WASTE TO ENERGY AS A TOOL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT

1

Problem Statement 1.1

Objectives of Study 1.2

Justification 1.3

Scope 1.4

2

Literature Review 2.0

3

Methodology 3.0

4

Analysis 4.0

5

Conclusion 5.0

References

INTRODUCTION

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

The Environment can be described as the totality of our surroundings. It consists of both the

natural sphere which comprises the land, air, water, fauna, and flora, as well as the

anthropogenic sphere which consists of built cities, settlements and other human-induced

structures. The Merriam Webster dictionary aptly defines the environment as the complex of

physical, chemical, and biotic factors such as climate, soil, and living things; that act upon an

organism or an ecological community and ultimately determines its form and survival.

Sustainable development has been defined as “the development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This

definition succinctly put forward by the Bruntland Commission in 1987, contains within it two

key concepts; that of needs and limitations. This is captured in the definition stated above where

the present generation has to concentrate in meeting its needs whilst remaining within set

limitations regarding use and consumption of environmental resources in order to ensure future

generations will have access to environmental resources needed to meet their developmental

needs.

Waste to Energy refers to the generation of energy from waste materials such as sewage gas,

landfill gas, agricultural related waste, urban biomass, and wood-related wastes which when

subjected to various processes can be used in generating energy, particularly electricity.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Humanity over the millennia has utilized environmental resources as the foundation for its

developmental drive to critical acclaim. The underside to the development drive of the human

race is the enourmous amount of waste generated by this developmental drive which does not

seem to be slowing down. These wastes generated are often toxic to the environment, as such,

adequate processes for the safe disposal of these wastes which are often expensive and space-

consuming is needed. On the other side of the developmental drive is the world’s increasing

need for energy, particularly electricity, which is a critical resource needed to fuel the

development drive.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study is aimed at evaluating the efficacy of waste to energy as a tool for protecting the

environment and enabling sustainable development. The objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To highlight the negative impact of waste on the environment.

2. To review the historical trend of waste to energy.

3. To evaluate the impact of waste to energy in reducing waste.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This research work seeks to examine the merits and demerits of waste to energy (WTE) with

the ultimate aim of highlighting the efficacy of waste to energy as a tool for environmental

protection, as well as a means of strengthening the drive of sustainable development.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research was conducted to determine how effective waste to energy is as a tool for

protecting our environment as well as a means of achieving sustainable development. To this

end, waste and energy policies in Sweden, United States of America, United Arab Emirates,

People’s Republic of China, Finland, and Denmark are evaluated viz-a-viz the United Nations

Sustainable Development Agenda which all UN member-states are signatory to. These

countries were selected due to the advanced waste to energy processes, as well as their

commitment to achieving sustainable development. The successes and failures achieved thus

far by waste to energy in the selected countries was evaluated in order to adequately determine

the efficacy of waste to energy as a tool for environmental protection, as well as a means of

achieving sustainable development, especially for a country like Nigeria.

LITERATURE REVIEW

WASTE TO ENERGY

Waste to energy (WTE) refers to any waste treatment that generates energy in the form of

electricity, heat, gas, etc., from a waste source that would have been otherwise disposed of in

a landfill, (Popoola et al 2013). The importance of waste to energy is made even more pertinent

considering the enourmous environmental challenges we are plagued with, coupled with the

adverse effects of fossil fuels on the environment, as well as rising fossil fuel prices. The

agglomeration of these factors, combined with humanity’s insatiable quest for development

has necessitated the need for the use of renewable sources of energy to serve as the drivers of

the quest for sustainable development. It just so happens that waste generated by humans can

adequately serve is meeting this need as part of a gamut of renewable energy resources.

It is important to note at this juncture that waste to energy can be generated from the following:

Sewage from which methane can be captured,

Agricultural wastes such as plant remains and livestock waste (faeces),

Urban biomass such as food-related wastes, garden organics, paper and cardboard

material, timber from construction and demolition sites, etc., otherwise grouped under

the heading municipal solid waste (MSW),

Wood-related wastes such as wastes produced in wood harvesting and processing,

(Bioenergy Factsheet; Clean Energy Council 2011).

