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© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
The Balto-Slavic Languages: History and Typology
J.T.E. Elms
California State University, Northridge
November 2007
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Balto-Slavic Origins
PIE
Hittite
Tocharian
Iranian
Indic
Albanian
Armenian
Greek
Latvian
Lithuanian
Bulgarian
Macedonian
Serbo-Croatian
Slovenian
Czech
Slovak
Sorbian
Byelorussian
Polish
Russian
Ukrainian
Celtic
Romance
Germanic
8500 BP 7500 6500 5500 4500 3500 2500 1500 500 Present
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Lexical Distance Among European Languages
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Balto-Slavic Cognates
• Cognates have similar phonological form, syntactic form, & meaning• Common cognates suggest common origin:
– Shared historical (“genetic”) ancestor, followed by isolation & drift
– Contact & borrowing from unrelated contemporary source
“mother” “hand, arm” “king” “ten” “go”
Slavic
Russian (E) matj, materinskij rjka korolj desjatj hoditj, idti
Ukrainian (E) matu, matir ruka korolj dεsjatj xodutu, itu
Bulgarian (SE) majka rjka kral dεsεt hodja
Slovenian (SW) mati, matisa roka kralj deset hoditi, iti
Serbo-Croatian (SW)
majka, matεrinski ruka kralj dεsεt otijsi, ijsi
Czech (W) matka, matεřski: ruka král dεsεt hodit sε, xod
Polish (W) matka rεka krόl ʤiεsiεʨ ists
Baltic
Lithuanian mote, motina rankų karalius dæ∫imt eiti
Latvian mate roka karalis dεsmits iet
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Balto-Slavic Phonology:Satem (vs Centum) Velar Development
• Palatalized velars sibilants: kj s, ʃ; gj z, ʒ– PIE *kjmtom-, “hundred” Lithuanian ʃimtas, “hundred”
Russian sto, “hundred” – PIE *gjhel-to-, “golden” Lithuanian ʒeltas, “gold”
Polish zloty, “gold piece, unit of currency”,
• Plain, aspirated, & labialized velars plain velars: k, kw k; g, gh, gw, gwh g– PIE *kwos, “who” Lithuanian kas, “who”– PIE *sneigwh-o-, “snow” Russian sneg, “snow”– PIE *gwerh-, “consume” Lithuanian geriù, “I drink”
• Centum exceptions are numerous (e.g. Lithuanian geltas, “yellow”)
Satem
Centum (Kentum)
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Vowel Systems• Typically 5 or 6 basic vowel phonemes
– 51% of world languages fall in this range (World Atlas of Language Structures)– Slovenian is an exception with 8 vowels, Latvian with 7 – Contrast Germanic family with up to 14 basic vowels, largest inventories in the world
• Vowels have null allophones, eg Russian [djεn], “day” (NOM) vs [djn.a], “day” (GEN)
• Tone or pitch accent present in many languages
Basic Inventory Size Meaningful Contrasts
SlavicRussian (E) /i, ε, a, o, u/ 5 • Stressed/unstressed
• With/without palatal onglide /ji, je, ja, jo, ju/
Ukrainian (E) /i, ɪ, ε, ɑ, ɔ, u/ 6 • Stressed/unstressed• With/without palatal onglide /ji, jɪ, jε, jɑ, jɔ, ju/
Bulgarian (SE) /i, ε, ə, a, ɔ, u/ 6 • Stressed/unstressed• With/without palatal onglide for /ja, ju/
Slovenian (SW) /i, e, ε, ə, a, ɔ, o, u/ 8 • Stressed-long/unstressed-short• Rising/falling pitch accent in stressed syllables
Serbo-Croatian (SW) /i, ε, a, ɔ, u/ 5 • Long/short duration• Rising/falling pitch accent in stressed syllables
Czech (W) /i, ɪ, ε, a, o, u/ 6 • Long/short duration (except tense/lax on /i:/ vs /ɪ/)
Polish (W) /i, ɪ, ε, a, ɔ, u/ 5 • Nasalized/nonnasalized
BalticLithuanian /i, ε, æ, ɐ, o, u/ 6 • Stressed/unstressed
• Long/short duration (except /e:/ always long)
Latvian /i, e, ε, æ, a, o, u/ 7 • Long/short duration• 3 tones on long vowels & dipthongs: high level (eg [luo˦ki], “chives”) falling (eg [lùoks], “arch, bow”) rising-creaky-falling (eg [luôgs], “window”)
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Consonant Systems• Typically 22 - 45 consonant phonemes; half ≥ 30, large to very large inventories
– World average consonant inventory size is 22 phonemes (World Atlas of Language Structures)– Only 9% of world languages have ≥ 34 consonants (WALS)– Compare Germanic with 21-25 consonants (32% of world languages fall in this range – WALS)
• “Hard” (unpalatalized) vs “soft” (palatized) consonants are usually contrastive– Russian: мат /mat/, “checkmate” vs мать /matj/, “mother”; нос /nos/, “nose” vs нёс /njos/, “(he) carried”– But Latvian: noncontrastive allophonic palatalization of /k, g, l, n/, eg /n/ [ŋ]/_ {k,g} in [baŋka], “bank”
