Cbspter..J!

CON TRADI~TION S

Toe preceding wo con sec~.& t1 ve chap ters deal w1 tll the

na~re ana process of modem1zatlon at 1n41v1d~.&al end 1n&tl tu­

tlonE.\1. levQls. In co&.&rse of tbe d1soLt&s1on 1ncons1stenc1es ln

tile p10cess nave also been brought 1D the focus. The 1nconsis­

tc!nc1es 1n any of 1ne aspects of social, cul turat or person ell ty

sys t911s ere e1 tner tile SJ!Dp 1Dms (or tbe results) of the con­

traciic tlons 1n tban or if al.lowea to accwnulate end con t1n&.&e

tor a long tlme may 1eaa to contrad1c tlons 1n tnese sys tans.

In tile present cbep ter m ett«Dp t is made 1D anal.,ae tbe neb.lre

and bases of con tre41c tlons obtained 1n tbe three sys tans

while tbey .maergo mo4em1zat1on a'ld change. Ill t tbe analysis

of contrad1ct1ons 1n social stl'Ucta..re fol111 tne maJor part of

our 41 sc&.& ss ion.

The vord con tred1c t1on is often \l&ed w t rarely defined.

It is 1n feet a h1gbly abstract concept end h9nce difficult

1D comprehend md explain. .No&.&gbly speaking, by contradiction

we mean 41screpsncy or 1ncona1stenoy bebleen tvo or more

stl\lcblres or SLlbstNctA..reaJ be tbey statanent of feet, person­

all~ asp eo ts, s ta tt.as role arrangauen ts or ins tl ~ tlons. ~ t

tne teltll conveys a bmader meaning tbsn tbe cH.screpancy

be ween atl\&c ~rea. In eddi tlon 1X> the absence of agreanen t

between taro (or more) stmc~res or S\lb&tl\.tc~res, tbe tezm

refers 1X> tne denial or negatlon of one by the other. It'

someone, say tor insteoce, supports a bill for the problb1tlon

- 215-

of dowry or to ra1se tile age of marriage or pleads HlnCll as

med1"'m of ins tl\lc tlon in b1s public life ~ t demends dowry at

tne marriage of b1s son( e), settles marriage of b1s chil.dren

at a lower age, or sends bls cblldren tD ~gl.1sn med1wn scl'lools

1n bls private life. Hls acts 1n tbe two 11fe-oett1ngs are

con trad1o1ory. Bec&l1se bls acts ln tbe public lite are not

only lnconsis tent to but also negate tbe acts of b1s private

11te.

Con trad1c tlon end connlct ere used 1n tercbangeably.

But 1 t 1& erll)neoua. Al. tbougb the two concepts are very close

in meaning, tbe cUfference betwean tbe blo is considerable.

Tbe foxmer may occur w1 t.bin one or more s tmctl.lres but tbe

latter cannot be con ta1ned w1 tbln a single s true bAre (Belley

l960a 7·8). A stl\lct&.lre may contain Nlas for tbe resolu tlon

of connict that anse in it wb..Ue it may $lso play a cl\.tc1al 1

~le even 1n main ta1n1ng the stNcture. T~s conn1ct plays

a&ld mle. 1 t pl'Od\lces changes b1 t at the sane time it may

re1ftfo rce the old system end hence resists cbmges. ~ t con­

tradiction 1a S)'!Dp1Dmet1c 4)f social change. "Conn1c11', says

BaUey ( l960a239) "cen on1y be recognlsea as a con tredic t1on by

the absence of self reg\llats.ns faciors... Tb.ls a mt\ft allies

bimself tD a gro"lp B 6Dd 1n doing so detects trom gm"p A.

If tbe resul. t 1s to bring 1n to actlon a large gl'O"P of whicb

bo tb A end B ere parts, end yet wblcb 1e 1n some sense nm.& ti'Ql.

1. "The stNc ture•, says aaUey ( l960a7) "1 tself will contain Nl.ee for the reso1" t1on of conn1ct1 and conflict will even p1ay a cl\lc1al. part 1n main ta1n1ng tb9 struc~re. The law as of~ ls sa1.4, 1s strengtnened 1n tile breech. In eno tAer sense, conflict 1n one gm"p may bring in tD action a1argergm'-lp anasoma1nta1n 1t$ ex1s1Snce, as when caste councUe meet 10 sett1e connlcte between 11neages."

- 276 -

between tbem, ana lf tll1s larger gJX»l.lp settles tbe connlct,

then we are not here dealing wl tb con trad1c t1on." The sane ceo

~ put 1n te~ms of ~Ules atd 1nsti ~ tlons • Bailey ( l960a839)

t\lrther observes, "1f a man follows D4le A and deViates from

n.le a, end U tbere 1s a th1H l\lle or inst11a.ltlon aeslflled 1D

settle such s1 ta.&at1ons on the gml.l!l<ls that 1n tbls p&rtlculer

sita.&atlon one or tne oUler l\4le 1s agpmpr1ate, then tb1s is

not contradiction. If tne gxoup vll1ch comes 1n1D actton is

not neutral bef)leen A end B but iS ln ract one of tbe senctlons

of B (or A, as tile case may be), and 1t lt 1s ei'tectt.ve, there

ls a con trad1ct1on be ween tbe tMo allegiances end not merely

a connict. Simllal'ly U the tb1JIC1 l\lle or 1ns t11u tlon iS

simply an assertion of one or tne o tner 1\lles as being inva­

riably and ~ tomatlcally the right one, this 1s con tradlctlon. •

Tbe stNc1ures may nega~ each otAer blt tb.ey may not

necessarily be \.lnder conflict. When con tra41ctlons deepen, they

may generate connicts. Sheer presence of con4traC11d:lons cto

not cwse conflict. S1mUal'ly, there may be 1n tra or 1n ter­

gml.lp c:onfllct(s) be that gmup fanUy\.ies), caste(s) or

natlon ( s), but not con tradlction. 'rhe lower caste people wbo

sanllkr1 tlze themselves generally come in to connie t wl th

members or their own castes or tba castes of tbelr rank1ng,

because they assl~ a 1ower s ta~s to tbose members ot tuelr

own castes or the cas~s of tbe1r ranking, vto nave not am<lel\­

gone sanskr1 tlzatlon al.ong v1 til Ulem. The castes un<ler sens­

krl t1zat1on also come 1n connie t vi tb the upper caste peop1e

becwse tll9y -. tit!' ... llliiEil had been once superior 1D them 1D

- fn7-

1"1 tufd posi tlon. lb t s~ch claims, as is generally mede b,y one

caste tD merit 1 tselt superior 1D o tner(s), come under the pul'­

view of casta systen. They do not involve a tblrd struc~re.

Hence connie ts generated ttun"'gb SLlCD claJms emong differeD t

caste groups, es per allove de£1ni tlon, do not accompany contra.

dictions. Conflicts in socie ~ mey take place £or reasons

other Ulan the con tradic t1ons such as clasb of 1n terests on

some immediate or long-1\ln issues.

Oon tredic t1ons, as 9lCpla1ned abOve, involve 1n any soclel

si1kat1on tbe pzesence o£ more tban one social stl\lcture (or

subs tl'Uc b.lre). Acco r41ng to L1flcb ( l968a 209-40) con trad1ct1on

Sn the contanporary lnd1en social situation occurs betwem tb.e

caste s tl\lc b.i re, End the demo era t1c s tl'\lc ta.lre based on ci tlzen­

sb1p. The ulstence of con tradlctlon ls known tb~ugb tb9

presence of e tblrd stmo1Ll "• l.e. state 1n tb1s case. Here

the state, instead of being neu trat. sanctions tbe democratic

stl'\lct.&re, since 1t pm£esses equality anong c1t1.zens and

negatss 1nequali ty based on caste.

Contrec11ct1on cen a].so be seen at 1ndldduel level.

In poll tical Spbe1"9 the lower and tbe 1ntezme61ate castes

anpbasize tbe1r lower s ta1us 1D get educational and economic

ad vat tages and poll t1 cal power for tnel r up lit tnen t, bl t ln

tneir social life they emulate tbe vey of life of up~er

castes 1D a"ain a sta~s Gq\lal 1D the blgner castes. A

parallel case fl'QD upper castss may also be men tloned 1n

tbls context. On secu1ar i"ront especially on mat~m like

- 278 -

reservation of seats 1n essen bl.y or ~arl.1emen t, or .1n govern­

ment Jobs, etc. tlle upper castas people oppose a.l.l sorts of

Jeservet1ons ~d 4emmd eq.l all ty of treetmen t fl'Om the govem­

ment. In otbar liCI'ds, Uley ere against the protlectlve d1Sc1'1-

m1nat.1on fit the govemmen t et ttsr for the scheduled or for tbe

backward castes on secular front but on ritual. f'ront they, sul'­

pl":lslngly enough, ere not prepared b give e~al stab.ls to them.

