THEORIZING IN THE ERA OF MEDIA ADVANCEMENT - Rex

COMMUNICATION PANORAMA African and Global Perspectives Volume 1 Number 2

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THEORIZING IN THE ERA OF MEDIA ADVANCEMENT: A CASE FOR AUTHENTICATION THEORY

Kenneth Sunday Ozioko

Department of Mass Communication Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka

[email protected]

08064380050

Abstract: The earliest theories of effect came with the assumption that the mass media

audiences are passive and as such believe every message that emanate from the media. This assumption was proved wrong by the study of Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, (1944/1968) in the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 which sought to find out the voting patterns and the relationship between the media and political behavior. This study found that there were other factors that influence voters’ behaviour rather than media messages alone. Consequently, there were other theories of effect otherwise referred to as the intervening variables or the mediating factors explaining what really influence media audience. In this era of media advancement, especially since the advent of the social media that allows internet users to post message at will, the need to authenticate the sources of news stories becomes imperative to avoid misinformation, hence the case for authentication theory which posits that the believability and acceptability of media messages is dependent on the credibility of the source

Keywords: Theories, internet, social media, media literacy, authentication theory,

misinformation, credibility.

mailto:[email protected]


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INTRODUCTION Over the years, a number of theories have been propounded ranging from political theories of the press to the theories of effect explaining the developments in communication. At the beginning, it was assumed that the audiences of mass communication are passive and consequently believe every single story that comes from the mass media. Theorists in trying to explain this effect used bullet or hypodermic needle theory to buttress their points.

HISTORY AND ORIENTATION OF THE FIRST EFFECT THEORY; THE

HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY ALSO KNOWN AS THE BULLET THEORY

The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were perceived as a powerful influence on behavior change. The "hypodermic needle theory" implied mass media had a direct, immediate and powerful effect on its audiences. Factors that contributed to this "strong effects" theory of communication as explained by University of Twente, Dutch home page on hypodermic needle theory, include:

- the fast rise and popularization of radio and television - the emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and propaganda - the Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which focused on the impact of motion pictures on children, and - Hitler's monopolization of the mass media during WWII to unify the German public behind the Nazi party

CORE ASSUMPTIONS AND STATEMENTS The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with appropriate

messages designed to trigger a desired response.

Figure 1: The Hypodermic Needle Theory


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Both images used to express this theory (a bullet and a needle) suggest a powerful

and direct flow of information from the sender to the receiver. The bullet theory graphically suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head". With similarly emotive imagery the hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately influenced by the message. They express the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message. There is no escape from the effect of the message in these models. The population is seen as a sitting duck. People are seen as passive and are seen as having a lot media material "shot" at them. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other source of information. Instead of living on this assumption of the “powerful effect” of the media, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, (1944/1968) decided to conduct election studies

in "The People's Choice,” to ascertain the veracity of the claim of the “powerful effect” of the media. The project was conducted during the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to determine voting patterns and the relationship between the media and political behavior. This study found that the majority of people remained untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than the media. The effects of the campaign were not all-powerful to where they persuaded helpless audiences uniformly and directly, which is the very definition of what the magic bullet theory does. As focus group testing, questionnaires, and other methods of marketing effectiveness testing came into widespread use; and as more interactive forms of media (e.g.: internet, radio call-in shows, etc.) became available, the magic bullet theory was replaced by a variety of other, more instrumental models, like the two step of flow theory, uses and gratification theory and other theories that are referred to as intervening variables. Uses and gratification theory (UGT) as a mediating factor, for instance, explains what the audience does with the media and not what the media do to the audience. Katz (2011) explains that uses and gratification theory assumes that “audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT

holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification”. This theory would then imply, he opined, that the media compete against other information sources for viewers' gratification. Dependency theory on the other hand states that the more a person depends on media to meet needs, the more important media will be in a person's life, and therefore the more effects media will have on a person. This in other words suggests that the media has more effect on those that depend on them than those that do not. Besides people have individual differences and needs which determine what they look out for in the media. Most people use the selective processes available to them during exposure to media messages which influence the kinds of media messages they expose themselves, how they view the message and what they make of it. In the mid 90s, a lot of people depended on the radio and television but since the internet revolution and the advent of the social media, majority of the people have taken to the Web for news consumption.


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THE INTERNET

As explained in Madu (2015), the internet otherwise known as the Net, means in full “International Computer Networks”. The development of the internet and the revolution in technology has brought about digital devices and software, which in turn ensured the emergence of the new media. With internet connectivity, it has been observed that people make use of computer sets (desktop, laptop, palmtop or notebook) and mobile phones (tablets or smartsphones) to access news, entertainment, education and other forms of information, at anytime and anywhere. For Melanson (2011, cited in Ogbeja 2012, p. 211) most people who have internet connection are already aware of some of the major types of new media, which includes social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as Blogs and video sharing sites as YouTube.

There are many services available on the internet (internet services). They include e-mail, e-magazine, e-newspapering, web-conferencing, chartrooms, internet phone call, e-sponsorship, e-exhibitions, e-weddings, etc. (Chukwu, 2007; Nkwocha, 2004). With all these services available on the internet, the world has been reduced to a global village. Speaking of the services and opportunities provided by the internet, McLuhan (1964) as cited in (Baran 2009, p.332) wrote that “a person can communicate to any place, from any place, at any time. This affords freedom of more movement and convenience in terms of space and time. Individuals will have access to other people despite lack of physical proximity. We can finally, truly, be a global village.” Correspondingly, Agba, (2001, p.6) sees the internet as a “technological revolution of monumental capabilities, an information revolution that has further reduced the size of the world into a global village. In other words, the Net is seen as the most ambitious attempt so far to miniaturize the physical planet earth. It is a system which allows messages, pictures and texts to be transmitted simultaneously or simply from one computer anywhere in the world to another. Virtually everything has gone online and for this reason Okoro, (2007, p.19) wrote that “the world of today has largely become the world of the internet as virtually anyone who has anything to say, says it on the internet.” Even news publications

by newspaper organizations have gone online too and there is arguably, almost no subject matter known to humanity that is not available on the internet. Stressing this point, Oyero, (2013, p.46) observes that we are now living in a world where great deals of mass communication activities take place on the internet. Millions of people go to websites to watch television shows, read newspapers, download music, and do so many things that Turow, (2010, p. 132) describes as having “traditionally been associated with separating non-computer media forms.” Statistically, the amount of information produced in Nigeria, like every other country in the world, increases by 30% every year. Every day, with the invention of the printing press, telephone and computers, Nigerians are bombarded with plethora of information in all forms (International NGO journal Vol 6). The internet gave room for the social media to thrive and since the advent of the social media; the media for mass communication has been revolutionized.


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THE SOCIAL MEDIA

The term “social media was coined in 2007 by Dana Boyd of the School of Information at the University of California, and Nicole Ellison of the Department of Telecommunications at Michigan State University, who published a paper that first used the term.” Social media according to Kaplan & Haenlein (2010) is "a group of Internet-based applications that is built on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0; and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content." Also, Ahlqvist, Toni, Bäck, Halonen, & Heinonen (2008) hold that social media is the social interaction among people in which they create, share or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. Heathfield, (2007) outlined the user generated contents available in the social media to include: conversation, articles, images or pictures, recipes and anything that an individual might share with others in their daily lives. Also, Greendhow,

(2009) sees the Social media as media for social interaction, which use highly accessible and scalable publishing techniques. The advent of the social media has no doubt attracted millions of users globally. According to International Telecoms Union (ITU) World Report 2013, the total number of Internet users globally is more than 2.7 billion about 39 percent of the world’s population. Majority of the people that use the internet arguably may be using one social network or the other. Online statistics showed that as at August 2015, Facebook has surpassed 1Billion active subscribers. Facebook as we know is just one out of the plethora of social networks that abound. Apart from individuals, the government of some countries and most organizations now tap into the social media that abound to reach out to the public. Take for instance in Nigeria, the president has special adviser on social media. This is because they have realized the importance of relating with the public through the social media because the idea of bringing down the government or entrenching the government can be carried out in the social media. The Arab Spring should be a reference point here. The social media has cut across the barrier set aside by the government to checkmate the press. Gone are the days when the government will be after everyone that wrote a story that is contrary to the views of the people in power or

slam a defamatory suit on anybody that publish a story against it because some of the users of this network are faceless. This has made the government to sit up and do what is needful to avoid criticisms from the citizens. This anonymous feature of social media users has made some people to write and post unverified stories online. One has to be careful while reading some of the things posted online to avoid misinformation or aid in spreading rumour. It is only those that are literate enough on the modus operandi of some of the blogs that try to authenticate the source of the news before spreading it.

MEDIA LITERACY AND NEWS AUTHENTICATION The terms 'media literacy' and 'media education' are used synonymously in most English-speaking nations. Many scholars and educators consider media literacy to be an expanded conceptualization of literacy. In 1993, a gathering of the media literacy community in the United States developed a definition of media literacy as

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-generated_content

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-generated_content

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_community

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_network


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the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and create messages in a wide variety of

forms (Canada’s Centre for Media Literacy). Media Education is the process of teaching and learning about media. Buckingham (2007) explains that media education is about developing young people's critical and creative abilities when it comes to the media. Being able to understand the media enables people to analyze, evaluate, and create messages in a wide variety of media, genres, and forms. Education for media literacy often uses an inquiry-based pedagogic model that encourages people to ask questions about what they watch, hear, and read. Media literacy education provides tools to help people critically analyze messages, offers opportunities for learners to broaden their experience of media, and helps them develop creative skills in making their own media messages. Canada’s Centre for Digital and Media Literacy defined media education as the process through which individuals become media literate – able to critically

understand the nature, techniques and impacts of media messages and productions. They further explained that media education acknowledges and builds on the positive, creative and pleasurable dimensions of popular culture. It incorporates production of media texts and critical thinking about media to help us navigate through an increasingly complex media landscape. The European Charter for Media Literacy explains that critical analysis can include identifying author, purpose and point of view, examining construction techniques and genres, examining patterns of media representation, and detecting propaganda, censorship, and bias in news and public affairs programming (and the reasons for these). Media literacy education may explore how structural features—such as media ownership, or its funding model affect the information presented. Hobbs (2010) wrote, ”that media literate people should be able to skillfully create and produce media messages, both to show understanding of the specific qualities of each medium, as well as to create independent media and participate as active citizens. Media literacy can be seen as contributing to an expanded conceptualization of literacy, treating mass media, popular culture and digital media as new types of 'texts' that require analysis and evaluation. By transforming

the process of media consumption into an active and critical process, people gain greater awareness of the potential for misrepresentation and manipulation (especially through commercials and public relations techniques), and understand the role of mass media and participatory media in constructing views of reality”. Media literacy is therefore the understanding of how the media operate and the ability to critically and constructively analyze media messages with regards to reality. Being media literate will help the audience to know when media content is mere propaganda or round table journalism. The opportunity provided by the internet and the knowledge of its use is being abused by individuals who think they can write and post unverified stories as they like which consequently requires that readers authenticate what they consume from other credible sources to avoid misinformation. This act of authentication is performed by individuals that know how the social media operate. They are literate enough on the modus operandi of the social media and consequently, do

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_%28communication%29

http://www.euromedialiteracy.eu/


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_bias

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_ownership

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_media

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_consumption

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercials

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations


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constructive and critical analysis of social media contents in order to discover

which is propaganda and which is not, to avoid spreading wrong information.

SOCIAL MEDIA AND AUTHENTICATION THEORY Over the years, the media for mass communication have been increasing year after year. The most recent is the social media that has become the order of the day. Arguably, people spend much of their time on social networks than they do reading books and newspapers and consequently ‘murdering’ the reading culture that have existed over the years. The social media is not just an avenue for instant messaging and posts, it also allows the dissemination of information and publication of news stories online. The

advancement in technology is gradually reforming and transforming the way news gathering and dissemination is done over the years. Speaking about this, Bakhurst (2011) said that, “It may seem like re-stating the obvious but looking in our rear-view mirror back along the road of technological change shows just how news has changed: typewriters out, computers in; newspaper cuttings libraries closed as the internet opened access to information; mobile phones rather than messages at hotel receptions; satellite technology to feed material rather than tapes put on planes and so on. Powered by these changes, news has become 24 hours a day; immediate; available on new platforms; mobile. And now the latest powerful tool to change news - social media.” The advent of the social media has contributed immensely to the way news is gathered because users tend to break news stories as soon as it happens but some of the blogs on this network publish unverified news stories which in communication parlance is called round table journalism and that puts any news story published by these blogs under scrutiny with regards to its authenticity. Bakhurst (2011) opines that “social media has trashed many of the foundations on which "traditional" media stands.” He further outlined some of the news features in social media that are not obtainable in the traditional media because of the co-operate identity and professionalism in their duty.

Below are the areas that the social media has trashed the traditional media as outlined by Bakhurst, a journalist with BBC: Anonymity: Many people joining the debate or discussion or sometimes accusing, or attacking, have no name and no face and therefore no seeming personal responsibility for the impact or truth or validity of what they publicly say. Professional journalists, like ours (BBC journalists) are encouraged to engage in social media spaces but held to account for their views and values, often find themselves engaged in a wholly uneven discussion on coverage or stories with an invisible opponent. Privacy: In particular privacy of the individual, where are the boundaries? Are there any areas off limits? It seems we can all discuss pregnancies, affairs, ethics, finances, abilities, families. It's out there on Twitter and Facebook and there's no real protection for what, until now, has been largely personal or private.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/kevin_bakhurst/




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It leaves traditional media in a very different universe. We mitigate this via very

clear guidelines to our staff, which states that although content placed on social media or other websites "may be considered to have been placed in the public domain, re-use by the BBC will usually bring it to a much wider audience". They go on to say that: "We should consider the impact of our re-use, particularly when in connection with tragic or distressing events. Ethics: Most of us work within an ethical framework. We won't report the death of a loved one until the family knows; we won't just steal material from others; we try to establish facts before pushing a story out there. These are all fundamental and long cherished principles of the way BBC News operates. But not the ground rules of many, making use of the social media. The Rule of Law: We work within the laws of our land - we avoid libel; or contempt

of court; or revealing the names of young victims or juveniles accused of crimes. We don't break court injunctions. Some social media users do many of these things. Sometimes it has been argued they show up the failings of the laws of the land, and they may do, but often it is done in ignorance of the law, or simply on the assumption that it doesn't matter. And that can leave traditional media looking slow or stick-in-the mud or somehow part of an "establishment" that doesn't tell the whole truth. Look at the case of Ryan Giggs. The role of traditional media: Some of our role is probably gone. Will we be "First with the Breaking News"? Probably, not in many cases; someone on Twitter will be. Will we have the first still of a hero or victim? Facebook probably will have it. Will we get the first video out of Syria or Burma? YouTube will almost certainly have it posted first, although we'll often be one of the first to verify it's genuine (or not). Audience interaction: This can be a great way of hearing what your audience has to say, and answering questions or engaging. We have sophisticated ways of measuring what our audiences consume, and we keep an eye on what's being said to us and about our content, all of which we consider in our editorial discussions. Some of the social media users do not understand the word privacy neither do they

understand the word rule of law or ethics. Take for instance the time that the wife of the former president Dame Patience Jonathan travelled abroad to treat herself and a lot of false stories found its way in different blogs with some claiming that an insider in the hospital told them that she had died. It is true that she came out to admit that she actually died and rose again, which unconscious or coma should have been the best word to use, but the person that broke the news should have waited for official statement from the family. The same thing happened to President Yar’Adua, Pete Edochie, Jackie Chan etc. This singular act has made a lot of people to lose faith in the news stories from these blogs and the credibility of the source of news stories now to a great extent determine its believability and acceptability. Some of these blogs try to make their stories believable by attributing it to a source that is credible. A story surfaces online that the writer claimed was published by BBC which he said that ladies will soon start paying for their breast to be sucked by men because of the health benefits. In respect of this, Yetunde Arebi wrote an article on May 25, 2014 in online vanguard news on breast sucking which he based on the article on breast sucking that was claimed to have been published by BBC.


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The article was well articulated and written with dexterity but the story could not

be traced to the source the writer claimed by the vanguard reporter when he tried to authenticate the source. News stories that are published in online national dailies tend to be more credible than the ones that are published in various blogs and when asked the source of a news story and it is said to be from one of the blogs, readers that are in the know tend to visit any of the most trusted online dailies to search for the news in order to authenticate the news before spreading it to others and that is where authentication theory comes in. Authentication theory is of the stance that media audience are now more conscious of what is happening around them and as such question the credibility of news stories in this era of media advancement that has enabled internet users to publish

unverified news stories online at will which has consequently made it that the credibility of a news source now to a great extent determines the believability or acceptability of a news story. The idea of the active media audience here is not just based on the use of selective processes available to them alone to accept or reject media content but also on their ability to critically analyze media content based on the source as a result of their media literacy.

TENETS OF THE AUTHENTICATION THEORY The tenets of the authentication theory are as follows:

1. The credibility of the medium through which information is disseminated or published determines its acceptability.

2. The news is subject to verification. 3. The story must be aired or published news story.

Unlike some bloggers and social network users that are faceless, a medium with cooperate identity that can sue and be sued would take precautions to avoid anything that would keep it out of business and as such would avoid publishing

fake news stories to avoid being sued for damages. As for the ones that do not have coperate identity, once that news is not carried by a trusted medium, it could be possible that it was fabricated by the publisher. Finally, it is difficult to authenticate rumour; therefore, the story must be aired or published to aid authentication.


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REFERENCES Arebi, Y. (2014). Breast sucking good for you?. 25th May 2014 by

Hppt://www.vanguardngr.com Bakhurst, K. (2011). How has the social media changed the way newsrooms work:

Friday 19th September 2011 Hppt://www.bbc.co.uk Buckingham, D. (2007). Media education : literacy, learning and contemporary

culture (Reprinted. ed.). Cambridge [u.a]: Polity Press. ISBN 0745628303. Dafiaghor, K. F. (2011). Censorship of information and the Nigerian society.

International NGO Journal Vol. 6(7), pp. 159-165, July 2011 Available online at http:// www.academicjournals.org/INGOJ DOI:10.5897/NGOJ11.010 ISSN

1993–8225 ©2011 Academic Journals Davis, D.K. & Baron, S.J. (1981). A History of Our Understanding of Mass

Communication. In: Davis, D.K. & Baron, S.J. (Eds.). Mass Communication and Everyday Life: A

Perspective on Theory and Effects (19-52). Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing. Hobbs, R. (2010). Empowerment and protection: Complementary strategies for

digital and media literacy in the United States. Formare: 1-17 Katz, Elihu, Jay G. Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch. "Uses and Gratifications

Research."The Public Opinion Quarterly 4th ser. 37 (1973–1974): 509-23. JSTOR. Web. 14 Oct. 2011. <http://jstor.org/stable/2747854>

Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1968). The people’s choice: How the

voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.

Madu, C.E. (2015). Screen Time: Health Implications and Undergraduate

Awareness. A masters thesis submitted to the Department of Mass Communication Nnamdi Azikiwe Univertity, Awka.

McQuail, Denis (2010). Mass communication theory: an introduction. London: Sage

Publications. pp. 420–430. ISBN 1849202923. Severin, Werner J.; Tankard Jr., James W. (2000). "2: New Media Theory".

Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media. Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0801333350.

The European Charter for Media Literacy. Euromedialiteracy.eu. Retrieved on

2011-12-21. See Corporate media and Public service broadcasting University of twente Dutch (2010). Hypodermic needle theory

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IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURE TO COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Ephraim Chukwu, Ph.D.

Department of English and Literature, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka,

Anambra State 08063788199

[email protected]

Abstract: Knowing a language is not the same as knowing about a language. Knowing a

language denotes understanding the four language skills; knowing about a language includes knowledge of the four skills, as well as knowledge of describing the systems of the language and how they are used structurally, socially and orally. Knowledge about a language is knowledge of communicating competently, as all workings of the elements of the language are in your brain. Communicative competence in a language is therefore attained by knowledge and use of sociolinguistic competence (social relations), linguistic competence (observing acceptable rules), strategic competence (skill in explaining oneself away when bloc sets in), and discourse competence (right pronunciation). These notable aspects of competence can only be realized by a speaker – hearer acquainting themselves with the cultural values, nuances, philosophies and inherent interpersonal social relationships forming part and parcel of the cultural community of which the language exists. This paper, explaining culture, communicative competence, as well as the interface of culture and communicative competence, identifies various ways culture facilitates communicative competence in human social activities. In establishing these aspects made possible by communicating competently in a language, it presents crucial factors that aid attaining communicative competence in any linguo-cultural community.

Keywords: Culture, Communicative competence, sociolinguistic competence, cultural

community


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INTRODUCTION

Generationally transmitted human behaviours, beliefs, philosophies and terminologies of fauna and flora contributory to enlivening lives in a surrounding speech-community are basically made possible by language. Spoken or written language or kinesics cannot have become palpable without indebt involvement of speakers in acquiring or learning the grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic aspects of communicative competence underlying the inseparability of people (speakers), culture and language. The implications of this hand-in-hand symbiosis are the natural assurance of understanding among speakers of this language community. These speakers determined by nativity, birthright, education, habitation and official citizenship are the actual facilitators really exhibiting the roles or implications of culture to communicative competence which this paper strives to discuss. Preceding the discussions on the implications are explanations

about culture, communicative competence and the interface between them.

CULTURE

Three authoritative considerations of culture are given and conceptual elements explaining it sifted to justify its implications to communicative-competence. Webster (304) considers culture as “the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, behaviour that depends upon the capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generation”. Cultural transmission of knowledge echoes anthropologists’ conception of culture, according to Yule (246), as “socially acquired knowledge”. Waudlaugh (215) concerning culture says it is “whatever a person must know in order to function in a particular society”. Elaborating on his conception of culture which encapsulates the same sense he conceives it, Waudhaugh quotes Goodenough’s well-known definition (1957, P167): “a society’s culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members and to do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves”. These conceptions of culture have recurring commonalities of ideas. These common

concepts elucidating culture are tacitly enumerated by Waudhaugh (215): “That knowledge is socially acquired: the necessary behaviours are learned and do not come from any kind of genetic endowment. Culture, therefore, is the ‘knowhow’ that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living…. “This knowhow” is transmitted to succeeding generations to ensure togetherness, neighbourliness and continuous enculturation.

COMMUNICATIVE-COMPETENCE Competence “refers to speakers’ knowledge of their language” Crystal (87): it is “Chomky’s term in the 1960s for a speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language’, Matthews (67). Throwing light on this, Crystal explains that knowledge results from

mastering the system of rules which enable them “to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize mistakes and ambiguities”.


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This in-depth knowledge makes speakers’ actual speech or utterance (performance)

free from errors. Chomsky as quoted by Waudhaugh (3) furnishes a scenario of competence reflecting unblemished performance:

Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected, by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shift of attention and interest, and errors in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance….

The internalized knowledge of the rules of the language of a homogeneous speech-community enables the speakers to functionally use language to describe, explain, threaten, warn, counsel, and talk about anything perceivable in such a community and beyond. Chomskyan competence as stated observes the idea of taxis whose components are phonotactics, morphotactics and syntactics which characterize the

acceptable orderly sequence of sounds, morphemes and groups like phrases, clauses and sentences. On the other hand communicative competence embraces not only tactic competence but also the use of language as determined by social conventions as reflected in greetings, hospitalities, social hierarchies, field of discourse, mode of discourse, tenor of discourse, social status of participants in a discourse-doctor vs patient, etc. Therefore, communicative competence is “a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society” Matthews (65). Communicative-competence as elaborated by Crystal (88) “focuses on the native speaker’s ability to produce and understand sentences which are appropriate to the context in which they occur- - - what speakers need to know in order to communicate effectively in socially distinct settings”. Communicative competence of native speakers facilitating effective communication in socially distinct setting is further lucidly explained by Hutchinson and Waters (28). It consists not just of a set of rules for formulating grammatically correct sentences, but also a knowledge of when to speak, when not…. what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner (Hymes 1972). The study of languages in use, therefore, should look not just on syntax, but also at the other ingredients of communication, such as: non-verbal communication (gesture, posture, eye contact

etc), the medium and channel of communication, role relationships between the participants, the topic and purpose of communication. As a simplification to aid understanding of communicative competence, Yule (197) gives three constituents parallel in making speakers functionally competent in a second language acquisition/learning. He defines communicative competence “in terms of three components, as the ability to use the L2 accurately, appropriately and flexibly. The first component is grammatical competence which involves the accurate use of words and structures in the L2. Concentration on grammatical competence only, however, will not provide the learner with the ability to interpret or produce language appropriately. This ability is called sociolinguistic competence. It enables the learner to know when to say Can I have some water? versus Give me some water! according to the social context:…. The third component is called the strategic competence …. which is “the ability to overcome potential communication problems in interaction”. This problem remedied by strategic competence might be difficulty of representing a concept with a word, and such a speaker, via


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circumlocution, goes on to describe what the object looks like until a skilful user of

the language understands and names the right referring word. This is called communicative strategy of strategic competence. Communicative competence, therefore, portrays the accuracy in the use of language of a speaker in a homogeneous speech-community, the appropriacy in the use of language in its right context or situation, and the flexibility of the speaker in knowing how to get around difficulties where speaking bloc rears up.

CULTURE AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: INTERFACE

Culture is socially acquired knowledge; communicative competence is a speaker-hearer’s knowledge of a total set of rules, conventions governing the use of

language in a homogeneous speech-community. This homogenous speech-community is a cultural community whose inhabitants know their culture and, by so doing, get through the task of daily living. This interface is corroborated in a chapter, entitled “Language, race and Culture” in Sapir. According to Sapir (207),

Language has a setting. The people that speak it belong to a race (or a number of races), that is, to a group which is set off by physical characteristics from other groups. Again, language does not exist apart from culture, that is, from the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives.

People, culture and language in a homogeneous speech community are intertwined: language spoken by people is a vehicle for cultural transmission generationally. This demonstrably underlines prevailing effective communication as dependent on speakers’ knowledge of practices, beliefs, world views of the culture forming the locale of the vehicular language. The knowledge of this culture presupposes communicative competence as a speaker-hearer has already inherited the assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of his lives and will encounter no hindrance in describing, explaining, narrating, arguing and doing anything with his language. This confirms Robert Lado’s counseling in an article by a British correspondent in the Awake magazine of January 8, 2000: “There can be

no real learning of a language without understanding something of the patterns and values of the culture of which it is a part”

THE IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURE TO COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE “Language does not exist apart from culture”, Sapir (207). This connection between language and culture has wider implications for communicative competence of speaker-hearer in a homogeneous speech-community vis-à-vis other languages because, according to Yule (246), “in the study of the world’s cultures, it has become clear that different groups not only have different languages, they have different world views which are reflected in their languages”. Yulean point of view echoes Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic determinism which claims “that

structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world” (Waudhaugh 216), or which “holds that people from different cultures think differently because of differences in their languages” (Holmes 336).


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This paper however is not concerned with admissibility or in admissibility of

Whorfian hypothesis; rather it is emphasizing that people of a culture with their language will be at home in using their language accurately, appropriately and flexibly without experiencing any bloc that would naturally have arisen were a foreign language is involved. Farb in Clark et al (3) affirms these possessed communicative skills thus: “Every native speaker is amazingly creative in the various strategies of speech interaction, in word play and verbal dueling, in exploiting a language’s total resources to create poetry and literature”.

CULTURE AND ORAL COMPETENCE (VERBALIZING) “A child growing up anywhere on earth will speak the tongue he hears in his speech community…,” Farb in Cark et al (3). The speakers in this language background discuss with ease fauna and flora. They grew with them, familiarized

themselves with them, and savoured them. This correspondence between speakers, culture and language finds proof on the Igbo adage: Old age is no barrier to a musical tune an aged woman knows its dance-steps, as well as the aphorism of Edward Sapir that “when it comes to language Plato walks with the Macedonian swineherd, Confucius with the headhunting savage of Assam”, Farb in Clark (4).

CULTURE AND CREATIVE COMPETENCE Culture reflects in literature; literature mirrors society. “In its literature, poetry, ritual speech, and word structure, each language stores the collective intellectual achievements of a culture, offering unique perspectives on the human condition”, Fromkin et al (525/6). Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka and many of their contemporaries know their language (Igbo, Yoruba), their culture and their people to be able to replicate in a foreign language gross injustice against a race in Heart of darkness by Joseph Conrad and Mr Johnson by Joyce Cary, authors starkly ignorant about Africa’s world views. “It is the occupants of a homestead that can identify the first daughter of a goat” so goes an Awgu proverb”. It is only the owner of a culture who uses the language of that culture that can competently communicate the beliefs, behaviours, philosophies of a culture, and not an

outsider.

CULTURE AND THINKING COMPETENCE

Language mechanism is a process of psycho-physiological connection. Ideas in the brain are encoded in language which is conveyed to the speech chain processes of respiratory system, phonatory system, and the articulatory system to manifest phonotactically, morphotactically and synatactically. Competent communication requires brain cudgeling in a language a speaker understands its intricacies well. Otherwise, language interpretations and translations will converge in the brain. Translations of ideas from one language to the other will take place. In so doing a bilingual may become frustrated as the expected idea to be conveyed is lost or

distorted. This is an instance of poor performance in many public examinations (WAEC – SSCE, NECO—SSCE etc) and even in degree examinations involving regular students, weekend programme students and sandwich programme


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students. Thinking in a language fully lost in a speaker removes hindrances of

frustration, non-communication of ideas and accurate use of structure of the language.

CULTURE, LANGUAGE AND DEVELOPMENT COMPETENCE

Development competence is modeling a speech-community towards unity, education, economic well-being, mass participation in government and making language instrumental to realizing these factors of development. Ben Elugbe in Emenanjo (14) stresses the centrality of language towards national development. A national language fosters unity, engenders feeling of oneness, and is a rallying point for development. As regards education, he says that “the quickest way to make the majority of Nigerians literate is their own languages. Unless we can make

it possible for our children to learn the basics of modern technology, sciences and mathematics, for example in their mother tongue, then the seed of transferred technology will fall on barren ground and fail to germinate”. Economically, Elugbe states that educating citizens in a language understandable to them will make them practically demonstrate their various potentials since they will not be marred by their inability to speak a strange language not fully lost in them. With regard to mass participation in government, he avers that elitist language of the few (English) should be replaced with one known to the citizens because election campaigns, election policies and other government policies can only be effectively conveyed when the people are addressed in languages understandable to them. Elugbe’s viewpoints are adjudged plausible because they are indirect suggestions to the relevance of communicative competence of speakers of speech-communities to fostering togetherness, progress and strength as tunefully rendered by Sunny Okosun: “Together we will move our country”. Strange language begets strange reception, mistrust and apathy. This is a common issue in Nigeria. Whenever a government plans to siphon the countries wherewithal it will propose certain policies to hoodwink the citizens-what is Operation Feed the Nation, Green Revolution, Austerity Measures, Foreign Exchange Market, Second-tier Foreign Exchange Market, MAMSER, Oil Subsidy, NAPEP, Sure-P etc. These are policies encoded in technical terms government unsuccessfully strives to sail to the masses.

