1

PB1654

UNDERSTANDINGHORSE BEHAVIORUNDERSTANDINGHORSE BEHAVIOR

HORSE PROJECT

Agricultural Extension ServiceInstitute of Agriculture

4-H MEMBERGUIDE

UNIT 8GRADE 12

2

CONTENTS

Introduction 3

Planning Your Project 3

The Basics of Horse Behavior 3

Types of Behavior 4

Horse Senses 4

Horse Communication 10

Domestication & Behavior 11

Mating Behavior 11

Behavior at Foaling Time 13

Feeding Behavior 15

Abnormal Behavior / Vices 18

Questions and Answers about Horses 19

References 19

Exercises 20

Glossary 23

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE TO BE ACQUIRED• Improved understanding of why horses behave like horses• Applying basic behavioral knowledge to improve training skills• Learning to prevent and correct behavioral problems• Better ways to manage horses through better understanding of horse motivation

OBJECTIVESTo help you:• Be more competent in horse-related skills and knowledge• Feel more confident around horses• Understand the applications of basic knowledge to practical problems

REQUIREMENTS1. Make a project plan2. Complete this manual3. Work on this project with others, including other 4-H members, 4-H leaders, your 4-H agent and other youth and adults who can assist you in your project.4. Evaluate your accomplishments

cover photo by Lindsay German

3

INTRODUCTION he 4-H Horse Project offers 4-H’ers opportunities for growing and developing interest in horses. This

manual should help expand your knowledge about horse behavior, which will help you better under

stand why a horse does what it does. The manual contains information about the basics of horse

behavior, horse senses, domestication, mating behavior, ingestive (eating) behavior, foaling-time behavior and

how horses learn.

Some of the topics are advanced, and are for senior level members, but all 4-H’ers might find parts of this

manual interesting. Activities at the end of the manual, however, are designed for older members. The focus of

this manual will be on behavioral characteristics that have management and training implications for 4-H’ers who

want to improve their knowledge of horse behavior.

PLANNING YOURPROJECT Planning is an important part ofany 4-H project. After you havelooked through this manual, takethe time to think about what youwould really like to learn or do inthis phase of your horse project.For example, do you want toimprove your knowledge of horsebehavior so you are better able tocare for and train your horse, or isyour primary goal more related toyour future career objectives (orboth)? Use the “4-H Project Plan”form at the back of this manual as atool for insuring you have the bestpossible experience in this 12th-grade project.

THE BASICS OF HORSEBEHAVIOR Because horses use their sensesto interact with their environment,this section includes definitions and

a brief overview of horse senses.Horses have unique and fascinatingbehavioral characteristics whichhave contributed to their develop-ment, survival and present-dayvalue as a companion to people.The successful 4-H Horse Projectmember should learn to understandhorse behavior, and apply thisknowledge to all facets of interac-tion with horses. Ethology is the scientific studyof animal behavior. Technically,ethology is the study of animals intheir natural habitat, but mostbehaviorists agree that the behav-ioral traits of domestic horses arerelatively similar to horses beforedomestication. Behavior can be defined as theanimal’s response to its environ-ment. Because domestic horsesexist in a relatively controlledenvironment, their response is fairlypredictable.

Several things make a horseunique in the animal kingdom.• Horses are strongly social. They

are herd animals, which are at ahigher comfort level when theymaintain a visual contact withother horses.

• Horses are herbivores. They eatplants. They rely on grazinggrasses and leaves for feed.

• Horses typically show a tendencyfor imitation between young andold.

• Horses are seasonal breeders and,as a consequence, foaling patternsoccur.

• Males tend to form a separatemale sub-group structure atcertain times of the year.

• Horses are considered preyspecies within the animal king-dom.

• Horses are capable of strong pair-bond relationships.

T

UNDERSTANDINGHORSE BEHAVIOR

Prepared by: Warren Gill, ProfessorDoyle G. Meadows, Professor

James B. Neel, ProfessorAnimal Science DepartmentThe University of Tennessee

4

Much of what makes a horsebehaviorally unique is related tobeing a herbivore (plant-eatinganimal) and a prey species. Tounderstand this, consider a howhorse’s feeding behavior differsfrom a carnivore’s (meat-eatinganimal) feeding behavior. Carni-vores spend a greater proportion oftheir time stalking food and lesstime consuming food. Horses spenda greater proportion of their timeconsuming food and less timesearching for food. Carnivorestypically must attack and subduetheir food before consuming it;horses merely graze and browse.These and many other feedingbehavioral traits can be logicallyassumed to provide a basis formuch of what makes horses differ-ent from carnivores. Carnivores areaggressive, horses passive. Carni-vores are anatomically suited forkilling other animals; horses areanatomically ideal for grazing andbrowsing. Carnivores can killhorses. Horses are less likely to killcarnivores and are more likely totry to escape from a carnivorousthreat.

TYPES OF BEHAVIORAnimal behaviorists have

classified the social behavior ofhorses (and other animals) into thefollowing categories:

Contactual Behavior - behaviorrelated to seeking affection, protec-tion or other benefits by contactwith other animals. Communicationbehavior (see the section on com-munication) is sometimes consid-ered as a separate category.

Ingestive Behavior - behavioralactivities associated with eating anddrinking.

Eliminative Behavior - behavioralactivities associated with defecationand urination.

Sexual Behavior - behavior relatedto mating between males andfemales.

Epimeletic Behavior - behaviorrelated to giving care and attention,most common between a mare andfoal, but also between other horses,such as horses standing togetherunder shade and “switching” fliesfrom one another.

Allelomimetic Behavior - behaviorrelated to mimicry; contagious orinfectious behavior such as whenone horse copies the behavior ofanother. If one horse starts running,for example, others are likely tojoin in. This may be a defensemaneuver that is typical of wildhorses.

Investigative Behavior - behav-ioral activities associated withcuriosity; the exploration of thesurroundings or objects. Horses arenoted for using all their senses tothoroughly “check out” any newitem, horse or place with whichthey are presented.

Agonistic Behavior - behaviorassociated with conflict or fighting,including anger, aggression,submission and flight from conflict.Sometimes behaviorists separatethis into two categories (aggressionand fearfulness).

Dominance \ Submission - behav-ioral activities often referred to as“pecking order,” because the earlybehavioral work in this area wasdone with poultry. Dominancehierarchies are extremely prevalentin the social order of horses.

Dominance is generally establishedthrough agonistic behavior, andmay be extremely violent (such asfighting between stallions) or assimple as threatening looks (earpinned back, squeals, sudden movesin the direction of the submissiveanimal). If the lower-ranked(submissive) animal has room toescape, there will often be nocontact, and the hierarchy is there-fore established or maintained withlittle or no fighting.

HORSE SENSES The senses are an important partof what makes horses behaviorallydistinct. Animals share the fivebasic senses: vision, audition(hearing), olfaction (smell), gusta-tion (taste) and touch. The sensesare the tools that an animal uses tointeract with its environment. Assuch, the senses can be consideredstarters of behavior. There is a temptation to relatehuman senses to horses, but horsesand people have basic differences inhow they see, feel, taste, smell andhear their environment. We do notcompletely understand horsesenses, but the things we havelearned have greatly added to ourhorse knowledge. A review of thisinformation can be helpful inunderstanding horses.

