Using Reinforcement in the Classroom

Behavioral interventions are a powerful classroom tool for working with special populations

By Joyce Anderson Downing, Mary Ross Moran,

Brenda Smith Myles, and Christine K. Ormsbee

T he effectiveness of behav-ioral interventions has been demonstrated in numerous studies across a broad spec-

trum of school populations—from students considered profoundly handi-capped to those served in general class-rooms and programs for gifted and talented students (Nelson & Polsgrove, 1984; Nelson & Rutherford, 1988). Research has indicated that instruc-tional strategies based on behavioral principles and techniques have been more powerful than other models for working with children (Nelson & Pols-grove, 1984). Behavioral techniques are based on the premise that individual behavior is influenced by what occurs immediately before (antecedent) and after (consequent) the action or response. By studying and manipulat-ing these variables in the classroom, teachers can help students learn and maintain new behaviors, increase the rate of acceptable behaviors, and/or decrease the rate of unacceptable be-haviors. Recent developments in behavioral management have involved merging behavioral reinforcement techniques with aspects of cognitive psychology. " Self -monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement

have not been . . . well researched, but promise to be useful in promoting maintenance and generalization, espe-cially in more mature students'' (Nelson & Rutherford, 1988, p. 139). The present article covers the follow-ing aspects of applying reinforcement techniques in the classroom: (a) com-monly used behavioral terminology, (b) reinforcer selection, (c) critical appli-cation factors, (d) advantages and draw-backs, and (e) implementation sugges-tions.

Behavioral Terminology As defined by pioneers in the appli-

cation of behavioral techniques to the classroom, "positive reinforcement is the presentation of a pleasurable or desirable consequence for behavior" (Haring & Phillips, 1972, p. 11) that increases the probability that the tar-get behavior will occur again. A conse-quence is considered to be a reinforcer only when its application results in an increase in a target behavior for a spe-cific child. Reinforcement may be intrinsic—derived from the natural consequences of the behavior (e.g., pleasure in successful completion of an activity)—or extrinsic—not directly

connected to the behavior (e.g., receiv-ing a sticker or praise for assignment completion). Tangible reinforcers, items the student can actually touch, may consist of an immediate contin-gency (e.g., a sticker on each paper completed), or be used as tokens (e.g., chips, play money) that can be redeemed later. Tangible reinforcers include edible items such as candy or gum.

Reinforcers are often used in conjunc-tion with token economies and con-tingency contracts. A token economy is a predetermined system of specified behaviors and consequences with a systematic method of awarding and re-deeming tokens. For example, at the end of math period, each student who has completed his/her seatwork will earn a sticker; at the end of the week, stickers may be exchanged for various reinforcers. A contingency contract is a predetermined agreement between teacher and students concerning a spe-cific relationship between a contingen-cy and a behavior. For instance, when John has completed four math assign-ments with 80% accuracy, he may have 15 minutes of computer time.

Negative reinforcement consists of removal of an unpleasant consequence,

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followed by an increase in behavior strength. For example, students who dislike being pointed out for having a messy desk may clean up the desk to avoid further negative attention. The seatbelt buzzer in most cars works on this principle also—drivers fasten a seatbelt to avoid hearing the annoying noise.

Negative reinforcement is often con-fused with punishment, which is the application of an aversive consequence for a particular behavior with the intention of reducing unacceptable behavior. These techniques include response cost—taking away a privi-lege, token, or reinforcement; over-correction—requiring the student to make restitution or to practice the tar-get behavior over and over,- and time-out—briefly removing the opportunity for student reinforcement (e.g., sending the student to time-out for 5 min-utes). Because of the ethical problems involved with use of punishment tech-niques with children, teachers should take care to document previously unsuccessful efforts to use more posi-tive approaches, and should secure per-mission of parents and administration before instituting punishment pro-cedures.

Extinction/ignoring is a technique designed to reduce and eventually eliminate a behavior entirely by removing all reinforcement, both posi-tive and negative (Haring & Phillips, 1972). Although extinction may be dif-ficult to use consistently in the class-room, it may be more effective when paired with differential reinforcement —reinforcing the target student for an incompatible behavior or reinforcing other students for demonstrating appropriate behaviors. For example, a teacher might ignore Billy's pencil tap-ping while reinforcing Angela for being on task, then reinforce Billy for on-task behavior as soon as he quits tapping and returns to work.