CULTURE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING COMPETENCE The fundamentals of culture to language skills quartet of speaking competence, writing competence, reading competence and listening competence are obvious implications of the sustenance of communicative competence by an existing culture. Learner’s motivation is high when passages, subject matters, books are in a language known to them. This contrasts with the picture painted by Bright and McGregor (16) about a context replete with words unexisting in a language and therefore unknown to learners in an Africa setting. According to their observation:


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Lack of experience of the appropriate context may make understanding the meaning of the words used in it extremely difficult. Mist and fog are unknown in Khartourn and the words mist and fog are difficult to understand. There are even more dangerous traps when the overseas context that appears to correspond to the native speaker’s context differs. A brother in some parts of Africa includes not only male children of the same biological parents but half-brothers, cousins, fellow-clansmen, fellow-tribesmen and in extreme cases a chap I was having a drink with last night. A village may be equated with a trading centre. Cross-cultural difficulties are as much a problem as lack of background knowledge.

Every language has grammer-phonetics/phonology, syntax, morphology and semantics. Native speakers are conversant with the system and conventions of their language. Knowledge in the language makes users adept at production skills (speaking/writing) and reception skills (reading/listening). A notable example is Babs Fufunwa’s experiment on teaching a pilot school in the Yoruba language. Students taught and examined in Yoruba performed far better in Senior School

Certificate Examinations of that session than those examined in English. The result from this experiment is analogous to Napoleon’s epigram about attacking Russia: “If I capture Petersburg, I’ll take Russia by its head, and if capture Moscow, I’ll destroy its heart” (Awaka Dec 22, 1997). So, learning and using a foreign language by non-natives is capturing discourse (subject, mode, tenor) peripherally (head), while learning and using a native language in discourse is destroying or conquering discourse (heart) permanently, as “a job well-done leaves an inner glow of satisfaction” from “The Joy of Working a Book” in Awake, Dec 22, 1997.

CULTURE AND PEDAGOGIC COMPETENCE

Language teaching requires replication of certain cultural practices in a classroom. This replication makes learning interesting, inspiring and captivating. Learners experience what they already know around their homes and farms as they are being improvised and demonstrated in their language. The result of this involving language is removal of obstructions accompanying demonstrations in foreign languages, of poor retention experienced after any teaching, of mass failures after any examinations, and of problem of choice of expressions by teachers to extricate themselves from explaining certain concepts or processes to their learners.

Teaching in a native language heightens understanding of learners and gladdens teacher conscience for a job well-done.

CULTURE AND PHILOSOPHY COMPETENCE

Philosophy is the study of knowledge; culture is knowledge learned and generationally transmitted. Philosophy is therefore part and parcel of culture. All the sayings of philosophers all over the world are results of observing cultural worlds of their respective cultures. Herodotus, a historian, Homer, an author, and Socrates, Plato, Aristotle all wrote in their language their observed knowledge about cultural milieus. Similarly, sayings, proverbs, anecdotes, epigrams are reflections of culture norms carefully observed, skillfully woven in native language and

perpetually transmitted to succeeding generations orally or mechanically (writing).


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The reality of these world views is captured by real members of the culture

exemplifying observed ideas about their speech community.

CULTURE AND ORATORICAL/RHETORICAL COMPETENCE

Persuasive use of language is facilitated by having recourse to objects in the physical surroundings of cultural milieus. African folktales, proverbs, idioms, songs and plays; European tales, phrase comparisons (as white as snow) and anecdotes; Asian tales (Epic of Gilgamesh) which emphasize cultural world views are skillfully woven into speeches to inform, persuade, argue by orators. Translations into other languages and recordings in writing have been made of these literary genres, however the original cultural flavours have been lost because, according to Taylor (22), “the words become fixed and unchangeable; dramatic gestures and voice

inflections of the performer as well as relevant cultural setting are lost”. Really, competence can be attained with regard to Francis Bacon’s maxim of “Reading makes a man; conversation, a ready man, and writing, an exact man”, but reading, talking and writing in the native language of a speaker make a man ready and complete as there will not be reading bloc, speaking bloc, writing bloc arising from a speaker not acquainting himself fully with the patterns and values as well as with the words of the culture. Cicero, a Roman statesman and an orator, made use of Latin; Winston Churchill, a wartime prime minister of Britain, used English effortlessly; African leaders of pre-European advent used African languages. These orators rhetorically used the grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence obtained in the conventions of their native languages to persuasively buy over their audience in parliaments and village assemblies.

CULTURE AND RESEARCH COMPETENCE

Successful research is one conducted by someone adept in a language or who has a native interpreter in that language; otherwise much of the pieces of information needed for observation, collection, and hypothesis are lost. This is a reason

underlining misinterpretation of native ways by foreign researchers especially in Africa. Joseph Conrad’s and Joyce Cary’s interpretations of Africa as heart of darkness (spiritual and physical) and home of savages depict gross ignorance of information collection, observation and analysis. This similar ignorance of judgment is related by Holmes (344) about Robyn Kina, an Australian Aborigines, who was sentenced to life imprisonment for stabbing Tony Black to death. The Aborigines are given to indirectness in relating with one another and not to directness. Indirectness requires such eliciting expression as I heard there was a big argument at the store yesterday, as against directness requiring yes-no expression as you were at the store? This ignorance about the way of life of the Aborigines made Tina keep mum about direct questions put to her and so she was adjudged to have willingly committed the homicide. However after five years in jail, a journalist who understood the Aborigines ways of indirectness interviewed Tina

and she subsequently opened up and related what really happened. Tina was retried and acquitted.


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These distinctions of cultures and problems arising from them are again related by

Holmes (287). According to her, “anyone who has traveled outside their own speech community is likely to have had some experience of miscommunication based on cultural differences. Often these relate to different assumptions deriving from different normal environments”. Affirming Robert Lado about knowledge of a culture, Holmes (288) positively states: “Learning another language usually involves a great deal more than learning the literal meaning of words, how to put them together and how to pronounce them. We need to know what they mean in the cultural context in which they are normally used. And that involves some understanding of the cultural and social norms of their users”. This surely will make research highly objective, generally advantageous, and fully understood as it is knowledgeably interpreted.

ACHIEVING COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE Using language accurately, appropriately and flexibly is attained by taking cognizance of certain socio-cultural privileges. Nativity Privilege: Geographical location of a language makes the language a first language or a mother-tongue of the inhabitants of such speech-community. Parents use the language in their domestic as well as in their public affairs. Children born in such location grow to acquire, learn and speak the language from their mothers and any other grown adult. Birthright Privilege:“A child growing up anywhere on earth will speak the tongue he hears in his speech community, regardless of the race, nationality, or language of his parents”, Farb in Clark et al (3). This privilege makes the child observe social conventions in which the language is used and constrains it to digest and reproduce in the language appropriate imitation of the speakers around it. Growing up to adulthood in the community, the child becomes an embodiment of the rules and conventions of the language of the locale. This shows the connection between nativity privilege and this privilege. Both native and non-native children born in this community are described as native speakers since they use the

language as they begin their holophrastic stage, continue to use it as their dominant language and have ultimately attained the competence required to talk, listen, write and read in the language. Education Privilege: Literacy in a language makes a speaker good at using the language. Prolonged sojourn at a speech community for education makes one understand the language via teachers, readings, seminars, conferences and dissertation/thesis writings and defences. Aristotle says that education is an ornament is prosperity and refuge in adversity. The ornament and refuge of education are only attainable by knowledge of the language of a speech community or by having as your world any other persons knowledgeable in your language. Otherwise what is the essence of your education when language power is not there? Association Privilege: Political, economic, social, diplomatic relations and culture engagements are avenues facilitating interactions with nations with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The United States of American came out of


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the 1939 – 45 World-war commercially and technologically superpowerful. English,

the language of the United States, became “the key to the international currency of technology and commerce”, Hutchinson and Waters (6). Competition to relate with the US in commerce, technology, politics, education and medicine compelled nations and individuals to learn the language of the United States. Prior to 1945, colonialism was foisted on Africa and Asia, and the people found the need to learn English, French Portuguese and German. Currently, China is extending arms of fellowship to Africa by establishing Confucius centres in many tertiary institutions where undergraduates, graduates and lecturers undergo smattering training on Chinese cultural studies before a select-few leave for any Chinese cities for between a year and three years to digest, assimilate and regurgitate Chinese ideas for the glory of China and perhaps for the credit of the learners. The centripetal instrument of these contractual associations is communicating competently in Chinese language without which association is stillborn.

Habitation Privilege: Citizenship is by birth, naturalization and lottery. This tripartite officialdom determines legal habitation at a foreign country. Those privileged to secure migration to culturally distinct communities find themselves immersed in new cultures, languages and people. Cultural permeation, language internalization and populist association make these migrants understand people, cultures and languages which subsequently transform them into communicating competently with the native speakers they have habituated themselves to.

CONCLUSION

Culture aids communicative competence in a language. Communicative competence is attained by effortless demonstration of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence in the use of a language. No one can offer what one does not have. Unless one is natively, birthrightly, educationally, associationally and habitationaly privileged one can never completely claim to have attained communicative competence, and the implications thereof are that oral competence, creative competence, thinking competence, development competence, language learning competence, pedagogic competence, philosophy

competence, oratorical/rhetorical competence, research competence will be an illusion.

REFERENCES A British Correspondent. “Do You Want to Learn a Foreign Language?” in Awaka,

January 8, 2000. Bright, J.A. and McGregor, G.P Teaching English as a second Language.

Essex: Longman Group Ltd, 1981. Elugbe Ben. “National Language and National Development” in Emenanjo E.N.

(ed.) Multilingualism, Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria, Agbor: central Books ltd, 1990.


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Farb, Peter. “Man the Talker” in Clark, Virginia, P.; Eschholz, Paul A.; Rosa

Alfred F. (eds) Language: Introductory Readings 2nd ed. New York: St Martin’s Press,1977.

Fromkin, V; Rodman, R. and Hyams, N. An Intriduction to Language (7th ed).

Massachussetts: Thomson Heinle, 2003. Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 3rd ed England: Pearson

education Ltd, 2008. Hutchinson, Tom and Waters, Alan. English for Specific Purposes: A Learning-

centred Approach, Cambridge: University Press, 1989. Matthews, P.H The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2007. Taylor, Richard. Understanding the Elements of Literature, London and

Basingstoke, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 198. Sapir, Edward Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York:

Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1949. Waudaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic 3rd ed., Oxford: Blackwell

Publishers Ltd, 2000. Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary 11th ed. Massachussetts: Merriam – Webster,

Incorporated, 2004 Yule, George: The Study of language, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2002.


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UTILISATION OF FEMALE JOURNALISTS AS POLITICAL NEWS SOURCES IN NIGERIA

Simbiat Abidemi Ademuyiwa

Mass Communication Unit National Open University of Nigeria

08035149744

[email protected]

Michael Felix Nyeche I- learn

National Open University of Nigeria 07030397746

[email protected]

Abstract: Media critics posit that the Nigerian media industry pays more attention to

male politicians than female politicians. With this, women and their political ideologies are being underrepresented and this creates an uneven playing ground for female politicians. Pegged on the tenets of social responsibility theory and liberal feminism theory, this study was carried out in Lagos State. The political news contents of some television houses were content analysed for a period of two months. Findings revealed that women are less utilized as political news experts in the media. The study concluded that factors such as level of expertise, attitude of women towards politics, media ownership and reporter-in-charge of the news contributed to their being less utilized as news experts in the media. The study recommends that there is need for more women experts in different fields to promote their interest on political issues affecting the country.

Keywords: Female Politicians, Male Politicians, Media, News Sources




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INTRODUCTION The Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP) (2005) define gender as, “The roles, functions and characteristics of men which have been given greater value than that of women, creating unequal gender power relations which perpetuate discrimination against women in both the public and private spheres”. Traditionally, males dominate the media space especially on political issues and are used as sources more often than females who are used less in hard news stories than men; women tend to appear in media articles and pieces concerning children and general life style. Anyanwu (2001) observed that the visibility of women in elected offices is relatively low in spite of the number of women in prominent positions. The media is eager to put women's picture on the cover page of the newspaper for her beauty and

elegance to sell newspapers but always short of substance where women voices are to be heard. The Institute for Media and Society (2011) studied media coverage of the 2011 Elections in Nigeria and noted that female politicians were demoted and downgraded by the media during the election period. According to the study female politicians were under-reported in terms of frequency of coverage, space and time allocated across various media platforms. The study expressly revealed that media reporting of the elections tended to “favour of male politicians who were the focus and sources of various news items while female politicians did not get up to 10 percent of the media attention given to their male counterparts. Most news stories need to feature an interview with a person discussing the topic of the story, and reporters contact expert sources for their opinions on that topic. Traditionally, male experts are used as sources more often than female experts, and female experts are used less in hard news stories than men. If female sources are unable to be considered professionals or experts in stories of national or international importance, viewers could be led to believe that women do not deserve leadership roles. As female reporters continue to be assigned soft news stories, women sources will continue to be inadequately utilized in hard news stories (Armstrong, 2004). The crust of this study therefore is to examine the

underlying reasons for the under-utilisation of women as experts and sources of political news. This study therefore seeks to draw the attention of the media on the need to empower women by giving them adequate representations in politics across various media platforms. It could also sensitize media scholars in grooming future media practitioners as advocates of gender balance in political news coverage. Giving women voice in the media remain vital in promoting the full utilization of women in the development of human resources and to bring about their acceptance as full participants in every phase of national development with equal rights as their male counterparts.


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LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Afolabi et al. (2003) cited in Agbalajobi (2010), women make up over half of the world’s population and contribute in vital ways to societal development generally. In most societies women assume five key roles:

1. Mother, 2. Producer, 3. Home-manager, 4. Community organizer and 5. Socio-cultural and political activists.

Amid these cited roles, Socio-cultural and political activism has been triggered by women movements as a result of the historical gender relegation and discrimination. Before the rise and advent of these female rights movements, the

roles of gender in the society were divided between the male and female sexes. These roles, according to Agbalajobi (2010), can be generally categorized into the productive and the reproductive gender roles in which the productive gender roles were mainly associated with males while reproductive gender roles were exclusive to females. Beverly (1995), cited in Okafor (2006) notes that the society assumes that women should be mothers, school teachers, hairdressers, secretaries, nurse, maids and social workers only, therefore, they do not need education not to talk of taking part in decision making. After 16 years of uninterrupted military rule, the Nigerian political landscape is still male dominated despite the country being relieved to be returned to democracy. Interestingly, women are not given adequate opportunities to participate optimally. However, every poll since 1999 has had a woman on the ballot (360 News, 2015). According to Ndlovu and Mutale (2013) “media act as both an executor and as a protagonist in promoting equal participation of men and women in elections”. Ogwezzy (2004) opines that the press helps in creating “political articulation, mobilization and conflict-management”. She notes that the press is responsible for determining whose campaign goes on air, and whose does not. This is vital to who

the public knows about and who they eventually vote for. To Omenugha (2004) “one thing that is glaring in the Nigeria media is the near absence of Nigeria women as Newsmakers”. Citing Tsami (2012), Ndlovu and Mutale (2013) notes that the need “for a lot of work to be done for female politicians to be reported more often and in a positive manner”. Progress has however been slow in this regard. Omenugha (2001) further indicts the Nigerian media on their politics of exclusion, noting that the Nigeria media is guilty of stereotyping and is caught in this web of discordant culture that continues to exclude women. This alleged women stereotypes has crept into the market place of ideas within the context of media sources and experts selection to discuss political issues in the society. Omenugha contends that leaders in the media industry continue to give women little voice, demean them through various forms of stereotypes, and increases their vulnerability, all of which now contributes to trapping women in the vicious circle

of poverty.


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Irvin (2013) is also of the opinion that women have been underrepresented as

sources on news programs especially in politics. Anyanwu (2002) writes:

A content analysis of mainstream media in Nigeria reveals one dominant orientation. Women are largely seen and not heard. Their faces adorn newspapers. However, on important national and international issues, they fade out. Even when the news is about them, the story only gains prominence if there is a male authority figure or newsmaker on the scene.

Anyanwu (2001) lamented that the silence of women on national issues gives an impression that women do not care about things happening around them. She went on to say that some female assembly members have complained that the press has always short changed them even when they grant interviews. The end result is that, these prominent women are either grossly misquoted or they are not

reported. Desmond and Danilewicz (2010) identified another gender discrepancy in terms of news sources. Female reporters were more likely to report on human interest and health stories, while males reported on politics. Within these stories, males were more often cited as experts and sourced more frequently than female experts, while there were no major differences between male and female non-experts. Reporters were often more likely to choose a source of their own gender, which therefore gave male sources more prominence as there are more male reporters addressing hard news issues. Okunna (2000) in a study found out that the image of women in Nigeria home video films generally is causing the society in general to perceive Nigeria women as materialistic, wayward, and of low morality. Because of these, they are seen to be only fit for domestic work rather than professional and career role. Okunna (1996) in Okunna (2000) based on her findings concluded that “the image of women in the field of Journalism is very negative and capable of negatively influencing the perception of women” within the larger society. Existing studies thus establish the under-representation of women in political

issues in the media. Some scholars have however suggested reasons for such under-representation. Ogwezzy (2004) attributes this deficiency to the inability of female politicians to own media houses. Citing Nwankwo (1996), she notes that women generally lack the financial resources necessary for establishing media houses. McQuail (2005) also notes that “media are invariably related in some way to the prevailing structure of political and economic power”. Undoubtedly “owners in a market-based media have power over content (representation) and can ask what they want to be included or left out women” (McQuail 2005). Johnstone et al (1976) cited in Daramola, Johnson and Oladeinde (2013) conclude that "in any society those in charge of mass communication tend to come from the same social strata as those in control of economic and political system". Daramola, Johnson and Oladeinde (2013) agree that nearly all aspect and strata of the society are predominantly owned by men.


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Nwabunkeonye (2014) on the other hand assert that these barriers include

discriminatory socio-cultural and religious practices, lack of finance, political party discrimination, under-representation of women in governance and unhealthy political environment. Other factors attributed to this include low-self-esteem, and lack of confidence, violent and unconducive environment, cultural stereotypes/religious barriers, harmful traditional practices, high registration fees, and the pull-down syndrome. Agbalajobi (2010) and Kira (2003) argued that the increasing domination of women by men have several theoretical underpinning. On the one hand, women are less represented in politics due to persistent cultural stereotype, abuse of religious and traditional practices. Also, the relegation of women from the realm of politics is akin to the kind of societal social structures in operation at a particular point in time. In Nigeria, political party is the basis for the fulfilment of political ambitions by politicians. According to Nwabunkeonye (2014), its chain of command, membership, and funding are still male-dominated which

made it possible for them to be influencing the party’s internal politics and often sideling women. The manifestos and constitutions of political parties in Nigeria rarely mention Affirmative Action for women, and when they do, their commitments are lower than the bench mark set by regional and International conventions. Research Objectives The research objectives of our study are as follows:

1. To determine the level of media reportage given to female politicians. 2. To determine the level of utilization of female politicians as news subject

in the broadcast media? 3. To examine the utilization of female politicians as news objects in the

broadcast media. Research Questions From our research objectives we derived the following research questions:

1. What is the extent of female politician reportage in the media? 2. How has the utilization of female politicians as news subject in the

broadcast media been viewed by the populace?

3. What is the extent of the utilization of female politicians as news objects in the broadcast media?

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study is premised on two types of theories, the liberal feminism theory and the social responsibility theory. Liberal feminism emphasizes equal individual rights and liberties for women and men while downplaying sexual differences Mackinnon (2001). Liberal feminism is the most widely accepted social and political philosophy among feminists. Liberal feminists defend the equal rationality of the sexes and emphasize the importance of structuring social, familial, and sexual roles in ways that promote women's

autonomous self-fulfillment. They emphasize the similarities between men and women rather than their differences, attribute most of the personality and


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character differences between the sexes to the social construction of gender, and

tend to promote a single set of androgynous virtues for both women and men. Therefore irrespective of the reporter’s gender there should be no segregation in assigning the female reporter the due assignment most especially political related news. On the other hand the social responsibility theory “owes its origin to an American initiative- the 1947 Hutchins Commission on the freedom of the press” Ndolo (2005). The emergence of this theory was an attempt to provide restraint to the excessive press freedom advocated by the libertarian theory. The idea here is to ensure the press does not abuse the freedom at its disposal. The major characteristic nature of this theory is that the media’s responsibility is to use its powerful position to ensure appropriate delivery of information to audiences; and if the media fails in carrying out this responsibility, it may be relevant to have a

regulatory body to enforce it. According to the theory, the power and near monopoly position of the media impose on them an obligation to be socially responsible in discharging their duties. It explains that the media owe the society a duty to discharge their responsibility responsibly.

METHODOLOGY

The study monitored the Network News of the NTA. The station was so chosen due to its national outlook. The news bulletins are those used between 1st of December, 2014 and 10th February, 2015 before the 2015 elections were postponed. In order to ensure an effective study, the researcher adopted a mixed method approach using content analysis and personal interviews. Berelson (1952) defined content analysis as a systematic, objective and quantitative method of research (cited in Wimmer and Dominick, 2011). Simply put, it is “the analysis of what is said, printed, broadcast or written” (Hsia, 1988). This particular research method is used in mass communication to describe the content of a message, compare media reports, study trend or changes in content of a medium

over time, and analyzes intentional differences in communication content. It is a popular method among mass media researchers because it offers a convenient way to analyse the content of the media (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). Personal interview according to Tejumaye (2003) and Wimmer and Dominick (2011) is also called one-on-one interviews which usually involve inviting a respondent to a field service location or a research office, and sometimes interviews are conducted at a person’s place of work or homes.


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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Below are the findings of the study based on data gathered from the field.

Table 1: Contents of Political News Script of NTA in December, 2014 Date Headlines Source Subject

Male Female Male Female

2/12/2014 APC Clears Gov. Ambode 1 - 1 -

3/12/2014 Senate President prays for Nigeria 1 - 1 -

3/12/2014 Gov. meets with Local Govt. Workers

1 - 1 -

4/12/2014 Peace Rally organised - 1 - 1

8/12/2014 PDP Cancels Ogun Governorship Primaries

1 - 1 -

9/12/2014 INEC Chairman meet Traditional Rulers

1 - 1 -

11/12/2014 PDP Ratifies President Jonathan as Standard Bearer

1 - 1 -

16/12/2014 Amobode unveils Guber running mate

1 - 1 -

16/12/2014 Press Briefing by Women affairs Ministry

- 1 - 1

22/12/2014 FG. Assures of Success of 2015 Polls

1 - 1 -

24/12/2014

Aliyu Advocates Cancelation of PVC for 2015 polls

1 - 1 -

Source: Fieldwork, 2015.

Findings in the above tables reveal that in December 2014, out of 11 News broadcast on political issues 9 (82%) of the total News had male folks as sources and objects while 2 (18%) had women as objects and subjects.

Table 2: Contents of Political News Script of NTA in January, 2015 Date Headlines Source Subject


6/1/2015 President Emphasize on Peace 1 - 1 -

8/1/2015 Oba of Lagos advises Jonathan 1 - 1 -

8/1/2015 INEC ready for February Election 1 - 1 -

9/1/2015 Gov. Amobode takes Campaign to lagos Island

1 - 1 -

12/1/2015 Ogun PDP Presidential Campaign Rally 1 - 1 -

13/1/2015 Jonathan Campaign in Abeokuta 1 - 1 -

13/1/2015 SIA’s Campaign Tours Ewekoro 1 - 1 -

14/1/2015 Buhari Visits Jonathan 1 - 1

14/1/2015 Buhari’s Campaign to Ogun 1 - 1

14/1/2015 SIA’s Campaign Tour 1 - 1

27/1/2015 INEC Stakeholders Meeting with Women Group

- 1 - 1

27/1/2015 APC Campaign tour of ibeju lekki 1 - 1 -

29/1/2015 President Jonathan Campaign at Taraba

1 - 1 -

Source: Fieldwork, 2015


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In January, out of 12 news items in politics broadcast by NTA, 11(91.7%) had men

as their sources and objects and were favourable to them while 1(8.3%) was in favour of women and sourced by women. Table 3: Contents of Political News Script of NTA in February, 2015

Date Headlines Source Subject


12/2/2015 Presidential Media Chat 1 - 1 -

12/2/2015 Comment on President Jonathan’s Achievement

1 - 1 -

12/2/2015 Ambode Concludes Campaign to Wards

1 - 1 -

Source: Fieldwork, 2013

Findings reveal that out of four political news cast in February none was dedicated to women either as source or subject. Generally, statistics for the period under review show that women are under reported in the two broadcast stations selected for this study. The findings above correspond with the findings of Institute for Media and Society (2011), on media coverage of women in the 2011 elections. The findings from the exercise showed that media reportage of the elections were skewed in favour of male politicians who were subjects and sources of many news items while female politicians did not get as much as 10% of the media attention given to male politicians. Also the above finding corresponds with African Media Barometer Nigeria (2011) and South Africa (2013) studies which state that Women remain unfairly represented in the media. According to a Gender Links Gender and Media Baseline Study in 2003, as cited by African Media Barometer (2013), the proportion of women sources in the news in South Africa was 19%. This increased marginally to 20% in the follow-up Gender and Media Progress Study in 2010. The studies further state that: “as it emerged from the 2011 elections, women running for public office often get less coverage

than their male counterparts or opponents”. In supporting the findings of the study Oyinade, Daramola and Lamidi (2013) write that the Nigerian media see women as cash crops that must be packaged like candy bars. News about women rarely makes the front page. To corroborate this discovery from the journalist point of view in the personal interview, here are some excerpts; DAYO ODIGHE:

“To an extent I use them (women as sources of News), depends on times and contemporary issues we are discussing. It depend on the person sourcing for information if that person does not have confidence that he expects to get from a person there is probability of not using that person”


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FUNMI OPATOLA:

“It depends, if woman is the one versatile than then men on the issue at hand, I’ll go for her”.

AFOLABI:

“Men are my own choice except in some cases because men don’t have time to waste, they go straight to the point and they are the ideal choice”.

KAYODE TAIWO:

“Majority of my sources are men and it is not deliberate because those that I find having the true picture of the information I require are women, Sourcing news from them can’t be compared to that of men”

The following factors are said to influence sourcing news from the women on

political issues, journalist’s confidence in women’s information, journalist preference, low participation in politics and political climate. Majority of the interviewee are of the opinion that their confidence in information provided by women is low which account for them not believing in the credibility of information provided by women. They accounted for 40%. KAYODE TAIWO:

“Journalists don’t patronize women because they want correct information”. TEMITOPE: “I refer to news information from women as second class information. DAYO ODIGHE:

“It depend on the person sourcing for information if that person does not have confidence that he expects to get from a person there is probability of not using that person”

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS In supporting the findings of the study, and based on the evidence presented in this study, the study concludes that:

Women scarcely appear both as political news sources and or subjects in the media.

That news will be sourced from women depending on the issues to be discussed.

The attitude of women towards being interviewed or featured on television programmes determines the extent of sourcing news from them.

It was also revealed that cultural practices hinder visibility of women in the media.


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Based on these conclusions, the study recommends that:

Journalists should cultivate the habit of fairness in news sources a selection and avoid attaching their personal values to news source selection.

Women should stop seeing themselves as second fiddle; they should come out regardless of the cultural practices and project themselves.

It is further recommended that political correspondents should take the media to the women wherever they are, while they are not honouring media invitation.

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GENDER AND ROLE-PLAYING IN THE THEATRE AND MASS MEDIA IN NIGERIA

Ilamin Clive Krama, Ph.D.

Department of Theatre and Film Studies University of Port Harcourt

Rivers State, Nigeria [email protected]

Phone: +234- 803-5515-378

Faith Ibarakumo Ken-Aminikpo, Ph.D.

Department of Theatre and Film Studies

University of Port Harcourt Rivers State, Nigeria

E-mail:[email protected]

[email protected]

Phone: +234- 803-3415-658

+234-807-6766-091

Abstract: This paper x-rays the role of gender on the achievement of competencies of

theatre and mass medium skills. The focus is on the female gender, in relations to the organizing, structure, procedures and ideologies of the theatre and media in helping to explain why they proves so resistant to women and their interest. We studied the gender roles of the Children’s Theatre Programme of the University of Port Harcourt [UCTP] to determine if gender factors constraint the performer from attaining competency in their roles. Results from the analysis indicated that there is no significant difference between the genders factors that constrain the performer from attaining competency in their roles. The assumption, therefore, is that mainstream machineries are important to create a level playing field so that the theatre and the media agents can compete on equal basis. The paper suggests that a reassessment and engagement of women with main stream policy-making institutions will improve women activism.

Keywords: Gender, Theatre, Media, Role-Play




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INTRODUCTION

The theatre and the mass media have from inception portrayed the female gender as incapable of a status. A situation has arisen from both cultural barrier and lack of relative institutional framework. The argument in essence was that the theatre and the media are a man’s world that constrained women incursion principally by keeping women away from being custodians of maternal culture and the constrain was made worse by the exclusion of women from mainstream cultural policy-

making processes.

The genesis of the exclusion of women from media organizations and media dynamics may be largely explained by four factors namely: discrimination from within and outside the household, the gender specific in socialization processes, the asymmetric rights between husbands and wives and finally the influence of

reproductive processes on the woman. In Nigeria in particular the woman faces several cultural inhibitions that are expressed in the above named factors. The women face several odds both in the home and outside. The preference of the male over the female creates a low value for the woman. This lack of personhood impacts severely on the creativity and drives of the woman towards material and non-material culture creation. The second limiting factor is the gender specific role that the girl child has been trained to develop. The girl is socialized to do domestic activities of low economic value while’ the male is trained to aspire to enjoy unlimited creativity. Boys will always aspire to be Lawyers, Doctors, and Journalists etc; at best the woman will dream of Nursing. This also impacts on the career choice of women. If women and men are to be given equitable opportunities to explore economic activities and to create images of sane world with sane sexes then, the state has to become more accountable to its female citizen. This is a process which require public action and from variety of civil groups and cohesive gender constituency.