5

VISION Did you ever look at a horse eye to eye?If you have, you probably noticed a fewthings. First, they have a very large eye and avery large pupil. Second, the eyeball is placedmore to the side of the head, which giveshorses a wider field of vision. Predator species, such as dogs and coy-otes, have eyes placed toward the front oftheir head. This narrows their total field ofvision but it increases their binocular (usingtwo-eyes) visual field. Binocular vision givesthe predators better depth perception and amore concentrated field of vision. Preyspecies, such as horses, sheep and cattle, havea much wider visual field. With only slighthead movement, horses can scan their entiresurroundings. If there is a threat, the behav-ioral response is generally to flee. Much of the width of the visual field thathorses see is observed with only one eye.This is called monocular vision. When ahorse sees an object with its monocularvision, it will tend to turn toward it so thatboth eyes can see it (with binocular vision),and the ears can better hear it. There issometimes a brief visual shift as the horseswitches from monocular to binocular vision,which sometimes causes an unexplained“spooking” of the horse. The size of the pupil improves the abilityof a horse to pick up movement. The large

size provides a built-in wide anglelens effect which is further en-hanced by the placement of thevisual receptors in the retina. Thetotal effect is better side (periph-eral) vision. The horse can seemovement very well. Does the horse sacrifice visualaccuracy to get a wider field ofvision? In general, yes, but theanswer to the question is not clear.Current thought is that, while thehorse sees practically all the wayaround its body, the image is not asclearly defined as what humans see,especially within four feet. This,plus the fact that a horse cannot seedirectly below its head, mayexplain why horses often raise their

Horses have a very large eye and a very large pupil.

A horse will turn toward an object so that both eyes can see it(binocular vision).

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

6

head to observe close objects.Conversely, a horse tends to lowerits head to observe faraway objects. In spite of the wide field ofvision, there is a “blind spot”directly behind the horse. Peopleshould avoid approaching a horsefrom behind, because their presencemay not be detected until they areclose, and this could startle thehorse. Some horses may instinc-tively kick in this situation. Ifapproaching a horse from the rearcannot be avoided, make a soothingnoise to announce your presence.Do not “sneak up” on a horse frombehind. Another question often asked isdo horses have color vision? Formany years it was believed thatboth horses and cattle were colorblind. If horses can distinguishcolors, it is unlikely that horses’ability to see color is equal to otherspecies, such as humans.

HEARING In spite of its importance, thereis limited information about theauditory (hearing) sense of horses.We know horses are sensitive tohigh-pitched noises and the releaseof stress-related hormones inresponse to sudden loud noises suchas firecrackers or barking dogs.Horses become nervous and diffi-cult to handle when stress hormonesare elevated, so it may be useful toavoid loud or shrill noises whenhandling or moving horses. The horse can amplify andpinpoint sound with its ears. Soundarrives at each ear at slightlydifferent times, which allows thehorse to use sound as a means totell where the sound came from.The horse can then move its ears,head or its entire body to tell moreabout the source of the sound. Thisskill is probably as important assight and smell for keeping thehorse, as a prey species, alive.

A horse can amplify and pinpoint sound with its ears.

A horse can rotate its ears independently from front to side to pinpoint a sound.

phot

o by

Lyn

ne S

cott

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

7

SMELL The horse’s sense of smell(olfactory) may be the most diffi-cult for humans to understand.Horses have a more highly devel-oped sense of smell than humans,and they use their ability to distin-guish different odors more in theireveryday lives. Horses use their sense of smellin a number of ways. Horses usesmell to identify other horses,particularly when a mare uses smellto pick out her foal from a group.Another common use of smell isduring mating. The stallion con-stantly checks mares to detect theones in heat (estrus). The classichead-raised, lip-curling behavior ofthe stallion (bulls and rams, also) ashe smells females is called theFlehmen response. This trait,which may be occasionally ob-served in females, is due to aspecial organ (vomeronasal organ)above the roof of the mouth, whichhumans do not have. Horses probably use theirolfactory sense to locate water andidentify subtle or major differencesbetween pastures and feeds. Smellalso triggers behavioral responses.There are, for example, horses thatdo not like the smell of tobaccosmoke or may react negatively tothe odor of certain medications. Some people believe that horsescan sense when a person is afraid— which is probably true — andthis is often referred to as horses’ability to “smell fear.” It is possiblethat the horse can smell some smallchange in the fearful human, but itis equally likely that the horse cansense the human nervousness viaother senses.

Horses will use their sense ofsmell to select fresh feed in prefer-ence to spoiled feed. The next timeyou are tempted to dispose ofmoldy feed or hay by feeding it to ahorse, try smelling it yourself. Thenremember, if it smells bad to you, itmay smell worse to the horse. (Thismay not always work, however,because some molds, such as highlypoisonous aflatoxins, cannot bedetected by humans.)

The raised-head, lip-curling behavior usually displayed by stallions duringmating is called the Flehmen response.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

8

TASTE The sense of taste in horses isprobably not as important as thesense of smell, and it is difficult toseparate behavioral responses thatare due primarily to taste fromresponses caused by the olfactorysense. Using their sense of taste,however, is part of why horses cantell one feed from another. Whenpresented with a variety of feeds,horses will select certain feeds overothers. In practical situations, suchas under grazing conditions withmultiple forage species present, thehorse will select different types andspecies than either sheep, goats orcattle. There have been experiments todetermine if animals have “nutri-tional wisdom.” This is based onthe premise that horses will attemptto eat feeds that provide them withthe nutrients needed. In most cases,however, horses are unlikely tobalance their own ration whenprovided a variety of feeds. Ifpossible, they will consume feeds ata level far higher than necessary toprovide essential nutrients. Forexample, salt is often provided tomeet horses’ requirement forsodium; however, horses will oftenconsume many times the amount ofsalt needed to meet the requirement.Fortunately, there is no evidencethat over consumption of salt willcause health problems if adequatewater is available.

Horses enjoy special treats, such as carrots or alfalfa cubes.

Placing a salt-lick in a paddock will help a horse satisfy its sodium requirements.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

eyph

oto

by R

icha

rd M

axey

9

TOUCH The sense of touch is certainlywell developed in horses, and is oneof the most important senses interms of human interaction withhorses. The nose, lips, mouth andpossibly the ears are the mostsensitive areas to touch and, conse-quently, most readily lend them-selves to feeling behavior. Althoughhooves do not respond to touching,they should not be regarded aswithout feeling. In fact, variousparts of the hoof are able to feeltouch, as anyone who has shodhorses or trimmed hooves canrelate. Other areas of the body are alsosensitive to touch. The flanks forexample, are particularly sensitive,and can pick up a light signal fromthe rider. The ribs are also sensitive,as are the withers and back. Understanding the degree towhich horses are sensitive to touchcan be valuable to the trainer. Forexample, knowing that horses canfeel the slightest touch with theirlips underscores the importance ofdeveloping “a light touch” on thereins, and making certain thatbridles be correctly fit to the horseshead and mouth. Knowing that thehorse can feel the slightest shift ofweight in the saddle illustrates whythe rider’s position is important asthe mount is guided toward a jumpor other maneuver. Poor position,exaggerated movement or excessiveforce are confusing to horses andresult in poor performance. The sense of touch is undoubt-edly important in interactionbetween animals. Foals seek bodilycontact with their dams (mothers),and mares respond to the touchingbehavior of their foals in variousways, including milk let-down inresponse to the nuzzling/sucklingstimulus of foals. Another example of horses’sensitivity to touch is related to

electric fences. Anyone who hasused electric fences with a varietyof grazing animal species knowsthat horses are very sensitive toelectricity. To use electric fenceswith horses, the wire should beplaced approximately at noseheight. High-quality, well-groundedchargers should be used, and horsesshould be trained to the fence byintroducing them to a well-con-structed permanent electric fencefor their first experience.