Shaping and chaining are two tech-niques used frequently to establish a new behavior. Shaping is based on selected or differential reinforcement of successive approximations (Sloane, Buckholdt, Jenson, & Crandall, 1979). That is, the teacher selects a behavior that most nearly approximates the desired behavior, and reinforces it, ignoring all less similar behaviors. This technique is repeated, gradually lead-ing the student to the target behavior by small increments. For example, a

shaping procedure for attending to a teacher might be to provide reinforce-ment for the following behaviors: (a) in seat, (b) body oriented toward teacher, (c) head oriented toward teacher, (d) peripheral or glancing eye contact, and (e) sustained eye contact. The teacher would reinforce the student

"For example, a teacher might ignore Billy's pencil tapping while reinforcing Angela for being on task,

then reinforce Billy for on-task behavior as soon as he quits tapping and

returns to work."

only for responses that most closely resembled the final objective, ignoring less complete behaviors, and gradually becoming more selective until the tar-get behavior was achieved. Chaining is similar to shaping, in that it reinforces successive approximations of the desired behavior. However, the teacher breaks the terminal behavior into a sequence of component steps, teaching and reinforcing each step in order. For learning the algorithm for subtraction of two-digit numbers with regrouping, the chaining sequence might be as fol-lows: (a) Check to see if you need to borrow; (b) draw a line through the top

number in the 10s column; (c) borrow 1 from that number and write the remainder above it; (d) cross out the top number in the Is column,- (e) add 10 to that number, and write the new num-ber above the Is column,- (f) subtract the Is column; (g) subtract the 10s column; and (h) check your answer by addition. As each new component is learned, it is added/chained to those previously learned and reinforced.

Antecedent manipulation tech-niques attempt to make changes in the instructional environment or teaching presentation that will increase the like-lihood of appropriate student behavior. Presentation adaptations include prompting and modeling, which require the teacher to specify and/or demonstrate the target behavior before eliciting a student response. Other techniques designed to establish an environment conducive to appropriate behavior include the use of classroom rule and routines, token economies, and behavior contracts, all of which specify in advance what behavior will and will not be tolerated along with the consequences for specific actions. In some situations, however, it becomes necessary for the teacher to plan a rein-forcement system to assist in behavior management. (See Table 1 for a sum-mary of behavioral terminology, defini-tions, and examples.)

Reinf orcer Selection In the classroom, the most practical

approach is to try the least intrusive interventions first—altering ante-cedent events or applying naturally occurring or intrinsic reinforcement. Generally, teachers prefer to rely on

T y p e s o f Re in fo r ce rs

Tangible/Edible

Stickers Pencils Small toys Puzzles Fruit Gum Raisins Popcorn Candy

Social

Praise Free time with peer Read to younger child Lunch monitor Line leader Message carrier Lunch with adult Name on board Tutor a peer

Act i v i t y

Work in art center Feed class pets Visit library Work on special project Write and mail letters Operate movie projector Eat lunch outdoors Complete shortened

assignment

Tangible/Edible

Stickers Pencils Small toys Puzzles Fruit Gum Raisins Popcorn Candy

Social

Praise Free time with peer Read to younger child Lunch monitor Line leader Message carrier Lunch with adult Name on board Tutor a peer

Act i v i t y

Work in art center Feed class pets Visit library Work on special project Write and mail letters Operate movie projector Eat lunch outdoors Complete shortened

assignment

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positive techniques (e.g., teacher praise, rewarding extra responsibilities or activities) to manage classroom behavior, using extrinsic reinforcers as necessary, and punishment or response cost only as a last resort (Martens, Peterson, Witt, & Cirone, 1986). Effec-tive classroom management systems are likely to include a variety of tech-niques, tailored to the needs of the teacher and the students in each set-ting. In selecting specific reinforcers, teachers need to consider a number of factors. Which reinforcers are the most effective with specific students? How will reinforcers be delivered and ef-fectiveness evaluated? Are naturally-occurring reinforcers effective, or will contrived or extrinsic techniques be necessary? Are extrinsic reinforcers

readily available, practical, and able to be used with consistency? Will re-inforcement contingencies apply to all students equally or should they be indi-vidualized for specific students?

"In the classroom, the most practical approach is to try

the least intrusive inter-ventions first—altering

antecedent events or apply-ing naturally occurring or intrinsic reinforcement/'

Although intrinsic motivation (i.e., satisfaction in one's achievement) is the optimal reinforcer because it demands no teacher time or energy, less able students may not have the skills or motivation required to achieve the needed success.