Size Stops Fricatives & Affricates Approximants Nasals
SlavicRussian (E) 36 /p, b, t, d, k, g/
/pj, bj, tj, dj, ç//f, v, s, z, ʃ:, ʒ:, ts, ʧ, x/
/fj, vj, sj, zj, ʧj/; /ʂ, ʐ/ (retroflex)/r, l, j/ /rj, ʎ /
/m, n/ /mj, ɲ/
Ukrainian (E) 33 /p, b, t, d, k, g/ /tj, dj/
/f, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, dz, ʧ, ʤ, x, ɦ/ /fj, sj, zj, tsj, dzj/
/ʋj, r, l, j//ʋj, rj, ʎ /
/m, n/ /ɲ/
Bulgarian (SE) 36 (39) /p, b, t, d, k, g/ /pj, bj, tj, dj, ç, gj/
/f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, (dz), ʧ, ʤ, x/ /fj, vj, sj, zj, tsj, (dzj),(xj)/
/r, l, j//rj, ʎ /
/m, n/ /mj, ɲ/
Slovenian (SW) 22 /p, b, t, d, k, g/ /f, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, dz, ʧ, ʤ/ /ʋ, l, ɾ, j/ /m, n, ɲ/
Serbo-Croatian (SW) 24 /p, b, t, d, k, g/ /f, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, ʧ, ʤ//ʧj, ʤj/
/ʋ, l, r, j//ʎ/
/m, n/ /ɲ/
Czech (W) 24 (27) /p, b, t, d, k, g//ç, gj/
/(f), v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, (dz), ʧ, (ʤ), x, ɦ/ /l, r, j//r -/ (fricative)
/m, n/ /ɲ/
Polish (W) 32 /p, b, t, d, k, g//ç, gj/
/f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, dz, ʧ, ʤ, x//ʂ, ʐ, tʂ, dʐ/ (retroflex)
/w, l, r, j//ʎ/
/m, n/ /mj, ɲ/
BalticLithuanian 39 (45) /p, b, t, d, k, g/
/pj, bj, tj, dj, ç, gj//(f), s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, dz, ʧ, ʤ, (x), (ɣ)/
/(fj), sj, zj, ʃj, ʒj, tsj, dzj, ʧj, ʤj, (xj), (ɣj)//ʋ, l, r, j/ /ʋj, ʎ, rj/
/m, n//mj, ɲ/
Latvian 20 (22) /p, b, t, d, k, g/ /(f), v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ts, dz, ʧ, ʤ, (x)/ / l, r, j/ /m, n/
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Syllable Structures• Very complex syllable structures
– Only a third (31%) of world languages allow syllables more complex than (C)(C)V(C) — WALS– Balto-Slavic allows up to four segments in syllable onset, eg Russian встретить ['fstrjetj.ɪtj], “to encounter”– Balto-Slavic allows up to five segments in syllable coda, eg Polish [skɔmpstf], “stinginesses” (GEN PL)– Sonority hierarchy weakly enforced, mostly in largest consonant clusters & in onsets– Russian one-syllable examples: взгляд /vzgliad/, “look”; монстр /monstr/, “monster”
• Syllables without vowels– Syllable nuclei allow approximants, liquids, and nasals as well as vowels, eg Czech [zmrz.lɪ.na], “ice cream”– Null allophones for vowels means entire words may be vowelless, eg Russian [v], “in”; [s], “with”; [k], “to”– Exceptions: Polish, Lithuanian require a vowel in every syllable
• Compare Germanic (C)(C)(C)(V)(C)(C)(C)(C), eg English “strengths” [strεŋ{k}θs], “bottle” ['bɑt.l1 ]
SyllableStructure
Example Consonant Clusters
Consonantal Nuclei
SlavicRussian (E) (C)(C)(C)(C)(V)(C)(C)(C)(C) fspr-, fspl-, fstr-, fskr-, fsxl-, vzbr-, vskr-, vzbl-, vzdr-, vzgr- vzgl-,
spr-, spl-, str-, stl-, stv-, skr-, skl-, smr-, fkr-, fkl-, zbr-, zbl-, zdr-, zgr-, zgl-, zgn-, vgl-, vzb-, vzv-, vbr-, vsk-, sxv-, ..., -bsk, -nstr
/j,r,l,m,n/
Czech (W) (C)(C)(C)(C)(V)(C)(C)(C) tʃtv-, smr-, sml-, xtʃ-, vʒd-, zvl-, prʃ- ... /r,l,m,n/
Polish (W) (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)(C) zjbjdw-, zskl-, ptʃl-, pstr-, dsk-, tsk-, tʃst-, tʃʃts’-, vrjb-, vrjx-, sml-, ʃrp-, vln-, klb-, xlm-, mgl-, ..., -lʃtʃ, -rʃtʃ, -rstf, -mstf, -
pstf, -mpstf
None
BalticLithuanian (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) skr-, ksl-, ..., -rbk, -rbs, -kʃt, -nkst None
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Morphosyntactic CategoriesRussian (Slavic) Lithuanian (Baltic) German (Germanic)
Parts of Speech
Noun, pronoun, number, verb, preposition, adjective, adverb,
conjunction, particle, interjection; no article
Noun, pronoun, number, verb, preposition, adjective, adverb,
conjunction, particle, interjection; no article
Noun, pronoun, number, verb, preposition, adjective, adverb,
conjunction, particle, interjection, article
Person First, second, third First, second, third First, second, third
Number Singular, (dual), plural Singular, (dual), plural, (indefinite) Singular, plural
Politeness Formal, familiar Formal, familiar Formal, familiar