THE OVERALL WASTE TO ENERGY PROCESS

Of the sources of waste highlighted above, municipal solid waste (MSW) proves the most

viable due to the singular reason of the huge proportion of MSW generated the world over. A

number of technologies can be used to create energy from MSW, and these include:

Landfill gas capture; waste in land fill naturally undergoes a process called anaerobic

digestion in which bacteria in an oxygen-deprived environment break down organic

material. This process emits biogas, which is composed of approximately 50% CO2

(carbon dioxide) and 50% CH4 (methane).

Combustion; involves burning waste in a chamber at very high temperature, usually at

about 18000F. This is used to heat water into steam, which is then used in driving

turbines which generate electricity. Recent technological advances and stricter

pollution regulations ensure modern facilities of such employ clean combustion,

emitting negligible amount of CO2 into the atmosphere.

Pyrolysis; heating of MSW in the absence of oxygen at temperatures ranging from 550

– 13000F releases a gaseous mixture called syngas, as well as a liquid output, both of

which can be used for electricity, heat, or fuel production.

Gasification; entails heating of MSW in a chamber with a small amount of oxygen

present at temperatures ranging from 750 – 30000F. This produces a syngas which can

be burned for heat or power generation, upgraded for use in a gas turbine, or used as

chemical feedstock suitable for conversion into renewable fuels or other bio-based

products.

Plasma arc gasification; superheated plasma technology is used to gasify MSW at

temperatures of 100000F and higher, an environment comparable to the surface of the

sun. The resulting process incinerates the solid waste while producing from them two

to ten times the energy of conventional combustion. The solids left are chemically inert,

and can be used for paving surfaces, (Issue Brief; EESI 2009).

Waste to energy plants operate as either mass burn or refuse-derived fuel systems. Mass burn

systems use up all the refuse without prior separation/treatment, while refuse-derived systems

separate combustible from non-combustible wastes before being fed into the system,

(Nathanson et al 2015).

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF WASTE TO ENERGY

The origins of waste to energy can be traced to solid waste management. Solid waste

management is the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that has been discarded

as a consequence of it having served its purpose and it no longer having any benefit to provide

for its continued use, (Curley 2015). In ancient times, waste was indiscriminately disposed of.

Records show that not until 320 B.C. in Athens was the first law governing waste disposal

promulgated. This period marked the beginning of systematic waste disposal, and this was first

implemented in Athens, and in the Greek-dominated cities of the eastern Mediterranean,

(Nathanson 2015). After the fall of Rome, municipal waste management began a decline that

lasted all through the middle ages. Towards the end of the 14th Century however, scavengers

were given the task of carting waste to dumps beyond the city walls, a practice which is still in

existence in many developing nations of the world, (Lotha 2015).

A technological approach to solid waste management began to develop in the latter part of the

19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and sturdier

vehicles were used to collect and transport waste. A significant development in solid waste

management was the construction of the first refuse incinerator in England in 1874, (Nathanson

2015). Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century culminating

in the development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems.

By mid-century however, it had become glaring that open dumping, as well as indiscriminate

incineration of waste were polluting the environment whilst jeopardizing public health,

(Nathanson et al 2015). A major fallout of this is the development of stringent waste disposal

regulations in recent times. Modern solid waste management also emphasizes on the practice

of recycling, source reduction, and energy recovery. The process of waste to energy falls under

the heading of energy recovery.

The energy value of waste, especially municipal solid waste can be as much as 1/3 that of coal,

depending on the paper content, and the heat given off during incineration can be recovered by

the use of a refractory-lined furnace coupled to a boiler. The boilers convert the heat of

combustion into steam and hot water, thus allowing the energy content of the waste to be

recycled, (Nathanson et al 2015). Incinerators that recycle heat energy in this way are called

waste to energy plants.

