Przemysław Bryk

Therianthropy and theriomorphism in shamanic

religions

The idea of turning into animal or deities, that take shape of animals, is very common

among religions all over the world. This concept originates from earliest times of mankind,

when humans were much more dependent on animal kingdom. It was very crucial to predict

animal behaviour, abundance or deficiency of certain animal populations had great influence

on functioning of earliest societies. Among hunter-gatherers lack of animals to hunt could

lead, in extreme, to extinction. That is why becoming an animal and understanding how it

lives was thing, that early people could wanted to achieve. Theriantrophy and theriomorphism

are concepts present in many (if not all) shamanic traditions and religions. Because some of

societies based upon shamanism are still partially nomadic and dependant on tricks of nature

the symbolism of becoming an animal plays important role in their tradition. The tradition,

that still maintains this sacred union between animals and mankind.

Illustration 1. Sorcerer figure from Trois Frères cave.

Palaeolithic religions

The source of shamanic beliefs can be traced directly to earliest examples of human

art, that we find in caves like Lascaux, Trois Frères or Altamira. Although, meaning of all

Palaeolithic cave paintings remain unclear.

Researchers like John Halverson suggested, that it was simply earliest forms of an art.

And it is supposed to be just art for art’s sake1. Another hypothesis, very popular during the

XX century, said that Palaeolithic cave paintings were connected to activities based on

sympathetic magic. Hunters-gatherers of that time were using cave paintings to assure, that

upcoming hunt for animals will be successful. But this idea was also incoherent. Because

among paintings only very few of them are representing scenes of hunting or animals being

killed by hunters. And, what is more important to subject of this paper, this hypothesis do not

explained examples of beings portrayed as half-people half-animals2, like the famous sorcerer

from Trois Frères cave painted as half-man half-deer (Illustration 1).

Jean Clottes and David Lewis-Williams in their book Les chamanes de la prehistorie

suggest that Palaeolithic cave paintings could be connected to early forms of shamanic rituals,

rites of passage and shamanic initiations. And paintings itself are records of trances that took

place in those particular caves. If we look closer at it, caves can be perfect places to perform

shamanic initiation, which requires candidate to fall into altered state of consciousness3. There

are many ways to achieve such state of mind, but besides using hallucinogenic substances and

the sensory overload (by ecstatic dance or excessive physical effort) the most common way is

the sensory deprivation. Candidate for new shaman is isolated from society and he is forced to

spend long period of time in complete darkness and silence, without food and is forced not to

move. Long exposure to such conditions can lead to depersonalization, distortion in

perception of own body, visual and hearing hallucinations and strong, easily changing

emotions4. As we can see, deep, dark caves are perfect places to conduct such rituals. Also,

during that state initiated man goes into underworld5, which cave can easily represent and can

be related to womb, from which new shaman will be born, because experience of own death is

also very important phase of shamanic initiations6. So, hypothesis suggested by Clottes and

Williams can be most accurate of all of them.

1 J. Clottes, D. Lewis-Williams, 2009, Prehistoryczni szamani…, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, s. 98.2 Tamże, s. 99-106.3 A. Wierciński, 2004, Magia i religia, Szkice z antropologii religii, Kraków: NOMOS, s. 128-138.4 D. Wulff, 1999, Psychologia religii. Klasyczna i współczesna, Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, s 81-82.5 B. Walczak, 2007, Doświadczenie numinotyczne a analiza tekstu… [w:] Doktór Tomasz (red.), Doświadczenie religijne, Warszawa: Verbinum, s. 297.6 A. Wierciński, dz. cyt., s. 130.

Illustration 2. Phases of trance experience by Clottes and Lewis-Williams.

