© 2007 Thomson Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning Chapter 12: Testing and Assessment Chapter 13: Research and Evaluation 1

© 2007 Thomson Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning

Chapter 12: Testing and AssessmentChapter 13: Research and Evaluation

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Testing and Assessment

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Testing: a subset of assessment Assessment includes:

Informal Assessment Personality Testing Ability Testing The Clinical Interview See Figure 12.1, p. 396

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You will be administering and interpreting assessment instruments

You may consult with others on their proper use You may use them in program evaluation and research You will read about them in the professional literature School counselors: Sometimes the only expert on

assessment in the schools Other counselors: Will likely be using them in your setting

and consulting with others who use them Why testing? Why not testing? Testing is an additional

method of gaining information about your client

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2200 BCE: Chinese developed essay type test for civil service employees

Darwin, set the stage for modern science and the examination of differences

Wundt, Fechner: 1st experimental labs to examine differences in people

Binet: Hired by Ministry of Public Education in France to develop intelligence test

Binet test, later became “Stanford Binet”—revised by Terman

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Spread of testing at beginning of 20th century: Psychoanalysis spurred on development of

objective and projective personality tests Industrial Revolution and need for vocational

assessment WWI: Ability and personality tests used to

determine placements of recruits 1940s and 1950s: advances in statistics led to

better test construction 1980s and on: Personal computers make tests

easier to develop, analyze, use, administer, and interpret

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Ability Testing (Testing in the Cognitive Domain) (see Figure 12.2, p. 399)

Two types▪ Achievement Testing (What one has learned)▪ Aptitude Testing (What one is capable of learning)

Achievement Testing▪ Survey Battery Tests▪ Diagnostic Tests (see Box 12.1, p. 400: PL 94-142)▪ Readiness Tests

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Ability Testing (Testing in the Cognitive Domain) (see Figure 12.2, p. 399) (Cont’d)

Aptitude Tests (What one is capable of learning)▪ Intellectual and Cognitive Functioning Testing

▪ Intelligence Tests▪ Neuropsychological Assessment

▪ Cognitive Ability Tests▪ Special Aptitude Tests▪ Multiple Aptitude Tests

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Personality Assessment (Testing in the Affective Domain; see Figure 12.3, p. 399) Objective Tests Projective Tests Interest Inventories

Informal Assessment (see Figure 12.4, p. 399) Observation Rating Scales (see Box 12.2, p. 404) Classification Systems (see Box 12.3) Environmental Assessment Records and Personal Documents Performance-Based Assessment

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The Clinical Interview Sets a tone for the types of information that will be

covered during the assessment process Allows client to become desensitized to information

that can be very intimate and personal Allows examiner to assess nonverbals of client while

he or she is talking about sensitive information Allows examiner to learn problem areas firsthand Gives client and examiner opportunity to study

other’s personality style to assure they can work together

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Norm-referenced Tests Your results are compared to your peer group

Criterion-referenced Tests: Preset learning goals are established Examinee has increased time to meet educational goals Often used for individuals with learning disabilities

Norm-Referenced and Criterion Tests Can Be Standardized or Non-Standardized Standardized: Given exactly the same way each time Non-Standardized: Vary in how administered. Generally

not as rigidly researched as standardized tests (e.g., teacher made tests)

See Table 12.1, p. 407

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Relativity and Meaningfulness of Scores Raw scores don’t hold much meaning unless you

do something to them By comparing raw scores to those of an

individual’s peer group, you are able to:▪ See how the individual did in comparison to

similar people▪ Allow test takers who took the same test, but

are in different norm groups to compare their results

▪ Allow an individual to compare his or her results on two different tests

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Some statistics help us make meaning of test scores Measures of Central Tendency

▪ Mean▪ Median▪ Mode

Measures of Variability▪ Range▪ Interquartile Range▪ Standard Deviation

▪ See Figure 12.5, page 409▪ See Figures 12.6 and 12.7; page 410 and 411

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TYPES OF DERIVED SCORES

Percentile Rank T-Scores Deviation IQ SAT/GRE Type

Scores ACT Scores

TYPES OF DERIVED SCORES

Normal Curve Equivalents (NCEs)

Stanines Sten Scores Grade Equivalent Scores Idiosyncratic Publisher-

Derived Scores

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A basic statistic not directly related to interpretation of test but crucial in test construction Ranges from -1.0 to +1.0 The closer to -1.0 and +1.0 the strong the

relationship between variables Positive correlation: tendency for two sets of

scores to be related in same direction Negative correlation: tendency for two sets of

scores to be related in opposite direction 0 = no relationship between variables See Figure 12.8, p. 413

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Four Types Validity: Is the test measuring what it’s

supposed to measure? Reliability: Is the test accurate (consistent) in

its measurement? Practicality: Is this a practical test to use? Cross-Cultural Fairness: Has the test been

shown to be fair across different cultures?