Deplctlng s1 b.et1ons of connlct and con tradlctton 1n

case of Ja~aa of Agra 1n tbe post Independence period LJDCh

(1968a 236-37) points out tbat "••• having 1'9at.1zed the polnt

where reference group behavlou r on the senskr1 tic model ts no

longer eutunct1onal, some castes, such as tb.9 Jatavas, have

blmed ~ poll tical particlpat.ton. Struct&.lrlQ.l.y tbis shift

ls &.e to tbe teet tba t tnese castes now occupy and ac tlvate

tlle •aom1nen 11' status of c1 t1zensb1p and also the staius of

. voter, Conflict 1a now v1 tb1n the tteld ot poll tlcs, in tellDs

ot ettanp Una 1D m&ke c1 tlzensh1p and acb1evemen t the rec~Ul ~

1ng pr.lnclplea tD tbe •tl\lct»res of opport»nlty end power, on

tile one nand, en~n tne o tner 1D de• troy caste end casta ascr.t.­

bed rftl_k ee the Ncl\111ment principle to these stl\lctures.

However, since botb these stab.&ses can now be ascribed as

domSnent tbere is contradictlon witbin tbe sociEO. etl\lcture.•

ln Marxist te~1no1ogy contradictlon is beslo to

neia.tzoe and bwn&n society. According to Mao (1967: 315-46)

each dUterence contains contradiction and tbat tbe Cl1tf'erence

1n itself ls a con tred1c tlon. It 1s universal ana abSo1'-i te

ataeast 1n tbe sense tbat "con tredlct1on exists 1n tbe process

279 -

of dGvelopment of all tilings, and Ulat in tbe proc~ss of aeve­

lopmen t of eacb tbing a movement of opposite ens ts from beg1n­

n 1ng 1D end. d

The ~o&n1vers~ityof contradiction may be sem in

ditferen t areas of life as Well as 1n dlfferen t rGalms of know­

ledge nin metnemat1csa + and -5 differen t1~ end in teg ral.t

ln mecnan1csa ect1on md reaction; ln pnysics: positive and

negative electric1 tyJ in cnemistrya the comb1net1on end dis­

sociation or atDms; and 1n soclel. science: tbe class stl\lgglen

(V.I. Lenin Q\toted 1n Mao 'l'se-~ng 1967a 317).

It 1 s rel a t1 ve or Dl erttc ... ler in tae sene e the t "a" c.b

con tracUct1on and each of its aspects nave tneir respective

cneracte1'1st1cs. Tne partl~larity o! contred1ctlons enabl.e

"'s 1D s b.ady tne q\6 ali ta t1 ve differences be btreen oitr eren t

fo ms of tbe same phenol&1enon or tile p rooess. Tne mecuanioEa.

movement, sound, llgbt, beat, e1ec trlci ty, comb1net1on end

dlssoc1at1on of matter a.ll denote some sort of mo tlon. R

"All tbese .roms ere independent, bL.lt1n essence eaob is

different from tbe o tners. Tbe partic...ler essence of each

form of mo tlon iS detem1ned by its ow pertto .. lar con trad1c­

t1on." "1 t (inner con trad1o t1on) is ti•e 1n tem8l. c ~ se or,

es 1 t may be cal.led tne basis tb r tne immErtse variety of tbings

in tile world". n Tne 1 av of con tradl c t1on in tilin gs 1 s tbe

law of Ltn1 ty of opposi tee - a i'undamen tal la-w or nab.& re,

society and nence also or tb.o&.lg1lt. 11 {."leo l967a 315-46).

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ln cUalect1c matel"1alist framework change wneUler in

n a~ re o r so c1 e t;y is ellpl e1n ed in te zms o £ con tracU c tlon.

"<.;llanges in societY', says Meo (l967a 314), nare cblefiy due

1D tbe development o£ 1n temel con trecUc tlons 1n oociet;y, tbat

is, tbe con tradictlon beu.reen tbe pmd"'o tt.ve rorces aui the

relations ot pJOch&ct1on, the mntracU~tt.on between classes atd

tbe con tradiotlon between tbe old end tne nev; it is tne deve..

lopm~t of tbeee con tradlo ttons that p'-lshes moiety £ol'Ward

and gives tbe impe1Us £or tne e&,appression o£ tne old society

q, tbe new. l)oes meter18l1st dlalectlcs exclude external ca.ses'l

Not at all. It bolds tnat exteznal. cwses ere tne basis of

change, end tbat extel!l~ causes 'become operatt. ve tamL&gb

in temal causes. In a Ski table temperatkre en egg changes

1n 1D a oblcken, bLl t no temperature can change a stx»ne in iD

a cbloken, becaAse each bas a dlfferen t basis. 11

On tbe basis of above dlso"'ssions, we may say tbet

con tracUo tlon denotes the presence of negative or con tracU.otlng

e1. em en ts in a s tl\4 c tw re. A s tl\4c b.& re may in here con tradi o tlon s

or con tradiotlons may get evolved wnue it '-lndergoes modemi-

z a tlon end deveJ.opmen t. Presence of con tracUctlon in i tseJ.f 1s

not SL&fficien t to generate conflio t 1n Ule s tl\lc 1Ure. It is

only when the contradiott.ons get solidified tD reach tn a

societal stage that tne contradiotlng stn.c11..res come "nder

cl.asb Witb each otber so as to give l'lse 1D a new st1\&cb.ira.

Tm..s, society "ndergoes change tbmwgb conflict in a way 1D

resolve contrad1ct1ons but in tlle process of evolving new

281

strucb.tres b7 resolving old contradictions, new a:mtrad1ct1ons

germinate Which in due col4rse of time solidify tnanselves

1D give rise to r~rtner conflicts and cna1ges in society.

In initial stage solidification of contracU.ction is slow and

takes a long span of t1me 1lJ get solidified. !)""ring tnis

period tna society wndergoes cnenges but tney are p eriphera.l,

slow end 1.1n1mportant wne1·eas ir. tne final stage tne processes

of cnange become rest and fundumen tal.

~oming precisely 1D o1.1r specific problem contradi~tions

in village life is eJq>licated at t'o1.1 r broad levels.

l. At d.. !M<iinaJ. 'Pn tradic t1vn_

At att1 tl.&<i.inal. level peo~le may be saa'l to ne.ve two

ru1.1 b.. ally opposite vie"Wpoin ts or no t1ons - modem and tradi­

tional., rational and 1rrat1onal., logics:': and 1llogic:a.l,

sim\U. teneousl.y. On one bend, Uley advocate principle of

n a'b.lre o~ science, but on tne o tber they are gl41dea by

religious belief and dogmas in t.uei r persona.l life.

Peopl.e say tbat correct planning and hardwork are trA.e only

l~ey 1D success, b~ t 1n p rae tice many of tnem ere seen 1D

rely L.i.Jon tne statement of soo tnsayers, bear s1Dnes pres­

·~ribed by tnem and offer sacrifices to ana worsb1p ~d

and ~oddesses tor tLe Sl.i ccess in tnei r life. ~on s1.11 ta tion of

priests and astrologers at t1me of marriage or tne election

or for installing a new business, joining new assignment,

or so\V1n g seeds or nerves t1ng crop etc., are some of tne

282

glaring examples of con tradict1ons in tne life of n.ral.­

follt.

In case of illness many people, even educated ones,

in villages consult Wizarci and p.bysician at tne sane time.

In tne cases of some infectious aiseases like small pox,

cnolera, tuey teke medicines and \\!Orsilip ~dciess !Jurga

simwl tan eo~ sly. Moreover, mblly of the villagers may be seen

to a os tain from shaving an <i hal r- cu tt1ng on p art1c~la r days

in a week or during g1 trigakshe, avoid pur~nas1ng oil on

sa 'h.trd.ay or travels on disnaJL~· It is still a com won

practice anong the people in villages 1D drop their jou:mey

or postpone it at least foro w.:-.ile, if a cat cuts across

their pato or a person of Teli caste comes in front of tnem

'-lnile tuey oegin tne Joumey fmm tneir oomes.

2. A!§hDv1oLo raJ. c:bn tra<ii c tton

JA:adlle standards of behaviour are not very uncommon

for village people too. In some context people may be seen

1D benave in one way wail.e in other tney benave Just opposite.