METHODOLOGY

This paper is a literature-based research, drawing inference from existing literature on the

subject matter as well as literature based on ancillary subject matters. The research was

conducted through;

1. Comprehensive review of select literature on the subject matter, especially those on

Countries outlined in the scope of the research.

2. Comparison of results obtained in selected Countries.

3. Evaluation of results obtained from comparison.

The various literature employed cover a wide socio-economic spectrum from the developed, to

emerging/developing nations. The literary based nature of the research thus translates to the

data utilised/referenced in this paper as being secondary in nature.

ANALYSIS

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND THE QUEST FOR DEVELOPMENT

The theme of the human impact on the environment in the quest for development has been

central to many studies ranging from the clearing of woodland, the domestication process, the

draining of marshlands, introduction of alien plants and animals, amongst others, (Goudie

2006). Reclus recognized that the action of man may embellish the earth, but it may also

disfigure it; according to the manner and social condition of any nation (community), it

contributes either to the degradation or the glorification of nature, (Goudie 2006). From the

foregoing, it is evident that centuries ago, scientists had deciphered the negative impact the

quest for development has on the natural environment.

Humanity’s quest for development is insatiable. From time immemorial, the human race has

been on the quest for development, and this quest continues unrelenting up to now.

Archaeology has been able to clearly delineate the major epochs of development into the Stone

Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and the industrial age. Along the journey to our present

stage of development as a race, many discoveries and inventions have been made, serious and

astounding technological developments and innovations which have all culminated in our

present stage of development. The industrial revolution greatly accelerated emission of

pollutants into the atmosphere, as well as other environmental impacts due to the boom in

extraction of required minerals from the earth via a process generally referred to as mining.

Figure 1: changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration from 1750 – 2010 (Source: NOAA Earth

System Research Laboratory).

From the figure above, it is evident that the industrial revolution greatly exacerbated human

degradation of the natural environment in its quest for development. The use of fossil fuels to

power the train of industrialization contributed immensely to the negative impact humanity left

on the natural environment.

Figure 2: Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 – 2000 (Source: British Geological Survey).

The advent of the industrial age led to a huge uptake of fossil fuel to power the industries which

in turn led to an increase in negative environmental impacts. Over the centuries since the

commencement of industrialization, more countries have opened up their borders to the

establishment of industries. The attendant effect of this is the increase in use of fossil fuels,

culminating in the increase in the negative footprint of humanity on the earth and its resources.

Figure 3: Environmental Kuznets curve showing stages of economic development and their

attendant impact on the environment (Source: the encyclopaedia of earth).

The environmental Kuznets curve clearly shows the negative impact of developing nations who

are quick to adopt industrialization with its attendant negative footprint on the environment and

its resources. The curve clearly delineates along economic lines the various categories of

economies (nations) and their impact on the environment. It should be noted that the

industrialized and post-industrial nations of this world were once in the pre-industrial period

where they negatively impacted heavily on the environment. Now that they have crossed the

threshold of economic development, the industrialized nations now have their focus geared

towards environmental protection and sustainable development.

WASTE AS CONSEQUENCE OF DEVELOPMENT

The story of humanity’s quest for development will be incomplete without taking into

consideration the attendant consequence of industrialization which is key to development,

waste generation. It is clearly evident that industrialization has brought about economic

development. This in turn has led to the growth of urbanization and the emergence of more

urban communities. The attendant effect of this is the increase in waste generation by urban

dwellers. At present, of the approximately 7 billion inhabitants of the earth, 3 billion live in

urban settlements. These urban dwellers have an average waste generation capacity of 1.2kg

per day, translating to 1.3 billion tonnes of waste per year. By 2025, it is estimated that urban

waste generation (MSW) will have increased to 2.2 billion tonnes per year, (World Bank 2013).

Figure 4: World municipal solid waste generation, 2013 (Source; World Bank).

Figure 5: U.S. municipal solid waste generation by category, 2010 (Source: US EPA).

Figure 6: Waste generation in the UAE by Emirate, 2012 (Source: National Bureau of Statistics

UAE).