The job of the teacher, therefore, is to use techniques that will give stu-dents skills as rapidly as possible so that intrinsic reinforcers will oper-ate to maintain the behavior. With the beginning or poor student this nearly always means initial reliance upon extrinsic reinforcers such as praise, points, activities, or grades. (Sloane et al., 1979, p. 62)

In determining which reinforcers are effective for specific students, teachers

Table 1 • Summary of Behavioral Terms, Definitions, and Examples

Reinforcement terms

Antecedent manipulation

Chaining

Contingency contract

Extrinsic reinforcement

Extinction/ignoring

Intrinsic reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Overcorrection

Positive reinforcement

Response cost

Shaping

Tangible reinforcement

Time-out

Token economy

Definitions

Modify instructional environment to increase the likelihood of appropriate behavior Reinforce successive approximations of a desired behavior

Predetermined written agreement between teacher and student regarding a specific relationship between a con-tingency and a behavior Reward not directly connected to the behavior Remove all reinforcement or attention from undesirable behavior Pleasure derived from the natural con-sequences of a behavior Removing an unpleasant consequence to increase a behavior Requiring a student to make restitution or to practice the target behavior repeatedly Presentation of a pleasurable or desir-able consequence for behavior Taking away a privilege, token, or reinforcement Selected reinforcement of successive approximations A reinforcer that the student can actually touch Removing the opportunity for reinforcement Predetermined system of specified behaviors and consequences with a systematic award plan

Examples

Review expectations before lining students up for lunch

Break a long division problem down into steps; praise completion of each step Award 10 minutes free time when spell-ing task is completed

Give sticker or praise for quiet listening

Ignore student talking out, then reward student appropriate behavior Demonstrate self-satisfaction or pride

Restore recess privilege for assignment completion Require student to clean all the desks in the class for writing on classroom furniture Praise student for satisfactory work

Deduct points from student's daily sheet

Reward each instance of improvement in pronunciation Award sticker, edibles; gum or candy

Place child in a seat facing away from class for 30 seconds Award stickers that can be exchanged 1 for various reinforcers for completion of math task

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may use one or more of the follow-ing strategies: (a) Watch and see—the teacher observes students to determine their reaction to praise and choice of activities during free time,- (b) try and see—the teacher varies reinforcement, observing student preferences; (c) ask other teachers—the teacher solicits ideas and suggestions from other teach-ers regarding what works for similar students in their classrooms; and (d) reinforcement survey—the teacher administers an oral or written survey to determine student preferences (Raschke, 1981; Sloane et al., 1979).

For many students, social reinforce-ment that occurs naturally in the class-room may provide sufficient incentive for them to behave in an acceptable fashion. This might take the form of positive feelings gained from knowl-edge of results or progress, teacher approval or praise, or peer approval or praise. Social reinforcement may be less effective, however, for students who are less able or who do not appear to value interaction with others (Sloane et al., 1979).

Contingent activities are often used to supplement social reinforcement, or as backup reinforcers for a token econ-omy or contract system. Contingent activities are based on the Premack (1959) principle, which states that

higher probability behavior will rein-force lower probability behavior. Also known as "Grandma's rule," this means that students are rewarded with a preferred activity for completing an activity that they do not like as well (e.g., "When you have eaten all of your vegetables, you may have a cookie").

"Shaping and chaining are two techniques used fre-

quently to establish a new behavior. Shaping is based on selected or differential

reinforcement of successive approximations

Chaining is similar to shaping . . . however, the

teacher breaks the terminal behavior into a sequence of component steps, teaching and reinforcing each step

in order/'

School-related contingent activities might include serving as the lunch line leader, going to recess early, making a decision regarding the type of activity the student or class will engage in next (e.g., doing math problems at the board rather than on paper, moving to a preferred seat, eating lunch with the principal), and so on. Teachers favor both social reinforcers and contingent activities because they are less intru-sive and require fewer resources than tangible or token reinforcement sys-tems. In addition, teachers have used group contingencies to add peer pres-sure or approval to the reinforcement process. Cullinan and Epstein (1985) described two types of group contin-gent activities—dependent (the be-havior of a single student determines the consequence for the group) and in-dependent (the behavior of all students determines the consequence).

For some students, particularly those who have had little opportunity for success in school, it may be necessary to use tangible or edible reinforcers. These types of reinforcers have been found to be effective, particularly with

young students or those with handi-capping conditions, but edibles may be impractical in some settings (Nelson & Rutherford, 1988). Out-of-school contingencies such as parent rewards or a discount from a community mer-chant may provide incentive and sup-port for children who need motivation that is not readily available within the school environment (Cullinan & Epstein, 1985).