THE THEATRE, MASS MEDIA AND WOMEN PERCEPTION OF GENDER IDENTITY

In Gender and Performance (2010) discourse, women were forbidden, by law, to perform in the Elizabeth theatre. There were no female actresses then. The acting profession was not a credible one and it was unthinkable that any woman would appear in any play. The parts of female characters were played by young boys. These boys were usually between aged 13- 19years of age when their voices were still high and muscles had not fully developed. The voices of Elizabethan boys were believed to break much later the modern day due to difference in diet and lifestyle which made it possible for boy actor to play women’s part convincingly until they entered their late teens Owing to the crucial role of the mass media, it does not only promote justice and equity for women but in fostering appreciation, for their specific nature. The mass media devalues women through derogatory slogans and posing techniques that


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make women appear inferior to men No society has ever become developed by

intensifying exclusion from social and cultural production. Nancy Cook (2000) asserts that gender roles in the media continue to show that women have a long way to go before their voices are really heard either as guiding forces from within the news organization or as credible sources from without.This explains the role of gender in the mass media. The media has been propelled by the men at the exclusion of the women. The exclusion of the women from the media processes shapes the production of gender identity and perception of the women. Rebecca Haydu (2008) maintains that women generally generate identity from the female images they see portrayed on stage, film, radio etc. At both the conscious and sub conscious levels, these media images of women affect behaviour at every age and stage of life. It is obvious that these images are unrealistic, yet they exert

pressure on women to conform and influence how they live. The media as an institution needs a concerted effort from the women to create a positive identity through constructive engagement of the women in media organization.

EMPIRICAL PROOF ON GENDER EQUALITY IN THEATRE ROLE-PLAY

A research carried by Ken-Aminikpo in 2012 on theatre gender role-play to determine if gender factors constraint the performer from attaining competency?, The overall purpose was to train each child in the UCTP to the same competency level and to determine if gender factors constraint the performer from attaining competency in their roles play adequately. Out of two hundred (200) registered children between the ages 5-15 were categorized into three (3) age brackets using Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. Ten (10) members (5boys& 5girls) of each age group of the programme were purposively selected for this study. Table 1: Summary of mean% on how gender factors constraint the performer from

attaining competency in their roles play adequately

RANGE/Variables

Male Female

n = 10 n=10 n=10 Over all

mean% Remark n=10 n =10 n=10

Over all mean%

Remark

5-7 yrs.

8-11 yrs.

12-15 yrs.

5-7 yrs.

8-11 yrs

12-15 yrs

1. Linguistics(Lines delivery) 15%

14 12 14 13.3 Very good 14 12 14 13.3 Very good

2.Musical(singing) 15%

14 15 14 14.3 Excellence 12 14 14 13.3 Very good

3. Body kinetic(Dancing) 15%


4.Interpersonal (Dialogue) 15%

12 12 12 12.0 Very good 15 15 14 14.7 Excellence

4. Intrapersonal (Mime) 15%



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From the table above, the overall mean % of Linguistics (Lines delivery) for male

and female are (13.3, 13.3) with both remark Very good, the difference in their mean is 0.0%; the overall mean% singing for male and female are (14.3, 13.3) with both remark very good. The difference in their mean is 1.0%; the overall mean% of Body Kinetic for male and female are (13.3, 12.7) with both remark very good. The difference in their mean is 0.5%; the overall mean% of Interpersonal (Dialogue) for male and female are (12.0, 14.8) with remark excellence. The difference in their mean is 2.8%. The overall mean% for Intrapersonal (mime) of male and female (12.7, 13.3) remarked Very Good. The difference in their mean was 0.6%. Thus, there was no significant difference of gender factors that constraints the performer from attaining competency in their roles play adequately.

Figure 1: Graphical representation of the Summary of mean% on how gender factors constraint the performer from attaining competency in their roles play adequately

METHODS OF ROLE- PLAYING IN THE THEATRE The traditional methods that are used to nurture and develop the skills of the children are through dramatic education. Which consist of creative dramatics and theatre in education, both are termed educational theatre. The Child is groomed through the means of storytelling, improvisational role-play, play methods, imaginative exercises, puppetry, music, poetry recitations, pantomime, mime, dance and songs. Although in children’s theatre, these forms of dramatic theatre exist for the purpose of the child audience. According to Lease and Siks [1940] as cited in Okome (2004) explains that:

In children’s theatre, actors memorizes lines of a play written by a playwright and in return, are directed through the action and interpretation of the play by a qualified director.


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Traditional, actors are trained in Voice, Speech, Movement and Text analysis for

effective stage performance. The onus lies on the trainer/director/handler that is expected to be grounded on his or her creative abilities. For a sense of creativity is the vital instrument for theatre role-play and other collaboration to flourish. Competency-based training focuses to a great degree on language and technique of improvisation theatre. Improvisation is a creative process which can be spoken, written, or composed without prior preparation. Many theatre artistes also use improvisational techniques to help their creative flow. Here are two significant methods:

Improvisational Theatre is a form of theatre in which actors use

improvisational acting techniques to perform spontaneously. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing instinctively and

spontaneously are considered important skills for actors to develop. Free Improvisation is real time composition. Musicians of all kinds

“improve” music; this music is not limited to particular genre. Two contemporary musicians that use free improvisation are Anthony Braxton and Cecil. Through free improvisation, musicians can develop increased spontaneity and fluency.

Both improvisation improves the thinking and acting skill of the actor, this is made by using no practice, a similar set of techniques is called Alienation since one of its many techniques uses actors that haven't rehearsed or even read the play, improvisation is an acting skill where actors make up a storyline, start and ending on the spot and actors have to try their best to keep in character. The skills of the theatre are related to the natural development of the imagination in children. Mimicry, disguise, imitation, fantasy, and transformation are the sources of most play activity and complex games. Theatre performance activities’ are a miniature of the real world. The engaging processes provide a practical and fertile ground for the development of many life skills among young performers including: communicating, listening, cooperation, demonstrating motor skills, setting purposes, patience, coordinating, and persuading. Learning to be competent in the different roles/skills allows children to find their place among their peers. Essentially, an actor's talents are judged by his or her ability to effectively communicate dialogue and a sense of character to the audience. Competency based-training in every role played in theatre is a multifaceted shift and the following are required from the actor or performer.

Elocution (speaking style), Diction (clarity of pronunciation), Gesture, stage movement, and other abilities is only the first component

of the craft. Other basic skills include the memorization of lines and cueing; manipulation of masks, costumes, and stage properties; and the embodiment of character through

the expression of class status, gender, age, nationality, and temperament. Learning these skills generally takes several months of practice or rehearsals. Any form of


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children theatre role-play is a dedicated study beginning in early childhood in order

to be competent in their presentations- a stylized system of gestures, movements, and facial expressions. The player speaks and moves in the imaginary environment of the stage, and so his or her powers of pretense must be sharply focused over an extended period of time or the entire dramatic atmosphere may collapse.

The inclusion of all designated expression of the creative modes is designed to suit the needs of the child. Ward [1947] (as cited in Okome (2005) states the advantages of these creative modes mentioned above as thus:

It develops the child’s basic skills of communication, namely body, mind and voice, and increases his ability to use them.

It helps the child to enrich his/her experience of life by stimulating him/her to enter into all kinds of situations,

physically and imaginatively, thereby helping him to increase his awareness of his environment and deepening his understanding of people and situations. (221)

The area of improvisational role-play is employed to deal with imagination and creativity. The roles are assumed to add great value to the participant who is developing in the art of acting, while the dramatic modes of dance, mime, pantomime, poetry recitations and puppetry manipulations stirs the imagination of the child, enables the child to express ideas, thought, interpretations and comments about life which is expected to develop the creative ability in his or her acting skills that is well nurtured. No matter the way people may see theatre performances, be it role-play or game activity, singing or dancing, etc, the activities are very interesting. Reputable theatre scholars and critics like Spolin [1963], Wright[1972], Fernald[1971], Brown [1971] and Hanson[1986], to mention but a few, have all attempted to discuss, criticize and propagate theories in the areas of acting and other theatre performances. Theatre was one of many new theatrical enterprises that appeared in Moscow Art

Theatre, the performers spent months each year in preparation for productions, thereby developing a unified system of acting. Stanislavsky carried out theatrical experiments in search of developing a new form of acting training for the would-be actor. He suggested that the performers’ past emotional experience, if truthfully tasked to be relieved on stage, would bring out the best of acting skills in the actor (Encyclopedia Britannica). This acting style was actually led by Strasberg, they practiced exercises in improvisation, physical and vocal conditioning, and sensory work, which schooled them in re-experiencing past memories. Strasberg's emotion-based training, later called the Method, was built on the belief that actors should internally share the feelings of their characters. Grotowski (1933-1999), Polish experimental theatre director, teacher, and theorist, noted for his theory of a “poor theatre,” which emphasizes the essence of performance without the distraction of elaborate staging or spectacle. Grotowski trained for the theater, began his directing career at a theatre in Kraków. Six years later he renamed theatre as the Theatre Laboratory.


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According to Gordon [2008]:

Many of the company have featured performers—notably Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, Robert Lewis, and Morris Carnovsky—taught their own variations on the Group's basic acting regimen. Others, especially Elia Kazan, stunned the film industry with their emphasis on truthful behavior and real emotion.

According to James M. Higgins [as cited in Alla Zusman [1998] creativity is the process of generating something new that has value .The Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) framework developed by Robert Mager is a comprehensive set of methods for the design and delivery of training programs. Some of the critical aspects include: (1) Goal/task analysis -- to identify what needs to be learned,

(2) Performance objectives -- exact specification of the outcomes to be accomplished and how they are to be evaluated (the criterion),

(3) Criterion referenced testing -- evaluation of learning in terms of the Knowledge/skills specified in the objectives,

(4) Development of learning modules tied to specific objectives. Training programs developed in CRI format tend to be self-paced courses involving a variety of different media (e.g., workbooks, videotapes, small group discussions, computer-based instruction). Students learn at their own pace and take tests to determine if they have mastered a module. A course manager administers the program and helps students with problems. Fluency instruction approach by Chase Young, Timothy Rasinski (2009) a technique that believes that the concept of fluency encompassing accuracy, automaticity and prosody is appropriate. We also agree with the scholarly literature that posits that modeled, assisted, and repeated readings are powerful tools for improving fluency (Farrell, 1966; Chomsky, 1976; Samuels, 1979; Dowhower, 1987; NICHD, 2000; Vaughn, Chard, Bryant, Coleman, & Kouzekanani, 2000; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Rasinski & Hoffman, 2003; Therrien, 2004). However, we also believe that a more authentic approach to fluency instruction exists in the realm of

performance of texts as in the performing arts (Rasinski, 2007). Students are more likely to practice or rehearse (assisted and repeated readings) if they know that they will be performing a reading for an audience. Moreover, such rehearsal is not aimed at reading speed, but at reading with meaningful expression to help an audience of listeners better understand the passage. Readers Theatre is a performance of a written script that demands repeated and assisted reading that is focused on delivering meaning to an audience. Since there is no acting, props, costumes, or scenery in Readers Theatre, readers must use their voices to carry the meaning. Thus, the goal of this fluency instruction is aimed at improving prosody and meaning. The repeated and assisted practice involved in rehearsal will improve accuracy and automaticity in word recognition. Research has demonstrated the potential of Readers Theatre to improve reading performance (Griffith & Rasinski, 2004; Martinez, Roser, & Strecker, 1998/1999). Moreover, Readers Theatre has been found to be an engaging and motivational activity for students.


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DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The finding of research question four and hypothesis two reported differences in the amount of time taken to raise the multiple skilled competencies using the same instructional packages with respect to gender and age ranges through Multifactor Analysis of Variance (MANOVA]. The total amount of rehearsal time spent for mastery for age 5-7 was 1700hours which was equivalent to the period of 71days; age 8-11 was 1600 hours which was equivalent to the period of 66 days; age 12-15 was 1020 hours which was equivalent of 43 days of rehearsal time. The data decomposes the variability into contribution due various factors [age range and gender (male and female)]. It determined which of the factors had significant effect on rehearsal time. The independent variables in this hypothesis are age range and gender while the dependable variable is multiple skilled areas. The P-values test the statistical significance of each of the factors. The P-value of age group equal to 0.00

is less than 0.05; this factor has a statistically significant effect on Amount of Time at the 95.0% confidence level. This implies that there is significant difference between the amounts of rehearsal time taken to raise the MI competencies of 5-15 years children using the same instructional packages with respect to age. With this observation the null hypothesis is rejected. The p-value of gender equal to 0.3386 is greater than alpha value = 0.05. The null hypothesis is accepted. This factor has no statistically significant effect on Amount of Time at the 95.0% confidence level. Now considering significant interactions amongst the factors, the p-value equal to 0.059 was greater than alpha value = 0.05. The null hypothesis was rejected; this implies that the interactions amongst the factors are statistically significant (i.e. age range was statistically significant while gender was not). The findings of Hypothesis two (2) showed that there is no significant difference between male and female children on how sex factors constraint performers from attaining competency in their play adequately. Both the male and female acquired mastery learning successful, their high standards were articulated equally and both received equal ample time and help to meet these standards. The finding of this research was in line with the finding of Olele (2000) that mastery learning was

not gender selective. That is, gender does not have any constraint on achieving mastery learning in the five theatre proficiency levels. This study attempted to prove that even in the acquisition of theatre role-playing 1. All the students learn well if instruction is systematically approached and

students are provided with sufficient help while the class timetable is made flexible.

2. Teachers should do task analysis before teaching to help the students learn better.

3. It fosters positive self-image and confidence in the students and the teachers alike.

4. Finally, the students’ performance is judged only in relation to the criteria established. Thus how the student performs compared to that of his

classmate is irrelevant in mastery learning approach.


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Gender does not have any influence on the acquisition of theatre role playing.

CONCLUSION

Every society has the right to choose those values and ideas that are consistent with its aspirations. Therefore, the women need a pro-active role in the creation of modern culture and for the sustenance of the sane world. The role of theatre and the media are vital in the sense that women fold are essential in the creation of culture. The theatre and media are very crucial in the creation of modern culture. Thus, a positive culture can only be created when both male and female genders have equal participation. This paper recommends that:

a) Women can do much to foster better treatment in the media by sound

theatre and media education programmes. b) The female gender should occupy positions of responsibilities and

creativity in the theatre and media – not imitating males but by creating their own genus.

c) Theatre and media women should from a very strong gender constituency that will liaise with civil groups to exert pressure on mainstream machineries to create level playing ground for men and women.

REFERENCES Brockett, O.G. (1999) History of the Theatre: Allynx Bacon U.S.A. Brockett, Oscar G. (1992) The Essential Theatre, (5th Edition), Fort Worth, Texas:

Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Carel Miller and Shahra Razavi(1997) ‘’ Technical co-operation and Women’s Lives:

Integrating Gender into Development Policy’’ In Gender Programme, Newsletter UNRISED.

Daryl Ben and Sandra Ben (1979) ‘’Training the Women to know Her Place: The

Power of a Non Conscious Idealogy In Social Interaction. Introductory Reading in Sociology, St.Martins Press, New York.

Enna, Dauda M. (2000) “Design in the Nigerian Theatre”, in Iyorwuese Hagher (ed.),

Theatre and Stage-craft in Nigeria, Abuja: Supreme Black Communications, 55-72.

Fernald, J. (1971) “Acting” In John Russell Brown (ed.) Drama and the Theatre with

Radio, Film and Television: an Online for the Students. Routledge and Kegan Paul: London.

Gender Forum: Gender and Performance (2010) , Internet Journal for Gender Studies. Issue 31, (www.genderforum.org/issues/gender/-and-performance/..) .Retrieved July, 2014.


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Nancy Cook Laur( Internet….http:www. Womensensews. Org/articles05/21/2003.

Women in organizations. Onwuka, U. (1981) Curriculum and Development for Africa. Onitsha: Africana

Publishers Nigeria Ltd. Rebecca Haydu_Jackson(2007) Women, Media and Self Perception. In the Voyager. Spolin, V. (1963) Improvisation for the Theatre. North-Western University Press:

Evanston Illinois. Stanislavski Constantin (1981): An Actor Prepares (London: Methuen). Lease, R. and Siks, G. (1951) Creative Dramatics in the Home, School and

Community, Harper Publishers. New York. Okome, Uwem. (2004) Developing the Acting Spirit in Children through

Educational Drama. In Effiong Johnson (ed.) The Art of Acting. A Student-Friendly Anthology Concept Publication Ltd Lagos: Nigeria

Okome, J. (2005) Acting: Managing the Stage and the Auditorium. In Effiong

Johnson (ed.) The Art of Acting. A Student-Friendly Anthology Concept Publication Ltd Lagos: Nigeria.

Oko-Offoboche, E. (1998) Drama With And For Children. Uptriko Press: Calabar. Grotowski, Jerzy. “The Theatre’s New Testament.” In Bernard F. Dukore (ed.),

(1974) Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.

Ward, W. (1947) Playmaking with Children Appeton Century: Croft Inc. New York. Way, Brian (1967) Development through Drama. London: Longman Publishers Wright, A.E. (1972) Understanding Today’s Theatre. Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood

Cliffs. New Jersey.


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CIGARETTE SMOKING AND KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH IMPLICATION CAMPAIGN ON CIGARETTE PACKS AMONG

UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS OF MICHAEL OKPARA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, UMUDIKE

Amaka Nwakego Okolo

Department of Marketing, College of Management Science

Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria.

[email protected]

Chukwuma Aniuga

Department of Marketing, College of Management Science, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture

Umudike. Abia State, Nigeria. [email protected]

Abstact: Smoking has been identified as a health risk; a pattern of behavior usually

acquired during adolescence. It is a growing public health problem in the developing world and also an important global challenge for public health policy makers. Based on this, the Federal Ministry of Health came up with health warnings which adorn every cigarette pack sold in Nigeria to campaign against cigarette smoking. The level of success recorded by the campaigns remains a subject of enquiry. This study, therefore, examined cigarette smoking and knowledge of its Health implications campaign on cigarette packs among students of Michael Okpara University Umudike. Specifically, the study sought to ascertain if the undergraduate students who smoke in the University are aware of the anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs. Also to ascertain if these smokers are exposed to the campaign messages on the cigarette packs. Again to verify how these smokers respond to the anti-smoking campaign message on cigarette packs and to determine also, if there are other factors other than the anti-smoking campaign message that can induce these smokers to re-consider smoking. The study was designed as a survey. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population which is made up of all the undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University Umudike. Statistical result indicates a weak relationship between the target audience and the level of knowledge of campaign on cigarette packs. Findings also show that majority of the respondents have the radio as their main source of news/information and religion among other factors like economy and marriage can make most respondents re-consider smoking.

Keywords: Cigerette smoking, anti smoking campaign message, Health implication,

Cigerette packs



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INTRODUCTION According to World Health Organization (2006) cigarettes are considered to be among the most deadly and addictive products made and if the users will smoke cigarettes according to the intention of the cigarettes manufacturers, cigarette smoking can kill half of its users. On the other hand, it is not only the tobacco consumers who are susceptible to its negative effects. The second-hand tobacco smoke, which is also known as passive smoking, has exposed millions of people including half of the world’s children to the negative effects of tobacco consumption. Evidence links second-hand smoking to the increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, asthma and other respiratory diseases, ear infection and sudden infant death syndrome. The above mentioned diseases are but a few of second-hand smoking’s harmful effects (WHO, 2006). Generally, all tobacco products can cause disease and death apart from the fact that they are

harmful and addictive. International experience shows that strong health warnings on tobacco packets is associated with increased awareness of the health risks of smoking and quitting activities of smokers. The mass media provides effective tools for convincing youths not to smoke; because they can communicate prevention messages directly to young people and influence their knowledge, attitudes and behavior (Hopkins et al.2001). The tobacco epidemic is rising rapidly; hence the regulation of tobacco products is critical. In recent times, research has shown that there is an alarming increase in the rate of smoking among adolescents. In the northern part of Nigeria where the weather is hot, it is established that there are high sales of cigarette (Benson & Hedges Research 2004).

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

It is estimated that tobacco use kills more than five million people every year more than HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined. If current trends continue,

tobacco use could kill more than eight million people per year by 2030, and up to one billion people in total in the 21st century (WHO, 2009). Worldwide, tobacco use is widespread and efforts to combat smoking and its health hazards are being scaled up. According to Saudi Medical Journal report (2000) cigarette smoking and its grave consequences on health, such as lung cancer, chronic bronchitis and carcinoma of the oral cavity (larynx, esophagus and tongue) and urinary bladder, are all well documented. Nevertheless, people continue to smoke even when they know of the health hazards. Warning labels on anti-smoking messages have become a popular method employed by some governments in an attempt to inform their citizens of the health consequences of smoking. For instance, the introduction of Canada’s new graphic warning labels in December 2000 prompted other countries to review their

requirements on new warning label in many of those countries. (Strahan et al, 2002). In Nigeria, the Federal Government through the Federal Ministry of Health


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realized and appreciated this fact and initiated the following warning labels which

adorn every cigarette pack sold in Nigeria: “Say No to Tobacco Smoking”, “The Federal Ministry of Health warns that tobacco smoking is dangerous to health”, “The Federal Ministry of Health warns that smokers are liable to die young.” The Federal Government of Nigeria in 2011 also went further to the passage of the National Tobacco Control Bill which is expected to help check smoking excesses. The bill domesticates the World Health Organization-Initiated Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, a global standard for tobacco control. The major highlights of the bill include: ban on single stick sale of cigarettes; ban on tobacco advertisement, sponsorship and promotions; ban on selling cigarette to persons under the age of 18; ban on smoking of tobacco products in public places, which include airports and public buildings; clearly visible tax stamps on cigarette pack and enforcement provision to ensure that the law is effectively implemented. Similarly, anti-smoking groups in Nigeria, particularly Cancer Charities along with

NAFDAC campaign, have attempted through the mass media to counter the advertising of cigarettes by creating their own campaign messages to highlight the negative effects of smoking. In this regard, the earliest commercials mainly focused on encouraging smoking cessation, and highlighting the increased risk of lung cancer and the problems associated with passive smoking. However, the messages have become increasingly hard-hitting over the years, with some messages now centered on decreased physical attractiveness of smokers and the risk of erectile dysfunction. Despite the numerous public reports and cigarette warning labels on the risk of smoking, observation on our campuses shows that a large number of undergraduate students smoke. The increasing prevalence of smoking among undergraduate students calls for empirical studies to be undertaken to unearth student’s awareness of, exposure to and response to the anti-smoking campaign messages on cigarette packs. Smoking control policies and programmes require data on smoking especially among vulnerable groups such as students.

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

In the recent past, it would appear that cigarette advertising has gradually sunk into oblivion. During the time when cigarettes were still being advertised on a large scale in magazines and billboards especially, they had a caveat accompanying them to the effect that cigarette smoking could endanger health. Without empirical studies, it is uncertain how much impact this warning achieved. Most empirical studies dwelt on smoking dangers, prevalence and media campaigns against smoking. These days the warning which says that “Smokers are liable to die young” adorns cigarette packs. It is important to find out the effectiveness of this strategy at inducing behavior change in undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University Umudike. Also to find out the number of the students who have quit the smoking habit because of the awareness of and exposure to this message? Regardless of the campaign message, it will also be important to know how many of these students still maintain the smoking habit.


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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study seeks to establish the extent undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University Agriculture Umudike who smoke cigarettes are aware of and exposed to the health message on cigarette packs that says, “Smokers are liable to die young”. The study also seeks to ascertain what the students’ responses are to this health message on the cigarette packs. The decision to embark on this study was informed by the fact that in Nigeria, the prevalence of tobacco use is much higher among students (WHO, 2003). Against this backdrop, this study was informed by the need to establish if placing anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs elicits the desired response and impact from the target audience. This general objective was narrowed down to specific objectives as follows:

1. To ascertain if the undergraduate students who smoke in Michael Okpara

University Umudike are aware of the anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs.

2. To ascertain if these smokers are exposed to the campaign message on the cigarette packs.

3. To verify how these smokers respond to the anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs.

4. To determine if any relationship exists between the scare message on the cigarette packs and the tendency of these smokers to stop smoking.

5. To determine also, if there are other factors other than the anti-smoking campaign message that induce these smokers to re-consider smoking.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Fajoju and Okhihu (2009) in a study on drug abuse among students of Ambrose Ali University, Ekpoma, Nigeria, equally show that among drugs abused, such as Cocaine, Marijuana, Librium, Colanut, Tobacco is one most widely abused. Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended the need to organize awareness programs on campuses to educate students more on the deadliness of

drugs which will affect their learning. They also recommended that university authorities should put in place severe disciplinary measures to stem the tide of drug abuse. Likewise, Kobiowu (2006) conducted a study on the social and academic implication of drug abuse among undergraduates of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife Nigeria. He found that among drugs commonly abused is tobacco. The study revealed that the academic pursuit of those undergraduates who engage in drug misuse is not unduly jeopardized, and that the abusers do not socialize extraordinarily, contrary to seemingly popular expectation. Again, Salawu et al (2009) conducted a study on cigarette smoking habits among adolescents in Yola South Local Government. The study shows that the overall prevalence of smoking was (33.9%) of the population used: 40.4% males and 22.6% females. A survey conducted by WHO in the Southern part of Nigeria revealed a smoking prevalence of 23% among male youths; 17.0% among female youth and an overall prevalence of 18.1% (WHO 2004). Adeyeye (2011) in his study of cigarette smoking habits among senior secondary school students in Lagos, South West Nigeria,


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found out that the mean age of current smokers was 16.1, mean smoking duration

of 3.95 years. The mean quantity of cigarette smoked was 3.7 sticks per day. The reasons given for starting cigarette smoking were peer group influence, curiosity and desire to express maturity. Michelle et al (2015) studied the smoking habits awareness, and attitude towards tobacco control policies among medical students in Lagos, Nigeria. Their aim was to assess the prevalence of cigarette smoking among medical students and to determine their level of knowledge regarding risk associated with cigarette smoking and their attitude and behavior towards tobacco control strategies and policies. A stratified random sampling approach was used to select participants. A modified version of the Global Health Professional Students, survey questionnaire was self-administered. Descriptive statistics were applied and comparisons were done using

chi-square test. Multivariate logistic regression was used to obtain the significant determinate of smoking; AP<0.05 was considered significant. A total of 250 students participated in the study with a response rate of 89.2%. The mean age (years) was 21.4. Rate of ever smoking and current smoking was 9.6 and 1.2%, respectively. Age>21, having a smoking father, and use of alcohol were significantly associated with ever smoking. Knowledge of smoking as a risk for emphysema was 72.8%, coronary artery disease 82.8%, stroke 68.8%, and low birth weight 76.4%. There were 103 (41.2%) students aware of antidepressants usage in smoking cessation. One hundred and ninety-five (78) offered smoking cessation advice if a smoker had no smoking–related diseases and did not seek their opinion about smoking, 68% affirmed to having adequate knowledge on smoking cessation, and 54.8% had received formal training on smoking in enclosed public places was supported by 92.4%. Their study concluded that the prevalence of current cigarette smoking among medical students in Lagos is relatively low. Fawibe and Shittu (2011) also studied the prevalence and characteristics of cigarette smokers among undergraduates of the University of Ilorin in Nigeria. They found that despite the low prevalence rate of smoking in the population that was studied, a majority of them were not willing to quit because of a low perception of the negative effects of smoking on their health and quality of life. According to the

researchers, comprehensive antismoking campaigns were urgently needed to control cigarette smoking among university undergraduates in Nigeria. In Thailand, mass media anti- smoking campaigns are known to have the second largest impact in reducing the prevalence of smoking and reducing the number of lives lost to smoking which shows the potential of anti- smoking campaigns in a developing country (Levy et al., 2008). Again, in a pan-national campaign evaluation using a multistage, household survey methodology in India in 2010, Murukuttla et al (2011) found that anti- smoking campaign awareness was associated with reducing the prevalence of smoking. Likewise in China, a pre and post-campaign evaluation conducted in Beijing and Guangzhou by Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CCDCP] found an increased awareness of the link between smoking and cardiovascular disease, with fewer respondents thinking that cigarettes are a valuable gift or one that most people would like, after that particular anti-smoking campaign intervention. However, these results from the national survey methodology could merely support the success of anti-smoking


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campaigns in increasing the public’s awareness and attitude towards anti-smoking

campaigns, changing the public’s knowledge about the link of smoking and disease, or preventing young people from smoking; there is no evidence that shows anti- smoking campaigns have a manifest effect in changing the behavior of those who already smoke, especially people who quit and start smoking again. Also, nationwide survey method may not profoundly reflect smokers’ real experience, opinions and attitude towards anti-smoking campaigns and their smoking behavior change. The CCDCP study concentrates on the effectiveness of anti-smoking campaigns in China, a country having only five years history of nationwide anti-smoking control. The way mass media anti-smoking campaigns gives impact to the Chinese smokers’ as well as their effectiveness on changing smoking behavior in China is still unclear. Equally, Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) holds that while the rate of smoking

in Australia had declined slightly from 1995 (when it was 28% of adults), almost 3.5 million people said they were current smokers – 23% of all adults (26% of men and 20% of women) – in 2004-05. Smoking rates are highest in younger age groups and decline with increasing age. The ABS (2006) reported that the highest rate of smoking for men was among those aged 18-24 (34%) and for women, those aged 25-34 (27%). In Malaysia, smoking-related diseases are among the important current public health issues being the main cause of mortality with 10,000 deaths reported annually (Malaysian Medical Association, 2002). This health issue is even more urgent because smoking prevention is also an important measure in curbing drug abuses in the population. The national drug agency of Malaysia (Persatuan Mencega Dadah Malaysia, PEMADAM) reported that 100% of drug addicts are smokers (Pemadam 2003). So also, Sly et al (2001) in a media tracking survey of teenagers demonstrated high rates of campaign awareness, and specific ad awareness in the first six weeks of the campaign, which persisted to one year. In addition, over the first year of the campaign, there was change in attitudes consistent with the intentions to smoke and smoking behavior among Florida youths, compared with youths in other states with low levels of anti-smoking activity. In addition, youth in a level on the index of “Truth” advertising impact,

were less likely to initiate smoking than youth who could not confirm awareness of the television advertisement. Sly et al (2001) again conducted a study with two evaluations of state-based anti- smoking campaign using longitudinal surveys of adolescents to ascertain whether there was a link between self-reported ad exposure and reductions in smoking initiation, or progression to regular use. It was concluded that these state’s anti-smoking television ads were effective in dissuading adolescents from taking up smoking. Unfortunately, the contribution of this research is somewhat limited by the correlation nature of the data. The data clearly show that adolescents who reported seeing the anti smoking ads later manifested a lower propensity to smoke; meaning that anti smoking ads reduced adolescents smoking. Miller et al. (2007) is also of the view that no anti-smoking advertising campaigns have “met with unqualified success.” Their research examined whether universal anti-smoking advertisements were optimal for teenagers by comparing adolescents‟ responses to different print ads across nine culturally diverse countries. Their study found that


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individual reactions to the consequences portrayed in anti-smoking advertisements

vary by culture.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The Health Belief Model and Terror Management Theory were adopted for this study. According to the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1974), a person will care about her/his health specifically if she/he has sufficient knowledge about the medical implications of a particular behavior, if health is considered as something very important for her/him, and he/she feels a threat of possible illness. The constructs of the HBM, provides a good theoretical framework that is relevant to the study of awareness and response of smokers to anti-smoking campaign on cigarette packs.