Clottes and Williams were trying to find out source of therianthropic figures among

Palaeolithic cave paintings. They suggested, such creatures come from hallucinations

appearing during the trance. They divided this experience into three phases (Illustration 2)

connected with visuals that are appearing to person experiencing altered state of

consciousness. In first phase hallucinations have form of geometric shapes – lines, points,

zigzags and other patterns. In second phase brain is trying to rationalize geometric shapes and

gives them forms of known things or religious symbols. This phase ends with crossing

through tunnel or some kind of vortex. And in the last phase hallucinations become

experienced as real and are projected on environment. Person in third phase sees animals,

monsters and other mythical creatures7. While experiencing this phase, person can be

transformed into animal. For example - man, who achieved such state says, that “I thought of

a fox and instantly I transformed into a fox. I felt to be a fox. I saw my long ears and furry tail

and, thanks to some kind of introspection, I knew my whole body was a body of a fox” 8.

Crossing boundaries of your own body is one of experiences that can appear during the

altered states of consciousness9.

This kind of transformation can be used by shamans to connect with animals, learn

their secret language and through this obtain secrets of nature and mystical powers10, also he

can order them to be easily hunted or to reproduce11, so there will be enough food to survive

for his tribe. This prototype of shamanic person that appears on Paleolithic cave paintings

could be later transformed into figure of shaman, sorcerer or deity known as Lord of Animals

– form of a horned god is very popular, most known examples could be Celtic Cernunnos

(Illustration 3) or Proto-Shiva portrayed on Pashupati seal.

7 J. Clottes, D. Lewis-Williams, dz. cyt., s. 39-43.8 Tamże, s. 42.9 A. Wierciński, dz. cyt., s. 138.10 M. Eliade, 2001, Szamanizm i archaiczne techniki ekstazy, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, s. 103.11 A. Szyjewski, 2005, Szamanizm, Kraków: NOMOS, s. 31-32.

Illustration 3. Cernunnos from the Gundestrup claudron.

Guardian spirits

During the initiation, future shaman is obliged to obtain his own guardian spirit. This

phase of initiation is very important, because guardian spirit is source of shamanic power.

Shaman uses his guardian spirit to conduct magical treatments – heal, find lost souls, see into

the future, influence animals or weather. Also this spirit is used in magic fights with other

shamans or mythological creatures. Guardian spirit is container of power and knowledge.

Also, he is shaman’s guide through the underworld and spirit world in heavens. Simply, you

cannot become shaman if you did not obtain your guardian spirit12.

Guardian spirits mostly have form of animals. It could be nearly every animal, that

lives in the same area – rabbit, bear, wolf, deer, any sort of birds etc13. It can also have form of

a hybrid of different spices14. Guardian spirit is considered to be a “shadow” of shaman, his

alter ego. Allows him to transform into particular kind of animal during the trance and shares

sacred knowledge, brings visions and advices. Such spirits reveal to shamans what they

should do and what ritual treatments must be conducted. As example, story of Siberian

shaman Djuchade can be quoted:

During his initiation, Siberian shaman Djuchade was brought by his guides

– ermine and mouse – to high barrow. He noticed hole in it, and entered

through. There was incredible luminosity inside the barrow.

Djuchade saw two women, who looked like reindeers. They were covered

with fur, and had antlers on their heads. One of women had antlers made of

iron. Those two were Mistresses of Reindeers. Each of them gave birth to

few calves in presence of Djuchade. First woman released her reindeers

and explained, that those will be his sacrificial animals. One of them will 12 Tamże, s. 82-8313 M. Eliade, dz. cyt., s. 103.14 A. Szyjewski, 2005, Szamanizm, Kraków: NOMOS, s. 85.

serve for needs of Dolgans and Evenks, second one – of Nganasan. Second

woman also had released her reindeers and explained one of them will be

wild reindeer, and other one domesticated.

Women also taught Djuchade, that they are responsible of reindeers

fertility15.

Sometimes it is the guardian spirit, who chooses certain person to become a shaman.

He sends him visions or some kind of sickness, until he is confronted during the initiation.

Like in vision of shaman of Nanai people:

- I am ayami [guardian spirit] of your shamanic ancestors. I had taught

them in pas, now I intend to teach you. (…)

I was scared and tried to resist. Then she said:

- If you not want to be obedient, it will be worst for you. I will kill you.