~.aen tne n1gner castes people move from me villages 1D

c1 ttes tney s1 t wi ttl Chemars side by side wi mout any 1nn1-­

biU.on ena take meal -wi til tr.em on tne same table. ~ t when

tuey come oack to tne1 r vlll ages observe s tr1c t d1 stance w1 tn

tuem. fj1mllarl.y, 'Wllen one goes to see a groom ror lds

uaugilterJs marriage aecries aowry cma says tnat ne \'ion• t

pref'er to marry h1s dawghter to a pArson \HJO 1ns1sts on dowry •

.du t ·wnen somebody comes to settae marriage of Dis son, tne

same ;;>arson eJCpects a handsome amoun1Df' ctowry rrom tne party

- 283 -

ot bride. A nwmber of social legislatlons to prevent swan

~bee.l.tby pract1ces regarding marl:lage a1d divorce, p~t»D1b1-

tlon of dowey, eraCUcatlon of wn tD&AcnebUi ty etx:., neve

been passed by tne govemment recently and some ere s tlll

wnder toe process of t1naJ.isatlon. Yet we ere stlll tar

from OLlr go~s. Legislat1on, 1n tne view of Srinivas, in

itself is a SOL&rce of contrad1ctlon, as it was passed not

wi tb a view tD modem1zing toe soc1e ty bot t wi t&l a view 1D

giving a look of modern1&atlon w1 tnowt a serlo&.lS intent

(19701 14).

a. ¥\&).J!.lral, con treciic tlon

1 t is typical of 1ne people of lnd1e tnat toey wswally

oenave contrary to wnet tney tnink wi tbo&.lt tak1ng any cognizance

of it. In o tber words, people be.nave 41fferen tLy on difteren t

occasions b&.l t in a s1mUer si t...at1on. TDis inconsls tency

in tneir Ulinldng md bebav1oL&r nave ~most fomaed tne part

of tne1r life. What is lmportan t is tna t people do not pay

eny sel'1oL&s attention tD or experience any kind of strain ln

the cnmge of tbeir bBhav10Lll' at tbe two Cilstlnct occasions.

1 t is ma1nly beca'-lse con traciictlons are deep- mo ted in OLll'

soc1ety end Ulet Uley ere pert of owr social and c~ twrE\1.

pl'-lral1sm. ln41an c&.il ta..re con ta1ns bO tb types of Qlemen ts -

Olararcby and reJ.atl visn, simwl taneowsly. In p r1nc1ple

JUndLlism oel1eves in ect'-lali ty of all numat beings w.nen it

says, 0 .J,snawasxan JA§m .§&rvsm, .X.alldngAve jegatxam Jagetz:

- 284 -

(whatever is in tne cosmos, God Lives there), tAll tin act..al

life people practise &.lfttDt.&chebUity. Tne people uel.iev1ng in

t.&ntDt.&cbabUity opine tnat mere a fo&.lCil of c;bandal.e defiles

tne people wno can &>a p&.lrifieci only by tnrowing sacred water

on tileir body. In p 1'1nciple ti11uta.ism preaches "F.kg brepm£3

4W1tim nest\'1 (Qod 1s one) bLat in practice people worablp

tbDussnds of Gods and Uc»aclesses: inolwciing tneir fQnily

end vUlege sbrlnes. "lncUan tb1nkers, r• says Sr1nives

(l970a 14), "are able to accept ttle propit1atlon of a village

goddess wi tb buffalo sacrifice vtUle at tne same tlme assert.

ing that tne bignest folm of worsoip is otfer1ng a fl\iltor

nower 1o a sigle God, if not con templat1on on an attl'l~ te.

less Brahman. a

Tnere 1s e wide gap between wnat is 1n mind md wnat

is in ens tence. Ana it is not t.&Dcommn 1n a modemizing

society. A modemiz.lng soc1et7 incorporates elements of bo tb

modem1sm and tred1 tlonal1sm End 1 t, Uleretore, lnneres

more con tradlctlons. Accordlng to Srinivas, 11 ••• 1 t 1s

likely tnat tnere 1s more con tredic tlon 1n behaviour ln

devaloplng coamtries bec&Llse of tne pace or social cb.ange

end axtent of the break W1 tD tradl tion~ cwl ta..re. 1 tis

perhaps only a transient phenomenon, and tlle compa.ls1on

to be consistent might increase as tne modemizet1on process

getners momen ta.lm" ( l970a 14).

- 285 -

4. Stl\lcJMral._~ tasUctlgu_

At the ts.me of Independence the problems tbat called

o~r at~en t1on most \llere tlle ab"act poverty end grave inequ­

ality. A Dwmber of measures lik.a intmd~ct1on of lend

refo~tns, 1n1t1et1on of community development pmJects, eJP

tension of 1rrigat1on facilities, power swpply, cooperative

crecU t soci~t1es, etc. were adopted wi tb e vie,., tD moderni­

zing 1\lral economy so as to eradica• 1'\trel poverty, raise

income end s tadai"Cl of living of tne people ana red~ce tne

gep between the 11.ch Erld Ule poor ifl/\'Ulages. It is be,vond

do~bt tbat tllese measures yielded pos1 tt.ve r4SL&l ts, leading

tD increase 1n prodLAct1on, average per cap1 te income and

overall develo~en t of ~e villages. Despite tne fact, tlle . n.&ral poverty and 1ne<l\lali ty bave increased ratb~r tnan

lessened. Tne fee ts are very disappo1n ting indeed. In

1967-68, forty per cent (40%) of the !'kral. popL&lat1on was

below poverty 11ne, bl t after a decade ( 1977-78) tbis per­

centage ~Men t up tD nearly for"' eight per cent (47.65%).

This snows tbat du 1"1ng tne 1ast one decade about eight

per cent (8~) of the tD tal po~-.1a t1on was ~usahaci back tD

poverty. Tbe economic 1n e~ ali ty 1n our country iS su en that ten per cent ( 10~) people fi"'m tba below get only btlo

per cent ( l.d;£) of the 1D tal income, ""bile only one per cent

at tbe tDp grab nine per cent of tne to tal income. In o tner

vo Ms, sixty per cent (60;£) of pop&.&la ~on 1s ge tt1ng only

twenty one per cent (20.8/11) or tne lncowe, wne rees twenty

- -per cent (a>%) of the "'PP9r class people get f1f ty t&lree per

cent (53~) of the na t1on8l income (D1nm&n, Lee. 17-23, l97~a 10).

At l96o-61 prices per capite income in Ras~m ~ ttar

P radesb was mucb lover than that of tbe co"n try or tne state

as a whole. 1 t was lb"gbly 50 per cant of tlle co"n try• s 2

end tbat 60 per cent of tne state• a figure. ;<toreover, at

the CLlrrent market price it is foLlnd tl!at tne n.ral 1n<i1-3

gence 1s great(!)r Ulan tbat of tne cown try; and it 18 still.

greater 1n the case of villages under 8 1a.&dy. Moreover, when

we compare tbe figLl~S for tne t~ villages we find that

Ule percentage of population oelol:l tne povert)r line is rN b-

stant1Qlly less 1n the modernized village (VA) than tile 4

backWard vUlage (VJ). Tnat is to say tb.at a substant1~

increase 1n tbe level of modernization of a v1ll.age resLll. ts

1n a corresponding decl'8ase in tAe peroen tage of ilousebolds

livSng under indigence. 1M t wbUe percentage of llOLl&ebolds

living under 1n41gence reduces as vUlage gets more end more

modemized the lnequali ty 1n income of Ule i.lo&.lsebolcis, as

2. P a tsl JU; .!l ( l964a 147).

3. As per 1976-77 prices 1 t 1s foLlnd that 46% of tb9 CO&.ln try• s popLllatlon 11v(!) beJ.ow Ule .,overt)' 11ne. Tnspercen tage of the pover"' 8 trlcken psople 1n n. ral. area 1e 47.6S whereas 1n Ll rban area 1 t 1sonly 40. 71.

4. Bwral 1nd1gence bas been measured on Ule uesis of average per cep1 te monthly income of a llOusebold wi tb respect tD 1\.lpeee 61.80 or be1ow as p(!)r JIJ76-77 prices. Our data nave been co11ecteci Ci&.lring Sep 1t!m uer JS77 - !l'eb­n..ary l978 corresponding to mor~ or less tile sane price rates. WhUe on India level 47.6615 of' tbe rwral. popu­lation has been found tD live Delo-. the poverty line, corresponding flgw res f'or tb9 to.o vUlages, mooem1zed and bac&warcl, nave bePn womed to be o3.4% end 57.4% respects. ve1y.

- 207 -

we saw 1n the p racec:lin g chapter, in creases. The ave rage

per capita mon thl.y income in VA, tne :re1at1 vely mod Amized

village, is SLlbS tan ti~ly h1gh~r tban tbat of tne backward

v1ll age W side by side 1neq"'8li ty in the dis tritN t1on of 5

income is also h1gh in tne modemized village.

~recisely, our analyses reveals tnat modernization

fosters more uneq"'al distri"taAtion of inmme 1n tne r..ral

society. In o tner words modemizat1on leads 1D graa~r in­

eq"' ali ty 1n Ul9 ~ r~ s tr"'c tura. 1 t 1S in tact tile most

glaring con tradictlon tbe rural. s tl\lct..re p~Jects as it

"'nd~rgoes moc:lemizat1on. It tne two resLU. ts on wn1cn we

errivqc:i at 1n tne preceding cnap ters, tuat is, increase 1n

tne per capita income end ine«l\lall ty wi UA tne increase in the

level of modernization.~ are taken togetber, it may oe inferred

tnat tbe b9neti ts of tne development in tne villages goes

1n 1D the hands of e tev. Tne cepi talis t lencUords by Bll

means proti t wbile tne ED trapreneurs from anong tua middle

and the lower peesen ts ere likely 1D sell tneir l~d on

accown tor tne payment of long overd"'es of electric bUls

tor tn.eir pwnpseta. Due 1D tne fe\tlty procedl.lre of govem­

men t 1n respect of tne as seamen t or tne electric charges tor

agricwl ta.&ral cons"'mp t1on, and discrepancy 1n realisation of

tbe cilerges on concessional ra~ £10m thP conswngrs for tbe

&.tse or electricity for agri<:'-llt..rel. p ... r~oses, as we dis<:'-lssed

s. See preceding chapter.