One of the key research questions for this study is: How do these smokers respond to the anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs? Two possible scenarios could be elicited by this question: 1) the undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University who are aware and have exposed themselves to the campaign on the cigarette packs have the tendency of respondents reducing smoking rate or might eventually stop, and 2 ) undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University Umudike who buy cigarette in sticks and do not have the opportunity of exposing themselves to the campaign message in the cigarette packs will not be aware of the dangers of smoking and will not see the need to stop the habit. The HBM could explain these cases. Those respondents who are aware of the campaign message on the cigarette packs have perceived chances of developing smoking related conditions (i.e. lung cancer, CVD, gum disease, infertility, etc) (Perceived Susceptibility) and those who are not aware do not have the perceived chances of developing smoking related conditions. In social psychology, Terror Management Theory (TMT) proposes basic

psychological conflict that results from having a desire to live but realizing that death is inevitable. This conflict produces terror, and is believed to be unique to human beings. The scary or terror inducing message ‘smokers are liable to die young’ which is at the heart of this study is explained by the constructs of this theory. Based on terror management theory, the present study investigates the impact of the terror message ‘smokers are liable to die young’ on the different cigarette packs. Result suggests that to the degree that smoking is a source of self – esteem, later attitudes by few of the respondents towards smoking shows that they have responded to the campaign message by reducing the number of sticks they smoke in a day. Hansen, Winzeler and Topolinski (2010) used Terror Management Theory (TMT) to examine the impact of anti-smoking messages on cigarette package labeling in the context of self-esteem and mortality-salient warnings. They found that warning messages on cigarette packages can be effective at inducing anti-smoking attitudes.


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However, they found a link between smoking and self esteem which suggested that

fear-based warning may not be heeded by those who base their self esteem on smoking. .

RESEARCH DESIGN The research method for this study was based on survey which dwells on the use of questionnaire to collect data from undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University Umudike. Undergraduate students were chosen because of their propensity and predisposition to smoke. They would be easily located at the school campus.

STUDY POPULATION A population or universe is the entire or complete collection, group or set of observations of interest to the researcher of a study, for example, a body of people or object (Russell & Purcell, 2009; Burns & Burns, 2008; Lind et al 2008).Thus all the undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University make up the study population.

FINDINGS

The survey research was adopted for this study. Data was collected in Michael Okpara University Umudike by administering questionnaire to a sample of 500 undergraduates. SPSS was used to statistically analyze the data and hypotheses were tested using bi-variate and zero order correlation. Most of the respondents were aged between 18-22 years. Findings from the study showed that some respondents were not aware of the message, about 50% of the students probably because they do not engage in general discussions about the dangers of smoking or that they don’t buy cigarette in packs. Analysis result also showed that they were not exposed to the campaign message because they have never taken time to read

the message on the cigarette packs and they do not buy cigarette in packets where the message is written instead they buy in sticks. Again, the study verified how these smokers respond to the campaign message on the cigarette packs. Analytical findings showed that respondents who are aware of the scare message on the cigarette packs have reduced regularity of smoking but have not stopped smoking; though the percentage of those who have reduced is relatively low to compare with those who have not. The findings also showed that the scare message “smokers are liable to die young” written on the cigarette packs have no much impact on their smoking habit. This can be compared with previous study by Ruiter et al (2003) who are of the opinion that both severity as well as personal susceptibility is needed to generate fear. According to them, threatening messages are only effective in inducing attitude and behavior changes if the

respondents who being studied believe that the recommended action can avert the threat and if they feel confident to be able to perform the recommended action.


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This study found a low level of awareness, exposure and response of undergraduate

students who smoke in the University to the anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs. It also found out that most students are not in contact with the cigarette packs where the campaign message is written because most of them buy cigarette in sticks. This present study could be compared with previous study done by Thomson et al (2009) who are of the view that health related anti- smoking campaigns, always characterized by emphasis on the harms of a number of tobacco uses do help to increase peoples cognition, awareness and attitude towards smoking. They are also of the view that no evidence shows a significant relationship between their own campaign and smokers actual behavior change, especially quitting the habit. Similarly, it was found that most of the respondents had their main source of news and information as the Radio among other mass media of communication. The

analysis also revealed that apart from the cigarette packs, the respondents have heard about the dangers of smoking through the Radio. This shows that of all the mass media of communication; Television, Newspaper, Magazine, Internet, Radio, the Internet is most widely used by these group of people. This findings could be compared with that done in Thailand by Levy et al (2008) who from their study found that mass media anti- smoking campaigns are known to have the second largest impact in reducing the prevalence of smoking and reducing the number of lives lost to smoking which shows the potential of anti – smoking campaign in a developing world. Findings from this study revealed that the brand of cigarette mostly smoked by the respondents was Benson and Hedges among other brands like Dorchester, Pall Mall, and St Morris. The respondents buy cigarette in sticks rather than in packs. This is one of the reasons why the level of their awareness and exposure to the campaign message on the cigarette packs is low. Findings equally showed that most of the respondents smoked between 7-9 sticks of cigarette in a day. This rate of intake was predominant among respondents in their third and fourth year. This study also found that even though the respondents smoked when they were upset, alone, bored or at parties, they smoked mostly when they hang out with

peers. Respondents answers’ to frequency of smoking shows that a greater number of the population about 51.1% have smoked between 0-4 years, 20.8% smoked between 5-10 years while a lesser number 16.9% have smoked for more than 10 years. The analysis from this study revealed that respondent’s information about smoking for the first time was mostly from the peer group and friends and not really from company cigarette advert or from parents as assumed by the researcher. It was equally observed from the analysis that one of the factors that have made the respondents not to have stopped smoking was lack of will power among other factors like non-exposure to the campaign message. The respondents made suggestions to the Federal Ministry of Health towards the campaign. These suggestions include: constant campaign, increase in price of cigarette, adding pictures of side effects of smoking together with the warning on the cigarette packs and including the various mass media in the campaign process.


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Finally, statistical result indicates a weak relationship between the target audience

and the level of awareness, exposure and response to the anti-smoking campaign message on the cigarette packs.

CONCLUSION This study used selected survey questions to establish the level of awareness, exposure and response of undergraduate students of Michael Okpara University Umudike to the anti-smoking campaign message on cigarette packs. The major findings of the study revealed that the awareness, exposure and response level of the target audience to the anti-smoking campaign on cigarette packs was low.

RECOMMENDATIONS Smoking has become a growing public health problem in the developing world and also an important global challenge for public health policy makers. Stakeholders involved should stand up to the challenge to check the menace which is gradually eating up our society. This study, first recommends that awareness level of the target audience be raised by constant aggressive campaign; this will be done by making use of every mass media of communication: television, radio, newspaper, magazine, and internet etc. in the campaign process, not just the cigarette packs. Also, the study recommends that pictures of side effects of smoking should accompany the caveat “smokers are liable to die young” on cigarette packs. This will help to create fear on the target audience and the pictures and images will always remind them of the need to quit smoking. This has been done in Canada, Australia and America with maximum result (International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project (2012) in a study with former smokers from Australia, Canada, the UK and the USA has shown that health warnings can reduce the odds of smoking relapse, because they may remind former smokers of the reasons they had

for quitting). Furthermore, religious leaders should be involved by the government as one of the stakeholders of this campaign. Since the target audience of this study says that of factors like economy, marriage and religion, religion will make them to re-consider smoking. There should be an aggressive campaign through the various religious leaders we have all over the country irrespective of denomination. Finally, the study recommends that the government should insist on sale of cigarette in packs rather than in sticks. This will make those who don’t have money to buy in packs to be discouraged and might start re-considering dropping the habit. On the other hand this will make them to be in contact with the message on the cigarette packs.


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REFERENCES

Adeyeye, O.O. (2011). Cigarette smoking habits among senior secondary school

students in Lagos South West Nigeria. International Journal of Biological & Medical Research; 2(4): 1047-1050.

Benson & hedges Research (2004). The sale of cigarette according to region. http://www.cigarettesmoking.org Hansen J., Winzeler, S., & Topolinski, S. (2010). When the death makes you

smoke: A terror management perspective on the effectiveness of cigarette on-pack warnings. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 226-228

Ibeh, C.C, Ele P.U., (2003). Prevalence of cigarette smoking in young Nigeria females. African Journal of Medical Science 32(4)335-338.

International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project (ITC) (2012) Health

Warnings on Tobacco Packages.ITC Cross – Country Comparison Report. University Of Waterloo, http://www,itcproject.org/documents/keyfindings/crosscountry - comparison/itc - cross country label final webpdf ( accessed on 18 January 2013)

Kobiowu, S.V. (2006). The social and academic implication of drug abuse amongst

undergraduates: A case study of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-ife, Nigeria. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation 11(1), 61-68jk

Levy, D.T. & Friend K. (2002). Gauging the effect of mass media policies: what do

we need to know? Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 6.95-106.

Levy, D. T., Benjakul, S., Ross, H., & Izitthiphakdee, B. (2008). The role of tobacco

control policies in reducing smoking and deaths in a middle income nation: Results from the Thailand smoke simulation model. Tobacco control, 17(1), 53-59.

Malaysia Medical Association (2002) .Tobacco and its harmful effect on health and

towards tobacco free generation in Malaysia. http://www.nma.htm (Access 30.11.2005)

Miller, C. H., Burgoon, M., Grandpre, J. R. & Alvaro, E. M. (2006). Identifying

principal risk factors for the initiation of adolescent smoking behaviors: The significance of psychological reactance. Health Communication, 19(3), 241-252.

Minervini,M.C.,Zabert,M.P.,Rondelli,M.,Gomez,C.,Castonos,A.S.(2006).Tobacco use

among Argentina physicians: Personal behavior and attitudes.

http://www.cigarettesmoking.org/

http://www,itcproject.org/documents/keyfindings/crosscountry


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Thompson, L.E., Bernett, J.R., & Pearce, J.R. (2009). Scared straight? Fear –

appeal anti-smoking campaigns, risk, self-efficacy and addiction. Health, Risk & Society 11(2), 181 – 196.

Hansen J., Winzeler, S., & Topolinski, S. (2010). When the death makes you smoke: A terror management perspective on the effectiveness of cigarette on-pack warnings. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 226-228

World Health Organization (2011). Report on the global tobacco epidemic: Warning

about the dangers of tobacco. Geneva. WHO (2003) .Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. Geneva,, Switzerland.

Available at http://www.who.int/fctc/en.Accessed May 22, 2011 campaigns.

World Health Organization (2006). WHO library cataloguing – in – publication data

of tobacco: Deadly in any form or Malaysia Medical Association (2002) .Tobacco and its harmful effect on health and towards tobacco free generation in Malaysia. http://www.nma.htm (Access 30.11.2005)

WHO (2003).Policy recommendations for smoking cessation and treatment

tobacco.http//www.who.inf/tobacco/resources/publication/tobacco/dependence/en/index-html/

http://www.who.int/fctc/en.Accessed


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NEW WORLD INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ORDER (NWICO) AND THE WORLD’S COMMUNICATION

PROBLEMS: A PROPOSAL TO THE NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT

Chioma Agbasimelo

Tansian University,

Umunya, Anambra State

[email protected]

Abstract: This paper examines whether the New World Information and Communication

Order (NWICO) was geared towards ameliorating communication challenges in the world especially in the Third World, Nigeria in particular. Before the New World Information and Communication Order there has been an Old Information Order in existence, in the form of imbalance and inequalities in the access of information. It shows that the media have been manipulated to become means of expressing system domination which is clearly seen in the media content and programming. This paper examines Media content/programme and market penetration, cultural imperialism and media imperialism as forms of expression of system domination. This paper resolved that to fill the gap between the developed nations and the developing nations. The media should have control over media contents from powerful nations. Regional bodies like the Pan African News Agencies and broadcasting unions should have an important mode of resistance in polling of resources. The developing nations should make their media content rich enough to match that of the developed nations so that there will be balance in information flow.

Keywords: New World Information and Communication Order, Imbalance,

Ethnocommunicology, Small Media, Domination


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INTRODUCTION

In the century century, imbalance is still a global information and communication issue. However, it is no longer the sole creations of the developed nation as the developing nation are now in a position to counter or correct the imbalance. Wilson (2015,p.3), advocates for a traditional approach to communication encapsulated in his articulation of ethnocommunicology which points out that beyond the numbo jumbo of some of the technical language detail of modern communication, we can understand communication better when we talk about the basics and the small details which are lost in the obfuscating mystification orchestrated by the industry as chief priests who see mass communication as the beginning and end of human communications. He stated that our small media is

beautiful and it is the best for all societies.

THE DEBATE ON COMMUNICATION IMBALANCE

When speaking about the New World Information and Communication order. We assume the existence of an old information order. The old order, which can still be called the present information order, is characterized as is well known by great inequalities in the access of information and to the media. Inequalities in the sphere of communication ensue from inequalities in other fields, mostly restricted to the use of hardware and sophisticated software due to advanced technology to transmit messages through the mass media. It is clear that both at the national and international levels the physical range and content diversity of communities has been enhanced through the use of technology. It is very clear that the advances made possible by technological development have not been evenly shared among communities and nations. According to Ekeanyanwu (2015, p.7) In International communication imbalance refers to unequal flow of mass media messages from the first world or the

Industrialized countries to the third world. It also refers to one-sided flow of information from the developed countries to the developing countries. The nature of communication imbalance is that there is relative inequality in the collection, processing and distribution of information and communication geared toward ameliorating communication realities in Africa. In this same vain, Marx and Engels cited in Murdock and Golding (1977, p.12) observe that the class (the west) which has the means of material production (including information) at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production , so that they rule as a class and determine the extent and compass of an epoch. Des Wilson (2015 p. 29), pointed out that these concerns led to a call for a New

World Information and Communication Order in the late 1970s. UNESCO was worried that in spite of the long period modern media had been used in the developing world, very little had been achieved by way of effective penetration of


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third world society and message utilization . There was also a growing concern by

scholars and government in the Third World that media presentation on their society tended in the main to be negative; white developed societies were glamorized. He further stated that these concerns led to a call for a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO).UNESCO then under the leadership of the Senegalese diplomat Amadou –Mahtar M ’Bow ,quickly set up a 16 man commission under the Irish diplomat seam MacBride to look into the world’s communication problems. Baran (2009, p. 507) raises the case of the implication of global communication imbalance which he argues may lead to cultural imperialism through media technology and programming.

FORMS OF MEDIA SYSTEM DOMINATION Critical study of the world communication shows absolute or partial domination of the media system of the developing nations. The developed countries of the west are regarded as media producer while the developing countries of Africa are regarded as media-consumer nations. The media-consumer nation depends on the media producer nation for the collection processing and distribution of media messages. According to Amadi, 2010 the actual export of media contents is probably the most visible form of media imperialism. It is a significant mode of influence. This is evident in film, television programme records ,new and heavy consumption of records, radio news, book periodical and newspaper, the export of new and dominant here. Television companies around the world are so much dependent on imported programmes. In news provision, the extent of dependency is even much more glaring. The vast majority of foreign correspondent in any country of the world are American ,British, French, Japanese, German or Russian since the agencies drive most of their revenues from western market, they attend more to the news interest of the of these market than those for other countries (Amadi 2011, p.104) .

The existing situation with regard to international communication flow is far from offering individual countries a chance for equal opportunities in information .These agencies are the Associated press, United press international, Reuter, Agency France press International Reuter, Agency France press and TASS .more so, Boyd Barret 1977 points out that the world’s supply of business news is dominated by Reuters Economic Services and Associated press subsidiary .The MacBride Commission estimates that countries of the Third World get some 50% of their news from London ,New York and Paris (McBride et al 1980).The Nigerian Media depend on the world media the ruling class for news and the content of our news often times is the summary of what the CNN ,Alja zeera and VOA BBC gives out When an event takes place in the world ,the Nigerian media do not have sophisticated technology to cover the event . The content is determined by the ruling class ideas; the class which is the ruling material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production such that


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generally speaking the ideas of those who lack the means of mental product are

subject to it . The Assertion above recognizes the fact that ideas or mental production are not adequately distributed thereby recongnizing the gap between the developed and developing nations in terms of the information collection , processes and distribution.

FORMS OF MEDIA SYSTEM DOMINATION Media influence on the society has been seen in these aspects: Media Content and Market Penetration: The developed countries of the West are regarded as media producers while the developing countries of Africa are regarded

as media-consumer nations. The media consumer nations depend on the media producer nation for the collection, processing and distribution of media messages. According to Amadi 2010, the actual export of media content is probably the most visible form of media imperialism. It is a significant mode of influence. This is evident in firms, television programme and newspapers. The exports of news are dominant here. Television companies around the world are so much dependent on imported programmes. In news provision, the extent of dependency is even much more glaring. The vast majority of foreign correspondents in any country of the world are American ,British ,French ,Japanese , German or Russian since the agencies drive most of their revenues from Western markets, they attend more to the new interest of these market than those of other countries (Amadi 2011:104). Cultural Imperialism: Cultural Imperialism is another aspect of system domination McQuail (2005, p. 552) defined cultural imperialism as a general exporter to dominate the media consumption in other smaller and poor countries and in so doing impose their own cultural and other values on audiences elsewhere According to Kene (2014, p. 61) the dynamic nature of culture makes it an easy tool of manipulation. When two different cultures occur, resulting in form of culture contact, contact shock, culture relativism and culture transfer. At this stage, the

rate of influence is relatively rationed as usually a tendency for one culture to dominate the other. The main instrument of cultural imperialism is the western mass media which reshapes the mass media system in developing nations. Ike (2005:55) holds the view that cultural imperialism occurs in the form of invasion of indigenous people’s culture through the mass media by outside powerful nation. The developing nation is dominantly media consumer nations because they depend on the developed nation for media equipment and programming. The result is a domination of the cultural values of the developing nation which they tag outdated. The intent of cultural imperialism is a deliberate attempt to dominate, invade or subvert the the cultural space of the other. Media Imperialism: Media imperialism is a theory based upon an over concentration of mass media from larger nations as a significant variable that negatively affects smaller nations, in which the national identity of these nations is


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lessened or lost due to media homogeneity inherent in the mass media of larger

countries. There is an imbalance between the developed nations and developing nations in terms of media content and distribution. The developed nations are regarded as media producers while the developing nations are seen as media consumers because they depend on the media producers for media equipment, production and distribution except in local programming. This communication gap between the two worlds of media practice brings about an absolute control and subjugation of the media content of developing nations. The media imperialism debate started in the early 1970’s when developing countries began to criticize the control developed countries held over the media. The site for this conflict was UNESCO where the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) movement developed. Supported by the MacBride

report: Many Voices, One world; countries such as India, Indonesia, and Egypt argued that the large media companies should have limited access to developing countries. This argument was one of the reasons for the United States, United Kingdom, and Singapore leaving UNESCO. The United States corporate media coverage of events has been seen to limit freedom of the press. Integrity can be lost among media giants. This combined with the control and flow of information reduces the fairness and accuracy of news stories. American news networks like CNN also often have large international staff and produce specialized regional programming for many nations (Kalyani, 2015). Ekeanyanwu (2015, P. 10) pointed out that the root cause of the communication imbalance is traceable to the colonial period when the present industrialized nations forced themselves on the people of the developing nations. The colonialist partitioned the Third World nations among themselves and commenced exploitation of their abundant natural and human resources. The exploitation of these natural and human resources was never meant to develop the third world nations; rather it was meant to help the industrialization of the European nations to the detriment of the Third World countries.

When neo-colonialism became unpopular like its predecessor – colonialism, the first world introduced globalization which was another deliberate drive to keep the third world nations perpetually dependent on the west and the rest of Europe. With globalization, the world became a single market with no regular traditional boundaries. This sounds all right except for the fact that Africa remained a consumer and supplier of raw materials for the industries in Europe and America whole the rest of the west and Europe remained producers Ekeanyanwu (2015, P. 11). Debates about the nature and development of globalization in world communication has remained a controversial issue while some scholars see globalization as an imposition of (media) culture by the west on the rest of the world, other scholars prefer to view globalization as a giant step taken to remedy communication imbalance.


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Scholars such as Schiller (2000) cited in Graeme (2005, P. 329) holds the view that

globalization of capital serves as a battering ram that relentlessly attacks working people. This is the true picture except for the fact that Africa remains a consumer and supplier of raw materials for the industries in Europe and America while the rest of the west and Europe remained producers. Giddens (1990) and Moran (1998) shared optimistic views about globalization in bridging the communication gap between the west and the developing countries. They argue that globalization is in a positive sense, a sign of the declining grip of the west over the rest of the world, exemplified by phenomena such as the spread of ubiquitous curry meal to the stream of imagination into the west (Graeme, 2005, P. 329).

UNDERSTANDING NWICO DEBATE

“Many Voices, One World”, also known as the MacBride report, was a 1980 UNESCO publication written by the International Commission for the study of communication problems chaired by Irish Nobel laureate Sean MacBride. Its aim was to analyze communication problems in modern societies, particularly relating to mass media and news, consider the emergence of new technologies, and to suggest a kind of communication order (New World Information and Communication Order) to diminish these problems to further peace and human development. Among the problems the report identified where concentration of the media, commercialization of the media, and unequal access which led the commission to call for democratization of communication and the strengthening of national media to avoid dependence on external sources, among others. Subsequently, internet-based technologies were considered as a means for furthering MacBride’s visions. (While the report) has strong international support. It was condemned by the United States and the United Kingdom as an attack on the freedom of the press, and both countries withdrew from UNESCO in protest in 1984 and 1985, respectively (and later rejoined in 2003 and 1997 respectively).

Baran (2009, P. 507) states that NWICO became necessary because at that time the developing nations were concerned that international news coverage was mainly produced by the West. Wilbur Schramn (1964, P. 65), noted that the flow of news among nations is thin, that much attention is given to developed countries and little to less developed ones, that important events are ignored and reality is distorted. Ekeanyanwu (2015, P. 182) agrees to the above discourse, he states that the New World Information and Communication Orders; popularly referred to as NWICO is a conceptual framework that attempts to galvanize the debate which was provoked by the cries of marginalization by the developing nations on how global communication resources are being managed and distributed. Wikipedia (2015) highlighted a wide range of issues raised as part of NWICO discussion. Some of these involved issues of media coverage of the developing


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world and imbalanced flows of media influence. There are also issues which

involved new technologies with important military and commercial uses. The developing world was likely to be marginalized by satellite and computer technologies. The issues include:

News reporting on the developing world that reflects the priorities of news agencies in London, Paris and New York. Reporting of natural disasters and military coups rather than the fundamental realities. At the time four major news agencies controlled over 80% of global news flow.

An unbalanced flow of mass media from the developed world (especially the United States) to the underdeveloped countries. Everyone watches American movies and television shows.

Advertising agencies in the developed world have indirect but significant effects on mass media in the developing countries. Some observers also

judged the messages of these ads to be inappropriate for the Third World. An unfair division of the radio spectrum. A small number of developed

countries controlled almost 90% of the radio Spectrum. Much of this was for military use.

There were similar concerns about the allocation of the geostationary orbit (parking spots in space) for satellites. At the time only a small number of developed countries have satellites and it was not possible for developing countries to be allocated a space that they might need ten years later. This might mean eventually getting a space that was more difficult and more expensive to operate.

Satellite broadcasting of television signals into Third World countries without prior permission was widely perceived as a threat to national sovereignty. The UN voted in the early 1970s against such broadcast.

Use of satellites to collect information on crops and natural resources in the Third World at a time when most developing countries lacked the capacity to analyze this data.

At the time most mainframe computers were located in the United States and there were concerns about the location of databases (such as airline reservations) and the difficulty of developing countries catching up with the US lead in computers.

The protection of journalists from violence was raised as an issue for discussion. For example, Journalists were targeted by various military dictatorships in Latin America in the 1970s as part of NWICO debates there were suggestions for study on how to protect journalists and even to discipline journalists who broke “generally recognize ethical standards”. However, the MacBride Commission specifically came out against the idea of licensing journalists.


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CONCLUSION Ethnocommunicology should be accepted by everybody in Nigeria. Indigenous communication is fundamental for humans, the modes of indigenous Nigerian communication media should be used along with the Big Media. Our Small Media is indeed beautiful and should not be thrown away. News interpretation and dissemination should be solely based on Nigerian culture.

RECOMMENDATIONS The media should adopt those programmes that help to promote economic development; they should have control over media contents from powerful nations. Regional cooperation like regional broadcasting unions and news agencies like

PANA that is, Pan African News Agency should have an important mode of resistance in the polling of resources. The developing nations should endeavour to make their media content rich enough to match that of the developed nations so that there will be balance in the information flow. The information collection processing and distribution between the developed nations and the developing nations should be in an equal rate. There shouldn’t be a gap between the two words. There should be adequate funding that will facilitate researches in the area of indigenous communication. Local media contents, programmes, music, films should be encouraged and exported to the developed nations. Use of local languages in broadcast programmes or movies should be encouraged to resuscitate the indigenous languages.

REFERENCES

Agba, P. C. (2002) International Communication: Issues, Concept and Perspectives. In C. S. Okunna (ed), Teaching Mass Communication: A Multi-dimensional Approach. Enugu: New Generation Books.

Amadi, M. (2011) Mass Media and Development in Nworgu, K. O. (ed)

Mass Media and Society in a Globalizing and Digital Age. Owerri: Ultimate Books.

Baran, s. (2009) Introduction to Mass Communication: Media Literacy and Culture, Updated 5th Edition: Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Boyd Barret Oliver (1977) Media Imperialism: Toward an International

Framework for the Analysis of Media System in Mass Communication and Society, London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.


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Chukwu, C. (2006): The Interface of Traditional African Communication and the Modern Mass Media in Nwosu, I. and Nsude, I. (eds.) Trado-Modern Communication System: Interfaces and Dimensions. Enugu: Immaculate Publications Limited.

Ekeanyanwu, N. (2015) International Communication third Edition. Ibadan:

Stirling-Holden Publishers Ltd. Ekeanyanwu, N., Kalyanga, Y. & Peters, A. S. (2012) Global News Flow Debate

in the Era of Social Medial Networks: is the U.S Media still the World’s New Leader? European Scientific Journal 8(3): 135-160.

Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Graber, D. A. (1980) Mass Media and American Politics Washington De Congress Wind Quarterly Inc.

Graeme, B. (2005) Media and Society Critical Perspectives, 5th Edition Berkshire:

Open University Press. Graeme, B. (2005) Media and Society Critical Perspectives, Berkshire: Open

University Press. Kene, S. (2014) Mass Communication: An Introduction to Sociology of Mass

Media Nnewi: Cathcom Press. MacBride, S. (1980) Many Voices, One World, New York: UNESCO Paris. MacBride, S. (1981) Many Voices, One World (Nigerian Edition) Ibadan: Ibadan

University Press. MacQuail, D. (2000) Mcquail’s Mass Communication Theory (4th Edition).

London, Sage

MacQuail, D. (2005) Mass Communication Theory (5th Edition). London, Sage Publications.

MacQuail, D. (2005) Mcquail’s Mass Communication Theory (5th Edition).

London, Sage Murdock, G. & Golding, P. (1977) Capitalism, Communication and Class

Relations in Curren, J., Gurevitch, M. & Woolcat, J. (eds) Mass Communication and Society. London: Edward Arnold Publishers.

Salwen, M. B. (1991) Cultural Imperialism a Media Effects Approach Critical

Studies in Mass Communication 8, No. 1:29 communication and Mass Media Complete, EBSOHOST.

Schramm, W. (1964) Mass Media and National Deve1111lopment: The Role of Information in the Developing Countries. Standford: University Press.


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Shiller, H. (2000) Digitized Capitalism: What is Change? In H. Tumber (ed)

Media Power-Professionals and Policies. London: Routledge. Wikipedia (2015) ‘MacBride Report’ http://www.MacBridereport-wikipedia,thefreeEncyclopedia.htm Wilson, D. (2015) Enthonocommunicology, Trado-Modern Communication and

Mediamorphosis in Nigeria: An Iconoclast’s Demystification of some Communication Tradition. 44th Inaugural Lecture Uyo: University Press.

http://www.macbridereport-wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia.htm/

http://www.macbridereport-wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia.htm/


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NIGERIAN NEWSPAPERS AND THE INTERNET ONSLAUGHT

Allen Nnanwuba Adum, Ph.D.

Department of Mass Communication, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka,

Anambra State +2348037585067,

[email protected]

Nze Uchenna Nze

Department of Mass Communication , Tansian University, Umunya

+2347036454987,

[email protected]

Uche Patricia Ekwugha

Department of Mass Communication

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State,

Nigeria. +2348035962584

[email protected] Abstract: The study examines the nature of the Internet and the Newspaper; as well as

their strenghts and weaknesses. The paper highlights how journalism started in Nigerian. It shows how the citizens have been embracing each new information technology that came into the country at a particular period. The work reveals how the internet has changed the Nigerian media terrain, and the populace’s active participation in the Global Village. The article explains how the internet is undermining the printed newspaper in Nigeria. Despite the strenghts, feautres, uniqueness and weaknesses of each, the findings show that the two media channels are still important in Nigeria and need to be used hand–in-hand for information as each will complement the effort of the other as well as fill the vaccum created by the other.