Sometimes she comes in shape of old woman, sometimes as wolf, and

when that happens it is scary to look at her. Sometimes she appears in form

of winged tiger. I ride on her, and she shows me different countries. (…)

She gave me three helpers: jarga (snow panther), doonto (bear) and amba

(tiger). They appear in my dreams and show always, when I call them. If

one of them would not want to come, my ayami makes them to be

obedient, but some say, that there are spirits, who do not listen even to

ayami. When I do shamanic things, ayami and helping spirits are in me, big

or small, they penetrate through me like smoke or fog16.

As we can read in that quote, besides main guardian spirit, shaman can posses power

over many another “helping spirits”, which also have form of animals. The more helping

spirits shaman have, the greater is his power. Especially, when some kind of animals can help

in different moments. For example bear can be very useful guide, in underworld.

Very common in Siberia is belief in spirit that have form of a powerful bird, who takes

shaman to axis mundi, the Cosmic Tree. He mixes together aspects of raven and eagle, and

sometimes is referred to as Thunderbird17, giver of power to first shaman in ancient times. His

further role is to bring shamans to the Cosmic Tree in upper-world, where they will climb up

to meet with a deity. The bird “catches him like dust and carries him with great speed through

15 P. Vitebsky 1996, Szaman, Warszawa: Świat Książki, s. 108-109.16 A. Szyjewski, 2005, Szamanizm, Kraków: NOMOS, s. 90-91.17 Tamże, s. 87.

wind and mist, not letting to think and understand anything”18. Such powerful birds can be

sometimes related to deities in shamanic pantheons. For example, in creation myth of Buryat

people god-creator Samboł builds world with dirt gathered from the bottom of ocean by bird

called Angata. Spirits in forms of birds can be messengers of highest gods, and act in their

will19.

Connection of shaman and guardian spirits manifests itself in many ways, for example

by clothes worn by them. During the trances, some Siberian shamans are dressed up in outfits

that resemble some aspects of animals. Most common motifs are capes imitating birds wings

and crowns with deer-like antlers20, but there can be included parts of other animals – bear

gloves, snake belt etc. Through that, shaman transforms into an animal not only on inside, but

also on the outside. Dressing up as deer or bird and imitating their voices truly turns this

person into an animal in eyes of society.

Deities, ancestors and other beings in shamanic religions

Furthermore, when it comes to deities in shamanic religions, some of them can take

animal forms, and in that shape shows themselves to people. Also ghosts of ancestor could

have form of animals.

In Siberia, there is a myth among Altai people and Evenks about mammoth and

creation of the world. In this myth mammoth is not a god nor an ancestor, but some powerful

being called Szeli (referred sometimes as “earth bull”). Using his tusks he created the world

and with help of snake Dżabdar they made land, mountains and rivers. After creation,

mammoth with his offspring descends down to the underworld (this can be explanation of

extinction of this animal). In other variations of this myth mammoth is the destroyer, and for

his actions he is punished by gods to live in underworld21.

18 J. S. Wasilewski, 1985, Podróże do piekieł. Rzecz o szamańskich misteriach, Warszawa: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, s. 107.19 M. M. Kośko, 1990, Mitologia ludów Syberii, Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe, s. 31.20 M. Hoppal, 2009, Szamani eurazjatyccy, Warszawa: Iskry, s. 198-210.21 Tamże, s. 93-95.

Illustration 4. Example of representation of Kauyumari on modern Huichol painting.

I think, the clearest example of god in animal form comes from religion of Huichol

people from northern Mexico. Their religion is focused around three main gods – Tatewari,

the fire, Tayaupa, the Sun, and Tamatsi Maxa Kwaxi-Kauyumari, the deer (Illustration 4). The

last one is connected with cultural hero and trickster, who has the same name – Kauyumari.