- 288 -

1n tb.e preceding chap tar, Ule r1ch 1n t&le two villages a~

not gl0\ll1ng r1cter at tne1r own tl.lt tney are glOwing so et

the cost of tb.e poors. The big landlords, tue o,.n~rs of

commerciel farms and 1nd'-ls trial es ta bl1snnen ts 1n villages,

proprietors of 1'\.ral. C\Jmmerciel en terpr1ses, the midalemen

1n the trade of village-produce etc. aro day by day accu.m'-ll•

et1ng weal tb ~blle tne tred1 t1onal exp~rUi and art1.sens -

oil pressers, bleckSmi Uls and carp en tars, potters, snee!p­

&eepers, barbers, etc tJbo fail to mov~ along wi tn tne res~

gmw1ng changes are losing tne1r sec"' r~ earning a md are

forced 1D laboa.r and indigence by and large. Moreov~r, tne

m1cl<Ue and the poor peasants find 1 t ci1f'4'1cLll. t to p IOlong at

tne1r own and are graci'-lal.lJ ~ing redwced tc labour.

The rising poverty and deopen1ng income gaps are tne

malo r reasons for tre growing dis content end tension 1n

Villages. They largely breed pol1 tical violence and insta.

b111 ty. People by now bave become consc1ows, ed"'cated end

m.rare of tbe tb1ngs around tnem. Tbey em no more be held

~getner by b1rtb e1 tner 1n the name of vamt dnazme or

tbl'OLlgn preaching tne principles of Kama aod 8t:!!l.f\l'Jenm~

Vario"'s l.egal ena developmental. meas"'r~s have oeen adopted

m o bl1 tera te social dis ab111 t1es or tne 'IIIGake r sect1.crns

SLlC.b as "'omen ana ScnedwlGd c&s~s, end neap Llp the r1cbes

between ltlle rs.cn ana U:le poe.. r since lndep endenc e. Tte tra.

ditlonal Emblem o£ seeming 1neq'-talit.Y ana eJq»lo1tat1on 1n

soc1e ~. tbe raJas, the .\aga,rdars, tne z.sm_1n.cara E.tld tne

a~ -

neadman nave ueen completQl,v ,_ipeci o"' t rmm tne village

scene. Never~eless ine~ality ana eJg>loitet1on in soc1et,v

con t1nue unabated. Tnougn u,ey are less cn..ae ana ep~aren t

in nab..re. &at tne tonn of Ollplo1 tat1on tuat operates in

v1llag~s \'Ji tb tne capi teJ.is t landlo rcis at tt.e one end sna

ttle landless labourers at tne otner, is more fierce end

&01.& te tnen it ex1 s tea ever before.

T!le tbree major classes- CEpitalist lencUoru, peasant

61\d labourer, const1t...te toe egrar1en stn.o~re 1n the

present time. 'Dle first gene rally comprises bigner castes

p eo plo. I t in clw des very t ew people t rom anong tne middle

and tne 1o1111er castes wno nave accwmLaleted we~tll e.nd

power. Tue second gl'Owp cons1s ts ot tnree types of bouse­

bolas a firstLy, tne n1g.ller castes hoL6sehol4s, wno nave been

red"' ced tb small. land holders end pos seas lim1 ted reso&.lrces

of tnei r own, secondly, tile llo>L4senolds o.f tne cbm1n ant

middle cas tea wno generE\ll.y possess a sizeable emoun t of

lana of tbel'r own, ana tn1rcUy, better-placed househOlds

tzom amng tile non-dominant middle castes, art1sans and

tne lower castes. Tne lower castes by m a large fall wnder

tne tn1rd category, tbat is, labourers. i~art f~m tbem

quite a rew bousenolas of lol1er m1dcU.e castes anc:l artisans

castes also come under tnt a category.

Tne peasen ts ocwp;y en 1mporten t place snd .,>lay e s1g­

n1f1can t ~le 1n tne :1'\.6 ral soc1 el e tl'\tc tw re. T ney g1 ve r1se

tD tne g~,.tn of a new m1a<U.e c:lass 1n tns egrarlan etn.ct...re

- 290 -

of' the post Independence per1od. 1 t is me1nly tne upper

midc:tle castes (1n our case Abir) end some better off no ... seholds

of' tea midcil.e end tne lower mi<id~e ces t~s wno possess dominance

over this class. People frum tile n1gnAr EDd tbe lower castes

who fall wuser Ul1s class occwpy tbe second place. Tney f'lnd

tuat 1n al.l kind of pol1 t1c~ end o tbor moves, lal.tncneci 1n tne

nane of class tneir 1n ~rests ere oy atd large igno~d. DecBl.lse

of being dom1nen t 1n tne miaoJ.e class tne "~per iBiddl9 cas tea

people on one nand feU 1D give e~"'a1 s tl- b..s to tne lo•ar cas­

tes people ~no aspire for it by v1rb..e of' be1ng edwca tad end/

or economically independent. On tl!e o trler bend, tney are

eJ.so not prepared to recognize tne s~per1or s tab.&s of tne

Qigner ces t9s nousenolas wno feU tD find a place in tbe

~P per or the cap 1 tal. is t 1 ancilo rds class.

TUB ne\11 middle class generally dom1nat9d by tne upper

middle castas 1s graci~ally growing stronger in tll9 agrarim

strucb.tre as tne land fft)m tne n1gnsr and tbe lower cestns

1S passing to tnQn especially slnce lndependence. Tnis

new class afU!r accumulating s1gnif1centpo~er Eand strengtb.

tends to gain S)me kind of' domina tlon over tbe lo~er class

anci 9Xi,9l.Oit tbe1r servtcqs and for ~nicu tne latter is not

prep are d. Tne lo'»er class is m a1nly cc.mp r1seci of' lower

cas tea people and tney "n t11 recently bave b9 ~ doing tiJ.e

serv1ces or tbe lligner cas~s people, Toe "pper clcss,

as "We mow 1s cons1s ted of a few c~i tal is t and f'e~dal land­

ol'ds coming mostly from tbe bigner castes. lt restrains

- 291 -

admission of tb9 atfl~en t peasm ts especially from toe middle

and the lower castes.

Tne new midal.e class nas grown ~P as a con tln"o"s so" roe

of conniot 1n tn.e agral'1an social. s tl\ac ~r~. un tne one hand,

it iS ~aer conflict Wito the upper clesS/CJ•astes in ita

ettenpt to:eq"e.l. 1D or sul\)ess tilem 1n political end econo­

mic power. On Ule o tner hand the middle cl.ess by denlin&

&ql.&al treatnent tD tale lover cless,tcaetes end "'a1ng 1ts

pow~r and privileged pos1tlon 1D exploit tne services of

tnese weaker people, 1 t bas 1nv1 ted freq\Aen t cl&snes wi1ll tbe

lattar tnrougbo~ t tne nortn India.

Tno three classes com(,le~ tor political power as metsns

to attain social, aconoJdic end ech.acat1on al. p mgress. Tne

process of acqyis1 tlon of E)Ol1 tloal power md to11net1on of

power block 1s partly d qtJ3Jm1ned by tbe class and partLy by

tne casta elements. ln tne co~rse of moderniZation tha

sources of 1nber1 ~d 1nequ8l1 tl.es \ih9 tner of a social, poll­

tical or economic order are under ezos1on and access to

opporb.&n1tles have become poaGlbl.e for all tile people on

tbe basis of their speo1auzed knowledge and 1nd1V1d"'al

merit. Moreover, trs govemment•s policy ot protective

d1scrim1na t:lonjllelped people t mm tne lower echelon 1D occupy

h1gner posi tlons 1n society. 'l'nese meaS\.lres enabled the

people of the lo,.,er end Ule ).ower m1dcUe cas ws 10 acquire

power and pr1v1leges end raise tneir soc1a1 stab.as. '1'&19

ell te plays at 1mportan t role 1n mod~m1Zat1on. Tlley, as

- 29~ -

we nave already made clear, play a dual ~la in n. ral trans­

foi!DatSon. On economic issues Uley represent class cwn caste

interests, wb1le on ;,>olltlcal front, toey work for tne caste

cwn class 1n teres ts.