Token systems have been used to address some of the problems involved with use of immediate tangible or edi-ble reinforcers. That is, by establishing a reinforcement menu from which stu-dents can purchase or rent individual-ized items, or gain extra privileges, rewarding responsibilities, and/or activities, teachers are able to provide increased variety and reduce the likeli-hood of satiation or boredom (Nelson & Rutherford, 1988). Additionally, a token system may be less intrusive and easier to manage than immediate tan-gible or edible reinforcers, because tar-get behaviors and their consequences are specified in advance, and a sched-ule and routine are established for sys-tematic token redemption.

Critical Application Factors A number of factors have been found

to be critical to successful application of reinforcement: (a) timing of reinforc-ers, in terms of immediacy and sched-uling; (b) thinning or withdrawal; and (c) programming for maintenance and generalization (Haring Si Phillips, 1972; Sloane et al., 1979; Wallace Si Kauffman, 1986). Teachers planning a reinforcement system must consider these factors as well as weighing the advantages and drawbacks of this type of program.

Reinforcement needs to occur as quickly as possible following the target behavior to maximize effectiveness. Common scheduling terminology includes continuous/intermittent, fixed/variable ratio, and fixed/variable interval. Continuous reinforcement occurs in an ongoing fashion or all the time, as opposed to intermittent— which generally occurs some of the time, following either a ratio or inter-val schedule. A ratio schedule is one in which specific student behaviors result in predetermined consequences. If reinforcement occurs at the end of a particular time period (e.g., the end

• Which reinforcers are the most effective with specific students?

• How will reinforcers be delivered?

• How will effectiveness be evaluated?

• Are naturally occurring rein-forcers effective, or will con-trived or extrinsic techniques be necessary?

• Are extrinsic reinforcers read-ily available, practical, and able to be used with con-sistency?

• Will reinforcement contingen-cies apply to all students or should they be individualized for specific students?

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of class, or every 10 minutes), it is con-sidered a fixed interval schedule.

Because the optimal reinforcement is considered to be intrinsic motiva-tion, use of external or tangible reinforcement must be thinned, or decreased gradually, to wean the stu-dent from teacher-dependent reinforce-ment. This is often accomplished by gradually increasing the number of behaviors required to earn a reinforcer, or lengthening the time elapsed between reinforcement opportunities. Another common technique involves pairing extrinsic reinforcement with naturally occurring reinforcement as students are trained to graph their own accomplishments and give themselves positive messages. The external or tan-gible reinforcer is then gradually with-drawn, encouraging the student to rely more and more on internal, self-reinforcement.

Once a behavior has been estab-lished, and external reinforcement has been gradually withdrawn, teachers will still need to provide periodic probes to determine whether the student has maintained the target behavior over time. If not, intermittent reinforcement may need to be reintro-duced until maintenance has been achieved. If the target behavior is one that could appropriately generalize to other classes, teachers must not expect the student to do so automatically. Rather, students need to be explicitly instructed in generalization: Where will the behavior be used? What cues exist to determine whether the behav-ior is appropriate? Teachers can pro-vide examples and nonexamples, along with verbal discussion and modeling of target behaviors. Role playing may also be used to forecast and practice gener-alization of behavior.

Advantages and Drawbacks

Many teachers have found reinforce-ment techniques to be a valuable addi-tion to their classroom management repertoire. Reinforcement techniques provide students and teachers with the security of a predictable environment with rules and consequences defined in advance. Many reinforcers occur natur-ally in the classroom, and it is neither expensive nor difficult to train aides, paraprofessionals, and parents to use them. Behavioral techniques have been used successfully for encouraging

acceptable and discouraging disruptive behaviors, and are subject to testing for efficacy (Algozzine, 1982).

Like all instructional techniques, reinforcement does have some draw-backs that teachers should consider before implementation. Some teachers, parents, and administrators may view

Advantages and Drawbacks of Reinforcement

Techniques

"The teacher would rein-force the student only for

responses that most closely resembled the final objec-

tive, ignoring less complete behaviors, and gradually becoming more selective until the target behavior

was achieved/'

behavioral techniques as mechanistic or inhumane. Not all teachers are com-fortable with the same reinforcers,-some may be wary of dependency on extrinsic reinforcement. Limitations may be imposed by building adminis-trators, facilities, and resources,- the time and energy needed to implement a reinforcement program may be pro-hibitive in some situations. To be effective, reinforcement must be applied consistently, which may be difficult with a large class size. Because many students do not automatically generalize, instruction in transferring behaviors and skills must be provided (Algozzine, 1982).