This deity is important, as it comes to ritual complex of “peyote hunt” and institution of

mara’akame (shaman of Huichol people). Mythical Kauyumari played most important role in

the first, ancient peyote hunt. He established how, when and where people should gather

peyote – hallucinogenic cactus used in some Huichol rituals. He also mediates between

humans and deer, because this animal, in past, was the main source of food for Huichol

people. He is sometimes called by hunters “our older brother deer tail” or “Man-Holy Stag”.

He helps other gods and is in connection with mara’akame22.

Kauyumari helps Tatewari. Helps Tayaupa. Says to mara’akame what

needs to be done so peyote hunt can be conducted. That is why

mara’akame can take peyote from deer antlers, there, in Wiri-kuta. O,

Kauyumari antlers are also Tatewari’s arrows. They are the same. When

mara’akame calls him, he comes. He’s there, in mountains. He calls him

with use of arrows. Wakes up, comes to mara’akame’s callings, comes as

deer, as Takwatsi, as arrows. Kauyumari is Man-Holy Stag, companion of

Tatewari23.

22 B. Myerhoff, 1997, Pejotlowe łowy. Sakralna podróż Indian Huiczoli, Kraków: Znak, s. 57-67.23 Tamże, s. 130

Illustration 5. Modern Huichol painting showing the duality of mara’akame.

Mara’akame rides on Kauyumari to the land of peyote. Kauyumari is his guide. In

ancient times he gave this cactus to Huichol people, so they could protect themselves against

evil sorcerer Kieri Tewiyari. And also he taught them how to speak to gods with usage of this

hallucinogenic plant. Kauyumari stands in the middle between gods and humans. He can be

described, as being that contains within itself both qualities of gods and of men24. And thus,

there is a part of him in every mara’akame.

Other example of theriomorphic deities comes from opposite side of the world - from

religions of Australian Aboriginal societies. There are some controversies about that, whether

we should include Australian religions into category of shamanism. But, as long we speak

about societies in which exist institution of Clever Man (or similar person) we clearly can

claim, that we speak about certain form of shamanism.

To many tribes the highest god is Rainbow Serpent, a deity in form of a great serpent.

He has many names among different people, but his characteristics are very similar. He is

identified with rainbow, his powers are connected with fertility, mother-earth, rain, storm and

Sun. He lives in deep waters, creates rain and other sources of water. Can be perceived also as

cultural hero or mediator between creator and the cosmos. Rainbow Serpent sometimes is

represented in form of hybrid of kangaroo, crocodile, bird and fish. Some tribes say, that one

day he was similar in form to human, but he turned into serpent, and with this transformation

became dangerous and could drown people. As a serpent he is able to change his skin, and

this associates him with death and resurrection. Rainbow Serpent acts mostly in the

Dreamtime, everlasting ancient “times” from which all divine and magical powers comes (and

24 Tamże, s. 132

is used by Clever Man in magical practices)25. Some of Clever Men claim, that they were

chosen by the Rainbow Serpent. And in some forms of initiation, the candidate is being

swallowed by Wonambi, who is one of forms the Rainbow Serpent can take26. In his belly, he

goes through his ritual death and rebirth. Generally speaking, divine and spiritual beings in

form of animals are very popular in Australian religions. Such shapes have also totemic

ancestors, human ancestors, spirits and other beings from the Dreamtime. They are portrayed

as kangaroos, lizards, dogs, foxes and birds27.

Summary

Idea of turning into an animal or spirits in form of animal is very common among

various forms of shamanism. This kind of beliefs are still present in such religions, because of

dependency on animal resources to survive. Also, as Eliade writes, identifying with an animal

and learning his “language” brings human back to mythical times, to paradise, the Golden

Age. To the time, when humans and animals were one and lived together in peace and

harmony. Shaman, who morphs into an animal regains that paradise and his primal virginity

lost by humans at the beginnings of time28.

25 A. Szyjewski, 1998, Religie Australii, Kraków: NOMOS, s. 53-73.26 Tamże, s. 273.27 Tamże, s. 74-83.28 M. Eliade, dz. cyt., s. 109.

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