In fact, tnel9 1s a comple ts abSence of class consci-

ousness anong t&le people in Villages. S tr1ctl.y speaking,

till datil, economic classes 1n agrarian stn.c ~re ens t only

1n s taus tical end bypo tne tlcal tams. ln view of tne lack

of class consclo"'sness tne polltlcel (or tne power) e111s.

tsnd> tD raise caste sen Umen ts of tb9 village people. caste u

being an 1nSt1t\.at1on of masses helped tne n..ral elite sec..re

a SOLlnd political base in vUleges. Tbls 1s a na twral. OLl t.

come of poll tlcal. dEl'Jloc racy (or tne poll t1cs of nwn bar) 1n

a modemizlng society like o"' rs. Tne new power elite, say

for exEmple tb9 leaders of tns middle castes/classes, instead

of appmacb1ng tne lndivld"'als of Uleirown class mt 1"mm

cUffe1'9n t castes, say tor exanple, peasants of tale blgb.er

cas t3s, prefer to appeal tne people of lower class Ill t from

tneil' o'=ln castes, say labowrer of trs middle cas tas, tD .join

toanselves 1n tnelr s tr...ggle for po~er. Tt~us at poll tlcal.

level til9 caste elements ovel'-1\lle class factors. Tne middle

castes e11te succeed tcfisolate tnelr castemates from Ule

labo"rers. They aay tnalr men tnat tney ore eG\Aal.ly deprived

as the lower (or scnedLiled) castes labo"' re rs are, and 1n some

cases they are 1ess ed"ca1Pd end more poor than many of tne

scned"led cas tea people, yet tney a ra not en t1 ta.ed tD ttle

4:93 -

benefits t.Qe scoed.,.leci cas~s p00.>le neve b9an g1yqn. ~t

af' ter 8 tta1n1ng pOll tical pOS1 t10n8 ena eJOb91't tflA 10 80°1'9

talk for tlle b9nef1 t of tne1r cestesmen only to tile extent

tne t tn.e 1r o\llft interests are not ar rae t3a. Ina t 1s, uf te r

a certo1n 1evn1 tlle class 1ntor~sts cwt across tne ceato

interests. Soy for instance, tno m1ciale cas~s lil}eders fight

for t14}1r cesteamen for all s"'cn tn1nga 1 reservation 1n gov­

emment JobS, special pmv1s1ons for ed"'eeUonal f~llo~~tsn1.ps,

pr1or1ty ln granting a.stness l1cemees etc. wn1c:n ao not

naDD tnelr 1n teres t. u.. t tney neraly cxmcede tu a en ends •oicn

may danege tnelr own economic 1nteres ts. Teh.~ for eJu.uaple,

at ter reacn1ng e stage, f" rt"A9 r ce111ngS "~on lBl'\d may bring

also tne m1c:lale ct1s tes nctl poese:n ts &.4nder 1 ts fold. 1 n tact,

1t 1s from tnose people tnatmost ot me pol=ler elite of tne

~I~1d<Ue c1asa colllct. Tneretore, tbey Oi)pose pro..,osals 11£l9

t"rtner ceU1ngs over lend, cooporat1ve feZJDlng etc. th:)"gh

e large? n~-er of W91r own castes people \VilO ar~ poor end

-.:o rk1ng es l&b0"'1'0l'S may benof1 t o" tot ~ese.

L1iiew1se, tne &aguer cas tas po-wer e11 te s"cceed to w1n

s"pb)O rt of tb3 poor peasen t.s of me1r castes by a11enat1ng

tnest £1t>o» me1r close. Tnoy do so by Espt)eal1ng blem tnet 1n

adc1 t1on 1D tns losses tney 8"-t'forecs cl .. e tv tLS atx>l1 t1on of

~an1n4or1 and s" bse~~en t lana ret'o JZns at· t~r 1 nae~encien C9 tney

are going tD lo¢se tbe pos1 t1ons tney gained 1n sarv1ce and

bws1neas by v1r~~ of' tne1r.n~r1t -.1tu tue 1ncl.,.s1..:~n of' tne sor>

m1clGl e cas tea "'ncier tn9 told of r<iservet1on. T~s \lt9{ tna t

294 -

tne elan en ts lilta power of n ... mber, reinforcq cas~ es a basic

tcol for tne mobU1z.at1on ot the masses in tne present poli ti­

cal process. ln aacii tlon 1D t~ to uner tne policy of pro t'J:)c­

tlve discr1m1net1on tnat maltes provisions tor even well-oft

fanUifiS of ttl9 castes \liDO come L&naer its fold to benefit,

serve as maJor soL&rces of con tradict1on 1n tne poli t1c~ mo­

demiza t1on of people.

Modem1z.atlon leads tD greatar social end pol1 tical

a\llarenes s. ~ eople wbo are even at tne bOttom of tll9 system

nave become c.s~1ren t. a& t tna re is e wide gep bet\.leen tbe

level of aspiration end ue level of acnievenen t of th9 people.

'lh.e gap is more prono~nced 1n case of tbe lower class people.

Linder a d~ocrat1c social. iS t set "'P evan en Uli ~ra~ land­

less latx>L&rer eJCpects 1D nave as minimum a seowre eam1ng

end a degni ty ot life. Tb1s be comes tD know fmm eciL&cated

people of trl9 vUlage, city dWellers, mass media end leaciers

on eJ.ect1on ca:npa1gns, tbat a popL&lar govemmEil t is pledged

~ do for a com men man. 8.1 t when b9 b..ms n1s mind ~P tD

Ule ricb cep1 tal1S t landlords of his village living 1n mag.

n1f1cen t tlmgl.ows, or tl1S P"' blic leaders, ott· ice rs end tLls~

nessmen leading decent lite, all tn9 a reams be cner1snec1 are

broken. Jie tincis n1mse1f more b.elpless, deprived, a;aplo1teci 1

end negleo ted tnan ever betorq. lie s tarvE?s 1llln.1J.e o tilers

pi'Osper. 1 t is tl'\le tba t pAOple no more come to c~l b1m

for b9gar, tbreatan 1D dispossess b1m of Dis uol.lse or lena,

or claSm tD 1\lle him, ta. t toe ciep r1 va t1on and ex..olo1 ta t1on

- 295 -ne ewtrers is no less tnan ever oeror"". .t1~ est>ires tor

eqwality and dignity wt ge~ Clegradetion, 1neq\.lality anCl

1nc:l1g~ce. The accwnule~d feelings or con t1nLteCl dea>riva..

tlon and hQlplessness on tne part of a large nwnber of nave­

no tB, wno Clo not have eny source of in come tnan 1D W) lk for

o tbors, ere likely 1D solidity tne con tradic tlon be tween tne

pol.i tlc&l eqw8li ty at one end and tbe economic indigence,

social degraClbtion at tile otl19r. Tnese contradict1ons if

continue 1D prec1pit1ze into the sys~m for a long Ume may

exert tne emowntof presSLtre wnicb in tum may lead to tne

break.dow of the liberal democratic model Ltnless some re..

medi~ meas\Ares to ameliorate the condi t1ons of tne poor

anCl CNrb tne gap be t\-Jeen them end tne rich is not v.o rkeci

01.1 t earliest.

Rrac11cat1on of poverty and redwotlon or ineq'-l~ity

are tne minimum basic po1n ts 1D oe acniaved in or4er 1D bold

tne people 1Dgetner 1D p rog res a tnei r ~ds tbro-..gh peacefwl.

c:1emoarat1c measures as put fol"dard by tne drafted Const1b.&­

t1on. a.R. AmbQCikar, tne pioneer of ~e Const11Mt1on while

commenting on tne pmblen of eqwalit.Y and social Jwst1ce

rigntl.y feared for swcn a disturbing sib..atlon in society.

"vn 26 J anwar.Y l900A, says Am beaker ((two ted in lyer 1976:

65), "~e are going to Em ter in to e life of con tredic t1ons.

ln poli tt.cs we Will ,.ave eqwali ty and in social and economic

1Ue ...,e '-'Ul nave in-eqwal.ity ••• we mwst remove tile

- 296 -

contradiction at tbe eal'l.1ast moment or else wbo SL&a'er t"mm

ineqL&al1 ty, wUl blow up tne s tl\lc tLlre o£ poll t1c8l danocracJ'

which tn1s Assembly has so laClOur1owsly bwil t up."

The poll tical end so clal crlsls ln tne recent past ln

Uttar Pradesh and Bihar renects Ule upr1s1ng of tne miclal9

castes end tnelr cont"ron tatlon w1 Ul tb9 lower and tb9 blgher

cas tas. A maJor reason beblnd tilese dis bArbmces ls tbe non­

inclusion ot" tbe ef't1uen t 9!i ta or tDe lower end tbe mic:Ulle

cas tss 1n tD tne ntgner cl.ess dominated bJ' tb9 b1gber castes

people. Even tAe poor and tbe low ed"ce tsd people ot" tne

b1 gner cas tas 11scrlm1na te agalns t Ule lo..,er md the middle

castes ell te and assign tbem en 1nfer1or pos1 tlon for the

middle and tne lolll91' casws people oc<:l.lpJ' a low place 1n

r1 tkEa statl.ls as compazed iD US nigher castes people. Bece­

L&se ot non-pemeabl.e, caste-based 1'1g1d stl\lo~re ot" soc1ef¥,

tbe clrc\llatlonpt" ell bt instead o£ oelng easy md smoo Ul

1s obstl\,lotecJ. The obstl'\lctlon Ule caste based stl\Actl.lre

imposes upon the clrC&.Alatt..on or eli ta 1n a modemislng so­

ciety helps polarization ot cas~s ln to poll tlcs. Wb&n a

lower or a middle castes ell te is denied on rl ~Ea or eny

o tner basis tne blgilar sta~s ne deserves by v1r~e o£ bls

aaen ton tne se®lar matters s"'cb es edL&cet1on, eemlng,

Aigner poll tical or au•ea.oratlc office etc., be is vei'J'

likel)' to organise b1s caste end kinsmen tD figb t t"or 6

ecb1ev1ng tlle sEme. Tne deniEU. of tbe place a man deserves

G. Tn.ere vas a gzeet l\41Dour in tbe td.gUJr castes circle tnat an 1n tei1Dediate oeste leader disclosed 1n en

con t4. ••

- 297 -

ln th~ social stl\act».Are end for whlcb constlta..tlon also makes

a gueran tee, ls a most seeming con tracilctlon tbro&.lgbo&.a t !'kral.