The Role of the Sensesin Training The horse must rely on its sensesin order to perceive the signals(often called cues) that the rider isgiving. Touch and sound are theprimary senses which are used.

This is not a horse trainingmanual. There are a number oftraining publications, often devel-oped by breed organizations orsuccessful trainers, which canprovide more detailed informationabout how to train your horse.However, understanding thebehavioral basis that the horse hasfor recognizing cues through itssenses can be helpful in training.

The basic steps for using sensesin training are:Stimuli - The trainer / rider initiatesa cue, thus providing a stimulus tothe horse.Sense - The horse “senses” thestimulusResponse - The horse responds tothe stimulus with an actionReinforcement - The trainer

A rider’s position is very important, because horses can feel the slightest shiftof weight in the saddle or pressure from the rider’s leg.

phot

o by

Lyn

ne S

cott

10

“reinforces” in a positive way byrewarding the correct response andin a negative way by discouragingan incorrect response. Good trainers recognize that eachhorse has its own “combination”and will develop at its own pace.Intelligence, individual energy level,previous experience and many otherfactors may affect response. Pa-tience, repetition and building insmall increments of success willgive the best results. Over-use ofnegative reinforcement may yield ahorse that is prone to nervousness.Use positive reinforcement morethan negative if long-term develop-ment is desired. Do not expectreasoning powers that are beyondthe powers of the horse to give. An extremely well-trained horsethat was trained by a professional islikely to “come untrained” whenridden by a novice if reinforcementschedules are not maintained.

HORSECOMMUNICATION Horses communicate in manyways, including visual displays,sounds and even through smell(Heird, 1998). Understanding how ahorse communicates is important tothe 4-H Horse Project member forthree important reasons:

1. Diagnosis of medical problems -Learning how a horse behaves whenit is sick is important not only soyou will know it needs attention,but also because certain behaviorsare linked with specific problems.Naturally, a veterinarian or otherexperienced person may need to becalled upon for more detailedinformation, but it is never too soonfor a young person to start learningto tell the difference betweennormal, healthy behavior and thebehavior of sick animals.

2. Assessment of Emotional Stateor Temperament - As yourexperience and skill in assessinghorse behavior increases, you willfind that you can “read” a horse’semotional state. This knowledgecan be applied when assessing how“friendly”a new or unknown horseis, or it can be used to tell if a horseyou ride every day is in an unusualmood or is experiencing emotionaldifficulty. Sometimes a horse is

reacting to the presence of anotheranimal, or it can be related tosomething as simple as the weather.3. Safety - Horses usually commu-nicate a warning before they causeharm. Learning the communicationsignals — ears back, head lowered,teeth bared, turning into a “kicking”position, tail swishing, etc.— thatwarn of danger are important inavoiding harm. Nervous or “jumpy”behavior can possibly be as danger-

Horses can often display aggressive behavior when being fed.

Unfamiliar situations such as boarding a trailer can make horsesjumpy and nervous.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

eyph

oto

by R

icha

rd M

axey

11

ous as aggressiveness. Learn torecognize the signals that couldresult in harm, whether it comesfrom the horse you are riding or onethat is being ridden by someoneelse in your vicinity.

Learning by Application : Write ashort story about something relatedto horse senses or basic horsebehavior that applies to your horse,a horse belonging to a friend or ahorse story you have read. Ifpossible, share this experience in a4-H meeting.

DOMESTICATIONAND BEHAVIOR Horses and humans have beenclosely associated for a long time.Horses were probably the fourth orfifth species to be domesticated.Man’s best friend, the dog, was thefirst species to be domesticated,with sheep and goats approximatelytied for second in the domesticationrace. Horses were not far behind,and have proven to be a worthwhileaddition to the human-animalfamily. It is difficult to know exactlywhen domestication occurred, butdomesticated horse remains havebeen dated to some 6,000 years ago.By 3,000 years ago, the domestichorse had spread to Europe, Asiaand North Africa.

It is clear that domestication ofthe horse is a complicated storyabout the development of a com-plex, elegant relationship. Expertshave proposed the following stagesin the process of domestication ofhorses:• Loose ties of animals with man,

but no controlled breeding.• Confinement and breeding in

captivity, with separation fromwild horses allowing a distinctdomestic race to develop.

• Selective breeding by man for

certain features with occasionalmating to wild forms.

• The gradual intensification of thedevelopment of different breedswith desirable economic charac-teristics.

These steps occurred over thou-sands of years with the bondbetween man and horses beinggradually strengthened with eachgeneration. Genetic selection during theprocess of domestication led to thedevelopment of breeds. There isconsiderable variability in behav-ioral traits between breeds. Forexample, certain breeds tend to bemore active, while others are moredocile. The Thoroughbred, isknown as a breed with a strongtendency to be alert, even nervous.Other breeds, such the TennesseeWalking Horse, are known forbeing calm. Quarter Horses andMorgans are intelligent, whileShetland ponies are protective.Behavior, as related to the utilityof the breed in question, has beenselected for as certainly as size,muscling, skeletal structureor speed. Horses may have behavioralproblems, but most of these arepreventable or correctable withsome understanding of horsebehavior. In reality, properlytrained horses present few behav-ioral problems. In fact, horses areso gentle that they are outstandingcompanions for 4-H youth. Thou-sands of young people show horseseach year with little chance ofinjury by an aggressive animal.Most accidents are not due toaggressive horses, but are morelikely related to an improper orunusual action by the handler. Thelarge number of young people whoride horses every day is probablythe best “proof” of the high degreeto which the horse has been domes-ticated into the human pack/herd.

MATING BEHAVIOR Behavior is an important aspectof reproduction, and an understand-ing of the basics of reproductivebehavior can lead to managementapplications that can improvereproductive success. In thissegment, the complex behavioralpatterns related to mating will beaddressed.

Puberty Puberty is the attainment ofsexual maturity. In fillies, this canbe as early as nine or 10 months,but is usually 12 to 15 months.Stallions are 15 months or olderbefore they can successfully breed.Behaviorists have noted that bothstallions and fillies (less frequently)may exhibit sexual display beforethe reproductive tract is physiologi-cally mature. Therefore, pregnancycannot occur. Conversely, somefillies may cycle, but not exhibitestrus.

Estrus (Heat) Estrus, or heat, is the period ofthe reproductive cycle when themare ovulates and, if bred, is likelyto conceive. A behaviorist woulddefine estrus as the “behavioralstate when the female seeks andaccepts the male.” The average length of the estruscycle, or the period from heat toheat, is 21 days, but can vary from19 to 26 days. The duration of theestrus period is typically a week(actually about 6 days), but variesfrom two to 10 days. The foal heat,or postpartum estrus, typicallyoccurs six to nine days after foaling,but may be as early as five days oras late as 15. It is important for the mareowner to recognize the behavioralsigns of estrus. Some signs aregeneral, including restlessness,hyperactivity, less time devoted toeating and resting and more time

12

“running the fences.” Other signs,such as frequent urination, strad-dling (squatting) posture andclitoral “winking” are more specificand are often not as obvious in earlystages of estrus. Some mares are more likely thanothers to exhibit overt signs ofestrus. Older and more experiencedmares are more likely to exhibitclear signs of estrus. Maiden maresare considerably more likely tocycle without visible signs of heat. The presence of stallions in-creases the behavioral display ofestrus in mares. People who keeponly one or a few mares often havedifficulty in identifying the onset ofestrus. Sometimes such smalloperations may benefit from havinga single stallion (sometimes a ponyis preferred) around as a “teaser,” tostimulate estrus display. The use ofa teaser stallion in larger breedingoperations is routine to stimulatemares into a receptive state beforethe introduction of the breedingstallion.

