6E D I T I O N

Cognitive Psychology

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6E D I T I O N

Cognitive Psychology

ROBERT J. STERNBERGOklahoma State University

KARIN STERNBERGOklahoma State University

with contributions of theInvestigating Cognitive Psychology boxes by

JEFF MIOCalifornia State University–Pomona

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Cognitive Psychology, Sixth EditionRobert J. Sternberg andKarin Sternberg

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Contents in Brief

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1

CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Neuroscience 41

CHAPTER 3 Visual Perception 84

CHAPTER 4 Attention and Consciousness 135

CHAPTER 5 Memory: Models and Research Methods 185

CHAPTER 6 Memory Processes 228

CHAPTER 7 The Landscape of Memory: Mental Images, Maps, and Propositions 269

CHAPTER 8 The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind 319

CHAPTER 9 Language 359

CHAPTER 10 Language in Context 401

CHAPTER 11 Problem Solving and Creativity 442

CHAPTER 12 Decision Making and Reasoning 487

Glossary 530

References 538

Name Index 593

Subject Index 603

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Contents

CHAPTER 1Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1n Believe It or Not: Now You See It, Now You Don’t! 2

Cognitive Psychology Defined 3

Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism 6

Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology 7

Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition 7n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Pragmatism 9

It’s Only What You Can See That Counts: From Associationism to Behaviorism 11n Believe It or Not: Scientific Progress!? 12

The Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Gestalt Psychology 13

Emergence of Cognitive Psychology 13

Early Role of Psychobiology 14Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive

Psychology 14

Cognition and Intelligence 17

What Is Intelligence? 17n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Intelligence 17

Three Cognitive Models of Intelligence 18

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology 22

Goals of Research 22Distinctive Research Methods 23

n In the Lab of Henry L. Roediger 24n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Self-Reports 32

Fundamental Ideas in Cognitive Psychology 34

Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology 36

Summary 38

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 39

Key Terms 40

Media Resources 40

CHAPTER 2Cognitive Neuroscience 41n Believe It or Not: Does Your Brain Use Less Power Than Your Desk Lamp? 42

Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain 43

Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain 43n In the Lab of Martha Farah 47

Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function 51vi

Neuronal Structure and Function 61Receptors and Drugs 64

Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 65

Postmortem Studies 65Studying Live Nonhuman Animals 66Studying Live Humans 66

Brain Disorders 75

Stroke 75Brain Tumors 76

n Believe It or Not: Brain Surgery Can Be Performed While You Are Awake! 77Head Injuries 77

Intelligence and Neuroscience 78

Intelligence and Brain Size 78Intelligence and Neurons 79Intelligence and Brain Metabolism 79Biological Bases of Intelligence Testing 80The P-FIT Theory of Intelligence 80

Key Themes 81

Summary 81

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative,

and Practical Questions 82

Key Terms 82

Media Resources 83

CHAPTER 3Visual Perception 84n Believe It or Not: If You Encountered Tyrannosaurus Rex, Would Standing Still Save You? 85n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Perception 86

From Sensation to Representation 86

Some Basic Concepts of Perception 88n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: The Ganzfeld Effect 90

Seeing Things That Aren’t There, or Are They? 90How Does Our Visual System Work? 93Pathways to Perceive the What and the Where 95

Approaches to Perception: How Do We Make Sense of What We See? 96

Bottom-Up Theories 97Top-Down Theories 107How Do Bottom-Up Theories and Top-Down Theories Go Together? 110

Perception of Objects and Forms 111

Viewer-Centered vs. Object-Centered Perception 111n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Depth Cues in Photography 112

The Perception of Groups—Gestalt Laws 113Recognizing Patterns and Faces 116

n In the Lab of Marvin Chun 119

Contents vii

n Believe It or Not: Do Two Different Faces Ever Look the Same to You? 120

The Environment Helps You See 121

Perceptual Constancies 121Depth Perception 124

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Binocular Depth Cues 127

Deficits in Perception 127

Agnosias and Ataxias 127Anomalies in Color Perception 130

Why Does It Matter? Perception in Practice 131

Key Themes 132

Summary 132

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 134

Key Terms 134

Media Resources 134

CHAPTER 4Attention and Consciousness 135n Believe It or Not: Does Paying Attention Enable You to Make Better Decisions? 136