Ind1a. Tluls, unless 1be r1 b.tal compertmen tal.llzatlon of tile

social stn.c~re ls ful.ly replecod by tne secular dlvlslon,

or th9 foltller gives an easy access m the e11 te coming fmm

tae low rll\lal beckglt)und fs1loul4, ~_!_e/Qlweys be stress Llpon

the system fl'Om the stde of tbe en try seekers of wblc:b tan­

alone and conflicts woLll.d be tlle na~ral ou tc:ome.

one ot tbe maJor reasons for the in tsnsificatl.on or

connict 1n tbe egral'len structl.tre ts tbat bOtn tbe losers

ana the galners develop ttle feeling tna t ln~LlS tlce 18 being

done 1D tban 1n the system. Bence, botb of tbem barbour

cUscon tent egalns t the system. The losers, generally tlle

con t.d ••• election meeting leraely attended by m.s cestemetes dul'lng tbe Jenete l\ll8y that by tale tlme we beld power 1n tale a tate and tb9 C$ntre, we Vlll be able 1D recl\41 t a slan1-t1can t number of o\lr ow men at blgber posts 1n pollee end admlnletratlon w1 tb Ule result tbat tbe blgber castrts peo­ple will be adduced ~ marry tbelr cle.ugb1J!trs w1 tb our 1'1a1ng )'OU"&men. Whatever may be tile tl\l tb l:A1 t 1 t ref'l.ects tbe a&Jlratlons of Ule 1'1s1ng middle oas1Ps ell ta , bolcllng blgber secLal.ar post ttons for acquirlns tne corresponding post t1ons on r1 tl4al-socll:d plene. It zetlects tnelr res en tnen t as well as splri t to eoble ve wlla t they des1 red by making the higher cas tee, vbo b1 tner 1D bad been denying tb.el~ cl.eJm, bel.plese by consol1da tlng tn.etr o~ post t.1on ln pol1 t1cs md power. 'lhe conscious etten tlon p&14 to such 1\dDOLll'S . b;}-, the nigher oasUts people rei'lecta tbelr fear and also tnetr feelings 11> organize tb.9msel ves to tbrow O'A t tb.e m1&11e castes from power lf' 1bey bien t to prevent tb9 forceful penetratlon of these castes end secure tbe1r Sl.lperio':l"-1 V• As a metter o~ !"act, no serious atten111>n b.as bee pa1d and conscloa.ls efforts have been made et tner from toe govel'nment or f'rom tb9 soc:lal. work agencies to weaken 1'1 ~81. atd oeste constderat1ons in order 1D strengtnen se­®l.er clenocratl o f'o rces.

- 298 -

higher castes people, work o" t all means and 111&ys 1D regain

Ulelr sta~s and dominance but fail to acb1eve tbe seme at

least Sn praotlce. The gainers, gGDer~y the ml&Sle aui Ule

lower cas Uts people, vo r& bard wl tb 1nsp11'atlon at tne ga1n1ng

end. a& t s tlll tney a.nd tbat tnslr posl tlon is loqely wt•

cb.Bnged. Tta~s people at to tb tne ends inhere tn.s tret1ons

and a feeling of dlsccn ~ t again& t tbe system wb1ch generate

ten slon 1n i t.

A.l tbougA, 1 t 1s tba esc1'19 tlve 1'1ltuel. sta~s tnat

p reClomlnen tay de tennlnes 1nCU.v1duel. • s s te ta..& ln ~ rt. ral

setting, yet tnera ere positive lnd1cat1ons, bovever taln tlley

may be, tbat tae exlstentlal conditions ere likely 1D ovel'­

COU18 r1 ~al hindrances. TnosA RaJpu ts wbo nave made al access

ln to wsiness seem tD nave more links w1 tb ~slnessmen tl1&n

their own cestemates ln tile v1llages. TllSy take m&.Acn 1n te­

rest 1n cilscus&1ng V1 tb tile b\.lslnessmen tb9 merke t rates and

5ovemmen t policy ot taxation ln relation 1D octml ma sales

ta~ Slm1larly, lncreaslng ln tel'ac t1ons at E\lmos t eq"'~

plene may ce seen aoong some Dlcner caa tes bousebolcts occu­

pylDg economically low place and lower cestsa bouset»l.ds

occupying relatively blgller place: 1n tne1r l'e&pect1v.e

castes es a necees1 t)r of tb.e changing ccncii t1ons of life.

A case fmm VJ m ey be taken as en e zanpJ.e. ~ RaJpu t couse­

bold at times o£ need race1ves loan end belp £10m a Cw:mar

llo~sebol4; ln reb.lm tbe latter ls given backing enci

- 299-

support fzom the fol!Der. Tne head of tbls RaJpu t bowsebold

and tds gro\TID \lp elcles t son are so very pobierft.ll tbat tbt!y

can beat en,one at any time ln tale vlUage wbetner ne 1s a

clJWD beater or tne village eradbsn• I:b tb the bousetJolds have

one pail' of b\allocks eeob. They t111 their lend Jointly as

per th~lr tL&m ana aol'k. at eacb otners t"1e~d on cooperative

basis. They take meal at each otner• s leuse end use each

o tiler• s u tensUs private~y. Once a member t'~m the Cnamar

b)usenold gave bis bag tD a member or tbe Tbalwr '4Qusenol4

to carry 1D bls bouse as be vas tD make a nigbt bal. t at

one of bSs relatives bouse 11vlng beside tb9 M emaJp"r

market. Such cases ot extre..caste aooperat1on espec1all.Y

b9twem a Ra3pu t, tbe powerfUl ers tvblle 1\U.ing caste, md

a Cbemar, a week, labour caste, ere tbougb s trenge and rare

,at real mel lmportan t e~ec1aUy from tne point of tAe

emerging social atft&ota.&re 1n the villages. Moreover, the

Tbalwrs 1n VtJ who mortaged a part of tneir lands tJ:» Non1ya,

Lobar and even Chaoers ver~ compelled by their de1ar1oratS.ng

economic cond1 tlons to do so. FUr tnei\Ilore, a gradual decline

1D tne connubial end commensal res tl'lo tlons end 1noreos1ng

openness ot" castJ~s, as ve obServed 1n tbe preceding cbsp ter,

is llk9l.Y to streng tb9n extra cas tl9 economic end social

cooperatt.on et eq\lal p~ane ln tne long nm. Swcb trends

nave also beEn observed ln o tner par ta o t the s tate. &lko bo

(l979a 310) in his sb.ld7 of a..ra1'1, a village 1n \-.esU!m

- 300 -

Uttar Pradesh, evidenced that class 1cien U t7 1s beg1nn1ng m out ecmss caste gft>ups and communities a Se1y1d (blg land­

lords and erstwb.Ue Zem1ndars- dominant casta 1n tbe vill­

age) landless wol'ker bas more atr1n1 v 1D e landless cnanar

tban bls caste fellowmen Who have landed 1D terest. 1 t may

ttten be interred Ula t modem1zets.on leeds tD the cond1 ttons

L&nder which the poor anons 1be 01gbar cas tss are likely tD

be EU.ienatad in tne1r day 1D dey economic end social llttsr­

aourse from Ule rieh and resourceful people of their caste

and come o~ser 1D tbeir economic pears fJ":;fll ces tes lower

tD tb91 r own.

One may trace modernizing trends 1n lndlanjpeasan t

economy per11y 1n agreement w1 tll Lenin • s ( 19561 1972-89)

cnarac terlzation of the then Russi en peasant economy as

commod1 t;y economy. "ll easan ts are no more lndepden t l.lDi ts.