Classroom Implementation Suggestions

Ideally, effective classroom organiza-tion and management will minimize unacceptable or rule-breaking student behavior. Teachers should approach decreasing unwanted behavior in the classroom by ignoring students seek-ing attention inappropriately whenever possible, while simultaneously rein-forcing incompatible behaviors or rein-forcing students whose behavior is more acceptable. When extinction/ ignoring is not feasible (i.e., the behav-

Advantages + They provide students and

teachers with the security of a predictable environment.

+ Rules and consequences are defined in advance.

+ Many reinforcers occur naturally in the classroom, and are inexpensive and easy to use.

4- Reinforcers have been suc-cessful in encouraging acceptable behavior.

+ Reinforcers can discourage disruptive behavior.

+ Reinforcement techniques can be tested for efficacy.

Drawbacks — Some teachers, parents, and

administrators may feel they are mechanistic or inhumane.

— Not all teachers are comfortable with the same reinforcers.

— Some teachers are wary of dependency on extrinsic reinforcement.

— Limitations may be imposed by building administrators, facilities, and resources.

— Time and energy needed may be prohibitive in some situations.

(Based on Algozzine, 1982)

ior is injurious or extremely disrup-tive), it may be necessary to use a more direct approach with noncompliant students. First, make sure offending students clearly understand the class-room rules and expectations, how their behavior deviates from acceptable limits, and what the consequences are for noncompliance. Attempt to work out a verbal or written contract/agree-ment with the student to correct the situation. Although punishment tech-

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liques should be used only as a last esort, several have been found to educe inappropriate behavior (Wallace k Kauffman, 1986): response cost, >vercorrection, and time-out.

As mentioned, teachers will need to )lan deliberately for maintenance of >ehavioral gains by using one of the f ol-owing techniques: gradually reducing einforcement, gradually delaying rein-orcement, gradually fading from artifi-:ial to natural reinforcers, teaching jelf-control behaviors, and extending ;ontrol in and beyond the classroom Wallace & Kauffman, 1986).

Conclusion Thus, the theory behind behavioral

reinforcement provides teachers with Dowerful techniques that may be used successfully with students in the class-room. Behavioral techniques make effective use of available resources, requiring a minimum of training and expense. Reinforcement may be used to increase appropriate behavior, decrease unwanted behavior, and maintain behavioral gains with a

variety of students across a wide range of ages, abilities, and skills. B

Joyce Anderson D o w n i n g , MSEd, is cur-rently a doctoral candidate in the Department of Special Education at the University of Kansas. M a r y Ross M o r a n , PhD, is currently profes-sor of special education at the University of Kansas. Brenda Smith M y l e s , PhD, is currently assis-tant professor of special education and coordina-tor of the Autism Training Program at the University of Kansas. Christine K. Orntsbee , MSEd, is currently a doctoral student in special education at the University of Kansas. All four authors administer the TEAMS (Teacher Empowerment for Academic Management Systems) Project, working with rural Kansas educators to develop a peer coaching sup-port network. Address: Joyce Anderson Downing, Department of Special Education, 4th Floor, H.C. Miller Bldg., University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66103.

Authors' Note Preparation of the Professional Development mate-rials from which this manuscript emerged was sup-ported by U.S. Department of Education Award No. R215A93119 under the Secretary's Fund for Innovation in Education.

References Algozzine, B. (1982). Problem behavior manage-ment. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.

Cullinan, D., & Epstein, M.H. (1985). Behavioral interventions for educating adolescents with behav-ior disorders. The Pointer, 30(1), 4-7.

Haring, N.G., & Phillips, E.L. (1972). Analysis and modification of classroom behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Martens, B.K., Peterson, R.L., Witt, J.C., & Cirone, S. (1986). Teacher perceptions of school-based interventions. Exceptional Children, 53, 213-223.

Nelson, CM. , & Polsgrove, L. (1984). Behavioral analysis in special education: White rabbit or white elephant? Remedial and Special Education, 5(4), 6-17.

Nelson, CM. , & Rutherford, R.B. Jr. (1988). Behavioral interventions with behaviorally disor-dered students. In M.C Wang, M.C Reynolds, & H.J. Walberg (Eds.), Handbook of special educa-tion: Research and practice (Vol. 2, pp. 125-153). Oxford, England: Pergamon.

Premack, D. (1959). Toward empirical behavior laws: I. Positive reinforcement. Psychology Review, 66, 219-233.

Raschke, D. (1981). Designing reinforcement sur-veys—Let the student choose the reward. Teaching Exceptional Children, 13, 92-96.

Sloane, H.N., Buckholdt, D.R., Jenson, W.R., & Crandall, J.A. (1979). Structured teaching: A design for classroom management and instruction. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Wallace, G., & Kauffman, J.M. (1986). Teaching students with learning and behavior problems (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

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