Figure 7: Municipal solid waste collected in China, 1980 – 2010 (Source: Multidisciplinary

Digital Publishing Institute).

WASTE TO ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

It is general knowledge that the world’s urban population generates about 1.3 billion tonnes of

waste per year. Taking into consideration the land space that will be needed to adequately

dispose of these wastes, as well as the logistics needed for effectively clearing and moving the

waste to landfill sites, it is evident that scarce financial resources will not properly cater for

effective waste disposal. Thus, the prevailing situation around the world, especially in

developing countries is a watered regard for environmental protection at best, and a blatant

disregard for environmental protection in the quest for development at worst. Most of

humanity’s developmental efforts such as fossil fuel exploration, refining, and use,

manufacturing, construction, transportation impact negatively on the environment. In mining,

the heartbeat of industrialization for instance, the earth is usually stripped in order to get to the

minerals required for various industrial processes buried deep within the earth. Mining, the

“soul” of the industries which entails the exploration and extraction of raw materials

from the earth for use by industries carries along with it many hazards from disturbed lands

to health hazards as a result of land, air and water pollution, noise pollution and so much

more. In recent decades, fossil-fuelled machinery has allowed mining activity to expand to

such a degree that in terms of the materials moved, its effects are reputed to rival the natural

process of erosion. Taking overburden into account, the total amount of materials removed

by the mining industry globally is probably at least 28 billion tonnes, (Goudie 2000).

The various municipal solid waste produced, some of which end up in landfills, and most of

which are indiscriminately disposed of pose serious threat to the environment and as a

consequence, pose serious public health risk. Many of the landfills in developing countries are

poorly constructed, whilst most are not even constructed at all. What is done in these countries

is that a huge hole is dug in the earth and consequently, wastes are dumped. A major public

health risk posed by this method is that leachates from the waste percolates deep into the

ground, contaminating groundwater and other water sources nearby. Other environmental

impacts of indiscriminate waste disposal includes clogging of drainage which leads to flooding

and consequently large scale gully erosions which wash away the top soil, destroy good lands

which could hitherto have been used for agriculture or other developmental work, and siltation

of surface water bodies such as rivers and lakes. The siltation of these water bodies in turn

leads to increased growth of alien plants such as water hyacinths which in turn competes for

oxygen with the fishes when decomposing. This in turn leads to a drastic decline in fishes,

translating to an economic impact on the surrounding communities through the decline in

fishing activities due to the loss of the fishes. Waste to energy ensures that waste that would

have been sent to landfills or indiscriminately disposed of will be diverted to waste to energy

plants, thereby protecting the environment from the negative impact that it would have suffered

had the waste been sent to the landfill or improperly disposed of.

Figure 8: improper waste disposal in Nigeria (Source: Allende 2009).

WASTE TO ENERGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT- CASE STUDIES

FROM USA, SWEDEN, DENMARK, CHINA, AND THE UAE

The increasing need for energy sources that promote energy independence, avoid fossil fuel

use, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions is of crucial importance not just for the well-being

of the present generation, but for future generations as well. Waste to energy is well positioned

to deliver these qualities while also providing for safe and reliable disposal of household thrash,

(Michaels 2009). Waste to energy achieves the reduction of greenhouse gas emission through

three distinct mechanisms namely;

1. Through generation of electrical power or steam, waste to energy avoids CO2 emission

from fossil fuel based electrical generation.

2. The waste to energy combustion process effectively avoids all potential methane

emissions from landfills thereby avoiding any particular release of methane in the

future.

3. The recovery of ferrous and nonferrous metals from municipal solid waste (MSW) by

waste to energy is more energy efficient than production from raw materials.

The ability of waste to energy to prevent greenhouse gas emissions, as well as mitigate climate

change has been recognized by countries signatory to the Kyoto protocol targets. The European

Union in its Council Directive 1999/31/EC dated April 26, 1999 established a legally binding

requirement to reduce landfilling of biodegradable waste in recognition of the methane released

from landfills. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has also recognized the

greenhouse gas mitigation aspects of waste to energy. Waste to energy projects are thus

accorded offset status under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto

protocol by displacing fossil fuel-fired electricity generation and eliminating methane

production from landfills, (Michaels 2009).