Keywords: the Internet, Printed Newspaper, Subscription, Circulation, Global

Village, Citizen Journalism





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INTRODUCTION

The printed Newspaper and the Internet are two different channels of communication. They are among the mass media channels that are available to Nigerians as sources of information. While the newspaper is a print medium, the internet belongs to the new media which is an offshoot of the electronic. They are mediated interpersonal communication . The media are not for the illiterates unlike the broadcast because one must attain certain level of education before becoming their audience. They present their information in a universal language unlike the traditional media. Both have a bigger theatre for audience; they can reach about two hundred thousand Nigerians at different nooks and crannies of the federation. The newspaper and the internet are packaged according to content. Each has siginificant topic or headlines that helps one to choose whatever story to read. The

media publish every issue that has to be of great intrest to the general public whether international or national. Their main function are: to inform, educate and entertain the audience. They equally assume the possition of the watchdog of the society as well as the fourth estate of the realm. These two media channels help the audience to become better citizens as well as guiding them in their decision making. They help to interpret and explain issues to the audience. The internet and the newspaper help Nigerians to solve their daily problems. The media have great impact on the Nigerian society. According to Rowe and Schuh (2005 p. 432) the internet is a global network of networks that provide vast amount of information as well as human connectivity, communication and collaboration. It places the world at one’s finger tips. Dominick (2009 p. 277) describes the internet as network of computer networks that combines computer that you can operate from your personal computer. The connections among these networks can be ordinary phone lines, microwaves, fibre optic cables, or wires built specially for this purpose. Just as there is no one phone company, there is also no one internet company. The internet technologies include: e-mail, facebook, 2go, twitter, whatssap, blog. The new technology of the internet provides various platforms of communication to the public.

Baran and Davis (2012 p. 144) add that the internet technologies assumed a growing news gathering and dissemination function in our society as well as a central role in democracy public discourse. Today’s Citizen Journalism practice whereby ordinary citizens become amateur reporters is clear evidence that the newspaper no longer enjoy the monopoly of news collection and dissemination. The internet has become a mainstream. Bloggers are routinely granted off real access to major news event like presidential press conferences and Supreme Court hearings. The internet equally gives the audience the opportunity to comment or react to the event immediately – immediate feedback, which is not same with the newspaper. The prediction of Marshal McLuhan in 1964 that the world would be a Global Village is made possible today by internet technologies. What it means is that someone in Nigeria can hear and see within seconds an incident that happens in far away China. This makes the internet an attractive medium of communication.

From your mobile phone or personal computer, you can find information about anything you can name or even imagine (Gralla 2002 p.2). The technology has the


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facilities that can combine aspects of both interpersonal and mass communication

such as social networking sites, weblogs, and online role playing games. Rodman (2012 p.300) emphasizes that the internet is growing so quickly that statistics change by the minute. Personal computers and mobile phones have made the internet service available to people at the comfort of their homes. The power of the internet network cannot be underestimated as it cuts across social and geographic distance to facilitate the information flow. In Nigeria today, many mobile telecommunication companies like MTN, GLO, Airtel and Etisalat equally provide internet services to their customers. Sandman et al (1976 p.260) cited in Okunna and Omenugha (2012 pp. 75-76) defines newspaper as “an unbound, printed publication issued at regular intervals which presents information in words often supplemented with pictures”. It is a light

weight or portable publication printed on paper with ink. Rodman (2010 p. 100) explains that a wide variety of newspapers make up today’s industry but newspapers are generally categorized as either dailies, weeklies or special interest papers. In the words of Dominick (2009 p. 92) newspapers contain international, national and local news. They equally have pages for editorials, letters to the editors, movie listings, horoscope, comics, sports, film and book reviews, recipes, advice columns, classified ads, and a host of other materials. They extensively accommodate a lot of content. The newspaper because of their permanent form serves as a historical record. Sambe (2005 p. 114) identifies the strengths of newspaper in areas of permanence, depth, pass-along audience and portable. A newspaper must be published at least once in a week or fortnightly. It must be timely and must be mechanically produced. Some prominent newspapers in Nigeria today includes: Sun, Guardian, the Punch, Vanguard, Daily Independent, Thisday, Daily Trust, the Nigerian Tribune, etc.

JOURNALISM IN NIGERIA: BRIEF HISTORY Journalism in Nigeria started with the newspaper. And that was with Iwe Irohin, which was the first printed newspaper in Nigeria. The paper was founded in 1859 at Abeokuta by Rev. Henry Townsend. Okunna and Omenugha (2012 p.65), state that, apart from the book, the newspaper is the oldest form of mass communication in Nigeria. It has been in existence for a long time. Before the proliferation of internet technologies in Nigeria, the newspaper industry grew faster than any other mass media channel. The industry has continued to grow even before the amalgamation of Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914 which gave birth to what is, today, called Nigeria. The proliferation of newspaper especially in the 20th century has many newspapers available in Nigeria. After Iwe Irohin, more newspapers like the Anglo-Africa, Lagos weekly, Lagos Daily, the West African Pilot and so on hit the news stand and Nigerians continued to enjoy the content of the newspapers without any other media-channel option. The Newspaper continued to enjoy the monopoly of information, education and


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entertainment in Nigeria till 1933 when radio was introduced by the British

Colonial Government. The introduction of radio brought about some audience leaving the newspaper to radio programmes. Another achievement was recorded in 1959 when Chief Obafemi Awolowo the then premier of the Western Region built the first Nigerian television station at Ibadan. Television presented the audience with some advantages which the newspaper and radio did not have. The outcome of this development was that some audience shifted from newspaper and radio to go for television as their preferred media channel. A turning point came into the Nigeria mass media when the internet was introduced in 1995 through the UNESCO sponsored Regional Informatics Network for Africa (RINAF) project. UNESCO held several workshops and propagated the idea of the internet to Nigerians. This gave birth to the formation of Nigeria Internet Group (NIG) which was a non-profit and non-government organization with the

primary aim and objective of promoting and facilitating access to the internet in Nigeria. This new media technology became a reality in Nigeria when the Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) Ile-Ife in late 1990s became the first institution to have its own VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal). With the breakthrough at OAU, many institution and organization started to consider internet use. The number of organization and individuals that are made use of the internet in Nigeria kept increasing. The technology has proliferated in Nigeria with cyber cafes even in the streets (see History/Internet Exchange point of Nigeria: www.ixp.net.ng/history. Accessed on Friday 11th September, 2014) Rowe and Schuh (2005 p.441) highlight that contemporary technological breakthrough in the electronic world has even made the accessibility of the internet easy with the aid of the mobile phone. People with their laptops or palmtop are able to connect to the internet through modems. The new technology of the internet provides various platforms of communication to Nigerians which the radio, television and the newspaper could not afford. The advent of the internet technologies saw massive shift of Nigerians from the newspaper to the internet. Though the introduction of the broadcast media in Nigeria affected the newspaper circulation but it was insignificant and invisible

compared to the way the shift to the internet is affecting circulations currently. The continuous paradigm shift made the internet to be seriously undermining the activities of the Nigerian printed newspaper. The concern of this work centres on the chances and position of the newspaper in the internet age: is the Nigerian printed newspaper still relevant in the new media age? Does it stand the chance of surviving in future? Can it be used to complement the effort of the internet? Can it fill the vacuum created by the internet?

http://www.ixp.net.ng/history


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THE NIGERIAN NEWSPAPER IN THE INTERNET AGE Sunshine Publishers Ltd, Onitsha, is a publisher of education children’s books. The company has ten departments. They buy ten copies of newspapers on daily bases for each of the department, but when the company connected all the computers in the departments to the internet, they stopped buying the newspapers. The general manager told the heads of departments to use their computer for those information they get from the newspaper. The above story is a physical evidence of the threat the internet is posing to the newspaper circulation figure in Nigeria. The emergence of internet technologies had brought a dramatic change in the Nigerian media terrain both in content consumption and pattern of reportage. The technological breakthrough has come with striking changes forcing foremost transformations within the Nigerian media

sector. Citizen Journalism is an important dimension in this current trend. Rodman (2010 p.99) points out that the internet is today’s greatest challenge to the printed newspaper. This is because the internet has multimedia capacity and democratization of information production, access and distribution. In the current global village, newspapers are finding it is difficult to compete. One can even turn one’s mobile phone into multiple use devices for the internet browsing. A staff of Tansian University, Umunya, Anambra State was once asked how often he buys newspaper. “I won’t waste my money to buy newspaper when I can get more than what the newspaper can offer in my mobile phone”, he responded. The facilities provided by the internet have made not only the above worker, but many Nigerians not to patronize the newspaper again. The development of the internet technologies left little for the newspaper to do. Currently some Nigeria newspapers have started adapting themselves to the new media age as they equally have the online version of their stories. The study of the Internet World Statistics shows that Nigeria has the highest number of internet subscribers in Africa. The record reveals that Nigeria has the figure of about Fifty-eight million, three hundred and sixty-six thousand, one hundred and seventy-nine

(48, 366, 179) subscribers in 2012. In 2013 the number skyrocketted to Sixty-seven million, three hundred and nineteen thousand, one hundred and eighty six (67, 319, 186) subscribers (internet users and population statistics for Africa: www.internetworldsats.com). These Nigerians also seek for news and other information through the internet relegating the newspaper to the background. The Advertisers Association of Nigeria (ADVAN) in 2010 conducted a research on newspaper circulation and the internet subscription in Nigeria. The outcome of the study is represented in the tables below:


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Table 1: Volume of the circulation of prominent newspapers in Nigeria (2010)

S/N Name of the Paper Daily Circulation

1 The Punch 34, 264

2 The Sun 25, 632

3 Vanguard 25, 241

4 Guardian 25, 222

5 This Day 21, 703

6 Daily Trust 11, 672

7 The Nigerian Tribune 8, 314

TOTAL 152, 048 Source: ADVAN 2010

Table 2: Number of the subscribers or followers of the prominent online media in Nigeria (2010)

S/N Name of the Paper Daily Circulation

1 Nigeria Newsdesk 443, 923

2 Daily Post 182, 480

3 Naija Gist 141, 121

4 Premium Times 78, 090

5 Naija 247 News 15, 308

6 News Diary 4, 157

TOTAL 865, 079 Source: ADVAN 2010

From the above tables we can see that the daily subscribers of one of the online media, Daily Post precisely is larger than the total number of the prominent newspapers put together. The disparity in the number of the circulation and subscription in the above tables has proved that the internet technology is subduing the newspaper immensely. Popoola (2010) concurs with the above by saying that all the newspapers in Nigeria today have combined circulation figures that is far less than 500,000 copies per day, which was what Daily Times circulated on daily bases in the 1980s when the

population of Nigeria was half of what it is today. The circulation figure of the Daily Times in the 1980 is evidence that radio and television did not suppress the newspaper severely as the internet is doing today. The stockpile of unsold copies of newspaper at different newspaper circulation departments is a clear sign that the newspaper is facing a strong opposition from the internet. The outcome of the 2010 ADVAN research represented in the above tables made numerous analysts to boldly conclude that the period of printed newspaper is gradually coming to an end in Nigeria. Oseni and Ehis (2011 p.1) express the view that short fall in advertising revenues and reduction in circulation as a result of the internet signals the gradual closing down of newspaper in Nigeria. Johnson (2013 p.7) takes the stand that the newspaper is on the verge of extinction that by 2030 the internet would completely subdue the newspaper industry in Nigeria, with people having to send or read news

and other stories through mobile phones.


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To some communication scholars, the internet delivers news immediately through

Twitter and Face book, but for newspaper what happens today will appear in tomorrow’s edition. This makes theirs stories rather than news. People want to read the current event which is news offered by the internet and not the story offered by the newspaper. The internet makes it easier for Nigerians to engage in online discussion and immediate feedback which makes the internet to be participatory compared to the newspaper. And many Nigerians want to be active participants in the global village. This makes them to turn their back on the newspaper to follow the current trend – the internet.

On the contrary, a group of Nigerian researchers argue that since radio and television did not subdue the newspaper completely, that the internet can neither do so. Ani et al (2007 p.362) is of the opinion that no matter the breakthrough in the electronic world that the newspaper will never decline completely because of

some limitations the internet is facing in Nigeria. Such problems make the internet not to be accessible to many Nigerians. Such problems include:

Lack of steady power supply

Lack of financial capacity

Inadequate knowledge of how to navigate on the internet

Not being computer literate

Network fluctuation

Low speed of the server

Some analysts in Dominick (2009 p. 303) strongly believe that the internet can never make the newspaper to be completely redundant. That newspaper still remains the most credible source of information when compared to the internet. They discard the practice of citizen journalism on the ground that they are not real or professional journalists rather people who witnessed or want to report an event. No atom of censorship or gate-keeping in their activities. They can fabricate stories or fine-tune an old story and deliver to the audience. Newspaper information are always verifiable but that of the internet is not always so. A typical example of the above was on August 7-9th, 2014 when a Nigerian citizen journalist published a false therapy in the internet that people should eat bitter kola, put salt in hot water; drink and bath with it equally as an Anti-Ebola Virus Disease (AEVD) therapy. This false information left some HBP patients who took the therapy dead. Later the citizen journalist apologized that he or she was only joking. No Nigerian newspaper can publish such false information because the reporters verify all the information from the appropriate authorities before publication. That is the reason why some Nigerians who believe in the philosophy of truth nurtured in accuracy still rely on the newspaper for information. The Editor-in-Chief of Vanguard newspaper, Mr. Gbenga Adefaye in 2010 during the presentation of a paper titled “Forget Circulation Figures, Print Media is Still Relevant”, said that undoubtedly, the internet is making the newspaper to decline but can never subdue it completely. He went on to say that a lot of Nigerians were not sophisticated enough to take full advantage of the internet. More so, that many

Nigerians have confidence in newspaper information than the internet. Table 1 above is the evidence that some Nigerians still believe in newspaper information. Had it been there was no circulation figure at all it is then that it


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would be clear that the internet has made the Nigerian newspaper to become

extinct.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study is anchored on two communication theories: the Uses and Gratifications, and the individual differences. The Uses and Gratifications Theory concentrates on media audience rather than the media message. Dominick (2009 p. 37) notes that audience members have certain needs that are satisfied by using media sources. The actual needs satisfied by the media are called Media Gratifications. The theory sees the audience members as the active consumers of media message. It believes that people are

active and goal-directed and not passive. Kaye and Johnson (2004 p.198) explain that uses and gratifications theory particularly suits the study of the internet and the audience because the internet technologies have interactive features which people choose to gratify their individual needs. And some of the needs Nigerians seek to gratify with the internet include: sending and receiving of information, entertainment, research, etc. Uses and gratifications theory is equally applicable to the study of newspaper because the audience seeks to satisfy some needs. Rodman (2010 p.45) notes that the theory views the audience as the decision makers who sometimes choose deliberately the media to use and how to use them. It is concerned with “what the audience do with the media” and not “the effects the media have on the audience”. What Nigerians do with newspaper are getting: news, feature stories, editorial, in-depth reportage, research, historical records, etc. The aforementioned are equally some of the needs they seek to satisfy through the newspapers. The second theory is the Individual Differences Theory. Baran and Davis (2012 p.180-181), citing Defleur (1970 p.122) say that the theory argues that because of individual psychological make-ups and perceptions, the influence of the media on people differs. Rodman (2010 p.43) points out that the individual differences theory

looks at how media users with different characteristics are affected by mass media. Some types of users are more susceptible to some type of media messages than others are. For instance; a health worker is likely to be influenced by the information on the health column of newspaper than a commercial bus driver, while secondary school students are likely to be influenced more than a politician by the information posted on the internet. The implications of the individual differences theory in this study is that some Nigerians prefer the internet for information while others prefer newspaper. The different individual characteristic determines who would be influenced or attracted by a particular media channel and who would not.


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CONCLUSION

From the foregoing, it is obvious that the internet is continuously undermining the printed newspaper in Nigeria. Many audiences have shifted from the newspaper to the internet as their preferred channel of information. The internet need not to be hard-wired these days as the sophisticated technology has made it possible that one can turn one’s mobile phone into multiple devices for multifarious purposes. In the present world where information could be found at the click of a mouse, the newspaper is finding it difficult to compete favourably. The internet has made the monopoly by the traditional mass media in collection; processing and dissemination of information almost nonexistent. Citizen journalism is an evidence of this. Despite the fact that the internet is making the newspaper to be redundant, some

Nigerians still have confidence in the newspaper than the internet. And this still makes them to buy newspaper no matter the contemporary breakthrough in the electronic world and the proliferation of the internet technologies. Nigerians still regards the newspaper as the most trusted source of information. Both the internet and the newspaper are still relevant in today’s Nigeria because of the strength each has over the other. Nigerians should use each to complement the the efforts of the other. They should be used equally to fill the vacuum created by the other. Newspaper publishers in Nigeria should put the individual differences theory into consideration and follow this audience that prefers the internet as the source of information. The way to achieve this is by having an online version of their publication for such audiences. This would equally make them not to lose out in business as a result of decline in circulation.

REFERENCE Advertisers Association of Nigeria , ADVAN( 2010). Newspaper

Circulation and the Internet Subscription in Nigeria.

Ani, O. E; Uchendu, C and Atseye, E, U (2007) Bridging the Digital Divide in Nigeria: A study of the Internet Use in Calabar Metropolis, Nigeria. Library Management, 28(6/70): 355-365.

Baran , S. J and Davis , D. K (2012) Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment and Furure (6th edition). New York: Wardsworth Cengage Learning .

Dominick , J. R (2009) Dynamics of Mass Communication: Media in the Digital Age (tenth edition). New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education

Gralla, P. (2002) How the Internet Works (sixth edition)

Indianapolis: Que Publishing Company


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History/Internet Exchange Point of Nigeria. www.ixp.net.ng/history.

Accessed on Friday 11th September 2014

Internet World Statistics: Internet Users and Population Statistics for Africa. www.internetwolrd.com. Accessed on Friday 11th September 2014

Johnson, B. (2013) The Print Media in the Global Village. A paper presented on 16th August in a conference of Centre for the Internet Literacy (CIL) Lagos

Kaye, B. K and Johnson, T. J (2004) A Web for all Reasons: Uses and Gratifications of Internet Components for Political Information. Telematics and Informatics 21(3):197-223

Okunna, C. S and Omenugha, K. A (2012) Introduction to Mass Communication (3rd edition). Enugu: New Generation Books.

Oseni, A. L and Ehis, O. (2011) The Future of Print Media. Lagos: Insight Communications.

Popoola, M. (2010) Information Technology Revolution. www.unilorin.edu.ng/publications/ad. Accessed on Tuesday 9th September, 2014

Rodman, G. (2010) Mass Media in a Changing World: History, Industry and Controversy (third Edition). New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Rowe, S. H and Schuh, M. l (2005) Computer Networking (custom edition). New

York: Pearson Education Inc.

Sambe, J. A (2008) Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

http://www.ixp.net.ng/history

http://www.internetwolrd/


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AN ASSESSMENT OF NIGERIAN NEWSPAPER COVERAGE OF WOMEN FOR CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE

(W4CI): A STUDY OF FOUR NATIONAL DAILIES

Moses Chukwubuikem Ani

Department of Mass Communication, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka

Anambra State, 08033416584

[email protected]

Endwell Onyinye Nyekwere

Department of Mass Communication, Rivers State College of Arts and Science,

Rumuola, Port-Harcourt 08030995979

[email protected]

Abstract: A key strategy in promoting women’s empowerment and gender equality has

been the adoption of “Affirmative Action” to correct the age-long gender imbalance across societies. The assumption is that the Nigerian newspaper has not fared well in reporting women’s political participation and decision making processes and this has been responsible for the exclusion of the interests of women in governance and development paradigms. This is why the Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI) was launched to mobilize women to take active part in politics. Hence, this study undertakes an assessment of Nigerian newspaper coverage of the W4CI with a focus on The Guardian, Daily Trust, Vanguard and Daily Sun newspapers. Using the content analysis and survey methods of research, the findings reveal that Nigerian newspapers frame issues relating to women in Nigerian politics based on the general perception held by the public. The agenda setting theory of communication was the theoretical foundation upon which this study was based as the paper recommends that Newspaper reports on issues should always relate such issues to the individuals’ frame of thought to help such individuals draw informed conclusions in accordance to the level of knowledge possessed on such issue.

Keywords: Gender Equality, Women for Change and Development Initiative,

Newspaper Coverage




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INTRODUCTION

Women have been side-lined in political participation in Nigerian as far back as the colonial era. Scholars believe that the non-inclusion of women in political participation and decision making processes has been responsible for the exclusion of the interests of women in governance and development paradigms. No doubt, gender disparity is glaring in Nigeria and many women are often hesitant to take active part in politics, not only because of the socio-cultural practices that poses great threat to them, but also because politics is such a male-dominated terrain and navigating its potential landmines could be fraught with uncertainty as well as hostility. According to Irabor (2011, p.28) programme officer, Baobab for Women’s Human

Rights: The truth is, the number of women in political offices was actually experiencing an increase until the 2011 general elections. In the first republic, we had just one female senator – the late chief (Mrs.) Wuraola Esan.... Mrs. Margaret Ekpo too won election into the House of Representatives. In the second republic, we had just one female Senator – Franca Afegbua. Then in the 1990s ... we had the likes of Senator Florence Ita-Giwa. We had only three senators in 1999 and that increased to four in 2003, and to nine in 2007. But from the outcome of the 2011 elections, we now have only seven women in the senate....

It is obvious that a lot of factors are responsible for the low level of women participation in Nigerian politics. These include: discrimination by the men folk, men constituting a larger percentage of party members, social, cultural and religious attitudes of the people to politics which relegates women to the background, preference for male education as opposed to female education, lack of finance which discourages women from participating in politics, family responsibility, and threat of violence. It is on this premise that various pet projects have been initiated by first ladies of different regimes in Nigeria. From Maryam Babangida’s Better Life for Rural

Women to Mariam Abacha’s Family Support Programme, from Stella Obasanjo’s Child Care Trust to Turai Yar’ Adua’s Women and Youth Empowerment Foundation. Even a ‘Second Lady’ was not outdone – Titi Atiku’s Women

Trafficking and Child Labour Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF) for war against human trafficking still rings a bell (Ajewole, 2011). The Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI), launched by Dame Patience Jonathan, wife of the former President of Nigeria came against the backdrop of giving a face-lift to women representation in the political landscape of Nigeria. Research has shown that all these projects were not based purely on altruistic intentions but rather to further the personal careers and gains of these first ladies. The major question to ask here is: were these projects actually agents of change in the plight of the ordinary Nigerian woman or child that they purported to support? The first short-coming witnessed from the other projects is non-continuation of the projects. As soon as the husbands of these women leave office

the projects ceases to function.


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As this study focuses on how the press have fared in the coverage of the “Women

for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI),” it carried out an assessment of the performance of the press in canvassing and advocating for more of women participation in politics. Feminists believe that the name ‘woman’ is synonymous to change, hence, the W4CI is a project aimed at promoting women’s participation in every area of human endeavour especially in the socio-economic and political sphere. The initiative is also trying to develop a mechanism to monitor and facilitate Nigeria’s progress towards achieving and demonstrating international agreements to which Nigeria is a signatory. As a signatory to the United Nations Charter on Child Rights, we are still battling with some states of the federation to domesticate the Child Rights Acts passed by the National Assembly. (Ugwu, 2011) According to the National Officer, Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI), Hon. Chinwe Ugwu (2011, p.14):

The women for change initiative is championing the review and revision of laws considered inimical to the welfare and peaceful existence of women. And these laws abound in the country such as the tax laws, land use Act of 1976, marriage laws, inheritance Act and even the Electoral Act...

Mainstreaming women in the political terrain of Nigeria is perceived as the panacea to the emancipation and empowerment of the Nigerian woman. Although, Nigerian women have made gains in certain fields of human endeavour, problems still persist in many areas and women’s share in governmental decision making process remains an illusion. In the wake of the Beijing conference of 2000, the key focus was that women should be given 30 percent representation in politics. Many newspapers took a stand on the negotiations for women representation in politics and ran columns on the issue. One of such was the editorial of New York Times (June 3, 2011), which said that the Beijing conference “established concrete targets and set timetables for measuring progress” but concluded that “most of what governments call action is still just lofty talk because of cultural resistance, financial constraints and a refusal to give priority to women’s issues.

The editorial pointed to a “1998 WEDO survey that found most of the governments represented at Beijing had drawn up plans to keep their promises and 64 countries had changed laws.” It credited growth of local women’s groups with bringing about these changes.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Nature is believed to have allotted a sub-ordinate position for women and the Nigerian society appears to see women as such even in politics. Today, the phenomenon that women are meant to be seen and not heard has great influence on individual approach to feminism. Every attempt to involve them in major decision making organs of government in Nigeria is treated with contempt. Even

the press is believed to have contributed in the way people perceive women in a given society.


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Although, there has been a steady increase in the number of women professionals

over the past 20 years, most mainstream press coverage continues to rely on men as experts in various fields. Women in the news are more likely to be featured in stories about accident, natural disaster, or domestic violence than in stories about their professional abilities or expertise. It is on this premise that this study undertakes an assessment of Nigerian newspaper coverage of the Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI), a project by Dame Patience Jonathan, former first lady of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, which aims at redefining the place of women in political participation in Nigeria.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

In assessing the extent to which the press has fared in the coverage of the W4CI, this study wants to find out how the Nigerian newspaper coverage of W4CI has portrayed women as agents of change. Hence, in specific terms the following are the objectives of this study:

(1) To find out the amount of space which the newspapers allotted to stories

and illustrations on the Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI).

(2) To determine the level of prominence given to stories on W4CI project by Nigerian newspapers and reporters’ assessment of the project.

(3) To examine the slant of coverage given to stories on W4CI project.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS In an attempt to address the issues raised from this study, the researcher formulates the following research questions:

(1) To what extent did the Nigerian newspapers give adequate coverage (in terms

of space allotment) to stories and illustrations on the W4CI project? (2) What degree of prominence was given to stories and illustrations on the

W4CI project by the newspapers and how do reporters assess it? (3) What is the slant of coverage given to the W4CI project by the newspapers?

REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES In a male dominated world like ours, issues relating to gender usually tilt in favour of the men folk. Speaking on gender stereotype, Fagbemi (2004, p.11) has this to say:

Because gender is a perception, it influences the mindset of the people and therefore has a psychological undertone. Psychologically, it is anchored on the belief system and influences the attitude and behaviour, characteristic of the relationship between men and women in a given society. It refers to the social definition of being either a man or woman in a given society. For instance, when we say that a certain type of behaviour is not characteristic of a woman’s behaviour, we are basing this judgement


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on our expectation as to how a ‘real’ woman would behave in a given situation. In large measure, such judgments are based on gender stereotypes and one of the puzzles of gender analysis is the pervasiveness of such stereotype and by extension, their origins.

Fagbemi (2004, p.23) in her study on “Gender and Development in Nigeria” pointed out that gender conditions in a given society are a first consideration before gender position. Kate Young, a female activist developed the concept of condition/position. According to her, development projects generally aim to improve the condition of people’s lives. From a gender and development perspective, a distinction is made between the day–to– day conditions of women’s lives and their position in society. In addition to the specific conditions which women share with men, this differential access means women’s position in relation to men must also be assessed when interventions are planned and implemented.

Gender mainstreaming, as a concept, is taking account of gender equality concerns in all policy programme, administrative and financial activities and in organizational transformation. This is what raises the issue of affirmative action which was the major focus of the international women conference held in Beijing China in 1985.

THE ORIGIN OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION As one of the cardinal objectives of the Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI), the affirmative action is a concept which can be traced to the international women conference held in Beijing, China in 1985. According to the objective of W4CI, it pointed out that:

Although Nigeria women have made gains in certain fields of human endeavour, problems still persists in many areas and women’s share in governmental decision making process remains a far cry. A key strategy in promoting women’s empowerment and gender equality has been the adoption of “affirmative action” to correct the age-long gender imbalance across societies. Affirmative Action policies have become political instruments for meeting the needs of those who have been unfairly shut out of mainstream development and societal systems. (W4CI, 2010)

This cardinal objective is driven by the W4CI’s vision of creating “a movement that will engender the mass awareness of women at all levels to their human rights and obligations as citizens of Nigeria. The focal point in the 1985 Affirmative Action is that more women should be allowed to participate in politics. The agreement reached by member nations that attended the conference was that 35% affirmative action should be allowed in government.


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According to Adebowale (2011. p.52):

Majority of these issues were extensively discussed and resolution reached at the 1995 fourth world conference on women in Beijing, popularly referred to as the Beijing Conference where a platform for Action adopted, affirmed that women have equal rights to participate in governance and, though that participation contribute to the redefining of the political landscape and agenda.

He further asserted that:

Since the Beijing conference, the world’s attention to women’s participation in politics has definitely been on the rise with many women occupying several sensitive positions while the likes of Mireya Moscosco of Panama (1999), Angela Merkel of Germany (2005), Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia (2006), Cristina Fernandez Kirchner of Argentina (2007), have gone on to successfully contest elections to become the heads of governments in their different countries. The focus is however not on the world at the moment, but on the renewed calls for increased women participation in Nigeria with many citing the affirmative action adopted in Beijing and clamouring for women to be granted at least 35 per cent of political offices across the land.

The affirmative action has no doubt brought some level of significant progress for women in politics in other countries were women rose to the position of heads of government. According to Ndujihe (2011):

At a time observers are saying that the increments were a far cry from the 30 per cent affirmative action presented by the international women’s conference in Beijing, China in 1985, the figure has gone further down in 2011. Only seven (7) female senators (7.63 per cent) and 19 Reps. (5.28 per cent) were elected in 2011.

It is important to note also that out of the 7 female senators, 3 were re-elected and out of the 19 House of Representative female members, only 11 were re-elected. This result has raised several arguments from different people. Some believe that the fault is from the women folk, while others argue that it is as a result of the difficulty in the political terrain of Nigeria.