Seasonal Breeding Behavior Horses exhibit seasonal breedingpatterns. In general, they arereferred to as “long-day breeders,”because as the days increase inlength in the spring, they come intoheat. Mares are also called “season-ally polyestrous” because they havemultiple cycling periods. The mostlikely breeding season for horses isthe spring or summer. Since light isa factor in controlling the seasonalbreeding pattern, horses are some-times called “increasing-light”breeders. Most studies have indi-cated a tendency toward anestrus(not cycling) in the winter months;however, some mares may cycleduring this time as well.

Courtship and Mating Mares will cycle several timesduring the breeding season if theyare not bred or if they fail tobecome pregnant. The heat period(mentioned previously) is about aweek, but the most intense estrusbehavior, when the mare is mostsexually receptive to the stallion, isabout three days. Mares in heat may actively seekout and attempt to stay in thevicinity of the stallions. There maybe few other signs of estrus early inthe heat period. As the heat periodprogresses, the mare may becomemore active in her courtship behav-ior. During the peak of estrus, themare may sniff, lick or nuzzle thestallion. A mare in heat is likely tourinate frequently, particularly if astallion is investigating. She is alsolikely to raise her tail and assume abreeding stance. A mare mayexhibit the urination response to thestallion whether she is in heat ornot; however, if she is not in heat,she will usually leave the vicinity ofthe stallion or turn on him withthreat behavior. If she is in heat, shemay passively accept the attentionof the stallion, occasionally turningher head to observe the stallion’sactivities. The classic behavioraldisplay of the stallion when it“checks” a mare is to lift its noseinto air and curl its upper lip. Thisis called the “Flehmen” response. Stallions exhibit certain addi-tional stereotypical display patterns.They will often be impatient, alert,hyperactive and restless. Vocaliza-tion is common. The stallion willfrequently nudge the mare, appar-ently to signal readiness and toassess her “firm stance” response.In addition to nudges, some stal-lions may smell and bite over themare’s body. Most behavioristsconsider the display as being moreimportant in the courtship processthan odor recognition.

Dominance Effects Dominance patterns are verymuch a part of horse breedingbehavior, particularly in naturalenvironments. One stallion willtypically dominate the breeding of aband of mares and competingstallions will be banished to formtheir own separate band — untilone of them become old enough,brave enough or tough enough todefeat the dominant stallion. In modern breeding establish-ments with numerous, separatelystalled breeding stallions, all thestallions are used for breeding.Dominance, nevertheless is inevidence. Most breeding barnmanagers can tell you whichstallion is dominant or “the boss.”

Libido Libido is the term which is usedto denote sexual drive or the degreeof sexual urge of animals. A stallionwith a high libido will exhibit aneagerness to mount and attempt tobreed a mare. In natural situations,stallions exhibit a wide range oflibido levels, from zero activity tothe extremely aggressive stallionwho sacrifices all other pursuits infavor of searching for and breedingestrus females. Either extreme maycause problems, and young stallionsare more likely to exhibit extremelylow or high libido. Older stallions are likely todecrease the intensity of sexualdisplay behavior, but are often moreefficient in mating. Impotence isfrequently observed in olderstallions, but may be caused byfactors other than age (such asinjury).

Learning by Application: Write ashort story about something relatedto this section that applies to yourhorse, a horse belonging to a friendor a horse story you have read. Ifpossible, share this experience in a4-H meeting.

13

BEHAVIOR ATFOALING TIME Behavioral traits associated withthe birth process (parturition) aredeeply rooted in the ancient devel-opment of animals. A basic as-sumption is that animals haveevolved behavioral strategies thatinsure their survival. During thebirth process, both the dam and heroffspring are in a weakened state,and are susceptible to attack bypredators. Steps are taken toincrease their safety. In general,these steps may include location ofsafe sites for the birthing process,quickening the process, protectingthe process, minimizing evidence ofthe process and achieving rapidrecovery. There are few things moredisappointing than the death of afoal. Most of these losses occurduring or shortly after parturition(foaling). Many of the causes offoal death are related to behavior. Researchers have studied manyaspects of horse behavior before,during and after foaling. Theserious student of horse ethology,for example, can find studies thatdetail behavioral traits of the fetus.The following information shouldhelp the 4-H member have a betterunderstanding of the behavior of themare prior to giving birth. Thisinformation includes the behaviorof the mare before foaling, thebehavior of the mare at foalingtime, the behavior of the mare afterfoaling and the behavior of the foalduring the period after birth.

The Behavior of thePre-Parturient Mare 4-H’ers who have a number ofmares should learn to recognize thebehavioral patterns that are charac-teristic of a mare that is about togive birth. Mares will generally foalafter an 11-month gestation, but thisis highly variable. Studies have

shown a range of gestation from315 to 387 days, with an average ofabout 341 days. There is evidencethat smaller breeds tend to haveshorter gestation periods. Onestudy, for example, found ponieshad a gestation of 336 days. The foaling date can be deter-mined from a combination of acalendar estimate of gestation andby watching for physical signs ofapproaching gestation, such asdistended udder, swelling of thevulva and teat secretions. Behav-ioral changes in late gestation aregenerally minimal, and may not beobserved until shortly before birth.

The first sign that can beobserved — but not always — isthe tendency for the mare to isolateherself from the rest of the herd.One study conducted with free-ranging horses showed that maresmay separate as far as three milesfrom the herd, while another studyin a desert environment found thatmany of the mares foaled near theherd. Younger mares were lesslikely to seek isolation. Maresfoaling in pens or stalls will oftenseek a corner or an area that offersthe most privacy.

Mare Behaviorat Foaling Time Mares prefer privacy at foalingtime. If possible, mares will delaybirth until human observers are notaround. Mares generally foal atnight. One study, for example,indicated that approximately 80percent of foals were born betweenmidnight and 6 a.m. Mares become restless duringthe first stage of foaling. They willnot eat, they may walk in circles,look back toward their flank, andswitch their tails. Some mares liedown and stand up repeatedly. Thisrestless period is usually shorter forolder mares. As labor progresses,mares may assume a straddling,

crouching position, and they mayurinate frequently. When the marestarts expelling fluid, she mayexhibit the Flehmen (lip-curling)reflex. The second stage of parturition,actual birth, is usually shorter induration than the first stage. Shortlybefore the foal is born, the maremay sweat profusely, especiallyaround the flanks. If she is dis-turbed, the mare may temporarilydelay the birth process. This is whyobservers of the foaling process arecautioned to keep interference to aminimum as long as the birthprocess is proceeding normally. Themare may be standing or layingdown as contractions begin, but sheusually is flat on her side by thetime heavy straining is initiated.The foal is usually born within 12to 18 minutes of heavy labor. First-foal mares are more likelyto have labor that extends over anhour, but handlers should be readyto assist if it goes much longer thanan hour. If mature mares are inlabor for more than one-half tothree-fourths of an hour, assistancemay be needed. After the foal is born, the marewill continue to lie on her side foranother 15 to 20 minutes. This timeis important for the mare to rest andto serve as a period for the bloodfrom the placental tissues to passinto the colt. A mare who is dis-turbed during this period may riseprematurely and sever the umbilicalcord. This is why it is wise to avoiddisturbing the mare for at least 15minutes after a normal delivery. Handlers should also be awarethat a normally gentle mare is likelyto become nervous and protectiveduring the first hours after givingbirth. The mare may, in her protec-tiveness, become aggressive enoughto be dangerous to people.