The Nature of Attention and Consciousness 137

Attention 138

Attending to Signals over the Short and Long Terms 139Search: Actively Looking 143Selective Attention 148

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Attenuation Model 151Divided Attention 153

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Dividing Your Attention 155n Believe It or Not: Are You Productive When You’re Multitasking? 157

Factors That Influence Our Ability to Pay Attention 159Neuroscience and Attention: A Network Model 160Intelligence and Attention 161

When Our Attention Fails Us 163

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 163Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness 165Spatial Neglect—One Half of the World Goes Amiss 165

Dealing with an Overwhelming World—Habituation and Adaptation 167

n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Overcoming Boredom 167

Automatic and Controlled Processes in Attention 169

Automatic and Controlled Processes 170n In the Lab of John F. Kihlstrom 171

How Does Automatization Occur? 172Automatization in Everyday Life 174Mistakes We Make in Automatic Processes 175

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Consciousness 177

The Consciousness of Mental Processes 177Preconscious Processing 178

Key Themes 182

Summary 182

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 184

Key Terms 184

Media Resources 184

CHAPTER 5Memory: Models and Research Methods 185n Believe It or Not: Memory Problems? How about Flying Less? 186

Tasks Used for Measuring Memory 187

Recall versus Recognition Tasks 187Implicit versus Explicit Memory Tasks 190Intelligence and the Importance of Culture in Testing 192

Models of Memory 193

The Traditional Model of Memory 193The Levels-of-Processing Model 200

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Levels of Processing 201n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Elaboration Strategies 202

An Integrative Model: Working Memory 203Multiple Memory Systems 209

n In the Lab of Marcia K. Johnson 211A Connectionist Perspective 212

Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology 214

Outstanding Memory: Mnemonists 214n Believe It or Not: You Can Be a Memory Champion, Too!!! 216

Deficient Memory 217How Are Memories Stored? 223

Key Themes 225

Summary 226

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 227

Key Terms 227

Media Resources 227

CHAPTER 6Memory Processes 228n Believe It or Not: There’s a Reason You Remember Those Annoying Songs 229

Encoding and Transfer of Information 230

Forms of Encoding 230Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory 233

Contents ix

n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Memory Strategies 238

Retrieval 242

Retrieval from Short-Term Memory 242n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Test Your Short-Term Memory 242

Retrieval from Long-Term Memory 244Intelligence and Retrieval 246

Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion 246

Interference Theory 247n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Can You Recall Bartlett’s Legend? 249n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: The Serial-Position Curve 250n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Primacy and Recency Effects 250

Decay Theory 251

The Constructive Nature of Memory 252

Autobiographical Memory 253n Believe It or Not: Caught in the Past!? 256

Memory Distortions 256n In the Lab of Elizabeth Loftus 260

The Effect of Context on Memory 263

Key Themes 266

Summary 266

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 267

Key Terms 268

Media Resources 268

CHAPTER 7The Landscape of Memory: Mental Images, Maps,

and Propositions 269n Believe It or Not: City Maps of Music for the Blind 270

Mental Representation of Knowledge 271

Communicating Knowledge: Pictures versus Words 273n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Representations in Pictures and Words 275

Pictures in Your Mind: Mental Imagery 276Dual-Code Theory: Images and Symbols 277

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Can Your Brain Store Images of Your Face? 277n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Analogical and Symbolic Representations of Cats 279n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Dual Coding 279n In the Lab of Stephen Kosslyn 280

Storing Knowledge as Abstract Concepts: Propositional Theory 281Do Propositional Theory and Imagery Hold Up to Their Promises? 283

Mental Manipulations of Images 287

Principles of Visual Imagery 287Neuroscience and Functional Equivalence 288Mental Rotations 289