WOMEN FOR CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE (W4CI) The W4CI which is a gender-focused movement for mobilizing women from all walks of life to take interest in affirmative action, has been launched in some states, with women showing unprecedented interest in the initiative as they came out in their thousands with enthusiasm and hope for a new dawn of recognition and inclusion. (Iniodu, 2011)


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Table 1: A flag-off time-table of the initiative in about 13 states including FCT

S/N ACTIVITY DATE VENUE STATUS

1. National Flag-off 16th July, 2010 Women Development centre, Abuja

Flagged Off

2. Anambra 20th July, 2010 Awka Flagged Off

3. Imo 30th July, 2010 Owerri Flagged Off

4. Kaduna 2nd August, 2010 Kaduna Flagged Off

5. Bauchi 9th August, 2010 Bauchi Flagged Off

6. Delta 20th August, 2010 Asaba Flagged Off

7. Rivers State 23rd August, 2010 Port-Harcourt Flagged Off

8. Enugu 12th Sept. 2010 Enugu Flagged Off

9. Akwa – Ibom 14th Sept. 2010 Uyo Flagged Off

10. FCT 15th October, 2010 Abuja Flagged Off

11. Abia 18th October, 2010 Aba Flagged Off

12. Bayelsa 22nd October, 2010 Yenogoa Flagged Off

13. Katsina 25th October, 2010 Katsina Flagged Off

14. Osun 22nd November, 2010 Osogbo Flagged Off

Source: (W4CI, 2010) The launch of the pet project few weeks after Goodluck Jonathan assumed office as president of the federal republic of Nigeria has generated reactions from several individuals and groups. According to Ojeme (2011):

One of the major reasons often adduced for the poor perception of these programmes and rightly so is the elitist colouration they evoked. Meetings whether small or large often turned out to be a fashion parade of some sorts. What is more, wives of politically exposed persons and VIPs accompanied by their hordes of security aides often outnumbered the ordinary people for whom the pet projects were conceived for.

Indeed, this points to the fact that this project lack mass appeal and relevance to the short and long term goals of advancing the course of the Nigerian women. Scholars also observed that this pet project was launched in most PDP controlled

states which is an indication that the project appear partisan. In another submission, Ejikeme (2011) a legal practitioner pointed out that a recent newspaper report entitled: “crisis looms in first lady’s camp” sadly captured the apparent failure of the Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI). One of the highlights of the report was the poor showing of women in the just concluded party primaries across the nation. The report also regretted that the 35 per cent women representation in national and state government may be a mirage at the end of the day. It was observed in the report that a women rights advocates smacked at the first lady’s project attributing the failure of Mrs. Sarah Jibril to get beyond one vote in the recent presidential primaries of the PDP to the floundering fortunes of the

W4CI. According to a report compiled by the National Coordinator of National Women Rights Advocates, Mrs. Beatrice Maduemere (quoted in Ejikeme, 2011):


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“More women would have emerged in some of the party primaries had the first lady

and members of W4CI lived up to the ‘ideals’ they propagated.” Scholars believe that women have been known to propagate ideals and standards. Expectations therefore have always been high concerning women’s disposition over morals and leadership quests.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The dynamic nature of theories on press coverage suggests a paradigm shift from the usual approach the press give to issues. For the purpose of this study, the Agenda-setting theory was considered.

The Agenda-setting theory is epitomized in the famous quote by Bernard Cohen (1963) saying that “the press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” This stresses the fact that people need to orient themselves in a complex world full of complex issues. In the absence of other cues, people tend to judge the importance of issues from their salience in the media and to focus their attention on those presumably most important issues (McCombs and Reynolds, 2002). According to Petty et al (2002, p.13) the media have little power to change people’s opinions but more power to re-enforce existing views. This leads to the important question: How are the views formed in the first place? Hence, one may hypothesize that the media have strong effects the first time a new issue is discussed. In fact, several studies have found that media effects are stronger for issues that people are unfamiliar with (McCombs and Reynolds, 2002; Zaller, 1992). Lippmann (1922, p.34) noted that the media shape people’s perceptions of that which they cannot experience directly. Those issues for which individuals have

little personal contact and for which they rely on the media as the primary and sometimes, only source of information are termed unobtrusive. This explains the influence the press had on its coverage of the first pet project launched in Nigeria. What Nigerians know about the Women for Change and Development Initiative (W4CI) is largely based on what the media decide to tell them. This agenda setting from the coverage of W4CI is found in the patterns of coverage given to the project and how people viewed it over some period of time, a week, a month, an entire year. Here, we infer that the media set agenda only when citizens perceive their news stories as relevant and also when the issue covered is unfamiliar to them for the first time.


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METHODOLOGY

The researchers adopted the content analysis and survey research methods. To examine the manifest communication content on the issue under study, the content analysis method served as a useful approach. Content analysis is a method used in studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables. This means that the content to be analyzed is selected according to explicit and consistently applied rules and treated in exactly the same manner.

Also, to generate responses from the journalists that reported the issue under study, the survey research design was used. This method gives one the opportunity to ascertain the views of those that reported the issue and facilitates credible basis for the generalization of result. Here, interview was the instrument used to collect

data from randomly selected journalists that covered the pet project from the four national newspapers under study.

The population for the content analysis includes all the editions of the selected national newspapers under study. The choice of national newspapers is due to the national outlook of the phenomenon “women for change and development initiative”. The choice of the four newspapers (The Guardian, Daily Trust, Vanguard and Daily Sun) as representative of the universe of study (national newspapers) is for a proper representation of the geo-political distribution of the national newspapers in Nigeria. A random selection in ratio 1:3 of national newspapers in Nigeria (i.e. ratio of Northern newspapers to Southern newspapers in terms of location and ownership) was carried out. Hence, out of a total of twenty-five (24) national newspapers (Source: www.nigerianewspapers.com), one (1) was randomly selected from the six (6) Northern newspapers while three (3) was randomly selected from the eighteen (18) Southern newspapers.

In the context of this research, national newspapers refer to those newspapers that are circulated across at least more than 12 states in Nigeria. The researcher examined the manifest communication contents of these four newspapers for a whole year which amounts to (365 days x 4) = 1460 days.A sample size of 90 was drawn from the population of study. Also, one journalist each (from the sampled newspapers) was interviewed and the results were used to complement that of the content analysis.

RESULTS

Table 1: Summary of frequency and percentage of news hole on W4CI

Below 100 words

Between 100 & 500 words

Between 500 & 1,000 words

Between 1,000 & 2,000 words

Above 2,000 words

1 (2%) 23 (55%) 14 (33%) 4 (10%) 0 (0%)

Some of the reports on the issues under study appeared as pictures only (picture

story), hence, there was a decrease in the frequency of occurrence of number of words per story, because the number of stories decreased to 42 instead of 45 as earlier stated.

http://www.nigerianewspapers.com/


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From the result, it is obvious that most of the stories recorded number of words

between 100 and 500 and between 500 and 1,000 which accounted for 57 (88%). There was no story that had above 2,000 words. Also, even the 4 (10%) stories that recorded between 1,000 and 2,000 words were mainly interviews and features, which by their nature; occupy more news hole than other nature of story. Daily Trust was the only newspaper that had a story below 100 words, which appeared as news brief. Most of the reports on the W4CI were not detailed. There was little or no follow-up story to the event. The reason is because as the event (i.e. the launch of the pet project) ends in a particular area there are hardly anything to report until it is launched elsewhere on a later date. The Guardian had more stories occupying between 500 and 1,000 words, the same

applies to Vanguard, while Daily Trust and Daily Sun also had stories with number of words between 100 and 500. Table 2: Summary of frequency and percentage of placement of stories

Front Page Back Page Inside Page Total

2 (4%) 1 (2%) 42 (94%) 45 (100%)

Table 3: Summary of frequency and percentage of story focus on female personalities to measure the level of prominence

Dame Patience Female Politicians

Women Generally

Total

12 (27%) 11 (24%) 22 (49%) 45 (100%)

From the above tables, front page stories accounted for 2 (4%), back page stories had 1 (2%), while inside page stories ranked highest with 42 (94%) of the entire pages of the newspapers under study.

It is important to note that The Guardian and Daily Sun did not record any front page story as the only 2 front page stories came from Daily Trust and Vanguard. These stories focused on Dame Patience Jonathan as a personality. None of the newspapers except The Guardian had back page stories on the issue under study. On the female personalities used as focus, stories that were centred on Dame Patience Jonathan recorded 12 (27%) while that of female politicians had 11 (24%). The result also revealed that stories that focus of women generally ranked highest with 22 which represent 49% of the entire focus of story on the issue under study. Another observation from the manifest content of communication in the newspapers under study is that all the pictures used in front page to portray the pet project were that of Dame Patience Jonathan as the brain behind the pet project.


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Table 4: Distribution of stories according to slant of coverage of W4CI

Newspapers Favourable Unfavourable Neutral

The Guardian 5 (46%) 3 (27%) 3 (27%)

Daily Trust 5 (56%) 1 (11%) 3 (33%)

Vanguard 8 (80%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%)

Daily Sun 10 (67%) 2 (13%) 3 (20%)

Summary of Table

Favourable Slant Unfavourable Slant

Neutral Slant Total

28 (62%) 7 (16%) 10 (22%) 45 (100%)

The importance of slant in newspaper coverage of issues of public interest cannot

be over-emphasized. It helps to pattern the general thinking of individuals over certain issues and also aid the slant of debate such issue generate. The result from the table above shows that favourable slant ranked highest with 28 (62%) in the coverage made by the four newspapers under study. By favourable slant we mean stories that portray women as agents of change in politics. This is in confirmation to what the W4CI stands for when used as a tool to mobilize women to take active part in politics (By favourable slant we mean stories on the W4CI that portray women as agents of change in Nigerian politics). Also, from the result, unfavourable slant recorded 7 (16%), which ranked lowest in the entire 45 slant of coverage given to the W4CI by the newspapers. By unfavourable slant we mean stories about W4CI or women participation in politics that does not portray women as agents of change in Nigeria. One major observation from the above result is that the entire unfavourable slants were drawn from opinion articles published in the newspapers under study. This is an indication that individual members of the society do not see women as agents of change going by the first impression they created at the PDP primaries in 2011 where the only female presidential aspirant could not secure beyond one vote.

Lastly, on the neutral slant, which consists of stories on W4CI that were neither for nor against the idea that women are agents of change in Nigerian politics, from the results, it recorded 10 (22%) of the entire slant of coverage by the newspapers on the issue under study. Most of the neutral slants came from the editorials, straight news and pictures.


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DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS Research Question 1: To what extent did the Nigerian newspapers give adequate coverage (in terms of space allotment) to stories and illustrations

on the W4CI?

From the findings in this study, the newspapers did not give depth (enough space) to stories on the W4CI. This may not be unconnected to the earlier finding in this study that the launch of the project was filled with pomp and pageantry of wealth and display of affluence, which is not considered as something newsworthy by the newspapers. The nature of stories on the W4CI that appeared as interview and features accounted for the largest amount of space (news hole) allotted to the issue under

study (i.e. between 1,000 and 2,000 words). More so, full page adverts / picture story were also used to portray Dame Patience Jonathan as the brain behind the launch of the W4CI project. There were also full page congratulatory messages to her credit on the successful launch of the project in the selected states. These were the spaces used which the researchers could not represent in words as they are more of graphics. The ones accounted for in words were mostly between 100 and 500 words per story, which is not up to half of a page. Some were presented as news brief to make up the stories in a particular page. One major finding from all the reports is that most of the stories that centred on the W4CI were largely infinitesimal (below 500 words), while those that talk about women participation in politics either through interviews or features accounted for stories between 1,000 and 2,000 words. This finding agrees with a similar study on the face of news in Nigerian newspapers. According to Mavis et al (2012), their findings “reveal that the newspaper did not allocate enough space to news stories as asserted by Joseph

(2011) with respect to the 45% allocation of news-hole in newspaper.” Newspapers don’t have space for frivolities as buttressed by a popular parlance that facts are sacred and comments are free. The kind of information that must occupy the news hole of any newspaper must be such that can attract wider readership which will in turn translate to the economic advantage of the newspaper. Research Question 2: What degree of prominence was given to stories and illustrations on the W4CI project by the newspapers and how do reporters

assess it?

The level of prominence given to stories on the W4CI or women participation in Nigerian politics was measured using placement of stories and the personalities involved in the stories.


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On the placement of the stories, the findings reveal that 42 (94%) of the entire

stories on the issue under study appeared in the inside page leaving the front page and back page with 2 (4%) and 1 (2%) respectively. Much of what people know about issues is based on how the media “set” them. Lack of prominence (in terms of placement) given to the W4CI project is responsible for the dearth of knowledge shared by most individuals, especially women, on the issue. This is what the Agenda Setting Theory emphasizes. According to McCombs and Reynolds (2002),

...people need to orient themselves in a complex world full of complex issues. In the absence of other cues, people tend to judge the importance of issues from their salience in the media and to focus their attention on those presumably most important issues.

Also, even the ones that appeared in the front page of the newspapers under study gave prominence to Dame Patience Jonathan as the initiator of the project. The newspapers have succeeded in framing the issue about the W4CI to the person of the president’s wife. This informs the notion people have about the project that it is all about her. The potency of the media in this respect is what McCombs and Reynolds, 2002 and Zaller 1992 pointed out in their assertion that:

..one may hypothesize that the media have strong effect the first time a new issue is discussed. In fact studies have shown that media effects are stronger for issues that people are unfamiliar with.

This was further buttressed from responses gathered through the interview carried out in this study with the journalists that covered the project. Interview extract:

Q: In your own opinion do you think the W4CI is personality-based or issue-based? A (1): “I think it is both personality-based and issue-based because you cannot

separate persons from issues they create.” (Daily Trust correspondent) Also, the responses from the correspondents from The Guardian and Vanguard agree with the above submission.

A (2): “It is neither personality-based nor issue-based but rather gender-based.

This is because the major thrust of the W4CI project is to mobilize more women (not men) to take active part in Nigerian politics.” (Daily Sun correspondent)

From the foregoing, all the above responses are actually saying the same thing but in different ways. When an issue is gender-based, it is also personality-based because it is persons that make up that gender and you cannot separate such


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persons from the issue that made them prominent. Persons in themselves cannot

become prominent; it is either what they do or the office they occupy that makes them prominent.

Research Question 3: What is the slant of coverage given to the W4CI project

by the newspapers and how do women assess it?

The straight news produced most of the favourable slant where women were portrayed as agents of change in Nigeria. This is contrary to what the opinion articles represent. The basis for the views expressed, which did not see women as agents of change was drawn from the outcome of the PDP primaries in 2011, where the only female presidential aspirant could not secure beyond one vote. This implies that women in themselves do not believe in their fellow woman.

Similar empirical studies on women in politics in Nigeria reveal that during the pre-colonial times women contributed greatly to the development in the country. According to Attoe (2002):

Nigeria’s development since pre-colonial times recorded tangible contributions by women politically and otherwise. Studies have shown that women have over time contributed socially, economically and politically to the development in Nigeria although not much attention is or has been paid to these various contributions.

The above assertion agrees with the findings made by Badmus (2006) that:

Although women did not have their franchise and as such did not contribute much within the political parties, they were still a force to be reckoned with outside the parties either in support of the various parties or just fighting for women’s rights.

With the level of influence which is believed to have been made through the launch of the W4CI, responses from the Journalists show that women were not just mobilized but a sense of commitment have been inculcated in them. Interview extract: Q: Does this pet project by Dame Patience Jonathan really portray women as agents of change in Nigerian politics? A: The general response to the question is in the affirmative but the journalists still pointed out that it is only female politicians that the project portrays more as agents of change not the average woman on the street. Q: In your reports on this pet project or women participation in Nigerian politics, how do Nigerian women see the W4CI or what can you say is their general opinion or assessment of the project? A: The general response to this is that women in general believe in the project based on what they get out of it (like bags of rice, wrappers, etc). They have not

been fully sensitized on the ideals of the project.


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Q: In what ways did the W4CI influence women participation at the April 2011

elections in Nigeria? A: Some of the journalists believe that the project has failed in that regard; others claim that it did not start on time. According to them, “if given enough time the W4CI will produce a greater number of active women in politics” The Daily Trust correspondent pointed out that the pet project has really succeeded to some extent in producing more women (about 14%) in appointive positions. All these developments in the way and manner people (especially women) view the W4CI project is largely influenced by the tone (slant) of coverage the newspapers gave the issue.

The focus of the neutral slant is not on whether women are agents of change but rather on the rationale for the proposed funding of female politicians, which the report believes will corrupt their participation in Nigerian politics. It has also been observed that the terrain of politics in Nigeria is not favourable for women involvement. This is because there is violence and thuggery in Nigerian politics, which the female folk cannot easily cope with. On the other hand, the unfavourable slant which was more pronounced in the opinion articles questioned the role that women played in mobilizing and encouraging other women to take active part in politics. This brought the general notion that women are their worst enemies and that they don’t really believe in themselves. This indeed does not portray them as agents of change in Nigeria, going by the outcome of the April 2011 election.

SUMMARY

The following are the summary of the finding:

That the newspapers did not give depth (enough space, which is measured in number of words) to the W4CI and women participation in Nigerian

politics. The reason for this, as discovered in the findings, is that most aspects of the W4CI lack newsworthiness.

Due to lack of newsworthiness in some aspect of the W4CI project, it did not merit front page presence as it should and the personality involved (Dame Patience Jonathan) was occasionally reported, since she is the brain behind the project.

The slant of coverage of the W4CI project and women participation in politics was more of favourable from the straight news and unfavourable from the opinion articles.

That the journalists see this project as one that will go into extinction as soon as Goodluck Jonathan leaves office as the president of Nigeria. This also agrees with the findings from the content analysis that the W4CI has little or nothing that makes it newsworthy.


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That journalists see the W4CI project as both personality-based (portraying

Dame Patience Jonathan as a force to be reckoned with) and issue-based (associating change with feminism)

CONCLUSION From the above findings it becomes obvious that any event that the media sees as not being newsworthy is likely to receive low media attention even though such event might involve a public office holder. Also, there is correlation between what journalists think about an event and the slant with which that event is presented in the media. This is because the newspaper content cannot be anything different from the bias of the Journalist and also the editorial policy of the newspaper. Lastly, the stereotype built about women over time can be traced to continuous

media representation of them and this tends to influence where the female gender is situated in the scheme of things in politics.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In view of the findings from this study, the researchers make the following recommendations:

That any study on the assessment of newspaper coverage should employ survey as a rich ingredient in eliciting behavioural responses to media coverage of issues under study.

Interpretative reporting should be employed on issues of national significance to guide the public in making well informed assessment of the issue.

Newspaper reports on issues should always relate such issues to the individuals’ frame of thought to help such individual draw informed conclusions in accordance to the level of knowledge possessed on such

issue.

Straight news slant should not focus on favourability of issues but to capture a balance of various slants to issues.

Newspaper reports of issues should not just be based on personalities involved but should also consider the importance of such issue to the people and as such emphasize the importance more than the personality.


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REFERENCES

Adebowale, T. (May 11, 2011). Women in politics: beyond sentiments. The

Guardian, 2011. p. 14 Ajewole, I. (2011). A critique on Women for Change Initiative. Retrieved from

http//:www.nigeriannewspapers.com on March 27, 2011 Attoe, E. (2002). Problems militating against women in politics. Retrieved from

http//:www.onlinenigeria.com April 2009 Badmus, I. A. (2006). Political parties and women’s political leadership in Nigeria.

The case of PDP, the ANPP and AD. A Journal of African Studies: Ufahamu

CEDAW (July 3, 2008). Sixth periodic report on Nigeria. From http//:www.un.org Cohen, B. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton: University Press Ejikeme, E. (2011). Women for Change Initiative and leadership challenges. Posted

on February 10, 2011 in Law & Human Rights. Retrieved from http//:www.lawandhumanrights.com

Fagbemi, A. O. (2004). Gender and Development. A paper presented at an

international women summit organized by UNESCO. Geneva, Switzerland Iniodu, E. (October 15, 2011). Women and 2015. DailySun. p.18 Irabor, F. (September 4, 2011). Money, religion & patriarchy pose problems for

female politicians. Vanguard, p. 43 Joseph, D. R. (2011). Dynamics of Mass Communication: media in the digital age.

New York: McGraw-Hill Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: the Free Press Mavis, et al (2012). The face of news in The Guardian newspaper. (An unpublished

work) submitted to the Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

McCombs, M. And Reynolds, A. (2002). News influence on our pictures of the

world. In Bryant J., Zillmann D. (eds) Media Effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd edition). Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey

Ndujihe, C. (June 7, 2011). Women who will shape seventh national assembly. The

Guardian. p 21 Ojeme, V. (December 17, 2011). First Lady, Josephine Anenih chart new course for

women. Vanguard. p.48


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Petty, R., Priester, J. R. Brinol, P. (2002). Mass media attitude change: implications

of the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In Bryant J., Zillmann D. (eds) Media Effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd edition). Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey

The Guardian (June 19, 2009). Legal victory raises ante on fight against gender discrimination. p 18

Ugwu, C. (September 5, 2011). Nigeria: Women for Change Initiative – Patience

Jonathan’s tool for women emancipation. Leadership newspaper, p. 14 Vanguard (May 21, 2011). Review of women’s participation and performance at the

2011 general elections in Nigeria. p. 18 W4CI (2011). Women for Change and Development Initiative. Retrieved from

http//:www.w4ci.org/developmentinitiativeon September 14, 2011 Wimmer, R. D. & Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass media research: an introduction. (9th

edition) California: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Zaller, J. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge: University

Press.


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STAKEHOLDERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON BOOK PUBLISHING AND MARKETING IN NIGERIA

Uche, Anthony Ogbonna

Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka

Anambra State Email: [email protected]

Abstract: The book industry is very important in any nation. And there can be no books

without publishing. Book publishing therefore involves several stakeholders including writers, printers, academics, computer graphic artists, typesetters, educational institutions, publishers, copyright commission, students, government, financial institutions, lithographers, booksellers and book readers among others. Perhaps that is why White (1946, p. 58) pointed out that “an examination of the publishing industry in any country must inevitably concern itself, not merely with the economics of the production and distribution of books, but also with the educational and social implications of their supply and use.” The import of publishing is communication. However the industry has been bedeviled by several issues ranging from paucity of infrastructure to inadequate skilled manpower and violations of rights especially copyright. This article therefore identified the history of the publishing industry in Nigeria tracing it to the early colonial days; unveiled the challenges confronting it and the opportunities for growth and development.

Keywords: Book publishing, Book industry, Publishing industry, Marketing, Publications



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INTRODUCTION

Book publishing and marketing are Siamese twins. It is so because no book is worth its name until it has been made available to readers. Books occupy a pride of place in human civilization. In fact, experts have pointed out that books are the oldest media before the advent of other forms of media (Sandman et al. 1976; Murphy, 1977; MacBride et al. 1981; Lee, 2008). Regrettably, several individuals are yet to know much about the book industry especially as it relates to book publishing in a developing economy. Most people, including daily book users are ignorant of the processes of producing books let alone the opportunities that exist for book publishing in spite of its importance as articulated by Valdehuesa (1985, P. 710) that book publishing promotes learning, advances knowledge, and connects divers sectors of the population: technocrats with lay persons, scholars with students, leaders with followers, storytellers with their publics. It also bridges the

gap between academia and the market place, between school and community and nations, between past and present and present and future. Given this scenario, this article sought to obtain the position of stakeholders in the book publishing industry regarding the issues confronting it and the perhaps the opportunities for the industry.

WHAT BOOK PUBLISHING ENTAILS Microsoft Encarta (2009) defines Book Publishing as the manufacture, publication, and distribution of books. The process involves the selection of a manuscript, the editing of it, the designing of the book’s final appearance, the actual manufacture into book form, the distribution of the book to booksellers, and the book’s ultimate purchase by readers. Valdehuesa (1985, p. 709) posits that book publishing is the art and craft of cultivating the best minds in society so that what knowledge, wit, or charm they possess may be communicated and shared and thus bring about greater sophistication or intellectual development among people.

We speak of book publishing as an industry and as a profession. Both designations are most certainly appropriate. Book publishing is a business conducted, for the

most part, for profit. But its practitioners — at least those who do it — have motivations that transcend their profit interest (Dessauer 1981, p.11).

Okwilagwe (2001) citing Grannis (1967) posits that when the term publishing is applied to book publishing, it is a formidable succession of activities no one of which can by itself be called publishing. It is only when a manuscript has been transformed into a book and then distributed to its intended market place, that the process of publishing is complete. To perform an editorial service alone whether as a risk or for a fee is not to publish. Book publishing is all of these things put together, an integrated process, whether carried out by a single firm or by several. It is the whole intellectual and business procedure of selecting and arranging to make a book and of promoting its ultimate use (Okwilagwe, 2001, p. 2).


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HISTORY OF PUBLISHING

Book publishing can be said to be a child of necessity. “When humans were content to leave their written records on rocks, communication technology was simple. The essential material was a smooth rock, the essential tools a chisel and a hammer. As a need to preserve longer manuscripts was recognized, new formats were needed (Murphy 1977, p. 52). The next stage was the scroll which consisted of a long sheet of papyrus equipped with a roller at each end. It was however cumbersome and hence, gave way for the codex which consisted of several sheets of parchment assembled into gatherings that were sewn together. Both the scroll and the codex were handwritten by monks, scribes and clerks—a herculean task indeed. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Enlightenment more and more people learned to read and the demand for books exceeded the capabilities of the monks and clerks who hand-copied each new volume. Clearly, better production methods, new

technologies were needed (Murphy 1977, p. 52). In a Keynote Address at the first Nigeria National Book Fair (Eastern Zone) Professor Richard Okafor posits: Although no one remembers any great publisher in ancient Egypt, perhaps King Hammurabi, a king of ancient Babylonia, who lived about 2000 B.C, struck the first blow for publishing when he carved his famous laws (The Code of Hammurabi) on a great stone pillar, eight feet high, and mounted it in the Temple of Marduk in Babylon so that any traveler, any citizen, and functionary of State, and every man in the street would know the provisions of the laws that could govern his life (Okafor, 2006, p.90). According to Dominick (2002, p. 147) early books were inscribed by hand and lavishly decorated; many were valued as works of art. Until approximately the 12 th

century, most books in Europe were produced by monks in monasteries. However, modern publishing was ushered in by Johann Gutenberg who invented the

movable type. In about 1455, Gutenberg printed his first book — the Bible.

HISTORY OF PUBLISHING IN NIGERIA

Okafor (2006, p. 93) posits that it is reasonable to argue that publishing is one of the oldest professional activities in Nigeria. It was in 1859 that Rev. Henry Townsend published Iwe Irohin, the first newspaper devoted to the evangelizing activities of the Christian Mission in Abeokuta. However, book publishing in Nigeria began in the early twentieth century through the colonial experience (Okunna & Omenugha 2012). Book publishing in Nigeria was initiated in the 1920s when policies were formulated on the production and importation of English and Arithmetic text books from Britain (Jika 1990, p. 195) as cited in Okunna & Omenugha (2012, p. 74). Obidiegwu (2006) asserts that prior to Independence; the first significant groups of publishers to operate in Nigeria were the Christian presses who played a key role in the production and distribution of books. Understandably, the earliest publications were religious, philosophical and instructional in nature, and their circulation confined to a few centres of education i.e. mission colleges where missionary


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personnel and teachers were being trained. For a long time, mission presses were

the only printing and publishing establishment in existence in Nigeria with the CMS Press in Lagos being perhaps the most active. The process of gradual indigenization of major publishing firms which were established in Nigeria from the UK quickened with independence in 1960 and by 1977, the Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree made it mandatory for foreign publishing enterprises to become Nigerian companies through the equity participation of Nigerians. Closely following this era of shareholding and greater managerial responsibilities for an increasing number of Nigerians, was the Universal Free Primary Education (UPE) of 1976 which created enormous opportunities and challenges for the Nigerian Publishing Industry. Primary school enrolment for example, more than doubled overnight and this had a serious spill-over effect on secondary and tertiary education as well. The unprecedented demand for books caught publishers napping, though imports and the emergence of indigenous publishing houses helped cushion the effect of the

drastic explosion in demand. By 1982, a new national policy on education known as the 6-3-3-4 System was introduced and this called for new books to meet the requirements of the new curriculum, creating further challenges and opportunities for new publishing, both indigenous and foreign (Obidiegwu 2006, p. 111).

PARTNERS IN PUBLISHING Producing a book calls for teamwork. Each one of the team members is very important. According to Smith (1989, p.6), teamwork is needed to produce a book and put it on the hands of readers. Each member of the team has a necessary part to play and none of them can be eliminated. While Behnke (1963, p. 41) identified three partners: the writer, publisher and consumer (reader). Smith (1989, p.6) however identified four principal partners excluding the reader(s), namely: author, printer, bookseller and the publisher. The Writer This is the one who puts his ideas to paper. He or she is the person that is pregnant with ideas that if accepted would be “midwifed” by the publisher, and thus a book is born. The writer is also known as the author. Smith (1989, p. 7)

describes the author as the creator or originator of the ideas to be given to the world through a book, the arranger of the words, pictures, charts, tables, and so forth, in which the ideas are to be presented. It should be noted that the author may or may not be an individual. An author can be an institution, agency, group or government. The author is the first owner of the right to publish the work created, and will usually try to sell that right or lease it or assign it to a publisher to reproduce the manuscript in some way to distribute to the world. But until permission is given to someone else, the author is the sole proprietor of the right of publication; and there is nothing to prevent the author from hiding the manuscript or burning it up rather than sharing it with the rest of the world. But the author who does want to share it is entitled to some reward from society. Without authors there could be no publishing for education and social enrichment (Smith, 1989, p. 9).


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The Publisher

According to Valdehuesa (1985, p. 710), one of the least understood roles is that of the publisher. Too often the role of the publisher is confused with that of the printer. Smith (1989, p. 23) explains that the book publisher is an investor in books. The publisher is the one who pays out money to the author, translator, artist, editor, printer, papermaker, and others for producing the books, and to the sales people, advertisers, and those who help in marketing them, and takes in money from the booksellers and others who buy the books or who buy the right to use the books’ content in some way. Manuel Valdehuesa specifies the import of publishers when he made the following apt comparisons:

Publishers are to literary development as producers are to movie-making. They are to books as promoters are to sports, or as impresarios are to the performing arts…publishers are the chefs who determine the literary menu to be served up to a varied clientele (Valdehuesa 1985, p. 711).

Publishers have a strategic role. They are the organizers, the strategists, the financiers and quintessentially, the risk takers in the process of book development. It is the role of the publisher to determine the information that people need, search for qualified and competent authors to prepare the manuscripts (book commissioning). He is also in charge of negotiating and acquiring publishing rights, substantive editing and copy editing by deploying editors to refine the manuscripts, planning the production process, buying papers, inks and other materials, engaging designers, printers, organizing the promotional and marketing activities and ultimately ensuring that the finished good (published book) gets to the final consumer (reader) at the approved price. In the words of Hiebert et al (1991, p. 406), the publisher is the link among the author, the suppliers, and technicians who produce the book and the readers who buy it. The Printer The printer is not a risk taker on any specific book project. Perhaps it is important at this juncture to stress the difference between a publisher and a printer.