14

Mare Behavior After Foaling The post-foaling period is oftencalled the third stage of the birthprocess. If there has been a normalbirth, mares will stand some 15 to20 minutes after the birth of the foaland begin to nuzzle and lick. Thisperiod, referred to as the “criticalperiod” by behaviorists, is animportant time for establishing thedam/foal bond. The licking and cleaning behav-ior, which usually starts at the head,serves to stimulate the foal whilealso drying it. The cleaning isprobably also part of the initialbonding process, and is typicallyaccompanied by vocalizations and athorough visual and olfactoryexamination of the foal by the mare.New-born offspring learn to recog-nize their dam by her voice. The process by which thenewborn foal learns to recognize itsdam is called imprinting. Thecleaning/licking is also accompa-nied by nuzzling, which appears toassist the foal in learning to stand.The mare usually starts the lickingat the head, so that by the time shehas reached the rear, she is able toassist the standing process by thenuzzling. The mare normally remainsclose to her newborn offspring.This is in contrast to other commonlivestock species. Cattle, forexample, tend to find hiding placesfor calves while the cow seeks food.Sheep and goats tend to place theiroffspring in play groups whilegrazing nearby. The mare and foaltend to remain in close proximity atall times. The afterbirth is usually expelledwithin an hour or two after birth.Another contrasting characteristicbetween mares and other livestockis that mares are not typicallyinterested in consuming placentaltissues. Again, the mare is trulyfocused on her new foal. The mareis likely to not appreciate anything

that interferes with her companion-ship with her new best buddy.

Mares can identify her foalwithin hours of birth. Odor is theprimary recognition factor. Themost significant identification isusually made when the mare smellsthe rear area of the foal.

Foal Behavior after Birth The foal may stand as soon as 30minutes, usually after several failedattempts. As soon as it is steady onits feet, often within an hour ofbirth, the foal will start looking for

its first meal. Teat-seeking behavioris persistent, although somewhatrandom — the foal does not“know” exactly where the teat islocated. However, with the gentleassistance of the mare, the foal willfind the teat, quickly understand itspurpose and “know” how to suckle.Suckling behavior is instinctive inmammals. The experienced mare will orienther body so that her udder isavailable to the foal. She may evenshift the orientation of her hind legsto further assist the foal.

A mare will remain close to her foal at all times.

phot

o by

Lin

dsay

Ger

man

15

Within the first two hours, foalsstart breathing (within seconds),lift their head (within 5 minutes),attempt to rise (within 10 minutes),actually stand (within 55 minutes),vocalize (within 45 minutes),defecate meconium (within 30minutes), first suckle (within 1hour), first walk-run (within 90minutes) and take their first nap(within 2 hours). Understanding normal behaviorhelps 4-H’ers understand abnormalbehavior. If, for example, coltshaven’t defecated their meconiumwithin the first few hours, theyshould be given an enema or theirlives could be endangered. Occasionally, there is abnormalmaternal behavior that may result inmanagement problems. One prob-lem is the rejection of the foal bythe mare. The mare may butt orkick the foal or move away toprevent suckling. The 4-H’er shouldmake certain there is not a physicalcause responsible for the rejection,such as an udder infection. Often itis simply desertion, in which themare shows no interest in the foaland wanders away from the birthsite. Whether the desertion istemporary or permanent, it creates amanagement problem. Temporaryrejection can result in the failure ofthe foal to consume colostrum (firstmilk), which is desirable becausethe antibodies which colostrumcontains are absorbed only duringthe first hours of the foal’s life.Intervention by the owner isrecommended. The owner shouldgently restraint the mare duringsuckling until the foal is accepted. Foals suckle frequently duringthe first few weeks. Estimates rangefrom one to two times per hour,with each session lasting as long asthree minutes. Anyone who hasever bottle-fed a healthy foal willtestify, a young equine can sucklewith considerable vigor. As foals

grow older, the frequency andduration of the suckling sessionsdecreases, probably because theybecome more adept at suckling andless dependent on the mare. Foalswill stay close to the mare in thefirst weeks of life, but will gradu-ally begin exploring and developingsocial groups. By the end of thethird month, they will spendapproximately 60 percent of theirtime with others. They will alsostart consuming feed or pasture atan early age, as early as two weeks.By the time they are three to fourmonths of age, they may be obtain-ing as much as 50 percent of theirnutrient intake from sources otherthan their dam. By five to seven months, over 75percent of their nutrients may comefrom non-milk sources. This is oneof the reasons that it is generallyrecommended that foals be weanedat about six to seven months of age.

Learning by Application: Write ashort story about something relatedto this section that applies to yourhorse, a horse belonging to a friendor a horse story you have read. Ifpossible, share this experience in a4-H meeting.

FEEDING BEHAVIOR At the beginning of this publica-tion it was mentioned that thebehavioral definition of a horseincludes reference to the fact thatthe equine is a grazing animal. Inother words, the way the horse eatsis an integral part of what makes ahorse a horse. Since the horse is anungulant, it is predictable that muchof the behavior that is demonstratedis related to the consumption offorages. Behavior has direct effects onconsumption patterns, feed avail-ability and the selection of feeds.Horses devote more time to eatingthan to any other behavioral activ-ity. Feed and forage are generallyexpensive items in the budget.There is probably no other singlefactor as important to the well-being and productivity of the horsethan the feed and forage it con-sumes.

Basic Feeding Behavior Horses have to consume feedand water in order to survive.Beyond survival, consumption ofthe correct amounts and proportionsof feedstuffs allow horses to thriveand be productive. In this section,

Horses spend approximately five to 10 hours per day grazing.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

16

we will review the relationshipsbetween nutrition and behavior, aswell as feeding/grazing patterns andfeedstuff selection by horses.

Relationship BetweenNutrition and Behavior Feed consumption is motivatedby hunger, but the methods andpatterns of feeding are governed bybehavior. Mare nutrient require-ments, for example, increase duringlate pregnancy and lactation;therefore the demand for consump-tion of feed is higher (assumingthere is no change on nutrientdensity of the ration). Horses alsodemonstrate increased appetitewhen work load increases. Thehorse compensates for this increasein demand by increasing the rate ofeating.

If the quality or quantity ofavailable feed is low or horses arebeing worked hard, the horse oftencannot increase the rate of con-sumption enough to meet demand.This is where human managementplays an important role. The ownershould compensate for the imbal-ance and increase the feed and/orimprove the feed quality.

It would be a mistake tooversimplify the relationshipbetween nutrition and behavior. Forexample, there have been numerousattempts over the years to attribute“nutritional wisdom” to horses andother livestock. This is based on theidea that a horse will select a dietthat is more nutritionally correct.Unfortunately, this is often not thecase. The horse selects a diet basedupon a variety of factors (discussedin a later section), with nutritionalvalue being of little importance inthe food selection process.