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Three types1.Content

2.Criterion-Related▪ Concurrent▪ Predictive

3.Construct▪ Experimental▪ Convergent▪ Discriminant▪ Factor Analysis

Face validity Not a “real” type of

validity. Does the test, on the surface, seem to measure what it’s supposed to measure

Some tests may be valid, but may not seem to be measuring what it’s supposed to measure

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Is bias removed—as best as possible? Does it predict well for all cultural groups?

Griggs v. Duke Power Company: Tests must show that they can predict for job performance

A number of ethical and legal issues have been addressed (see later under “Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues”)

See Table 12.2, p.417: Summary of Types of Validity and Reliability

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Four Types:1.Test-Retest2.Alternate (Parallel; Equivalent) Forms3.Split-Half (Odd-Even)4.Internal Consistency▪ Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha▪ Kuder-Richardson

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Is this a realistic test to give? Based on:

Cost Time to administer Ease of administration Format of test Readability of test Ease of interpretation

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Over 4000 assessment procedures How do you find them:

Publisher resource catalogs Journals Source Books and On-Line Source “Book”

Information▪ Buros Mental Measurement Yearbook▪ Tests in Print

Books on Testing and Assessment Experts The Internet

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Info usually included:1.Demographic

information2.Reason for referral3.Family background4.Other relevant

information (e.g., legal, medical, vocational)

5.Behavioral observations

6.Mental status7.Test results8.Diagnosis9.Recommendations10.Summary

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Usually a few pages long Problems with:

Overuse of jargon Focusing on assessment procedures &

downplaying person Focusing on person and downplaying

assessment results Poor organization Poor writing skills Failure to take a position Demographics

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Caution in Using Assessment Procedures Cultural bias continues to exist in testing Standards and ethical codes have been developed to

help us:▪ Understand the cultural bias inherent in tests▪ Know when a test should not be used due to bias▪ Know what to do with test results when a test does

not predict well for minorities Standards for effective use of assessment instruments

Association for Assessment in Counseling’s Standards for Multicultural Assessment

Code of Fair Testing in Education ACA Ethics Code

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Take A Stand—Do Something! Our duty and moral responsibility to do something

when▪ Tests have been administered improperly▪ Tests are culturally biased and the bias is not

addressed▪ Cheating has taken place▪ Tests were used with limited validity or reliability

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Ethics Guidelines for use of assessment instruments(see bottom p.

420) Informed consent Invasion of privacy and confidentiality Competence in the use of Tests

▪ Levels A, B, and C Technology and Assessment

▪ Sometimes, counselor not used with computer-generated reports

▪ Issues of confidentiality and privacy▪ Knowing laws relative to the impact of on-line technology▪ Adequate training in technology

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ETHICAL ISSUES

Ethics (Other Issues) Proper release of test

results Selecting Tests Administering, Scoring

and Interpreting Tests Keeping Tests Secure Picking up-to-date

tests Proper Test

Construction

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES

Professional IssuesComputer-Driven Assessment Reports▪ Can be very good▪ Make sure they reflect “you”

Professional Association▪ Assoc. for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE)▪Adivision of ACA

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Legal Issues Americans with Disabilities Act:

Accommodations must be made when taking tests for employment

(FERPA) Buckley Amendment: Right to access school records, including test records

Carl Perkins Act (PL98-524): Right to vocational assessment, counseling, and placement for disadvantaged

Civil Rights Act (‘64) & Amendments: Tests must be shown to be valid for the job

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Legal Issues (Cont’d) Freedom of Information Act: Right to access

federal records, including test records PL94-142 and IDEIA: Right of students to be

tested, at school’s expense, for a suspected disability that interferes with learning

Section 504 of Rehabilitation Act: Instruments must measure person’s ability, not be a reflection of his or her disability

HIPAA: Right of privacy of records, including test records

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Assessment of clients is not just giving a test Use multiple methods and be wise Remember, people can and will change over time

Don’t view them as “stagnant” and always the same

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