Okwilagwe (2001, p. 4) posits that it is difficult to distinguish the printer from the professional publisher in Nigeria. Printing activities had developed and overshadowed the professional publishing activities. Although printing is an aspect of the publishing industry, the Nigerian printers have maintained the old tradition of performing all the essential functions in the publishing of books. This is counterproductive as it is injurious to professionalism in the publishing industry in Nigeria. A printer’s duty is to print. He is more often engaged by the publisher to run impression. In fact a printer is expected to have the necessary machinery to bring out the already computer-designed and typeset manuscript (typescript) to life. In other words, after the typescript has been filmed and plated by a lithographer, the next point of call is the printer’s shop. Thus, a printer is more concerned about hardware than software. Although it should be noted that a publisher can also have a printing press, however, it is not a sine qua non for becoming a publisher. Therefore printing can be said to be just a mere process of publishing.


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Valdehuesa (1985, p. 711) identified three things that stand out about the

publishers’ role:

(1) Their concern are different from those of printers

(2) Their investment is entirely apart from the printers’ costs

(3) They are risk takers.

Moreover, their essential tools are a publishing programme, literary acumen, entrepreneurial sense and money. White (1946, p. 58) posits that there is inter-dependence of all who inhabit the world of books — author, publisher, printer, book seller, librarian and the small but ever widening public which uses them.”

AUTHOR—PUBLISHER RELATIONSHIP Writing on the relationship between authors and publishers, Day (1993, p. 7) as cited by Okafor (2006, p. 88) posits: It is the author’s part to call into being their cargoes and passengers—living thoughts and rich bales of study and jeweled ideas. And as for the publishers, it is they who build the fleet, plan the voyage and sail on, facing wreck till they find every possible harbor that will value their burden. The maintenance of mutually satisfactory relations with his authors is one of the most difficult of the publisher’s problems, for although the parties to a publishing venture would appear to have similar interests, their points of view are very different (Taylor, 1935, p. 71). It must be admitted that in the past authors were (and to some slight extent still are) unscrupulously exploited by publishers; but the day of such exploitation is, in general, past; and it is now nearer the truth to say that the publisher is exploited by the author — with the help of the literary agent, whose business it is to get the best price he can for his author client in the free and highly competitive publishing market (Taylor, 1935, p. 72).

THE IMPORTANCE OF BOOK PUBLISHING

Publishing is a mass communication medium which is a principal – indeed, critical factor – in the educational process of a nation. Critical, because the development of any society is organically linked to the virility of its book publishing industry (Adelekan, 2005, p. 185). And whenever the importance of book publishing is highlighted, the importance of book is invariably stressed. Ayodele (2007, p. 13) specifies the importance of books, “Over the years, I have come to regard the book in whatever form it comes as the most effective means of liberating man from the shackles of ignorance, and therefore the ultimate weapon for mass development.” Quoting Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president of John Hopkins University, Ofori-Mensah (2008, p. 32) postulates that without books history is silent, literature dumb, science crippled, and speculation at a standstill.


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Without books, the development of civilization would have been impossible. They

are the engineers of change, windows on the world and light houses erected in the sea of time. They are companions, teachers, magicians, bankers of treasuries of the mind. Books are humanity in print. Three importance of publishing are succinctly presented by Lippincott (1906, p. 1) to include: preserving and disseminating knowledge and entertainment. To feel that an imprint on an important book will pass under the eyes of generations, after monuments have become neglected, is a satisfaction which the publisher of a good book may properly enjoy in perspective. In his contribution, Valdehuesa (1985) posits that publishing is a serious business. Its direct contribution to economic growth is difficult to quantify, but its role in vitalizing economic forces is decisive. It is essential, first of all, for the literacy movement, which requires reading materials of all kinds. And it is a basic requirement of science, technology, and all other

disciplines, which together constitute the dynamo of socioeconomic growth. In short it is a basic infrastructure for national progress and modernization.

At its best, the task of book publishing is to generate and communicate the best thoughts, the most useful ideas, and the common aspirations of a given people. Through the workings of the publishing industry, knowledge or information is recorded, synthesized, organized, and imparted (Valdehuesa, 1985, p. 709).

Book publishing helps in identifying budding talents (writers) and projecting them to the world. This was the way most African writers came to national and international limelight. Bankole (2005, p. 229) opines that it could be said that this early set of publishers ( University Press, Longman, Macmillan etc) was instrumental to the discovery of the early geniuses of Nigerian literature—Amos Tutuola, John Pepper Clark, Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka. Book publishing promotes learning, advances knowledge, and connects divers sectors of the population: technocrats with lay persons, scholars with students, leaders with followers, storytellers with their publics. It also bridges the gap between academia and the market place, between school and community and nations, between past and present and present and future (Valdehuesa, 1985, p. 710).

Publishing helps a country to raise its head at the comity of nations. Adding credence to this, Datus Smith comments: “Quite aside from questions of national pride, and the national wish of most countries to have book industries of their own, a local book industry is needed, no matter how great the availability of books from abroad. This is necessary for cultural enrichment; for opportunities for self-expression by nation’s thinkers, writers and artists, for developing a sense of national unity as well as a sense of historic tradition” (Smith, 1989, pp. 3-4).


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THE PUBLISHING PROCESS The publishing process can be viewed as a chain from authors to editors to printers, booksellers and the end users. A newly arriving manuscript whether unsolicited or commissioned, is first read to ascertain its suitability or otherwise for publication. Some publishing firms employ full-time readers; some have all their reading done outside by unattached specialists of literary and technical experience while others have both in-house readers as well as outside specialists who do the proofreading. The reports of these readers usually form the chief influence resulting in the acceptance or rejection of a manuscript, though the publisher himself or his principal editor makes the final decision. It should be noted, however, that the degree of care needed in reading a manuscript varies considerably. New works from unknown writers usually require a very careful examination whereas those from already published or established authors are not usually subjected to thorough

scrutiny. If a manuscript is accepted, the next is to reach an agreement with the author, stating precisely the condition upon which publication is undertaken (Taylor, 1935, p. 54). It may be stated here that some sharp publishers may go for acquisition of an author’s copyright by way of outright payment. However, the standard practice is to pay royalty.

CATEGORIES/BRANCHES OF BOOK PUBLISHING The publishing business is divided into special branches, distinguished broadly by the nature of the books which they individually include. Thus we have medical publishers, technical or scientific publishers, publishers of Belles Letters and fiction, and publishers of periodicals. The firm or individual issuing books belonging to all or several of these various classes is known as a general publisher (Lippincott, 1906, p. 1). The publishing trend in Nigeria according to Okwilagwe (2001) does not indicate any form of specialization. Rather, most publishers spread their energy on publishing all categories of books. The size of an audience for a particular book determines the viability of its project. Educational books have thus

received the attention of the Nigerian publishers more than any other category of books. Within this category of books, primary and secondary schools are the main areas of interest to a majority of Nigerian publishers. They are “bread and butter” to the Nigerian publishers (Okwilagwe, 2001, p. 6). He however presents two models used in book classification, namely: (a). Michael Lane’s (1970) five categories of books are: General, Fiction,

Literature and Belles Letters; Education and Technical; Academic. (b). Mann’s (1970) sociological model for book classification has three sub-

divisions: (i) Work or Utilitarian Books- workbooks made up of texts, manuals, and

reference books, home manuals and reference books such as cookery, car manuals, guides and hobbies.

(ii) Social reading consists of self improvement books, non-fiction books and

fiction. Non-fiction consists of history, biography, memoirs and travel books. Fiction consists of good novels; and


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(iii) Personal reading books such as romance, mystery and detective books

(novels). Dominick (2002, p. 154) posits that publishers have developed a classification system for the industry based upon the market that is served. 12 major divisions were highlighted as specified by the Association of American Publishers:

1. Trade Books are aimed at the general consumer and sold primarily through bookstores. They can be hardbound or softbound and include works for juvenile and adults. Trade books include hardcover fiction, nonfiction, biography, cookbooks, art books, and several other types.

2. Religious Books include Bibles, hymnals, prayer books, theology and other literature of a devotional nature.

3. Professional Books are aimed at doctors, lawyers, scientists, accountants, business managers, architects, engineers, and all others who need a personal reference library in their work.

4. Book clubs at first may sound more like a distribution channel than a division of the publishing segment but some book club publish their own books and almost all prepare special editions for their members. Thus, it makes sense to include them here.

5. Mail-order publications consist of books created for the general public and marketed by direct mail. These are different from book clubs because the books are marketed by the publisher, and customers do not incur any membership obligations in an organization.

6. Mass-market paperbacks are softbound volumes on all subjects that have their major sale in places other than bookstores. Typically, these are the books sold in wire racks in supermarkets, newsstands, drugstores, airports, chain stores, and so on.

7. University presses publish mostly scholarly titles or books that have cultural or artistic merit. University presses typically are run on a nonprofit basis, and most of their customers are libraries and scholars.

8. Elementary and secondary textbooks are hard and soft cover books, workbooks, manuals and other printed materials, all intended for use in the classroom. Logically enough, schools are the primary market for these publishers. (This division is also known as “elhi” publishers—from elementary and high school.)

9. College textbook publishers produce texts and workbooks for the college market.

10. Standardized tests make up a relatively small segment of the industry. These publishers put together tests of ability, aptitude, interest, personality, and other traits.


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11. Subscription reference books consist of encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases,

and the like. They are usually marketed in packages to schools, libraries, and individual consumers.

12. Audiovisual and other media supply tapes, films, slides, transparencies, games, and other educational materials to schools and training companies.

MAJOR DEPARTMENTS IN A PUBLISHING COMPANY Dominick (2002, p. 159) identified four major departments in a publishing company: editorial, production, marketing and general administration.

The Editorial Department This department is in charge of dealing with authors. The tasks include selecting manuscripts and preparing them for publication. Some editors specialize in procurement and visit potential authors to solicit their work. Other editors read manuscripts, write a report on them, and recommend acceptance, rejection or revision. Once an accepted manuscript is completed, copyeditors sift through it, checking grammar, punctuation, language, internal consistency, and accuracy. The Production Department The layout, design and illustrations are better handled by the production department. It is their responsibility to ensure that the book comes out in the approved form. The printing, collation, binding and trimming are all handled by the production department. It is in charge of planning and design of the book; determining typeface, type size, composition, type of paper and the grammage. Marketing Department This is the department in charge of all marketing activities such as promotion and advertizing. It is headed by a marketing manager whose responsibility it is to

ensure that the necessary publicity for the company and its products is created and enhanced. Marketing department usually works closely with the sales department. In fact some companies designate the department as sales/marketing. The Administration Department This is the department that oversees the recruitment of staff, their training/re-training, staff evaluation, discipline, promotion and sometimes vehicles procurement and maintenance. The administration department ensures that the administrative polices are implemented with maximum efficiency. This is done through careful and skillful planning, organizing, staffing, directing and leading and controlling the activities of other departments.


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Factors Militating against Book Publishing

There are several factors militating against book publishing in Nigeria. Experts have on several occasions and fora highlighted some of these challenges including: Poor Readership/Book Buying Culture

Adegbola (2009, p. 41) cries out that in spite of the fact that we have been exposed to western education and learning for close to two centuries and we have a large population of literate people, the reading culture is still poor in our society.

Tiamiyu (2005, p. 146) observes that “the problem of poor reading culture is pervasive among all classes of Nigerians, from primary school to university undergraduates.” This is in tandem with Adegoke (2001, p.171) who posits that the

majority of people who are literate hardly read for pleasure…students for example; tend to read just to pass their examinations, many hardly read books outside their discipline except when they are compelled. These observations found a kindred spirit with Alele-Williams (2007, p. 9), “...we have become a non-reading society…reading books for enjoyment is not of interest or concern to the generality of Nigerians.

Today most educated persons spend money mainly on those books needed to pass examinations…this is in contrast with the past where the mark of an educated person in colonial times was that such a person however lowly in the civil service had a glass-showcase or just a shelf of books in his house.” She laments the fact that “it is easier to sit watching television in every spare moment at one’s disposal than devote one hour every evening reading” (Alele-Williams, 2007, p. 10). Without readers, publishers can no longer remain in business. Publishers publish because there are readers or would-be readers, and there are readers because there are publishers who publish the books to be read. Adegbola (2009, p.41) also observes that there is rather low book buying culture in our society. Even the attitude to buying routine educational texts is poor. A rough computation of the total national volumes sold of core subjects titles reveals this. Poor readership in turn leads to poor patronage. Perhaps as a result of poverty—

poverty of the mind and the pocket, several individuals prefer to spend their money on feeding the body rather than feeding the mind; hence, the cry of Stanley Unwin over 75 years ago:

On the day when expenditure upon food for the mind is regarded as no more of a luxury than expenditure upon food for the body, book-selling will come into its own; but alas! Books are the last thing most people have any intention of buying, or can ever be persuaded to buy (Unwin, 1935, p. 10).

If the above statement could be made concerning the developed world, the United Kingdom, what would be the case of a nation such as ours that is still undeveloped! Indeed it is a pitiable and pathetic situation. Little wonder Dan Obidiegwu, the former MD of Longman Nigeria Plc mourns:


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It is sad that after nearly 60 years of existence, the turnover of the publishing industry has remained at a very low level despite the huge potential market, in comparisons to other sectors of the economy. The highest turnover of perhaps the largest and perhaps the oldest publishing company in Nigeria may not have attained the N5.0 billion a year mark (Obidiegwu, 2009, p 14).

COST OF PUBLISHING

Cost of publishing has been identified by experts as one of the major challenges facing the industry in Nigeria. In the words of Alele-Williams (2007, p. 10), “Books are expensive to publish and therefore to buy.” Okoro (1990) could not agree less when he wrote:

The unit cost of book production in Nigeria is very high. By the time the publisher pays royalty to the author, gives discount to the bookseller, pays all his bills and overheads, he is left with little or no profit. For some booksellers, after getting their discounts from publishers, still mark up their prices before selling the books to the public. There is no doubt that books are expensive in Nigeria. It is not easy to buy even exercise books for some parents and students (Okoro, 1990, p. 207).

A lot of input is involved before a book is published. Apart from human resources which have been developed over time through training, the necessary infrastructures in the publishing industry are paper mills, printing machinery with good bindery for finishing operations and a petrochemical industry for the manufacture of intermediate materials necessary for digital production, film making, colour separation, plate making, ink, etc. in the views of Obidiegwu (2009), of all these, the most critical appears to be paper. At the moment, paper for the manufacture of books is not produced anywhere in Nigeria. The Jebba Paper Mills, the Newsprint Paper Mills at Oku Ibokun and the Iwopin Paper Mill are all comatose. Most books used in our schools today are printed on wood-free paper which is wholly imported. It needs to be stated here that the effect of high rates of import duty on inputs such as paper/boards, machines and spares and the net effect of the various taxes and levies imposed on these categories of goods on availability and affordability of books have been

negative (Obidiegwu, 2009, p. 14). This view is corroborated by Hiebert et al (1991, p. 406) who had earlier written concerning book publishing that “…profit margins are small because of fixed costs and the expenses of paper and printing.”

PIRACY

Book piracy is perhaps the most controversial issue in the Nigerian book industry today (Okoro, 1990, p. 207). All creative artists in Nigeria are victims of pirates who rob them of the products of their ingenuity; this acts as a great disincentive to creativity and the society is worse for it (Uzochukwu, 2005, p. 25). Adegbola (2009, p. 42) identified the major hotbeds of piracy to include Ajegunle, Aba and Onitsha.


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According to Smith (1989, p. 8) the main argument against piracy—frequently

ignored in developing countries—is that piracy prevents the growth of the indigenous book industry.” In his paper presentation in Enugu on Indigenous publishing and national development, Dan Obidiegwu asserts that indigenous publishing business in Nigeria today is fast crumbling under the weight of organized book piracy, which is the infringement of copyright (Obidiegwu, 2006, p. 112). The piracy cankerworm which reared its ugly head somewhat in the 1980s has become a full blown monster to the book industry in Nigeria. Up till the early 90s, pirates were considered to be responsible for stealing between 40% and 60% of the publishers’ legitimate income and market. Today, as a result of the failure of the combined might of the (very effeminate and slow) judicial system and copyright owners to secure conviction and appropriate punishment for offenders, we are

talking of up to 80% or more criminal market encroachment by book pirates. This menace is indeed a major disincentive to the mental and physical vigours of creative thought and expression demanded of the writer, as well as the professional processing and financial risk-taking expected of the publisher (Obidiegwu, 2009, 17). Commenting on this monster called book piracy and the complicity of the printer, Ayodele (2007, p. 16) writes: “…it is clear that the printer does only a minute aspect of the work in the publishing process. It is thus the height of criminality for a printer to merely take hold of a published work and reprint it without recourse to the publisher. That precisely is what the book pirate does. All that the printer invests is the tip of the iceberg, and so he can offer his so called product at a ridiculously low price. So, it would not be too far off the mark to claim that the book pirate is the greatest robber in our world today. Without the protection of copyright, it is fair to say, the world would never have had the explosion of knowledge that has come through books (Smith, 1989, p. 9). One of the conditions for the infringement of copyright is that a substantial part of the work must have been copied. In the Nigerian context, we are not talking about copying a part of a book, but about the pirate copying the whole book to be sold at

reduced price. Why should there be so much talk about book piracy today? It could be that there is a connecting factor between book piracy and the general trend of events in the Nigerian society. Book piracy is, in itself, a sad manifestation of the way the Nigerian society has changed (Okoro, 1990, p. 207). The effect of this monster: economic and intellectual, emotional and socio-political, is to say the least, colossal!

…many people are stressed and worried by the rate at which whole books are

photocopied and sometimes sold and re-sold in some of our educational institutions. I would regard that as a direct assault on the author and the publisher. It is also reported that in every area of copyright breach –mimeographing, piracy, bootlegging, dubbing, photocopying, scanning etc., Nigeria has the highest number of units in Black Africa (Okafor, 2006, p. 94).

Nigeria seems to lack effective legislative measure to curb this ugly trend. This perhaps informed the comments of Fenby (1983, p. 75) that pirates are exceptionally in a creamy position as a result of the widespread lack of effective


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legislation against piracy. The rightful strategy is to ensure that culprits are

apprehended and prosecuted. A situation where arrests are made and the suspects are granted bail at the police stations is a very bad development. Those arrested must be charged to court and if convicted, should be made to serve the necessary terms or pay the fines as stipulated. What usually happens is that when police or Nigeria Copyright commission (NCC) raids the traders, books confiscated usually resurface at the different bookshops after money must have exchanged hands. In fact, the ease at which piracy is embarked on today can be attributed to “two modern elements, the computer and the photocopying machine.” Although these have contributed to the growth of modern publishing, it is however regrettable that “the computer and the photocopier threaten to destroy copyright-the essential basis for successful publishing” (Russak: 1975:106).

Decrying the effect of piracy, Iroh (2005) asks: why has the book trade gone into decline in recent times, undermining the quest for intellectual growth? I think this is because the author no longer benefits from his intellectual effort; they have been robbed of their intellectual properties and rights through book piracy. The nefarious activities of both pirates have damaged the noble art of writing and publishing in Nigeria.

WEAK DISTRIBUTION FRAMEWORK

There is the challenge of good distribution network. It is one thing to publish and another thing is to get the books published to the end users. Adegbenro (2009, p. 41) posits that the present distribution arrangement in Nigeria has as its base subsistence traders. The distribution chain is weak, fragmented, undercapitalized, unsupportive and unorganized and as a result has failed the publishing industry in its quest to achieve real growth. Nothing seems to discourage a publisher much more than seeing his publications piled up in his warehouse unsold. Capital become locked up in stock and envisaged profits continue to dwindle as the publisher has to pay for the cost of warehousing, and with time such published

works may need a review or else become obsolete thus driving the publisher into bankruptcy.

PROSPECTS IN BOOK PUBLISHING

“Publishing in Asia and Africa has a bright future, due to a number of factors, ironically including the present state of underdevelopment” (Smith, 1975, p. 130). It is indeed a general view (at least among publishers) that there exist lots of opportunities for the Nigerian publishing industry to grow beyond its present status. According to Obidiegwu (2006, p. 112), it is therefore evident that there are immense opportunities in publishing in Nigeria with lots of room for more. Over the last three decades, Nigerian publishers have been making a modest start with pre-school, primary and secondary school levels as the main areas of emphasis in a

bold attempt to reverse the trend in which almost all books used in our schools were published abroad. At the same time, spirited effort are being made in the


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provision of creative, literary works in English and Nigerian languages as necessary

ingredients in the nation’s cultural revival and identity. Ogunleye (2005, p. 81) posits that the Nigerian book market is made up of the supply market and the demand market. The supply market comprises motley of publishers which include among others: author-publishers, contract-publishers, mission publishers, research institute publishers, university publishers, indigenous publishers and the multinational publishers. On the demand side of the Nigerian book market are large number of potential book users who include nursery school pupils, primary school and secondary school pupils, thousands of private candidates for West African School Certificate Examinations, the students of polytechnics and colleges of education, the universities and general interest readers.

“Book publishing will constitute a wasted effort if worthy books are not placed in the hands of readers. The signs are that Nigeria is under-served and the potential book market largely untapped. Book publishing in Nigeria resembles that in other countries in some respects, but must need advance in many others in order to serve a nation grappling with illiteracy and low-level advancement in socio-economic variables, politics, science, technology and general well-being of the people (Christopher, 2010, p. 206). Olajide (2005, p. 40) identifies major classes of growth opportunities available for a publishing company. The classes include: Class 1 – Intensive Growth: this consists of market penetration, market development and publication of new titles.

Class 11 – Integrated Growth: the following issues are involved: (i) Backward integration (ii) Forward integration (iii) Horizontal integration

Class 111 – Diversification Growth This relates to

(i) Concentric diversification, and (ii) Horizontal diversification.

On the side of educational publishing, there seems to be an ever increasing market for school books in Nigeria. Echebiri (2005, p. 205) put the estimated book needs of Nigeria as at 2001 as follows:


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1. Pre-primary 10,000,000

2. Primary (a) Public 100,000,000 (b) Private 6,000,000

3. Secondary 43,200,000 4. Tertiary 6,840,000 5. Research institutions 25,000

Total 166,572,000 The above figures are clearly conservative, but they show that the book needs of Nigeria have recorded remarkable growth, from very modest figures earlier in the twentieth century to the estimated annual book requirements of about 166,600,000 volumes at the dawn of the new millennium (Echebiri, 2005, p. 205).

In 2009, estimated enrolment figures as presented by former Managing Director of Longman Plc, Dan Obidiegwu indicate the following: Pre-school 5 million Primary 25 million Junior Secondary 10 million Senior Secondary 8 million Intermediate 3 million Universities/tertiary 5 million In all we have about 60 million persons currently engaged in one form of education or the other in Nigeria today, who require at least 5-10 books per person per annum, which puts our national book needs for the educational sector at about 600 million books in any one year! These figures exclude books for leisure and general reading (Obidiegwu, 2009, pp. 13-14). The figures must have increased exponentially due to our ever increasing human population.

BOOK MARKETING IN NIGERIA The marketing of books is a very essential aspect of book publishing. It is often assumed and rightly so that the book publishing process is not complete until the printed book gets to the hand of the consumer — reader. Quoting Arboledan, Orimalade (2009, p. 45) writes that a book does not fulfill its purpose until it is read, and to be read it must reach a reader. Kirpatric (1982, p. 57) could not agree less when he wrote: any book is dead until read, when it becomes alive. Usually it is only read when bought; it is only bought if distributed from author through publisher to reader. Nwankwor (2005, p. 176) points out that books published and not distributed are not sold. Low sales turnover results in diminished capacity to publish. It is now accepted that the pace of production has far outstripped that of distribution. While it is much easier to promote and distribute African-published books in Europe and America, the reverse is the case here in Nigeria. Factors responsible for this scenario include poor postal system which could have been very useful in


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Direct mail promotion of book titles. Ogunleye (2005, p. 105) writes that there is

near absence of information on the books published in this part of the world. If booksellers and buyers are not aware of the existence of a particular book, how then can such a book be stocked and bought? Promotion and distribution are the weakest links in the publishing chain and as such calls for concerted efforts of the National Library, the Publishers Association, and the Booksellers Association. Ogunleye (2005, p. 106) suggests that the National Library of Nigeria could compile a comprehensive and reliable National Bibliography through its Legal Deposit collections and in collaboration with Nigerian Publishers Association. This will be a dependable source of information on Nigerian books.

Distributor/Wholesaler Publishers usually market their titles through appointed distributors or

wholesalers who lift books from the publishers and stock them in their warehouses at a discounted rate. These distributors then supply the retail outlets.

Bookshops Bookshops are the most important retail outlets for all categories of books – from general to educational books and specialist publications. Ogunleye (2005, p. 106) laments that attempts to bypass the bookshops in the distribution of books have most of the time resulted in increased overhead costs and heavy uncollectables for Nigerian publishers. Booksellers interact more with customers. They know readers/customers’ needs and demands. They know the subject areas where books are needed. They know the titles which are fast or slow moving (Orimalade, 2009, p. 47). Late Victor Nwankwo describes the bookshop in this wise: the market book stalls and the street bookshops are without doubt one of the most important links in the publishing chain, being the main point of contact between publishers’ books and the reader. Among their proprietors are many years of profound understanding of the retail trade. In this position, they can provide guidance to the reader on choice of titles, to the publisher on the reader needs and demand and to publishing developers a vital asset to channel book-buying psychology of the society

(Nwankwor, 1994, p. 3). Other retail outlets for Nigerian publishers as identified by Orimalade (2009, p. 47) are book clubs, market stalls, street bookshops, book hawkers, bend down bookshops, mobile book racks and itinerary book merchants. Those operating these outlets either buy from publishers or from bookshops.


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Figure 1: A Diagrammatic Representation of Book Marketing Channel by a Publishing Firm

DISTRIBUTION BY DIRECT SALE

Book distribution by direct sale has become a common practice in Nigeria. Publishers supply books directly to libraries and institutions when there is

government or donor book procurement intervention. Orimalade (2009, p. 48) writes that a publisher using this channel operates a book sale outlet in his premises. He sometimes erects a canopy in front of his premises during book season and sells to passers-by. He sells books during book launches. He encourages private schools to buy directly from his warehouse – by giving them attractive discounts. He “dumps” books with school teachers and principals for sale to pupils. He encourages faculty staff in institutions of higher learning, through his representatives (Reps), to set up mini bookshops in the faculty where books are sold to students. Presentation: There is still an option of book launch or public presentation (Uche 2013, p. 50). This is a situation whereby newly published titles are presented to the public. It is usually a very grand occasion for creating the needed publicity for such

books.

Publisher rr

Institutional

purchases:

schools,

libraries, etc

Book clubs Subscription

sales

Mass distribution Wholesaler

s

Retail Booksellers

Individual Users of Books

Book Marketing: adapted from Datus Smith’s The Book Industry (Smith 1989, p. 17)


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On-line stores: On-line stores are becoming very popular. Most entrepreneurs are

taking advantage of this virtual market place. Daily, millions of customers hook on to place their orders, make purchases and sell their goods. Such on-line market place and distribution platforms as identified by Uche (2013, p. 51) include: www.eBay.com, www.Amazon.com, www.BarnesandNoble.com, www.BooksaMillion.com, www.Borders.com, www.Target.com, www.Walmart.com, www.unibooks.com, www.pubgraphics.com.

CONCLUSION Book publishing is an essential enterprise in every nation. Okoro (1990, p. 199) agrees that the place of books in national and educational development cannot be over-emphasized. Books have a special position in the history of mankind. The

literature, history, music, human achievements and cultural heritage of a nation are all recorded and preserved in books. Without books, the education of the people and the communication of ideas from one generation to the other would be difficult. Therefore any nation that toys with book publishing is a nation that is bound to backwardness and obscurity because such a nation does not recognize the importance of books.

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AUDIENCE PERCEPTION OF THE CREDIBILITY OF FACEBOOK ADVERTISING

Uchenna Patricia Ekwugha

Department of Mass Communication

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State,

Nigeria. Phone No: +2348035962584

E-mail: [email protected]

Chinwe Elizabeth Uzochukwu, Ph.D.

Department of Mass Communication, NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka

Anambra State, Nigeria.

E-mail: [email protected]

Mobile no +234 8037917259

Charles Chukwuemeka Okika

Department of Mass Communication, NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka

Anambra State, Nigeria

E-mail:[email protected]

Mobile no +234836358647

Abstract: Facebook, a social network website, has become very popular in recent times

that it readily boasts of approximately 1.2 billion monthly active users and has become the medium of choice for advertisers seeking to reach a well-targeted worldwide audience at very cheap cost. The study examines how the young adults who form majority of the Facebook users perceive Facebook advertisements. A sample of 396 respondents was selected among undergraduates of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka (Unizik) through a multi-stage procedure. Findings of the study show that the undergraduates perceive most of the advertisements on Facebook as credible and trustworthy. The study therefore recommends that social media advertisers particularly Facebook should maintain the favourable disposition undergraduates have towards Facebook advertising by packaging and disseminating only true and credible promotional messages to the users.

Keywords: Facebook advertising, Audience perception, Credibility, Social network




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INTRODUCTION

The trend in the development of the Web 2.0 and the dynamic nature of social networking sites in the recent times is expanding the horizon of advertisement, featured before now, mainly in the mainline media. The popularity of Facebook sites has opened up lots of opportunities and changed how personal information is communicated to the audience whom greater percentage of the users constituting 30.9% of the entire 1.4 billion subscribers are young adults within the age range of 18 to 25 years and also form the average age range of undergraduate students in various universities in Nigeria (Facebook Reports, 2015). Apart from the research exploring the context of Facebook and advertisement in social networking sites,it also explores Facebook advertisements, its objective and subjective components that make the source credible to the audience. As a theoretical background, it equally critically examines how young adults view Facebook advertisements in

relation to two theories- Attitude Change and Uses-and-Gratification theories. This research therefore focuses on the perception of these Facebook users on the credibility of the advertisements they are exposed to on their Facebook pages particularly now that undergraduate students may have access to Facebook sites via a plethora of devices, whicg gives support to the ideas of a media–driven world and youth dependency on social media for information, education, and entertainment (Carlson, 2010).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The audience of several Facebook advertisements has been lead to make many uninformed decisions. Recently, four affiliated car dealerships in western Massachusetts in Boston agreed to pay a total $175, 000 to resolve allegations that they regularly lured consumers to their showrooms with misleading Facebook advertisements, and refused to make good on their promise as advertised (F&I and Showroom Report, 2014). Being denied opportunity in mainstream media to propagate deceptive

advertisements due to government legislations, advertisers now use the social media to spread false promotional messages. Since Facebook has been estimated to have over 1.11 billion users (Curtis, 2013), the possibility of exposure to true and false advertisements on Facebook is inevitable, and this has become a big concern to brand communicators and communication scholars all over the world. Meanwhile, (Plous, 1993; Wildavsky, and Dake, 1990) argue that audience members interpret advertisements in a manner consistent with their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. So, there could never be a question of credible or non credible Facebook advertising since it is the individual’s perceptions that determine what interpretation they make from a particular Facebook advertisement. Hence, the audience perception of Facebook advertisement remains a subjective matter. This raises the question: what is the audience perception of the credibility of Facebook

advertisement?