Time allotment for ingestivebehavior The time that horses spendconsuming feed is governed by a

number of factors. Grazing timedepends primarily on: (1) type andavailability of forage, (2) consump-tion behavior, and (3) the level ofnutrient demand. If feed is limited — duringperiods of drought or when horsesare fed a restricted feed allowance— the horse will eat when feed ispresent or can be found. Whenabundant feed is available, horseswill develop patterns of consump-tion behavior. These patterns ofeating are developed in response todaylight/darkness cycles and otherenvironmental cycles, and areapparently influenced by learnedbehavior as the horse grows anddevelops. Most studies indicate thatheaviest grazing will occur in thehours around dawn and in the lateafternoon, near sunset. Nightgrazing also has been observed, andis likely to increase in the summer.Temperature can alter grazingtimes. When daylight temperaturesbecome extremely warm, horsesstart and stop their grazing earlier inthe morning on hot days. Coldweather alone apparently has littleeffect on daily grazing patterns;however, heavy rain, strong windand/or snow cover may signifi-

cantly alter grazing patterns. Most estimates of time spentgrazing fall between five and 10hours per day. In general, horsesspend less time grazing goodquality pasture, but this is notalways true. For example, althoughhorses may graze poor qualitypasture longer to meet nutritionalrequirements, horses on highquality pastures may consumeforage for much longer than isnecessary to meet needs. Over-grazing can lead the problem ofhorses becoming over-conditioned(fat) on pasture, because they areconsuming more than they need tomeet their nutrient requirements. The problem of over-weighthorses is most likely to occur whennutritional demands are lowest,such as in early pregnancy or whena working or show horse is “turnedout to pasture.” It may be neces-sary to restrict access to pasture ifhorses are becoming over-condi-tioned.

Other factors influencegrazing time Feeding concentrate supple-ments, for example, may reduceforage consumption. Thin horsesmay consume more than fat horses,

Horses need clean water available to them at all times.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

17

and this is at least partially ex-plained by increased grazing time. Typically, horses do not drinkwater frequently — hence the oldsaying “you can lead a horse towater but you can’t make it drink.”In natural environments, grazingpatterns are often set to allowaccess to water once or twice perday. When horses do drink, theytend to take in a considerableamount, often in some 15 to 20large swallows.

Selectivity Horses have a relatively largemouth and remarkably flexiblelips. They typically harvest theportion of the pasture plant they areinterested in consuming by biting itoff between their upper and lowerincisors. They are able to grazeclose to the ground and are alsoable to comfortably adapt tobrowsing — picking the leafymaterial from bushes or otherplants. These anatomical/behavioralcombinations result in the ability ofhorses to be selective about whatthey consume. The horse will oftenselect the most tasty part of the hayand leave the stems and undesirableportions.

If an abundance of pasture isavailable, horses will be veryselective. As the amount of avail-able forage decreases, the degree ofselectivity will decrease. If anumber of different varieties offorages are available, horses aremore likely to demonstrate markedselectivity. However, if only oneforage is available or if there areonly a few species available andthese are of similar acceptability tothe horses, there will be littleselectivity. It is interesting that someexcellent forages are not preferredby horses, and may be the last to beselected when others are available.One such example is alfalfa. Manyreports indicate that when horsesare provided a choice between grassand alfalfa, they will often selectthe grass first, even though alfalfa isnutritionally superior. However,when other forages are exhausted,the horse will quickly adapt to thealfalfa. Some researchers speculatethat boredom or a desire for changeis the reason why horses are occa-sionally observed selecting clearlyinferior forage in the presence ofabundant superior forage.

Sight, touch, taste and smell areused by the horse in selecting theforage species it will consume.Taste is the sense that is most likelyto influence selection. Indicationsare that odor plays a relativelyminor role. Sight is probably usedprimarily to recognize conspicuousforage species and to orient theapproach to those species, but sightapparently is not important ininfluencing selectivity. Horses eatleaves in preference to stems andgreen, succulent material in prefer-ence to dry, coarse material. Hungertends to decrease selectivity.

Grazing Patterns A number of factors can affectthe grazing pattern. The location ofwater, for example, can have animportant effect on grazing pat-terns. In arid zones, the watersource is the center of grazingactivity and the primary determi-nant of grazing the grazing area.The area near the water maybecome overgrazed, even damagedand eroded, because of the influ-ence of the water source on grazingpattern. Social factors, such as thedevelopment of a home or territorialarea can inhibit movement of horseson large ranges. The social rank ofthe horses can determine whichhorses obtain the choicest grazingsites or best access to supplementalfeed or water.

Learning by Application: Write ashort story about something relatedto this section that applies to yourhorse, a horse belonging to a friendor a horse story you have read. Ifpossible, share this experience in a4-H meeting.

In the winter it is important to provide supplemental forages, such as alfalfafor good nutrition.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

18

ABNORMALBEHAVIOR/VICES Do you have a bad or irritatinghabit, such a nail-biting or snappingyour gum? Horses also pick up badhabits, which are usually referred toas vices. Animal behavior expertsoften refer to vices as stereotypies,because they are often rooted in thebehavioral nature of the animal.Understanding that vices arebehaviorally based, stereotypedbehavior may assist in preventingand/or treating these problems.Common vices include thefollowing:• Wood-chewing. This occurs with

both stabled and pastured horses,and can be due to a lack of fiber inthe diet, or it can be due toboredom.

• Cribbing . This term is sometimesconfused with wood-chewing, butis more serious. Cribbing actuallyinvolves the grasping of a surface(often wood) with the teeth andswallowing air. This behavior cancause horses to lose weight, and itmakes them more prone to colic.Cribbing is sometimes incorrectlyreferred to as wind-sucking, but“wind-sucking” is a problem ofmares when air is pulled into thevagina.

• Stall-kicking . This behaviorinvolves a horse habituallykicking or pawing the walls and/orfloor of its stall. This behavioroften intensifies near feeding time.

• Weaving, circling or headbobbing. Weaving is the shiftingof the horse’s body from side toside. Circling and head bobbingare self-describing. All of these,and other habitual movementsmay simply be annoying or canbecome so persistent that theyactually result in a tired andlistless animal.

Correcting behavioral vices canbe difficult. Punishment is almostnever effective, and may result inworsening the condition. Try todetermine the basis for the problem.For example, if the animal ischewing the planks on the stallbecause of a lack of fiber in thediet, simply feed more hay, possiblyof a slightly lower quality, withmore fiber. If the animal is chewingbecause of simple boredom,providing additional stimulus maydecrease the wood chewing. Also,it may be helpful to put a barrier,such as wire or metal flashing, overthe favorite chewing place, or put adeterrent, such a hot pepper sauce,on the wood. Sometimes, a change

in stall or allowing more pasturetime will help. Cribbing is even harder tocorrect, but more important to findthe solution. Sometimes, a cribbingstrap placed around the throat willmake swallowing difficult enoughthat it curbs the habit. It also ispossible to muzzle the horse with aspecial device that allows grazingand drinking but prevents cribbing. Horses are social animals. If partof the problem is boredom due tolack of companionship, it ispossible that providing acompanion animal might help. Avariety of companion animals, fromchickens to goats, have been used. Sometimes horses that aredeveloping a tendency towardweaving, circling or other repetitivemovement vices will cease thebehavior simply by getting moreexercise, or by being turned outperiodically in an open paddock orpasture. Occasionally drugs are used tocurb vices. This solution is oftenonly temporarily successful, andmay be prohibitively expensive forlong-term use. However, successhas been reported in somesituations. Discuss this option withyour veterinarian.