In the USA, the US Mayors’ Climate Protection Agreement supported a 7% reduction in

greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels by 2012 in their respective communities. This

agreement recognized the significant contribution of waste to energy in achieving the target,

(Michaels 2009).

In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), several waste to energy projects have been commissioned,

and are at different levels of completion. This highlights the UAE’s conviction in waste to

energy as a veritable means of attaining sustainable development. Notable projects in the UAE

anchored on waste to energy includes the Masdar City project. The Masdar initiative is

designed to advance renewable energy and sustainable technologies through education,

research and development, and commercialisation in order to drive UAE energy leadership and

economic diversification as a pillar of the Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030. Abu Dhabi

National Energy Company (TAQA); TAQA is the Abu Dhabi National Energy Company and

has taken the initiative for delivery of the first waste-to-energy plant in the Emirate, in

partnership with the Center of Waste Management, (Global Sustainable Cities Network 2013).

In Sweden, waste to energy is well developed and thriving as a consequence of Sweden’s

stringent environmental and waste policies geared towards sustainable development. A classic

example of the giant strides made by Sweden is found in the city of Linkoping. The overall

climate goal of Linköping municipality is to become carbon neutral by 2025. The starting point

for achieving this goal is that all actions be based on a holistic view of all the waste and energy

systems. The Tekniska Verken group, a multi-utility company owned by the city of Linköping,

has more than 50 years of experience in developing and operating state-of-the-art waste-to-

energy facilities as well as waste management solutions and district heating and cooling

networks. With regard to energy efficiency and environmental performance, the waste-to-

energy facilities show some of the best achievements in Europe, which is the result of

continuous development and improvement. Today, four plants are in operation with a total

capacity to treat more than 15% of the Swedish municipal solid waste, and to provide more

than 90% of the population of the city of Linköping with low-priced renewable heat and

electricity. A key factor in achieving this goal is to reduce fossil-based fuels and carbon

emissions from the transport sector by turning organic waste to biogas as vehicle fuel. Seven

percent of today’s total fuel consumption in Linköping is biogas produced in two plants. With

regard to waste management, only 1% of the city’s municipal solid waste goes to landfills,

while 50% is being recovered and 49% recycled, (Global Sustainable Cities Network 2013).

In Denmark, Sonderborg’s Project Zero is a public-private partnership focused on reducing the

carbon emissions of the Municipality of Sonderborg to zero by 2029. Project Zero has

developed a master plan for 2029 and a roadmap for reducing carbon emissions by 25% by

2015. A roadmap focused on 2020 and achieving another 25% in carbon emissions will be

completed by mid-2013. Actual carbon emissions have been reduced by 16.2% as of 2011,

compared to the 2007 baseline. Project Zero has developed and implemented a large number

of participatory platforms enabling citizens, companies, shops, schools, the municipal

administration, and utility companies to participate in the transition. Sonderborg, like most

Danish cities, has strong traditions in utilizing energy from waste. Since 1972, the government

has given strong attention to central production of combined heat and power, based on

household waste, (Global Sustainable Cities Network 2013).

In China’s case, the government has recognized waste to energy as a means of attaining

sustainable development. In addition, the huge amount of waste generated by China’s urban

communities on a yearly basis provides a reliable feedstock for WTE plants. In recognition of

this, the China set up an ambitious but pragmatic project of establishing WTE plants across the

country.

Figure 9: WTE plants in China, 2006 – 2011 (Source: Waste Management World).

Figure 10: WTE revenue by region, 2010 – 2016 (Source: Pike Research).

Recent studies have also identified waste to energy as a catalyst for recycling. Previous belief

about WTE held that due to the more attractive incentives offered by WTE, traditional

recycling will lose more of its feedstock waste to WTE plants. A survey by the US EPA which

employed data compiled over a decade of close observation revealed that states with WTE

facilities recorded an average recycling rate that was at least 1% higher than the national

average, (Michaels 2009). This shows that waste to energy not only boosts power generation,

but also promotes recycling, which is one of the pillars of sustainability.

