COMMUNITY GOVERNMENT

Counties

Administrative divisions of the state, created by state law

Known as parishes in Louisiana and boroughs in Alaska (not all areas of Alaska are organized political units)

Virginia has independent cities in addition to counties

In New England, the county is a judicial circuit and government functions are performed at the city, town or township level

Counties

Generally provide the following functions: Keep public records Assess and levy property taxes Maintain local roads Administer local elections Sheriff provides local law enforcement Maintain criminal court and jail Administer state welfare programs

Structures of County Government

All counties have elected councils or commissions (this occurs at the township level in some states)

Council or commission may exercise both legislative and executive functions.

Some also have a separately elected or appointed executive

Counties are more likely to elect council members in partisan elections, while cities are more likely to use nonpartisan

Counties in South Carolina

Under the Lords Proprietors (founders of the Province of Carolina), the Episcopal Church was the official church and the church parishes were used as organizing units of government.

Counties were established in 1785 as judicial districts, and the name “county” was returned by the Constitution of 1868.

There are now 46 counties in SC

Legislative Control of SC County Government

County legislative delegation – the members of the General Assembly who represent a particular county

Traditionally, one senator per county (total of 46) and a number of representatives based on population (total of 124)

Prior to 1975, the county delegation, led by the senator, was the governing authority for the county, and the county’s governmental functions were funded by a “supply bill” authored by the delegation and passed by the General Assembly each year

Legislative Control of SC County Government

Change to single-member districts which no longer conform to county lines (one senator per county violates equal population standards)

The legislative delegation system is still used, but it may include people who represent part of a county but don’t actually live there, e.g., Rep. Greg Delleney of Chester represents a district which includes southeastern York County and so he is a member of the YC legislative delegation even though non-resident

Home Rule and SC County Government

Article VIII of state Constitution (1973) Local Government Act of 1975

Provides for structures of county government County power to enact three types of

taxes established in 1996 Temporary local-option one-cent sales tax to

pay for capital projects (York County Pennies for Progress)

Accommodations tax for tourism-related projects

Hospitality tax (restaurant meals) for tourism purposes

Types of County Government in SC

County commission (ruled unconstitutional in 1975) Each county has an elected council ranging from 2 to 12

members Council (used in 7 counties)

Council has both legislative and executive power Council-supervisor (5)

Supervisor elected countywide, is chair of the council and chief administrative officer of the county

Council-administrator (32) Council-manager (2)

In both of these, the council hires/fires a professional to perform the executive functions of the county

In the manager form, the county auditor and treasurer may be appointed rather than elected; otherwise, council-administrator and council-manager are identical

Structures of County Government

Other elected county officials (in SC or elsewhere) may include Sheriff Attorney Judge (Family Court, Probate Court, etc.) Clerk of Court Coroner Treasurer Auditor Assessor

Cities

Granted a charter by the state to provide certain services to a defined geographic area; the charter limits and specifies their powers

Home Rule (originated in MO, 1875) gives cities power to adopt governmental forms and provide services as they see fit without state intervention

Generally provide the following functions within their areas: Police Fire Street maintenance Sewage Sanitation Parks and recreation

Forms of City Government

Commission or Council Used by some cities in SC

In SC, council has 5, 7 or 9 members including the Mayor Exercises both legislative and executive functions. The Mayor

is a commission/council member but has no extra powers. Commissioners/council members supervise the operation of city government.

Council-Manager Used by over 30 cities in SC, mostly larger ones In SC, Mayor plus 4, 6 or 8 councilmembers Council/commission chooses a professional city manager

who administers the city government and reports to the council (who hire/fire him).

Generally found in medium-sized cities, where it’s easier for the manager to resolve conflicts.

Forms of City Government

Mayor-Council Used in a majority of cities in SC

In SC, council has at least 4 members in addition to Mayor

Nationally, generally found in larger cities requiring stronger political leadership to resolve conflicts. The mayor may have authority over the city budget and personnel (hiring/firing)

Town meeting (not used in SC) Direct democracy as still practiced in small

towns in New England. The entire community participates in decision-making.

Urban machines

Political party organizations, generally Democratic Found in large cities of the 19th Century and early

20th Century (existed in Chicago until the death of Mayor Daley in 1976)

Helped immigrants assimilate into their communities and find jobs in return for political support

Your ability to get city government employment was dependent on your work for the “machine” and support for its candidates

Winning elected officials hired supporters for city jobs – police, street sweepers, etc.

Frequent political corruption

Progressive Reforms

The Progressive movement of the early 20th Century replaced machines in many cities with professional city employees (civil servants hired on the basis of professional qualifications and not political connections)

Introduced nonpartisan and at-large elections to most cities, which weakened the power of the machines since they no longer controlled patronage and couldn’t elect their candidates out of city wards (electoral divisions).

Nonpartisan city elections

Most cities now have nonpartisan municipal elections. This has not removed conflict over public policy; interest groups may replace parties as vehicles for the articulation of interests and political organization.