ELIMINATIVE BEHAVIOR Horses generally prefer to stopwhatever they are doing to defecateor urinate. Riders should becomesensitive to this and makeallowances. Horses will oftenestablish an elimination area withina paddock. If possible, they arelikely to avoid grazing near thatarea.

Learning by Application:Write a short story about somethingrelated to this section that applies toyour horse, a horse belonging to afriend or a horse story you haveread. If possible, share thisexperience in a 4-H meeting.

Horses often chew wood because of boredom, and they can do considerabledamage to stalls and fences.

phot

o by

Ric

hard

Max

ey

19

QUESTIONS ANDANSWERS ABOUTHORSE BEHAVIOR

Following are some frequentlyasked questions related to horsebehavior.

Why are some people, such asexperienced trainers, able tohandle horses with such ease?

It is a combination ofexperience and an understanding ofhorse behavior. This, coupled withthe trainers experience, skill andconfidence, allows them to handlehorses with deceptive ease.

Are horses dumb animals?It depends on how intelligence

is defined. It is doubtful that therehas ever been a horse that wouldscore very well on an intelligencetest that was designed for humans.On the other hand, horses havesurvived as a species when othershave disappeared. The horse hasprecisely the correct amount ofintelligence it needs to allow it tofunction within the grazing/preyniche that it inhabits (horses don’tneed to be Einstein). Therefore,when the question is examined asthe amount of intelligence present,relative to the amount needed, itwould be unfair to characterizethem as “dumb.”

The negative use of “dumb” or“stupid” as applied to horsesimplies “dull,” and horses have toomany interesting facets to theirbehavior to deserve being labeled asdull. Sometimes a rider is temptedto call a horse stupid because thehorse does not react in the mannerthe rider thinks it should. However,a properly trained horse reacts in avery predictable manner, and thefailure of the horse to behaveaccording to the rider’s desiresmay, in fact, reflect the rider’s lackof perception rather than thehorse’s.

Why do horses herd together?Part of the explanation for theherding instinct is that it is aprotective mechanism. Many horsesare not equipped with the skills thatallow them to effectively fight largepredators, so they will normally fleefrom attack. The odds of successfulescape are directly proportional tothe horses’ ability to detect theattack as quickly as possible.Increasing the number ofindividuals in the group increasesthe opportunity of early detectionand successful escape. Also, it ismore likely that older or crippledhorses will be apprehended by apredator in an attack on the herd.These horses happen to be the onesthat are less important to thesurvival of the herd.There are also social benefits to theherding instinct. Being a part of aherd, guarantees horses access tomates. They are also supplied withcompanionship and a defined socialhierarchy. There is, of course, arequirement for horses to sacrifice alarge portion of their individualityin return for the advantages ofbeing part of the herd. Individuality,however, apparently returns veryreadily under training conditions,almost exactly as soon as humansgive the horse a name.

Do horses prefer to drink runningwater or still water?

Horses will pick still waterwhen they have a choice. In fact,based on field reports, they may cutback on water consumption ifrunning water is all that is available.

How do horses stay cool in thesummer?

Horses will often seek shelterfrom the sun in dark places. A coolbarn, a rock overhang or a grove oftrees will provide the relative coolthat the horses are seeking. Plentyof cool, clean water also helps.Horses also perspire, which

becomes their natural coolingmechanism, especially duringperiods of activity.

Will horses choose fight or flightwhen confronted with a threat?

To understand whether a horsewill fight or flight, it is important tounderstand a horses’ “flight zone.”This is the space around the horsewhich, if entered by a perceivedthreat, will cause the horse to react.If the horse has a choice, it willchoose flight. If an untamed horseis cornered or penned, and cannotescape by flight, and a dog or aperson penetrates their flight zone,the horse will become nervous oreven highly agitated. Panic cancause them to leap fences orstampede. Usually, simplyremoving the threat from the flightzone will calm the horse.

Horses that are handled morefrequently are not as sensitive abouttheir flight zone. Loud noises orfrenzied activity can increase theeffective size of the flight zone.This is why someone with a calm,confident manner is more effectiveas a horse handler than a nervous,noisy person.

ReferencesBanks, E.M., 1977. AnimalBehavior. Educational Methods.Chicago.

Diamond, J. 1992. The ThirdChimpanzee. Harper CollinsPublishers, New York.

Fraser, F. F. 1992. The Behavior ofthe Horse. CAB International,Wallingford, UK.

Harper, F. And D. Spitzfaden.1994. “Stereotypies in Horses: anew look at old vices.” HorseExpressVol. 13, No. 4. Universityof Tennessee AgriculturalExtension Service.

20

Heird, James C. And Mark J.Deesing. 1998. “Genetic Effects onHorse Behavior.” Genetics and theBehavior of Domestic Animals.Academic Press, San Diego, CA.Edited by Temple Grandin.

Potter, G. D. And B. F. Yates.1977. “Behavioral Principles ofTraining and Management.” TheHorse W. H. Freeman andCompany. Eds: Evans, W.; A.Borton, H. F. Hintz and L. D. VanVleck.

Reed, C.A. 1984. “The Beginningsof Animal Domestication.”Evolution of Domestic Animals.Published by Longman, Londonand New York. I.L. Mason, Editor.

Special Thanks to the followingpeople who reviewed thispublication and made excellentsuggestions for improvement: Dr.Dave Whitaker from MiddleTennessee State University, Drs.John Henton and Fred Hopkins withthe University of TennesseeCollege of Veterinary Medicine,Dr. David Kirkpatrick with theUniversity of TennesseeDepartment of Animal Sciences andMr. Steve Sutton with the 4-HDepartment of the University ofTennessee.

EXERCISES Successful completion of this part of your 4-H project requires that youcomplete at least one research exercise and one behavioral observationexercise. These are described below:

Research Exercise An abundance of literature exists related to horse behavior and training.Pick a behavior-related topic that interests you and find out as much as youcan related to that topic (this is research). Use as many information sourcesas possible (library, the Internet, bookstore, breed publications, magazines,personal interviews with experienced people, etc.). Write a report or articleabout this topic from the information you have gathered. If possible,present this topic to your 4-H Horse Project Group or other audience. Pickyour own topic (with approval of your project leader or 4-H agent) or useone of the following suggestions:• Predicting horse behavior from facial expressions.• Teaching a horse to respond to pressure.• Treating or preventing vices.• How understanding “pecking order” affects horse management.• Read the Horse Whisperer (a novel) and try to find a person in your area

who has the level of experience and skill that approaches that of thefictional character in the book. Interview that person, placing youremphasis on learning how to develop this level of understanding of horsebehavior and training.

Behavioral Observation Exercise Conduct a behavioral observation exercise by picking a particular typeof horse behavior, and carefully observe that behavior in your own horse(s)or horses that belong to someone else. Record your observations. Includetiming observations, if appropriate. Prepare a report about the observationsyou have made. Support your observations with research (see researchexercise). If possible, present this topic to your 4-H Horse Project Group orother audience. Pick your own observation topic (with approval of yourproject leader or 4-H agent) or use one of the following suggestions:• Turn out three horses that have not previously been together into the

same paddock (Warning: make certain that submissive animals haveroom for safe retreat from aggressive animals). Observe their behaviorfor at least a half hour. Record your observations. Answer thesequestions: Which horse is most dominant? Which horse is mostsubmissive? What behavioral activities were exhibited? Was therefighting or did horses exert dominance by threat display? Alternative:Turn one horse into a group with which it has never been before andmake the same observations.