Tney are subor41nated b:> market for both consumption as

weu as msbendry. ~onsequen tly, 1 t bears con trad1 ttons

like oompetl tlon, struggle for economic independence, sna..

toh1ng up of lend (purchasable ead rentable), cone en tratlon

of p mduo t1on 1n tne bands of e mino r1 tq, the to rclng ot tb9

maJority 1nto tile ranks of tne proletariat, their e:xplo1ta­

t1on by a mlno r1 tq tbro&.~&tl Ule .ned1wn of me ronan t oe;1 tal

end tbe h1r1ng or tem wolkers wb1cb are 1nneren t in every

COIDmodl ty economy md cep1 ~1st sys tam. Tno s wo tD tal ot

all tnese economic con trad1ct1ons res"l ts in 1o disin tegra-

- 801 -

tlon of peasantry that is, tne old patl"1al'Cbal (or patroDage

type) t,pe of peesan try is dissolved and new ~es of l\lral

lnhabi tan ts, tile charea tJ3rs tlc:s of comJlodi tq economy Ebd

cepitallst production, viz. 1\lral. ~"'rgeoisis (c:Aieny petty

bourgeolsls) end Ule l\lral pl'Oletariet, a oless of coma4ciit7

producers end a class of egl"iCLLl t»ral wage eamers are

created.n

Al. tbougn, as we cU.sc~ssed, tb9 re ls a v1s1 bl. ~ trend

tlla t tne middle and tne petty peas en ts cl.ssses &re uaing pau­

per1secS and tale wpper middle class ls in con t1nuows effort

1D penetrate into the class of tbe c~ital.lst lancilor4s by

·1ftcl'8as1ns 1 ts size of land end ex~nding 1 ts bold ovor tbe

means of 1rr1gatt.on, equipmen ts end locel. commerce end indus­

try. a. t tnere ls certainly no pos1 tlve evidence or visible

trend ot cUfferen tiatlon of tbe lnd1m peasantry 1ft to b£o

polar opposl tes at least at the pres-. t level of moc1em1za.

tion. 1 t is mainly because 1n peculiar lndlaa e1 tuatlon

ttle castes a1d other r11ual e].emen ts ciomlneta over Ule

class conscloL&sness. Tne caste system impedes poler1zatlon

of messes in" two distinct md mu tA.aUy an togon1s tic ol&.

sees ;;.;.s it binders en trance of lower and middle cas tea ell te

tD join the up per cas tete elite to g1 ve r1 se ~ a &in gl.e

upper class. Likewise, 1t also p 19ven ts tne m144~e end Ule

smell. pees ants t'I'Om Ule upper atd m14cile cas tss woo ere

almost r~dL&ceci tD p::uper tD W11te w1tb tbe laaoorera of tl19

low castes 1D t1ght ega1ns t 1neqwal1 ty and explo1 tat1on.

- 301

It is because or tne complex interplay or t.c£e social ana econo­

mic rectors in typical India'l n.rel sita..at1on tl•at ~iva rise

to a pecwlier combination of social and economic contrac11ct1ons;

\IIi tb tbe reS\ll t tbat con£lic ts more rr~m Uy occwr oe~een

tae miciclle castes class mcS tne lo111er casteS/class instead

or between tbe "pper and tne lower cas tee/classes tna t mign t

nave led towards tne possibility or a soc1elis t cnange in tne

co-..n tryside of tne ld.nd as Lenin ( l973a 5) pw ts 1n "of going

over tmm small, ina ... s trial. .forms to e large scale social

p rodwc t:lon artar tne overtnrow of tne bDwl'tleoisie and tue

ta11.e over by tbe wo rk1ng people."

To s"'m "'P• we find tbat tne modemizet1on of village

s tl\.o c tw re res"'l ts 1n to tbe Emergence or a tri cbo tomoLl s

stn.o~re comprised of El small gm"'p of baves- tue cep1U.

list landlo rcis possessing rela tlvely blg Si:lte or lbndboldings

and owning necessary reso"rces, ata.ndence of ncnes md

generally a blgt\er r1ta..al sta1ks, ead a large gro..ap of neve­

no ts living "neler grave indigence, and a gmwing middle Class

of peesen ta. 'lbe growing dlsaElt:lsf'act:lon ana dlscon tent

among tbe poor (i rresp ec t1 ve of tue caste) woo se nwm ber 1&

ciey by day increasing mel condi tlons deteriorating at one

Grad wblle at tne otner tne eccumwlatlon o1' weal. tn in tne

t.bi\Cis of -a p 1'1v1lsged rew, ere llttely tQ in tensity con tredlc t­

iona in tne social stl\lctwre. ltmay eitnerl~ad tile systen

1D col.l. apse or f ac111 tate a aemoc rEI t1 o comp 10m1 se g1 v1ng

- 303 -

tne lower c~ess people releUvQJ.y more soa1Ed and economic

freedom and gq-.al.i ty. Ano tber possibi~i ty may be v1s~fdi2.ed

as a tne grow tb of e ml dd.l e Cl. ass ln tne n. ra.l s t~c t.. re w11~

patcb-up ~d c..rb tne 1"1s1ng gap bebleen tb.e rlcn a1d tile poor.

Tm.s tile gn>wtn of m1cldle class helps seve tile systan fmm

break. down by evoldlng clasn between tne two extrane classes -

toe rlcb md the poor. &. t as we pointed o-. t earlier that

ln peel&ll ar lncUan s1 ~atlon tbe caste and tne class in teres u are so in trlcately ln tartJifined tna t no single crl terlon, be

tna t caste or cl.aas, workS alone tx;) determine lndl v1d~~ • s

statA.s ln society. Tbe two mL&b.ally antogonist1c criterle,

r1 t..al. end secular,o~erate slc:ie by side, wi tb tne r1 tual. 8S

tne domln61l t mode for determ1ning 1ncUv1ch.al' a stat¥& in l'\6ral

society. 'lbe fozmer, being 1'1g1d in no b.&re, tends to compert­

men tallze end nence preven ta easy passage of indl vld-.&ls fJX)m

one sta~s to o tner. Twa ln tne 1n1 tlal. pnaae of modemlza.

t1on wnere tne r1 ~~ c 11 ter1on 1s not 1\llly replacecl by tb.e

secular.o tne system 1s likely ~ bear heavy strains, wilicn

may culminate in caste cwm class confllc ta. aecalse of com­

partmental1setlon of tne stNcture on rit..el beals tbe

middle class 1a likely to prevent no~tnal transmission or 1nd1 v1d~al.s at bo til tne en cis. Tm.&s instead of ec t1ng aa e

brlage tor Uut two e.xtrane ends tne middle c~ass is likely

tD b.rn o-. t tx;) be a pezmenen t source of connlct for toe

o tner bro. Tne barriers demercated by tbe caste act as

30-4 -

maJor setbacks £or tne movQDento£ elite £rom botb tbs aides.

Tnws tnG lower class elite Vllile tend 1b seek an en try 1n 1D

tile next b.igner (i.e. middle) class come into connictw1Ul

Ule met~ bers ot tbet class. Similarly, tile e11 te of tne middle

class are prevented from en ter1ng in tu tne Ltpper ol ass qy tne

mElnbers of tbat class on r1~al basis.

Tn1s 1s one of the maJor reasons tbat tbe conflict

between tne t.lo polar opposites ( tnat 1s, the '-l,>:.)er md tbe

lower extremes) tile ricn naves and tile ind1gen t beveno ts,

wnicb sboLlldnave been more fierce and fLmdanen tal is at tale

present mom Ell t tart1ery end ttlat tile connie t be tween tbe

w1dale cas test class, md tne lo-wer cas tes.tclass 1s more p m­

w1nen t, w1 tb tbe connie ts bet\.leen tbe midcile snd tne upper

castes/Classes as seconaary. Tla.ls it is tbe .noblle elite,

generally from a:nong tbe middle end the lower cas tes.tclasses

wno ere not given passage tD tne next bigner class vn1cn 1n

fact tney deserve by v1rta.Ae of tu~ir aonieva:all.n ts on sec .. lar

g~und carry tbe seeds of contl1c t and 1n tlim el!l)lo1 t caste

sen t1men ts to give rise _, Cbst9 cum class oonfl1c t 1n soe1et.y

e t tbe p rea en t moment.

The 1\lral soc1e ty is moving towards grea~r income

di£fe1'9nt1atlon mel tt~a eff'orts 1D create an egal.1tar1en

s tn.c tLtre seems to nave failed. Tne con tradJctton as ragerds

tb9 rising gap b9tween tb~ arnwen t ncb and til~ 1nd1gen t

poor is dey by day gathering momenbml. It tne systJ:lm tail

30/i -

to resolve this contrad1ct1on, 1t 18 l11tely _, generetA tne

forces wbicb may weaken tbe ens tlng cianocrat1c model and

lead tD tne energence of a new .nodal of :nodem1zat1on. A

model dewted tD soc1al1sm, V1dens 1neqwa.l1tcy, strqntben

differences oa tne b8s1s of u1rtb md ~ru for tne benefit

of prlvllegeci tew, leaving tne masses 1n to extreme poverty,

ceases tD exist aty longer b9ca.se of 1 ts sel.t creatso

wei gn t of con trad1 c t1on a.

SLQ\>1 PAC~ PF f(,Ll TlCJZA!liON a we saw ir. cnep tsr four tbe t

1nd1vidual modArnisr.n,sAcwlartsm and poll t1c1sm are pos1-

t1 valy correlated w1 tb one eno tue r. 1 t Smpl1es tna t on

1ndivid"'al wbo 1s modern.Ued ls l1&ely tD ce secwler1Zed

end pol1t1c1zed too. Trl! latter two, tnat 1s seculal'ism

and poli tl cism 1 rap resSl t tbe aapec Ui of 1nci1v1dw~ • s per­

son~1 ty- a ttl b.lde, orlen tetlon end behavio ... ral responses~

related fD MJ.1g1on ~d poli tlca respectl. vel.y. Tney are 1n

tact parts of modernism, wb1cn broadly represents a rat1onfd

att1 tude E!ld bebav1ou r anong tbe 1ndiv1ciuels towards envl­

ronmen t, material or non-material.

