EFLgLV�A�?�HX?BEU?���P�£�V�GICFEU?BLH%`����4Ø� �¥Î� �KÓ��DÒ��ØbÎ�Ö �.Ø�%ºÐ<� %ºÐ@ÒbÐDÐ|Ø��%ôÒ�Ö ����C%�Ö�� �DÒ���¥Í %�� �|Ï��� �

��d�c�d ¶ ����$ ��������� ��� ���!���¬CU?�HX�¥?�\q�b��GIC�L�]XEU��?�H�GI�¦��AUL\ EU��Gk§�§�¨)�R��\qGRAD�0`��¥W�GRADCFLHX��P�N�GR]XW��b��G@N���C���GICD?B�H�GI�¦VXCU?�HX��J¬��¯�°

�|L0��G������X?�C�N®GR]XW.�b��G4�R��HK]�G~¢�?�GRN®GI�(�bE�N�N�N@� T ±¬CFEFAUL��èË�GRAU��GIPBGRQ��è¼®¨ ~����0?BADCFEFGIH.���

� d hqoqr�h ��p���z6oqr �����G~�b]�?�P�?BE'QqEFLqVXHX�XGRADCFEU��HX�¦��L/N G|��GI�|EU?B¢�GIP�QiLVXA���GR¢�?��|GIC��bAUG@�b]�PBG}EFL-��GREFGI�|E�W���L�EFLHXC���HX�K�|L\qW�V�EFG

EU��G���\qW�P�?BEUVX�XG;L��0EU��G#GRADAUL�ADC���CUCUL��R?��bEFGI�4N�?BEU�}EU��GI\)?�C%GICUCUGIH�EU?���P�?�H~��HX��PBQ�ÚI?�H�����CFEFADL�W���Q0CU?��R��P��X�bEU�0� � L?�CDCFLHCFEU�bEU?�CUEU?��RC���HX�(WXAUL�W��b��bEU?BLH(L�� GRADAUL�ADC��bAUG4EFL�LP�C�EU�X�bEM��P�P�LONÙVXC�EFL-�|LHX�RP�VX�XG�`�N�?BEU�KCFL\gG4�?B¢�GIH��|GRAUEU��?�H�E'Q�`N���GREU�XGRA¬L�A~H�L�E~�¦CU?B�H���P"N�Gg�bAUGg��GREFGI�|EU?�H��K?�CR`%?�Hm�����|ER`"\gL�AUG�EU�X��H�²UVXCFEM�.VX�|EUVX�bEU?BLH�CM?�HmEU��GRAD\-��P HXL?�CFG�`]����D����AULV�HX��H�L?�CFG~L�AM� L?�CUCULH�H�L?�CUG��®���X�bEM?�CR`�CFEU�bEU?�CFEU?��R��P���HX��P�Q�CU?�C���P�PBL/N�C�VXC�EFL-£�V���H�EU?BEU�bEU?�¢�GIPBQ¦G|¡�WXADGICUCLV�A��|LH�¹.��GIHX�|G@?�HK�-��GREFGI�|EFGI�mCD?B�HX��Pô�¼®£�V���P�PBQ(?�\gW�L�AUEU��H�ER`�?�C¬LV�A@�b]�?�P�?BE�Q�EFLKWXAUGI�X?��|E}��L/Nx�¦��GR¢�?��|GqCU��LVXP��mAUGICFW�LHX��?�H��i�?B¢�GIH�GIH�¢0?BAULH0�

\gGIH�ER� [ ?�H��|G}��CUEFAULH�L\q?��R��P;?�\q�b�?�HX�¥?�C�GICUCFGIH�EU?���P�?�HK��CFEFADLH�L\4Q�`�VXHX��GRA�CFEU��HX�X?�HX�kEU��G@\-���D�X?�HXGRAUQi��H��KEU��GP�?�\-?BEU�bEU?BLHXC�L��½?BEUCMWXAUGI�R?�CU?BLH(��HX�m���R�RV�AD���|Q(NM?�P�P%��P�PBL/N)VXCMEFL��XGI�XVX�|G4NM�X�bE�AD��H���GkL��#CU?B�HX��P�C�N�Gk�bAUG��b]�PBGEFL-��GREFGI�|ER�

YI_

Page 16: ? C CU X? H g bE Y - Lick Observatorykirsten/undergradlabs/report2.pdfC HX KEU G~L EU GRAMN ?BEU K ¥ CU X? H g ;¼ ¨ W VXP CUG¬NM? EU L Y CR ®PBL EFEU? H EU G bEU 4 GI\gL H CFEFAD

��d ni´���´}n�´}rÄhk´ �

� �IQ0PBL�AI`���L�XH-É@��� ���5��Ö�ÓFØ��bÎ IÖ�%ôØ���Ö«Ø�Ó×Ó�ØbÓ�� �.ÒbÏ��6Ð5%ºÐ�� [ ��V�CU��P�?BEFL�% MHX?�¢�GRADCU?BE'Q [ �R?�GIHX�|G�Ë�L�L��0CR`�Y����Æ;%Æb_�`�YIÀÆO�DYIÀ�À��

�XAD?BGI�X\q��H�`X±MHX�XQ J¬VXCUCR`X°"GRG�� ��Ò��UØbÓFÒ�Ö«ØbÓ;��

��d f¦hkj�rÄo � ��´}s�li´~v�´}rmy����N�LVXP��mP�?B��G@EFL�EU�X��H����?�\K`�±¬HX��Q�`.°"GRG�`�°;?�HX�XCUGRQ�`���HX��¼�AD?��~��L�A�G|¡0W�P���?�HX?�H��g�-P�L�E�L��½EU��GkWXAUL0�|GI�XV�AUG

��HX��EU��GRL�ADQ,©���C~N�GIP�P½��C~EU��Gg��CUCUL��R?��bEFGI�ÄWXAUL�]�PBGI\-CMNM?BEU��EU��GI\�­�EFL�\gG�� Ã?BEU��LV�E}EU��GI\(`���N�LVXP���CFEU?�P�P;]�GLH�CFEFGRW Y¥L��®EU�X?�C¬P��b]=�k�MN®LV�P�����P�CFL(P�?B��G¥EFLKEU�X��HX��ܬ�bEFGq��L�A@CFW�GIHX�X?�H��¦Ç¦��LV�ADC¬N�?�EU��\gG¥G|¡�W�P���?�HX?�H����¢b�bAD?���HX�|G@L�� EU��G4\qGI��H��0�

Y��