• Observe horse behavior during parturition (birth). Do this under thesupervision of an experienced adult. (Caution: this may require stayingup late for several nights before birth actually occurs.) Answer thesequestions: How long was the mare in labor? What time of day did thebirth occur? What was the position of the mare during the birth process?How long did it take the foal to stand? Suckle? Trot or running walk?Lope?

• Observe feeding behavior. Turn horses into a pasture or paddock withfeed after a workout or short period without feed. Observe which horses

21

are the most aggressive eaters and which are most timid. Do any of the horses tend to “bolt” (eat too rapidly)their feed? Record observations.

• Observe investigative (curious) behavior. Introduce horses into a new environment or put a new object into theirexisting environment. Young horses often work best. Observe behavioral responses. Do different horses respondin different ways? How long does it take the horses to explore certain areas or aspects? Are there differences dueto gender? Age? Do horses that exhibit more curiosity tend to be the ones that learn better during training?

Answer the following questions based upon your review and understanding of the topics in this manual.

Horse Behavior Basics

1. The study of animals in their natural habitat is .

2. Within the animal kingdom, cats are predators and horses are .

3. Horses are anatomically designed for (pick one):Intellectual achievementStalking and subduingSpending time on eating

Types of Behavior

1. Which type of behavior is associated with the consumption of food and water?

2. When horses “check out” a new arrival in the pasture, they are exhibiting behavior.

3. As horses establish pecking order, they prefer (pick one):Threatening displayArbitrationDamaging attacks

Horse Senses

1. How is “spooking” related to binocular vision?

2. How do horses use their ears as a protective mechanism?

3. Rank the importance of vision, hearing and touch in transmitting signals from rider to horse.

1. 2. 3.

Domestication

1. How long have horses been domesticated?

2. What animals were domesticated before horses?

3. Give one or more methods that humans have used to change breeding patterns during the domestication of horses.

Questions

22

Mating Behavior

1. In Tennessee, when are mares most likely to mate?

2. The lip-curling reflex is called .

3. The manager can encourage the expression of estrus display behavior. How is this done?

Behavior at Foaling Time

1. At parturition, mares are likely to (pick one):Seek solitudeWait for the vetNeed more light

2. The new foal is likely to nurse within .

3. How often will foals nurse during the first few weeks?

Feeding Behavior

1. In a grazing habitat, the time spent consuming feed depends on what factors?

2. Do horses always eat what is best for them (give an example to defend your answer)?

3. What senses does a horse use in selecting what it will consume?

Abnormal Behavior / Vices

1. What is the difference between wood-chewing and cribbing?

2. Why are companion animals sometimes used to curb vices?

3. Which of the following is likely to be the least effective in correcting vices:

Understanding the basis of the problem and correcting based on that information.

Innovative punishment such as playing loud music accompanied by a careful explanation of why “this is foryour own good.”

Moving the horse to a different environment or the use of physical barriers.

23

GLOSSARYAgonistic Behavior - All behavior involved with conflict or fighting, including anger, aggression, submission and

flight from conflict.Allelomimetic Behavior - Mimicry; copying behavior such as when one horse imitates the behavior of another.Auditory - Related to sound, listening.Behavior - The animal’s response to its environment.Binocular Vision - Using both eyes for observation.Carnivorous - Meat-eating.Contactual Behavior - Seeking affection, protection or other benefits by contact with other animals.Dominance \ Submission - Often referred to as “pecking order,”these terms refer to the ranking or social order of

animals. Dominant animals rank over submissive animals.Eliminative Behavior - Activities associated with defecation and urination.Epimeletic Behavior - Giving care and attention, most common between mare and foal, but also between other

horses, such as horses standing together under shade and “switching” flies from one another. (Et-Epimeleticbehavior is the calling or movement associated with seeking epimeletic behavior, such as when a lost foal isseeking its dam).

Estrus (Heat) - The period of the reproductive cycle when the mare ovulates and, if bred, is likely to conceive. Abehaviorist would define estrus as the “behavioral state when the female seeks and accepts the male.”

Ethology - The scientific study of animal behavior, often in the natural environment.Flehmen Response - Head-raised, lip-curling behavior of the stallion (bulls and rams, also) as he smells estrus

females. The behavior is sometimes observed in females.Flight zone - This is the space around the horse which, if entered by a perceived threat, will cause the horse to

react. If the horse has a choice, it will choose flight.Gustation - The sense of tasteHerbivore - Plant-eating animalImprinting - The process in the first hours of life by which animals learn to recognize and bond to their dam

(and/or other caregiver).Ingestive Behavior - The behavioral activities associated with the consumption of food and water.Investigative Behavior - Curiosity; the exploration of the surroundings or objects. Horses are noted for using all

their senses to thoroughly “check out” any new item, horse or place with which they are presented.Libido - the term which is used to denote sexual drive or the degree of sexual urge of animals.Monocular vision - Using one eye for observation.Olfactory - Related to the sense of smell.Pheromones - compounds which are emitted from an animal to signal sexual receptivity.Parturition - The process of giving birth.Placental Tissues - The vascular tissues connected to the fetus by the placental cord; these tissues are expelled

from the uterus after parturition (hence the common name of “after-birth”).Polyestrus - Multiple estrus cycles; horses are seasonally polyestrus meaning they may cycle repeatedly within

the breeding season.Puberty - The attainment of sexual maturity.Reinforcement - Teaching by repetition. With horses, the trainer “reinforces” in a positive way by rewarding the

correct response and in a negative way by discouraging an incorrect response.Sexual Behavior - Behavioral aspects related, generally, to mating between males and females.Stereotypical Behavior (stereotypies) - Vices, abnormal behaviorStimuli - In horse training terms, a signal or cue initiated by the trainer/rider. The horse “senses” the stimulus,

and responds to the stimulus with an actionTeaser - A stallion which is used to stimulate a mare into sexual receptivity, usually in preparation for breeding

by another stallion.Ungulant - An animal with hooves, most species of which consume forages.Vocalization - In animals, making recognizable, behaviorally predictable sounds with the mouth.Vomeronasal organ - This organ is in the nasal cavity and is connected to the roof of the mouth. Its purpose may

be to detect the pheromones (sexual odor compounds) in the urine.

24

4-H Project Plan (F652)

Project Year

What I plan to do and learn in this project (goals):

How I plan to reach my goal:

Resources I can use (money, supplies, equipment, help from others, etc.):

Signed: Signed:4-H Member Parent/Guardian

Date:

(This form should be included in the Project Record Section of the 4-H Achievement Record Book.)

Project Plan Evaluation

What I did:

I feel I met by goals (or did not meet my goals) because:

Resources I used (money, supplies, equipment, help from others, etc.):

Other things I would like to do (future goals):

Signed: Signed4-H Member Parent/Guardian

Date:

The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race,religion, color, national origin, sex, age, disability or veteran status and is an Equal Opportunity Employer. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN

AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.

Agricultural Extension Service, Charles L. Norman, Dean