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Try Your Skills at Mental Rotation 292Zooming in on Mental Images: Image Scaling 294

x Contents

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Image Scaling 294n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Image Scanning 295

Examining Objects: Image Scanning 296Representational Neglect 298

Synthesizing Images and Propositions 299

Do Experimenters’ Expectations Influence Experiment Outcomes? 299Johnson-Laird’s Mental Models 301Neuroscience: Evidence for Multiple Codes 304

Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps 308

Of Rats, Bees, Pigeons, and Humans 308n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Dual Codes 308

Rules of Thumb for Using Our Mental Maps: Heuristics 310n Believe It or Not: Memory Test? Don’t Compete with Chimpanzees! 311n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Mental Maps 314

Creating Maps from What You Hear: Text Maps 314

Key Themes 316

Summary 316

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 318

Key Terms 318

Media Resources 318

CHAPTER 8The Organization of Knowledge in the Mind 319n Believe It or Not: There Is a Savant in All of Us 320

Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge 321

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Testing Your Declarative andProcedural Knowledge 321

Organization of Declarative Knowledge 322

Concepts and Categories 323n Believe It or Not: Some Numbers Are Odd, and Some Are Odder 328

Semantic-Network Models 332Schematic Representations 336

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Scripts—The Doctor 338n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Scripts in Your Everyday Life 339

Representations of How We Do Things: Procedural Knowledge 340

The “Production” of Procedural Knowledge 340Nondeclarative Knowledge 342

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Procedural Knowledge 342n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Priming 343

Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and

Nondeclarative Knowledge 344

Combining Representations: ACT-R 344Parallel Processing: The Connectionist Model 348How Domain General or Domain Specific Is Cognition? 354

Contents xi

n In the Lab of James L. McClelland 355

Key Themes 355

Summary 356

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 357

Key Terms 357

Media Resources 358

CHAPTER 9Language 359n Believe It or Not: Do the Chinese Think about Numbers Differently than Americans? 360

What Is Language? 361

Properties of Language 361The Basic Components of Words 365The Basic Components of Sentences 367

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Syntax 367Understanding the Meaning of Words, Sentences, and Larger Text Units 368

Language Comprehension 368

Understanding Words 369n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Understanding Schemas 373

Understanding Meaning: Semantics 374n Believe It or Not: Can It Really Be Hard to Stop Cursing? 375

Understanding Sentences: Syntax 377n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Your Sense of Grammar 378n In the Lab of Steven Pinker 380n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Syntax 381n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Speaking with

Non-Native English Speakers 385

Reading 386

When Reading Is a Problem—Dyslexia 386Perceptual Issues in Reading 387Lexical Processes in Reading 388

Understanding Conversations and Essays: Discourse 392

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Discourse 392n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Deciphering Text 393

Comprehending Known Words: Retrieving Word Meaning from Memory 393n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Effects of Expectations in Reading 394

Comprehending Unknown Words: Deriving Word Meanings from Context 395Comprehending Ideas: Propositional Representations 395Comprehending Text Based on Context and Point of View 396Representing the Text in Mental Models 396

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Using Redundancy to Decipher Cryptic Text 398

Key Themes 398

Summary 398

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 400

xii Contents

Key Terms 400

Media Resources 400

CHAPTER 10Language in Context 401n Believe It or Not: Is It Possible to Count Without Words for Numbers? 402

Language and Thought 403

Differences among Languages 403n Believe It or Not: Do You See Colors to Your Left Differently than Colors to Your Right? 408n In the Lab of Keith Rayner 411

Bilingualism and Dialects 412Slips of the Tongue 418Metaphorical Language 419

Language in a Social Context 421

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Language in Different Contexts 422Speech Acts 423Characteristics of Successful Conversations 426Gender and Language 426

n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Improving YourCommunication with Others 429

Do Animals Have Language? 429

Neuropsychology of Language 432

Brain Structures Involved in Language 432Aphasia 436Autism 438

Key Themes 439

Summary 440

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 441

Key Terms 441

Media Resources 441

CHAPTER 11Problem Solving and Creativity 442n Believe It or Not: Can Novices Have An Advantage Over Experts? 443