Gender Masculine, feminine, neuter;animate, inanimate
Masculine, feminine, neuter, common
Masculine, feminine, neuter; no common gender, no animate/inanimate
Case Nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental,
prepositional
Nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, locative,
vocative, (illative)
Nominative, accusative, dative, genitive
Definiteness Definite, indefinite Definite, indefinite Definite, indefinite
Degree Positive, comparative, superlative Positive, comparative, superlative, attenuated
Unmarked, comparative, superlative
Tense Past, non-past Present, past, future Past, non-past
Aspect Completive/perfective, progressive/imperfective,
iterative/probabilistic, unary
Completive/perfective, progressive/imperfective,
iterative/probabilistic
Completive/perfective, progressive/imperfective
Voice Active, passive, reflexive Active, passive, necessitative Active, passive, reflexive
Mood Indicative, imperative, interrogative, infinitive
Indicative, subjunctive, imperative, interrogative, infinitive,
indirect evidentiality
Indicative, subjunctive, imperative, interrogative, infinitive
Polarity Positive, negative Positive, negative Positive, negative
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Morphosyntactic Features Per Case
2
4
6
7
7
14
21
0 5 10 15 20 25
English
German
Russian
Serbo-Croatian
Lithuanian
Finnish
Hungarian
Source: Pirkola & Kittunen, 2007
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Index of Synthesis
1.06
1.09
1.68
2.12
2.55
2.86
3.33
3.72
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Vietnamese
Yoruba
English
Old English
Swahili
Turkish
Russian
Inuit (Eskimo)
Source: Pirkola & Kittunen, 2007
Analytic Synthetic
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
Balto-Slavic SyntaxMain Clause (Statement)
Rel Clause
& Noun
Adposition& Noun
Genitive& Noun
Polar Question Marking
Slavic
Russian (E) SVO N-Rel Prepositional N-Gen P2
Ukrainian (E) SVO N-Rel Prepositional ? P1
Bulgarian (SE) SVO N-Rel Prepositional Gen-N P2
Slovenian (SW) SOV N-Rel Prepositional Free ?
Serbo-Croatian (SW) SVO N-Rel Prepositional Free P1 or P2
Czech (W) SVO N-Rel Prepositional Free S/V Inversion
Polish (W) SVO N-Rel Prepositional N-Gen P1
Baltic
Lithuanian SVO N-Rel Prepositional Gen-N P1
Latvian SVO N-Rel Prepositional Gen-N P1
Germanic
German SVO(V) N-Rel Prepositional N-Gen S/V Inversion
English SVO N-Rel Prepositional N-Gen S/V Inversion
S – SubjectV – VerbO – ObjectN – Noun
P – Particle1 – First Position2 – Second PositionF – Final Position
Sub – Subordinate ClauseRel – Relative ClauseGen – Genitive Case Marker
© 2007, J.T.E. Elms. All rights reserved.
ReferencesB. Comrie (1989), Language Universals & Linguistic Typology.
M. Haspelmath, M.S. Dryer, D. Gil, & B. Comrie (eds.), (2005), The World Atlas of Language Structures.
A. Pirkola & K. Kittunen (2007), “Methods in Cross-Language Information Retrieval,” online course notes viewed 11/18/2007 (http://www.info.uta.fi/kurssit/clir/)
M. Rochon (2000), Optimality in Complexity: The Case of Polish Consonant Clusters.
A. Timberlake (2004), A Reference Grammar of Russian.
K. Tyshchenko (1999), Metatheory of Linguistics. (In Russian.)
UCLA Language Materials Project, viewed 11/20/2007 (http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/index.aspx?menu=001)
University of Texas Linguistics Research Center, “Baltic Online” — online resources on Lithuanian & Latvian, viewed 11/17/2007 (http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/litol-0-X.html)
Wiktionary, “Swadesh List” (http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/swadesh)
K. Wright & C. Gildersleeve-Neumann (2005), “English Speech Sound Development: Effects of a Russian-English Bilingual Environment”, poster presented at the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) convention, viewed online 11/30/2007 (http://convention.asha.org/2005/handouts/293_Wright_Kira_070939_111605111041.pdf)
Word2Word online dictionaries (http://www.word2word.com/dictionary.html)
V. Zinkevičius, V. Daudauravičius, & E. Rimkute, “The Morphologically Annotated Lithuanian Corpus.” Viewed online 11/23/2007 (http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/publikacijos/EVV_1.pdf).