WASTE AS RENEWABLE ENERGY- THE CASE FOR WASTE TO ENERGY

The sustainable nature of MSW is a major component of its historic renewable status. In the

United States, for three decades after the commencement of commercial waste to energy,

policymakers have recognized MSW as a renewable fuel. This belief gained general acceptance

with the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 which defined municipal solid waste as

renewable energy, (Michaels 2009).

Efficiency of Energy Conversion Techniques (WTE) in kWh/tonne of waste

Landfill Gas 41 – 48

Combustion 470 – 930

Pyrolysis 450 – 530

Gasification 400 – 650

Plasma Arc Gasification 400 - 1250

Figure 11: Energy conversion efficiency of WTE techniques (Source: Environmental and

Energy Study Institute 2009).

The high energy conversion rate of WTE techniques, as well as the assuredly constant supply

of wastes seals its status as a renewable energy source, while strategically positioning WTE as

a veritable means of achieving sustainable development. This it does through the twin goals of

protecting the environment from the deleterious effect of wastes, while providing energy to oil

the wheels of development, doing so by drastically reducing the levels of greenhouse gas

emissions associated with use of conventional fossil fuels for power generation.

CONCLUSION

Waste to energy has proven to serve the twin purpose of environmental protection and

sustainable development. With the myriad environmental problems the human race is

confronted with due to centuries of neglect and tyrannical use of environmental resources, the

nations of the world are confronted with the difficult choice of shifting focus to sustainable

development. As earlier noted, waste will continue to be generated as long as the human race

continues to exist. These wastes often have deleterious effect on the environment, thus proving

a threat to the health of humans and other living organisms in general. Various human activities

such as mining, manufacturing, etc., are developmental efforts embarked upon by various

nations in an effort to ensure their citizens enjoy better living standards. These activities in turn

not only generate waste, but rely heavily on electricity, majority of which is generated using

fossil fuels which are known to be the largest contributor of greenhouse gases into the

atmosphere. This in turn severely affects the climate leading to flooding, drought, and

epidemics, amongst others. The use of waste to energy in mopping up the waste generated by

human production and consumption, as well as for producing the much needed energy for

developmental efforts conveniently serves the twin purpose of protecting the environment,

while promoting sustainable development through the supply of renewable energy.

For a developing country like Nigeria which constantly grapples with the challenge of ever-

increasing waste generation, as well as inadequate power supply for its industries, waste to

energy is ideally placed to solve the environmental challenge of waste disposal as well as boost

the epileptic power sector with the much needed power needed for greater efficiency of the

nation’s industries. It should be noted that a more stable power supply will encourage

establishment of more industries to harness the vast economic opportunities available in the

country. Nigeria’s large population of about 177 million, provides a huge market base

unmatched across Africa. Thus, it is evident that cheap and available power supply will greatly

boost the economy through the establishment of industries as well as other economic ventures.

This in turn is guaranteed to boost employment, thereby reducing the level of unemployment

and social unrest. In a pleasant vicious cycle, this in turn boosts government revenue through

tax payment by organizations and individuals alike. It should also be noted that the increase in

electricity generation will not be accompanied by the concomitant effect of increased

greenhouse gas emission that is associated with fossil fuel–based electricity generation. Studies

have revealed that Nigeria is well placed to sustain waste to energy facilities in its quest for

sustainable development. Lagos state in the south-western region of the country conveniently

generates about 12, 000 tonnes of municipal solid waste per day, (LAWMA 2014). Taking into

account other large cities in the country such as Ibadan, Abeokuta, Kano, Port Harcourt, Uyo,

Ilorin, FCT, to mention a few with their large populations, which translates to a high waste

generating capacity, it is clearly evident that MSW, the feedstock needed for running WTE

plants is in abundance in Nigeria.

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