The Problem-Solving Cycle 444

Types of Problems 447

Well-Structured Problems 447n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Move Problems 447

Ill-Structured Problems and the Role of Insight 454

Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving 460

Mental Sets, Entrenchment, and Fixation 460n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Luchins’s Water-Jar Problems 461

Contents xiii

Negative and Positive Transfer 462n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Problems Involving Transfer 462

Incubation 465Neuroscience and Planning during Problem Solving 466Intelligence and Complex Problem Solving 466

Expertise: Knowledge and Problem Solving 468

Organization of Knowledge 468n In the Lab of K. Anders Ericsson 472

Innate Talent and Acquired Skill 474Artificial Intelligence and Expertise 476

Creativity 479

What Are the Characteristics of Creative People? 480n Believe It or Not: Does the Field You’re in Predict When You Will Do Your Best Work? 482n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Creativity in Problem-Solving 483

Neuroscience and Creativity 483

Key Themes 484

Summary 484

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 485

Key Terms 486

Media Resources 486

CHAPTER 12Decision Making and Reasoning 487n Believe It or Not: Can a Simple Rule of Thumb Outsmart a Nobel Laureate’s

Investment Strategy? 488n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: The Conjunction Fallacy 488

Judgment and Decision Making 489

Classical Decision Theory 489Heuristics and Biases 490

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: Framing Effects 497Fallacies 499The Gist of It: Do Heuristics Help Us or Lead Us Astray? 501Opportunity Costs 502Naturalistic Decision Making 502Group Decision Making 502

n In the Lab of Gerd Gigerenzer 503Neuroscience of Decision Making 505

Deductive Reasoning 507

What Is Deductive Reasoning? 507Conditional Reasoning 507Syllogistic Reasoning: Categorical Syllogisms 513Aids and Obstacles to Deductive Reasoning 517

n Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Improving YourDeductive Reasoning Skills 519

xiv Contents

Inductive Reasoning 519

What Is Inductive Reasoning? 519Causal Inferences 521Categorical Inferences 521Reasoning by Analogy 522

An Alternative View of Reasoning 523

Neuroscience of Reasoning 524

n Investigating Cognitive Psychology: When There Is No “Right” Choice 525

Key Themes 526

Summary 527

Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions 528

Key Terms 528

Media Resources 529

Glossary 530

References 538

Name Index 593

Subject Index 603

Contents xv

To the Instructor

Welcome to the Sixth Edition of Cognitive Psychology. This edition is now coau-thored by Karin Sternberg, PhD. As you will see, this edition underwent a majorrevision. We reorganized and meticulously revised all chapters with the goal of pro-viding an even more comprehensible text that integrates the latest research but alsoretains students’ interest by providing more examples from other areas of researchand from the real world.

What Are the Goals of this Book?Cognitive psychologists study a wide range of psychological phenomena, such as per-ception, learning, memory, and thinking. In addition, cognitive psychologists studyseemingly less cognitively oriented phenomena, such as emotion and motivation. Infact, almost any topic of psychological interest may be studied from a cognitive per-spective. In this textbook, we describe some of the preliminary answers to questionsasked by researchers in the main areas of cognitive psychology. The goals of thisbook are to:

• present the field of cognitive psychology in a comprehensive but engagingmanner;

• integrate the presentation of the field under the general banner of humanintelligence; and

• interweave throughout the text key themes and key ideas that permeate cogni-tive psychology.

Our Mission in Revising the TextA number of goals guided us through revising Cognitive Psychology. In particular wedecided to:

• make the text more accessible and understandable;• make cognitive psychology more fascinating and less intimidating;• increase coverage of applications in other areas of psychology as well as in the

real world; and• better integrate coverage of human intelligence and cognitive neuroscience in

each chapter.

Key Themes and IdeasThe key themes of this book, discussed in greater detail in Chapter 1, are:

1. nature versus nurture;2. rationalism versus empiricism;

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3. structures versus processes;4. domain generality versus domain specificity;5. validity of causal inferences versus ecological validity;6. applied versus basic research; and7. biological versus behavioral methods.