A tt1 tudin a1. md ins t1. tu t1on a.l mode m1za tton represent

two related espec~ of the sane process. Trs d1fferen tlal

rate of grolitb b9tween individual modernization (or moder­

nism) and its components, aecwlar1sm ma pol1 tlcism indi­

cates 1ncons1st!tnc¥ 1n t.Q.I) a~ve c.spects of 1nd1v1dwals

ett1.b.Lde end b9b.ev1o~.tr. It also reflects discretpencJ1n

tne p ece of modem 1ze t1on as regard~ tbe relt tee ins tl-

-~tlons viz. social, religious end t)Ol1t1cal. If ther~ 1s

a S\ibstan tial d1£ference ln the 1eva1s of Jlodem1an, se­

~lansm em pol1t1c1sm of tne 1nd1v1dwals then correspon­

ding cUsorepancles ln toe modem1zat1on of social., religious

and poll ti..:.Ea ins tl b. t1ons are not n.leo out. 0" r ana1ys1 s

subs tsn t1a tes tne t tne b)GOple are far less poll t1 c1zed

tnan tne,y are modernized and saculsr1zecs (see cnat>ter four).

Tt1e C11ffqren ttal ratlls of individual moc:iem1z.at1on, secula.

r1zat1on arel poll t1c1z.otion proJ~at tne 1moalenced gmwtb

of soc1al s tructnre. J\ demooret1c IDI)del tends tv aobieve

moderniZation tnmugb pol1ticizat1on and sec"leri.z.atlon of

people. A r~.latlvely slower .,ace of poll t1c1zat1on '!r.il tne­

sses contradic t\ons ln tbe a tructwre "'ndergo1ng modern1-

zaUon 1 change.

Pol1 t1c1Zat1on cons t1 t1.& tes an 1m;>ortm t part of

mod~m1zet1on. \.\batever goals a society Sl!ts outfor its

moderniz.atlon ao:ne moael is d4s1gned and metbods c.re wo~

&ed out tQ ach19ve tnese goals. ~nue designing a model

it 1s impo rten t to taK.e ln to conslderatlon 1ba t wblcb eec­

tlon of society has to leed the changes r:.nd wblcb o tilers

b) carry out encl follot4. In all tnese metters pol1 tical

lno t1 tu t1ons neve tD pl ey e domin en t role especially 1n

tbe modem t1me. ln a l1baral dewocra tlc f'ranewon th9

strengtuening of civU 1rst1tl...t1o!'ls t."'nd polit1c1zet1on of

the general masses E\re ~ e!'>sen t1e..1 tea1A.res of modem1-

zet1on. For e nat:1.on wt.ich sel~cts a9dlo..:rot1c ~od~l to

- 301

reach its goal - modArnizat1on, has no meaning if tne general.

masses are not acleq"'aUtly poll tlc1Zed. lnedequote politlc1-

zatlon of people leads to ser1o"'s confusions regarding tne

ends and tbe means. Tnis gives rise to violence and d1s­

ol'Cier in tne system. As .Black (l366a 29) points o ... t tbat

•In a reasonably well in-tegrated society inst1t..t1ons ~11t

etrect1vely, people are in general agreanen t as b ends

end means, and violence end disorder are kept at a low

level. When signitican t end repid cnanges are in troauced,

bo111ever, no two elanenta of a society ad99t tne.nselves at

tne sane rata and tne disorder become so complete Ulet

w1d~sp read violence breakS o"' t, large nwn ber of people

emigrate, ancl normal &ovemment becomes impossible - &11

ot wnicb bas happened fre c.uen tly 1n mod ern societies."

Tne new mass-baaed 1nstltut1ons- pa!cbayet a'ld co­

operatives and schools are yet to stabilize and get bold of

people in the villages. lJnless 1t is not done modernlza.

tlon will lack tne support of masses, m d nen ce fail 1D reacil

tbe goals. As long as mo demlz e t1on is a iDol in tne

nands of a privileged rev, directed from tbe top in tne

govqmment, 1 twill bmet1 t only a fe'W who control reso'-lrces

and snare power at tne cost of &11 o tiu~rs wno lack tnese

tnings. Non-strengthening of tne democratic peoples-1nst1-

t..t1ons 1D get bold of power at var1o"'s levels is one of

tbe maJor reasons oebind tne 1m Oel.mced grow tn, tuat is,

111eQltn is acaum&.ll.ated in nands o.f .few ana tue maJority is

- 30i -

red~ced tD being p&Llpers. unless representatives of ~e

masses and not of tne privileged fe\Jj on ~!A top get nold

of tue pot.~er End con tml tJle ne~~~~ly in tn>ci~.Aceci ins t1 t~ t1ons

at 81.1 lavels- pleru.ing, implemen tatlon end govemance,

moaemizetlon csn not be a people's programme involving

mass part1oipat1on. Instead, 1 tWill oe moaem1zet1on of

mociemized leaving tne masses wnder poverty end oac!Oiardness.

Retomat1ve meas~res inst11M tea after lna~endence

aimed at solving problems of' economic ineqwali ty, poverty

and stagnation. ~ t tbey felled to cner1sn tllese ~fjls.

I t did res..U. t in on eng es in the compo s1 t1onjof' eli tn at

national and state l~vels w t tue cneng~s in tbA t-~ower

s tl\lo b.A re f.l'la social s tret1f'1..;a t1on espec1 ally at village

lev~ a~ remote. TtJ.e old system of stret1f'1catlon and

power stn.act...r~ 1n toe villages nes not wndergone any

radical change. Novertneless, gm1r1 tb of' tne ne,., elite

ei tbe r t rom anong the lineage growp of tredi t1on aJ. power

holders or o"' tside, is consistent wi tn us pzucess of'

poli t1ccl mod~mizetlon.

Poli t1oism, as 8lrpla1neci eal'lier in chap U9r f'cn.r is

measw red on e tb1 rt.een poin ta scale based ~.Apon tM i tsms

tbet sbow 1nd1via~al' s interest, end degree of part1c1pa­

t1on 1n politics. 'wnet call o"r attention most 1s we

f'ec t tna t Q.w1 te a sign 1f'1cen t n"'m ~ r of' people ed~ ca ted

and serving in responsible pos1 tiona incl.wd1ng some

engaged 1n ta.s1ness sbowed no or less 1n ta r9s t 1n pol1 t1c:s.

309 -

Some of toem did not even vote at some of tne previous

elections. Bitc"er tbey cUd not bOt~Br to see tnemselves

regis tel'8o as vo tars et places tbey served or tll9y did not

go for vo tlng. ~uen asked one of U.ern replied tllPt politics

as lt bas been operating 1n our country for tne lest one

decaae ep~eared to be a gane ln tb9 bends of tbird ratsrs.

•Being a govemment servan"', ne said, n1 an not Supposed

1D take pert 1n poll tlcs except lis tsning tne speecnes of

tbe leaders and vo t1ng. 1 do not find any leader vo rtny

of 11 s tening 1D. 1 do not vote es 1 kno'~ ~ t my w te

alone 1s not going to cnange tne mekP. ~P of tbe national

tlOli tics or tate ot tue ~eople ~ t large.• Ano ter sttid,

"1 lost all te.i tb in elecb)ral poll t1 cs." Decline in ttle

overall p arc(J'I tage of vo tlng at tne mid tl!ftl p al'l.ianen t

poll ( ~79) or tUectlons of dissolved assemblies ( 1980)

end appeeJ.s from the vari~s 1eamed comers tor tb.e boy­

cott of vo tinth menifee t people's res at tnen t over dirty

poll tics of tbe seltisb and an b1 tlous tbird grade poli­

ticians and tneir uncb& ri table axarap and gararan cbarac ter.

It sbovs alienation of people 1nclwding, as said abOve,

m l~o rten t sectlvn of ed"'cb ted 'Working class p90ple

holding blgb P'-bllc offices, from tne gen~r&l strean of

Ule pol1 tict\1. p roc ass.

\-Je knOW tbat a p90ple model CEll no longer f'-lnCtion

ef'fec tlv~ly by e~1~ati.ng tne !;)90p~e et ~erge. And Sl.so

- 30()

a people government can no longer rena1n in power

by losing confidence anci active swpport of tne paople. Tne

poll tics of cas tJJ, creed end region a.l1 sm seems tD bave

teileci tx> solve people's problems. lf ciisset1stact1on

anong tne people to r 1 and aliena t1on of tne general messes

from tte e}.e c tz,raJ. politics con t1nwed to prevail tor long,

tn.e present ciElnocrat1c model 1dill. LAlt1me:tsly collapse

paving patb to a ne-w model Which retlecUJ tile !llbpes end

aspiratlon of tJl.a messes.