At-large vs. district elections

At-large officials (elected citywide) tend to focus more on the “big picture,” while district or ward officials (elected from a division of the city) tend to focus more on their neighborhoods

At-large elections have tended to disadvantage minority candidates, who are much more likely to be elected under district systems

Cumulative voting

Used as a remedy for discrimination in some areas

Each voter has as many votes as there are seats, but may cast those votes in any combination

Cumulative voting

Candidate A Candidate B Candidate C Top two will be elected Voter 1 has two votes (11) Voter 2 has two votes (22) Voter 3 has two votes (33)

Cumulative voting

Candidate A 1 3 3 Candidate B 1 2 Candidate C 2 Top two will be elected Voter 1 has two votes (11) Voter 2 has two votes (22) Voter 3 has two votes (33) Voter 1 casts one vote for A and one for B Voter 2 casts one vote for B and one for C Voter 3 casts two votes for A

Annexation and Consolidation

Annexation: Absorption of adjoining areas into the city – provides those residents with city services but also with higher taxes. Annexation is extremely difficult in South Carolina. City leaders see it as a good way to expand the city’s tax base. May dilute minority political influence in the city if the annexed areas are predominantly white.

Consolidation: A group of overlapping governmental units (county, cities, school districts) become a single unit.

Towns/Townships

In geographically smaller areas like the New England states, towns or townships may provide the services of counties and cities in larger areas.

In the New England states, counties have no separate government, they’re just map designations. The same is true of townships in South Carolina.

Advantages of Consolidation

The goal is to rid metropolitan areas of ineffective local jurisdictions and fragmented authority. If different units of government provide services (city, county, school district) to overlapping but not identical areas, it’s hard for people to hold their government accountable.

Economies of scale: A larger jurisdiction serving more people may be able to provide services at a lower cost per person.

Policy coordination

Disadvantages of Consolidation

Economic model developed by Charles Tiebout: “Vote with your feet” and move to an area that provides you with the best combination of services you want. Governments “compete” for your “business” as private enterprises do.

This is not possible if there’s only one consolidated government entity.

Fragmented government (non-consolidated) may be closer to the people it serves.

Tiebout model

If wealthier residents can “vote with their feet” and move to the suburbs or other areas, but poorer residents can’t, the center city is emptied of wealth while the suburbs get wealthier (think of a donut)

This promotes crime and other social problems within the center city, which further accelerates flight to the suburbs

Special Districts

Water and sewer for a particular area School districts

K-12 education

Local Governments in SC

46 counties 269 municipalities 85 school districts (down from 1221 in

1952) 310 special districts (police, fire, garbage

collection, water and sewer, parks and recreation)

Local Government

Voter turnout in municipal elections is significantly lower than in national elections

Nonpartisan elections have lower turnout because many voters use party as a voting cue

Most municipal elections are held at different times than national elections (odd-numbered years)

Traditionally, center cities have been Democratic and suburbs Republican, but trends may be changing (suburban voters are becoming more socially liberal in many areas)

City Manager

Progressive reform movement separated government administration from “politics”

Hired by council, accountable to them, can be fired by them

Professional, non-political administrator, may not be a resident of the city at the time of appointment

Career path is frequently to move on to manage a bigger city

Supervise city bureaucracy and personal staff Manager may be more important in cities with part-

time mayor and council members City Manager of Rock Hill is David Vehaun, Winthrop

Class of 1986.

Policy Issues in Local Government

Housing Transportation (highways, mass transit) Economic development – development of

industry, jobs, tax base Planning and zoning: Public regulation of

property use How the local government regulates the use of

your land significantly affects its value, but cities are not required to compensate property owners for loss of value caused by zoning restrictions

Policy Issues in Local Government

Eminent domain: Fifth Amendment to US Constitution prevents taking private property for public use without “just compensation”

Ordinarily, private property was taken by government only for explicitly public use such as highways

Kelo v. City of New London [CT] (2005): US Supreme Court upheld the city’s condemnation of a property in order to sell it to a private developer who would increase its value to the city – this enhanced value justified the city’s actions

Suburbs vs. cities

Suburbs tend to have larger proportions of white population, center cities larger proportions of minority populations (7% vs. 22%)

Suburban populations tend to be wealthier, better-educated

Problems of center cities: crime, violence, lack of jobs, inadequate educational facilities, poverty, substandard housing All of these present challenges for local governments to

deal with Middle-class flight to the suburbs has only exacerbated

these problems within the center cities People who can’t leave are the less-well educated with

fewer skills and options

Suburbs vs. cities

Suburban populations tend to be able and willing to pay higher taxes for better schools

Center cities spend considerably more per capita on social programs for poverty populations (e.g., housing subsidies)

Sprawl

Suburbs grew up after WWII – more cars and highways, no longer necessary to live within walking distance to work

Unplanned, uncontrolled growth, particularly of suburban areas

Infrastructure challenges: traffic (lots of single-occupant vehicles instead of mass transit), utilities, availability of land, water, sewer

Environmental consequences

No-Growth Politics

Restrictions on growth Zoning laws Subdivision control projects Utility regulations Building permits Environmental regulations Restrictions on uses, development or strip malls Opposition to street widening or provision of utilities

Growth restrictions inflate the value of existing homes and hurt the poor by restricting availability of affordable housing and limiting the number of jobs (construction, etc.) created by development

Minorities and Women in Local Politics

Thoughts for discussion: What are the policy consequences of greater proportions of minorities (primarily African-Americans, Hispanics) and women serving in positions of authority in local government?