The key ideas of this book, also discussed at more length in Chapter 1, are asfollows:

1. Empirical data and theories are both important. Data in cognitive psychologycan be fully understood only in the context of an explanatory theory, but theo-ries are empty without empirical data.

2. Cognition is generally adaptive but not in all specific instances.3. Cognitive processes interact with each other and with non-cognitive processes.4. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety of scientific methods.5. All basic research in cognitive psychology may lead to applications, and all

applied research may lead to basic understandings.

Major Organizing and Special Pedagogical FeaturesSpecial features, some new and some established, characterize Cognitive PsychologySixth Edition. Here are the new features:

• Believe It or Not feature boxes present incredible and exciting information andfacts from the world of cognitive psychology.

• A “Neuroscience and …” section in every chapter.• An “Intelligence and …” section in every chapter integrates the theme of

intelligence with the chapter topic at hand. The separate intelligence chapter,formerly Chapter 13, has been eliminated.

• Concept Checks follow each major section to encourage students to quicklycheck their comprehension.

And here are some of the established features:

• Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology feature boxes help students thinkabout applications of cognitive psychology in their own lives.

• Investigating Cognitive Psychology features present mini-experiments and tasks thatstudents can complete on their own.

What’s New to the 6th EditionCognitive Psychology, 6th edition underwent a major revision to make the book morecomprehensible, accessible, and interesting to students. Revision highlights include:

• Revised In the Lab features, including new profiles of Henry Roediger, III inChapter 1; Martha Farah in Chapter 2; Marvin Chun in Chapter 3; and KeithRayner in Chapter 10.

• Believe It or Not boxes now appear in every chapter to make cognitive psychol-ogy more fascinating and less intimidating to students and to show it can be funand surprising.

To the Instructor xvii

• The Practical Applications boxes now conclude with a critical thinking question.• Concept Checks now appear after each major section.• Updated Suggested Readings are now preceded by headings so students can

quickly find what they are interested in.• Key experiments are now clearly highlighted in Investigating Cognitive Psychology

boxes.• Thoroughly integrated intelligence coverage (formerly Chapter 13, Intelligence)

now appears throughout the 6th edition.• Advance organizers added to improve the reading flow and students’ under-

standing of how things fit together into a larger context.• Updated chapter organization for greater comprehensibility.• Reduced coverage of cognitive development and other non-cognitive topics

more accurately reflect the focus of cognitive psychology courses.• New subheadings increase understanding of content matter and larger context.

Chapter-specific revisions include:Chapter 11. An all new introduction to intelligence in Chapter 1 discusses what intelligence

is, how intelligence relates to cognition, and three cognitive models of intelli-gence (Carroll, Gardner, Sternberg).

2. New everyday examples include analyzing why companies spend so much moneyon advertising products that students use, for example, Apple iPhone andWindows 7.

3. New example in section on why learning about psychology’s history is impor-tant: a discussion on newspapers’ coverage of the success of educationalprograms, hardly any which use control groups.

4. New example of how nurture influences cognition by comparing Western andAsian cultures.

5. Expanded discussion of rationalism vs. empiricism now includes Plato andAristotle.

6. Expanded explanation of Descartes’ views.7. Enhanced introduction to section on early dialectics and explanation of what

dialectics are.8. Expanded explanation of what being a structuralist means in terms of

psychology.9. Expanded discussion of introspection.10. Explanation of Ebbinghaus’s experiment and new Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve

figure.11. New example from contemporary times has been added to the section on behav-

iorism explaining how reward and punishment are used in modernpsychotherapy.

12. New section on criticisms of behaviorism.13. New Believe It or Not box on scientific “progress” in the first half of the 20th

century and the introduction of prefrontal lobotomies.14. New explanation of why behaviorists regarded the mind as a “black box”.15. New In the Lab of Henry L. Roediger, III feature.16. New coverage of control variables.17. New explanation of why control over experimental conditions is important.

xviii To the Instructor