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OBJECTIVES OF STUDY The basic objective for this study is to examine the perceptions of Facebook users of the various advertisements on their Facebook page. Consequent this study was guided by the following specific objectives:

To ascertain if the undergraduate students of Nnamdi Azikiwe University make use of Facebook.

To see if they are exposed to Facebook advertisements on their Facebook page.

To examine how these undergraduate students perceive Facebook advertisements.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS Against the backdrop of the research objectives, the study sought answers to the following questions

Do undergraduate students of NnamdiAzikiwe University make use of Facebook?

To what extent are these undergraduate students exposed to Facebook advertisements?

How do these undergraduates perceive Facebook Advertisements?

FACEBOOK ADVERTISEMENTS: AN OVERVIEW Facebook as a social networking service (SNS) was launched in February 2004 under the leadership of Mark Zuckerberg who was supported by his college roommates and fellow Harvard University students: Eduardo Saverin, Andrew Mccollum, Dustin Moskovits and Chris Hughes (Carlson, 2010). It appears a big surprise that about 10 years after the launch of Facebook, there is still a shaky grasp of the nature of Facebook advertising.

Facebook, a virtual meeting place for networking and socializing, is filled with advertisements that range from web banner displays to direct (word-of-mouth) promotional messages delivered to the audience as status updates and is referred to as Facebook advertising. Advertisements on Facebook are unique. Regular exposure to Facebook advertisements appears to progressively influence the audiences’ hearts and minds, and also mould their opinion according to sponsors’ wish(es) (Adobe, 2013). They are shown to specific groups of well-targeted and highly engaged people on desktop and mobile (Facebook Reports, 2015). Most Facebook advertisements could be classified as either true or deceptive. According to Facebook.com, (2009) in its compilation of rules Facebook advertisers should follow to avoid unethical advertising on the Internet suggests that false or misleading information should not be posted on the Internet.


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Unfortunately, most Facebook users who consume advertisements on the social

network site appear not to be aware that some of the promotional messages they see on the website might be questionable. This suggests that the perceptive capacity of most Facebook users are not keen enough to identify and distinguish false or misleading promotional messages from true and credible ones projected on the SNS. Facebook advertisements share similar features with advertisements on other social networking sites. For instance, both Facebook advertisements and Instagram advertisements bear “sponsored” label to let the audience know the promotional messages communicated as advertisements are sponsored. On the flipside, Facebook advertisements differ in form from advertisements some other social networks. A comparable look at Facebook advertisements and Twitter advertisements will yield a picture of Twitter advertisements sited within a

community of vocal and motivated brand enthusiast who are also brand followers or already potential followers. While the targeting options available to advertisers when creating Facebook advertisements gives them the freedom to decide who exactly they would like to connect to, and how much they’d like to spend. It is notable that report from Adobe shows that Facebook’s advertisements clicks; advertisements impressions and advertiser’s return on investment were all higher in 2013 than in 2012. Other advertising metrics like cost per click were lower (by 40%); meaning advertising on Facebook is becoming cheaper and effective (Carmichael, 2011). In other words, the advertisements on Facebook are growing effective over time and can show in the right column of Facebook or in the news feed on mobile or desktop devices (Facebook Reports, 2015). On Facebook, a variety of advertisements options for advertisers to choose from exist, and they include; page promotion advertisements for increasing Facebook page fan base, post boosting advertisements for boosting the reach of Facebook posts, and Website promotion advertisements for driving traffic from the social network to an advertiser’s website. Other types of Facebook advertisement are, sponsored stories, and Facebook offer options (Beese, 2012).

Social media networking has taken over the world. Facebook is at the fore front of the social media craze, with over 500 million active users on its website every month (Pew research, 2012). University students are one of the primary demographics actively using Facebook for connecting with friends, exchanging real-time information, and sharing links to relevant resources with others. Social networking site via the Internet has become an increasingly important part of these young adult’s life and has allowed these individuals to present themselves to other users in a variety of formats such as texts, photos, audio and video (Gemmill and Peterson, 2006). These young adults equally expose themselves to several advertisements on their Facebook page making it necessary to examine their perception of the credibility of those advertisements on their Facebook page.


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FACEBOOK ADVERTISEMENTS AND CREDIBILITY

With the rapid development of social networks recently, advertisers make use of these social networking sites such as Facebook to advertise and promote their products and services. Advertising on Facebook is unique. They are created to drive sales and attract people to buy the products and services and this process is sometimes referred to as page engagement (Amy blog, 2014). This shows that a Facebook site has the power to engage the audience through advertisements on the Facebook pages. This advertisements are targeted at the users of Facebook site mainly the young adults that are highly engaged because of their access and use of the internet-enabled devices. Hence, the aim of this study is to fulfill the research gap by assessing the audience perception and the credibility of advertisement using the context of Facebook.

When advertisements contain great creative content, and are well targeted, they tend to engage consumers more through the accumulation of “likes, comments, and shares.” As consumers on Facebook get engaged with any of the advertisements, the advertisements usually go viral, because friends of those who have taken an action of engagement are also shown the advertisements too even if they are not primarily in the target category of the advertisements. The success of Facebook advertising therefore depends on what people perceive of the information they get through such advertisement. So, issues like advertising credibility becomes paramount as it relates the reliability of the product, its authenticity, privacy of trust, copyright law etc which must be observed in designing an advertisement whether on Facebook or any other sources., These issues when neglected may act as barriers to the success of an advertisement but when adhered to may promote the product or service to the target audience. Boyd and Ellison (2007) observe that more studies such as this should be done to contribute to research on social media advertising such as Facebook. Credibility in this study refers to the objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message, therefore audience belief of an advertisement shows the extent to which the consumer believes or trusts in the advertising claims

particularly Facebook advertisement (Moore and Rodgers, 2005). Johnson and Kaye (2002) looked at the credibility of online media credibility and found that even though some college students believe that online sources were considered credible,that the internet was found to be the least credible medium to advertise in, with consumers regarding it with the highest level of skepticism. Moore and Rodgers (2005), in a similar view, found that some college students did not feel comfortable about surfing the online advertisements although they fell into the demographic group that shops online the most. They further note that the students investigated feel that internet advertising is credible and so, were hesitant when required to give credit card details or personal information and only purchased from sites that they knew and trusted (Moore & Rodgers, 2005).


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METHODOLOGY

This study was designed as a survey in an attempt to assess how Facebook users perceive the credibility of advertisements on their Facebook pages. The survey questions concern how undergraduate students of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka (Unizik) believe the information they get on Facebook advertisements. The population for this study comprises all undergraduate students of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, numbering about 35,000 according to data surveyed from the Registry department of the university. A sample of 396 was derived from the study population of 35,000. This sample had been arrived at using Taro Yamane’s Formula: n= N/1+N (e^) Where n= sample size

N= study population I= constant variable e= error margin Thus: n= 35,000/ 1+ 35,000 (0.05)2 = 35,000/ 1+ 35,000 (0.0025) =35,000/1+87.5 = 35,000/88.5 = 396 Based on the computation using Taro Yamane’s formula, a sample of 396 was adjudged adequate for the purpose of this study. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 396 respondents from the study population of 35,000. The first stage involved the selection of faculties from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. Among the 14 faculties in the University, four faculties were randomly selected and they are; the faculties of Arts, Law, Management Science, and Social Science. The second stage involved the selection of Departments; four Departments were randomly selected from the four faculties. They are as follows: Faculty of Arts; the

Departments of African and Asian studies, English Language and Literature, Philosophy and Music were randomly selected. Faculty of Law; the departments of Civil Law and Property Law were randomly selected. Faculty of Management Sciences; the departments of Business Administration and Marketing were randomly selected. And for the Faculty of Social sciences; the departments of Mass Communication and Sociology were randomly selected. At the third stage, the levels were selected. For the faculty of Arts, levels 100 and 300 were randomly selected from the departments of African and Asian studies and Music respectively, while 200 level was randomly selected from the department of English Language and Literature studies. For the faculty of Law, 200level was randomly selected fromthe department of Civil Law. For the faculty of Management sciences; 400 levels were randomly selected from both the departments of Marketing and Business Administration. Finally, for the faculty of Social Sciences,

300 and 100 levels were randomly selected from the departments of Mass Communication and Psychology respectively.


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ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This section discusses and analyzes the data and findings from 356 valid copies of the questionnaire out of a total of 396 completed by students of Unizik. Forty copies of the questionnaire were rejected after further analysis because the respondents were not undergraduates students of the selected faculties and departments used in the study. The data from the questionnaire were statistically analysed using the SPSS version 16.0 program. The findings are discussed according to the segments of the questionnaire and then with reference to the research questions. All the 356 valid respondents were undergraduates of NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka. Figure 1 above depicts the respondents’ program of study.

Table 1: Respondents’ faculty

Faculties Response Percentage

Faculty of Arts 149 42

Faculty of Law 44 13

Faculty of Management Sciences

87 24

Faculty of Social Sciences

76 21

Total 356 100

One of the questions that were asked the respondents seeks to know if the respondents actually are from the selected faculties and the data presented above shows that out of 356 respondents surveyed, (42%) were from the faculty of Arts, (13%) were from the faculty of Law, (24%) were from the faculty of Management Sciences, while (21%) were from the faculty of Social Sciences. These findings correlate with the fact that all valid respondents’ were undergraduate students of the selected faculties used in the study.

43%

57%

Male Female

Figure 2: Respondents’ Sex


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Figure 2 above represents the sex of the respondents. Male respondents were (43%)

while female respondents were (57%) confirming research findings that more females are enrolled in the universities in South-East, Nigeria than the males who go out early in life to trade or learn as apprentices. Table 2: Respondents’ use of facebook

Respondent’s ownership of Facebook accounts

Respondent’s access to Facebook accounts

Respondent’s frequency access to Facebook

Response Percentage Response Percentage Response Percentage

Yes 82 Yes 75 Daily 72

No 18 No 25 Weekly 20

Total 100 Total 100 Monthly 8

Total 100

A close look at the table above shows that majority of the respondents at 82% have ownership of Facebook accounts suggesting that mainly all the undergraduate students own Facebook accounts, majority of the respondents at 75% agree to access their Facebook accounts while majority of the respondents at 72% also agree that they access their Facebook accounts on a daily basis and these findings support the views of (Gemmill and Peterson, 2006) that young adults are likely to expose themselves to several advertisements on their Facebook page. These findings could mean equally that Facebook is the most popular site of all the social networking sites among undergraduates of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

Table 3: Respondents’exposure to facebook advertisements

Respondents who have seen advertisements on their Facebook page

Respondents were asked the position of advertisements on Facebook sites

Respondents were asked to indicate if there any differences between Facebook advertisements

and advertisements on traditional media


Yes 93 Newsfeed 74 Yes 66

No 7 Inbox 26 No 34

Total 100 Total 100 Total 100

The surveyed respondents from the data presented in Table 3 indicate that majority of the respondents at 93% agree to have seen advertisements on their Facebook pages suggesting that actually, advertisers promote their products and services through social networking sites such as Facebook. Also, majority of the respondents at 74% were of the view that advertisements on their Facebook pages appear in their regular Newsfeed, while 26% had seen them in their message inbox.The respondents were asked whether they perceive Facebook advertisements


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as different from other advertisements on radio, television, newspaper, and

magazine etc and majority of the respondents at 66% were affirmative showing that there are some differences which might be a focus of another research to find out these differences. Table 4: Respondents’ perception of facebook advertisements

Respondent’s perception of Facebook advertisements as credible

Respondent’s believability of the information on Facebook advertisements

Respondent’s who trust the information on Facebook advertisement


Yes 62 Yes 73 Yes 65

No 38 No 27 No 35

Total 100 Total 100 Total 100

One of the questions that were asked the respondents sought to find out whether they perceive Facebook advertisements as credible; majority of the respondents (73%) indicated that they perceive Facebook advertisements as credible, and (38%) think otherwise. It could be surmised that more undergraduate students perceive the information on Facebook advertisements as credible confirming the findings of (Johnson and Kaye, 2002; Moore and Rodgers, 2005) that online sources were considered credible among the undergraduate students they studied.

Table 4 above indicates that majority of the respondents at 73% believe the information they are exposed to on their Facebook advertisements and this further confirms the views of (Johnson and Kaye, 2002; Moore and Rodgers,2005) as stated earlier. Also, Majority of the respondents at 65% trust the information on Facebook advertisements they see on their Facebook suggesting that the undergraduate students may feel comfortable about surfing the Facebook advertisements seen on their Facebook pages.

CONCLUSION

This section concludes the study; it discusses its limitations and makes recommendations for practice and further research. The findings in this study indicate that undergraduates of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka have a positive perception of Facebook advertisements in relation to Attitude Change Theory which according to (Baran, 2010), is anchored on the selective processes which provides a framework for understanding processes that help Facebook users “select” what advertisement content they are expose to, remember, interpret and then surf. This shows that the respondents might expose themselves to Facebook advertisements simply because the advertisements aligned with their pre-existing beliefs about the promotional messages making them to believe the advertisement as credible, and then they retained the advertisements messages leading to their acting on them since they assumed that the

advertisements were consistent with their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. The study further show that since the respondents held favourable perceptions about Facebook advertisements, that they can absorb or assimilate the information they


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see on advertisements on their Facebook pages. This establishes that Facebook

advertisements are credible and trustworthy in persuading audience members to action.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings it is clear that Facebook is popular among undergraduates of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, and is also a reliable advertising platform to reach, persuade, and influence the demographic group to predetermined actions. In order to maintain this position, it is recommended that social media advertisers should:

Maintain the favourable disposition undergraduates have towards Facebook advertising by packaging and disseminating only true and credible promotional messages to the users.

Sponsors of false and misleading Facebook advertisements should be prosecuted to contain them through the instrumentality of the law.

More studies should be conducted to tackle some other issues in Facebook advertising not discussed in this work.

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Amy blog, (2014). “Amy Porterfield”How to Increase Fan Engagement on Your

Facebook Page. Available at http://www.amyporterfield.com/2014/04/how-to-increase-fan-engagement-on-your-facebook-page.

Beese , J. (2012).Every type of Facebook advertising and how to use them. Available at sprout social http: //www.sproutsocial.com/insight/Facebook-advertising- types.

Baran, B. (2010).Facebook as a formal instructional environment. Available at

http://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14678535.2010.01115.x.

Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social Network Sites: Definition, History and

ScholarshipJournal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 31(1), 210-230. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.

Carlson, N. (2010). "At Last – The full story of How Facebook was founded".

Business Insider. March 5, 2010.

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http://thenextweb.com/insider/2014/01/27/adobe-facebook-ad-click-rates-

http://www.amyporterfield.com/2014/04/how-to-increase-fan-

http://www.amyporterfield.com/2014/04/how-to-increase-fan-

http://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14678535.2010.01115

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393


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Carmichael, M. (2011).“What Consumers Want From Brands Online; Ad Age/Ipsos

survey says most seek discounts; Facebook preferred digital platform.”Academic OneFile.

Curtis, A. (2013). New media communication technologies. Available at

http//www.uncp.edu/home/aCurtis/newmeida/newcommunicationtechnologies.html.

Facebook Reports (2015).First Quarter 2015 Results. April 22. Facebook.com. (2009)."Flexible pricing and real-time suggested bids provide

guidance for cost-effective ad campaigns." Available at http//:www.Facebook, n.d.

F & I and showman report, (2014) inF & I Magazinecompliance news,deliver ships to pay $175,000 for deceptive ads,June 19, 2014.

Gemmill, E. & Peterson, M. (2006). Technology use among college students:

implications for student affairs professionals. NASPA Journal, (43), 280-300. Griffin, E. (2012).A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Johnson, T., & Kaye, B. (2002).Webelievabiliti: A Path Model Examining How Convenienceand Reliance Predict Online Credibility. Journalism and Mass CommunicationQuarterly, 79(3), 619-642. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/107769900207900306.

Katz, E., Gurevitch, M., Haas, H. (1973) „On the use of the mass media for

important things“, American Sociological Review, 38, 164-181. (URL = http://bit.ly/ MTWCEC.

Moore, J. J., & Rodgers, L. R. (2005). An Examination of Advertising Credibility and

Skepticism in Five Different Media Using the Persuasion Knowledge Model, American Academy of Advertising Conference Proceedings, January 1.

Okunna, C.S. (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication. Enugu: New Generation

Books. Pew research, (2012).Social media update: while Facebook remains the most

popular site, other platforms see higher rates of growth. Available at www.pewinternet.org.

Plous, S. (1993). The psychology of judgment and decision making.Mcgraw-Hill Book

Company.Tesser, A & Shaffer, D.R. (1990).Attitudes and attitudes changes.Annu, Rev Psychol,41,479-523

Wildavsky, A., &Dake, K. (1990). Theories of risk perception: Who fears what and

why?. Daedalus, 41-60.


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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF GOODLUCK JONATHAN AND MUHAMMADU BUHARI’S BILLBOARD CAMPAIGNS ON VOTER’S BEHAVIOUR IN

ANAMBRA STATE

Daniel Toochukwu Ezegwu

Department of Communication Arts University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State

[email protected]

+2348034630757

Agnes Ezeji

Department of Communication Arts University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State

[email protected]

+2348033290256

Chioma Ifeoma Agbasimelo

Department of Mass Communication,

Tansian University, Oba Anambra State [email protected]

+2348037075484

Abstract: This study examines the influence of Goodluck Jonathan and Muhammadu

Buhari’s billboard campaigns on voters’ behavior in Anambra state. The study sought to ascertain if the electorates voting decision were influenced by their exposure to billboard adverts on Jonathan and Buhari, to find out which of the billboards message content the respondents recall more than the other, to determine which of the billboards the respondents prefer; as well as to ascertain the electorates’ level of exposure to the billboard used in the 2015 presidential elections by Jonathan and Buhari and to determine whether there is a significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard adverts and respondents’ choice of candidate in the election. To achieve this, the study used the survey method with the questionnaire as research instrument. Through multi-stage and purposive sampling, 384 respondents were selected from three senatorial zones in Anambra state and administered the questionnaire. The findings indicated among other things, that voters in Anambra were significantly influenced by their exposure to these billboards and most of them recalled the message contents of Jonathan more than that of Buhari. The study found out that electorates in Anambra state prefer Jonathan’s campaign billboard to that of Buhari and there is no significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard advert and choice of candidate. In the light of the findings, it was recommended that voters should not rely on billboard advert as it only source of information about contestants. They should explore other sources such as radio, television and social media. The study also recommended that a lot should be done to maximize the potentials of billboard campaign for favourable voting decision.

Keywords: Influence, Voter, Billboard, Preference and Political advertising





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INTRODUCTION

The use of billboard in advertising has become part of the political culture of most democracies and Nigeria as a democratic nation is not left out. Billboard usage has been in existence for some decades now. “Before the arrival of automobiles, primitive models of billboards were occasionally employed to inform people travelling on foot, horseback that an inn can be found ahead within a particular distance (Ezegwu and Nwankwo, 2013, p.194). The outdoor advertising medium came into existence in 3200 BC as a means of communication by the Egyptians (Bidemi, 1999, p.136). Bovee and Arens (1994) posit that “outdoor advertising is the oldest form of advertisement and a medium with high impact rate. It attracts attention to itself through location, colour and boldness of its copy”. Billboards advertising relates to the usage of signs along the

roadways for the purpose of advertising and promoting a range of products and services. Billboards advertisement is designed to catch a person’s attention and create a memorable impression very quickly. They have to be readable in a very short time because they are usually read while passing at high speeds. Thus, there are usually only few words, in large print and arresting images in brilliant colour. If strategically placed, a motorist or pedestrian can absorb an important message in a twinkle of an eye. It goes a long way to persuade the masses into voting for a particular candidate during electioneering campaign. It is not surprising while many politicians employed the billboard during the 2015 general elctions in Nigeria. In fact, it has become a common trend in contemporary Nigerian society for people, marketers/advertisers and politicians to use billboards in showcasing one thing or the other. Thus, this study examines the influence of Goodluck Jonathan (former president) and Muhammadu Buhari’s billboards campaign on voters’ behaviour in Anambra state during 2015 presidential election in Nigeria.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Billboards have become veritable tools for political campaigns. During the presidential election in Nigeria, political parties, political candidates, and other individuals made use of billboards to sell their parties and the candidates on their platforms. In some parts of Nigeria and Anambra state most of the political parties and their candidates erected billboards at the various parts of the state. They were designed to win public’s attention to different campaigners’ messages. However, the billboard contains political messages of the candidates. For Goodluck Jonathan, some of his campaigns billboards have these words; “Goodluck Nigeria”, “A wind of hope”, “vote great transformer”. Bring back Goodluck Jonathan and “vote for continuity, vote for Goodluck Jonathan” while Buhari’s billboards emphasized his commitment to transparency and accountability, “vote for a change”, vote ogbu agu”


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This paper therefore, ascertains the influence of former president Goodluck

Jonathan and President Muhammadu Buhari’s billboard campaigns on voters’ behaviour; were voters’ decision influenced by their exposure to the billboard adverts of Goodluck and Buhari? Which of the billboards message content were recalled more than the other?

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study was based on the following objectives: 1. To find out if the electorate in Anambra State were influenced by their exposure to the billboard adverts on Goodluck Jonathan and Muhammadu Buhari. 2. To find out which of the billboards message these respondents recall more than

the other. 3. To determine which of the billboards the respondents prefer to the other. 4. To ascertain the electorates’ level of exposure to the billboard used in the 2015 presidential elections by Goodluck and Buhari 5. To determine whether there is a significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard adverts and respondents choice of candidate in the election.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study was based on the following research Questions:

1. Was the voting decision by the electorate in Anmabra State influenced by the billboard adverts of Jonathan and Buhari?

2. Which of the billboards message content between Jonathan and Buhari were recalled by these respondents?

3. Which of the billboards did the respondents prefer to the other? 4. What is the electorates’ level of exposure to Jonathan and Buhari adverts? 5. Is there a significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard

adverts and these respondents choice of candidate in the election?

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ON BILLBOARDS ADVERTISING Billboard advertisement is a medium, which plays important roles in persuading and convincing the members of the public. Woodside (1990) notes that outdoor’s primary advantage over other media is its high frequency of exposure in an environment with relatively little clutter. Woodside also concluded that outdoor advertising is likely to be effective in increasing sales if used properly. Meanwhile, using content analysis, Blasko (1985) found that large number of outdoor advertisers was more likely to follow accepted creative principles of outdoor advertising than were small advertisers. He provided guidelines that would allow local and regional advertisers to develop more effective outdoor advertisements. A later group of studies conducted by Donthu, Cherian and Bhargava (1993) and


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Bhargava, Donthu and Caron (1994) found recall to be positively related to variety

of factors, including brand differentiation, emphasis on product performance in the advertisement, inclusion of price in the advertisement, use of photograph in the advertisement, use of humour, use of colour and a good location. In two recent experiments Bhargava and Donthu (1999) also found that outdoor advertising has the ability to quickly generate sales response, but that location and other marketing mix variables are moderating factors. Collectively, the literature suggests that well conceived and placed outdoor advertising can be effective in increasing awareness and generating sales. Ezegwu and Nwankwo, 2013, p.198 notes that:

Billboard advertisements are designed to catch a person’s attention and create a memorable impression very quickly, leaving the reader thinking about the advertisement after they have driven pass it. Billboard advertising continues to be an effective method of reaching out to the consumers. Since these advertisements can be viewed by the consumers at any point of its effectiveness are cost saving and greater market coverage. Billboards are surely an efficient method to publicize products and services anywhere and anytime.

Similarly, in large-scale content analyses of billboards in American states of Mchigan and Pennsylvania, Taylor and Taylor (1994) and Taylor (1997) found that billboards provide a wide range of potentially useful information to consumers. They concluded that small businesses would be harmed by lack of access to billboards. When it is used appropriately, billboards can provide benefits to the businesses that use them (Taylor and Franke, 2003).

TYPES OF BILLBOARDS

There are different kinds of billboards. Below are some of them according Rampur (2012, cited in Ezegwu and Nwankwo, 2013, p.198): 1. Poster billboards: They are used for outdoor advertising. They are impressed on 8 to 30sheets of heavy paper, according to the size. It could last for about a month, depending on weather conditions, after which it is best to remove them. 2. Painted boards: They are known as painted bulletins. They are covered with an outdoor paint which is resistant to weather. Some outdoor paints are specially made to withstand fading. 3. Vinyl boards: These are used as the latest methods of billboard advertising. They have attractive colour, durable life and really fine graphics and artwork. They have a brighter appearance and look much better than conventional billboards. They are usually sprayed with an UV protective coat and can last for years. 4. Led billboards: Are from the newer lot of outdoor advertising tools. The bright backlight and use of different colours grab instant attention of the onlookers. The adverts that are displayed are of high quality, and are generally computer prints, with the addition of animation and other visual effects. The ads are becoming more interactive. 5. Scrolling advert: Here, if the advertiser pays for the entire board, he or she has

the advantage of displaying about 10-30 ads on the same billboards.


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STRENGTHS OF BILLBOARD Even though billboards are the most basic outdoor media used in reaching potential and actual consumers outside homes, it has some strengths and weaknesses. Some of the strengths are presented below:

1. Billboards ensure customized placement. You can place your billboard advertisement wherever you feel it will have impact the most.

2. Billboards are often large and intimidating, especially when placed in strategic places in middle of cities. This ensures that the message makes a quick and persuasive impression in the minds of the audience.

3. They are used to target consumers at odd times or during “unrelaxed” periods i.e. while they are on their way. This is different from other media whose messages are consumed while the audiences are relatively relaxed.

4. Messages on billboards can be viewed and reviewed as many times as possible. Nwabueze (2006, p.77) postulates that this provide high frequency of audience exposure to the message which is necessary in order to make an impression on the audience.

5. The billboard is a cost effective medium. It costs less to reach a greater number of people over a period of time than it would cost in other media.

WEAKNESS OF BILLBOARDS

Some of the weaknesses of the billboard are as follows:

1. Long-term commitment billboard companies often have business and enter into contracts that involve long-term commitment mainly. This is because it takes a lot of time, energy and money to constantly change billboard adverts. According to Robertson (2012), billboard contracts usually cover duration of three months. This makes billboard advertising less conducive to business that frequently change their advertising companies on a weekly and monthly basis.

2. It could be expensive to produce a billboard message initially and the huge cost may discourage their usage.

3. It is basically a reminder medium, i.e. reminds the audience of what they have watched, heard or listened to as carried by other media. Therefore, if the audiences have not yet been exposed to a message through other media, they may find it difficult to understand the message.

4. Billboard targets only mobile audience. This means that if the target audience is not always on the road, its usage may become in-effective.

POLITICAL ADVERTISING INFLUENCE ON VOTERS

Political advertising is one of the specialized areas of human communication and business. More specifically, it is an aspect of social advertising, which is part of

social marketing (Asemah and Edegoh, 2012, p.249). Gana (1992) cited in Asemah and Edegoh (2012, p.249) notes that political campaigns involve canvassing for votes, which is a kind of political salesmanship.


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Election periods in any society generate a lot of interest among the political candidates in particular and the civil society in general. This is because the destiny of the people and the nation rests squarely on the shoulders of the successful candidates at the polls. It is against this back drop that both political actors and their supporters deploy different persuasive strategies to elicit support and woo voters in order to gain and control power during the 2015 elections in Nigeria. Political advertising attempts to inform, educate, persuade, woo, and convince the audience to vote in a particular way or support a particular candidate. The sponsors and advert writers adopt different rhetorical or discourse strategies, symbolic appeals or expressions to achieve the primary goal of winning the support of the audience (Bell, 1991, Opeibi, 2004). Similarly, Owuamalam (2002) avers that political advertising influences voter’s

behaviour because political advertising introduces political discourse, since it calls for a verdict on issues concerning the public. It uses pictographic presentations garnished with persuasive cause, hence consent will be engineered. Marcus (2006) says that political advertising instills positive emotions such as enthusiasm and hopefulness about their candidate to improve turn out and political activism while seeking to raise fear and anxiety about the challenger. In addition, Nwosu (1990,pp,30-44) suggests that political advertising influence seems or tends to be strongest at the information or awareness creation level and limited or somewhat mixed at the atitudinal, opinion and behaviour change level in political activities. Ani (2008,p.257) gave the role of the media in politics as follows:

1. Reporting and interpreting events 2. Defining issues 3. Portraying 4. Investigating support 5. Identifying trend 6. Checking and analyzing publicopinion.

THEORETICAL FRAMWORK Theories are of great relevance in every academic endeavour. Thus, for us to have a better understanding of this study, Uses and Gratifications and Persuasion theories was chosen to provide the framework. The Uses and Gratification theory The uses and gratification theory assumes that the mass media audience are not passive but take active role in interpreting and integrating media content into their own lives. Baran (2004, p.428) opines that “effects occur because the media do not do things to people. Rather, people do things with the media.., so the influence of the media is limited to what people allow it to be”. ‘The theory was popularized by communication experts, like Blumler and Gureivitch (1974), but dating back to the 1920s studies of exposure to and influences of the early radio series, reminds us


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that for result-oriented communications, we must put the target audience member

first (cited in Nwosu, 2007,p.5)’ According to Baran and Davis (2006,p.262) Herts Herzog is credited as the originator of the theory and identified three types of gratification first, a means of emotional release; second , commonly recognized form of enjoyment, concerns the opportunities for wishful thinking and third, unsuspected form of gratification”. Other gratifications sought in the media are; information and education, guidance and advice, diversion and relaxation, social contact, value reinforcement, cultural satisfaction and emotions release.

Therefore, with Jonathan and Buhari billboards advertisement, people would be exposed to messages and by using the message they would retain and replicate the ideas in the message, by behaving in a similar way the message wants. In other words, those not exposed to Jonathan and Buhari’s billboard advertisement may

not be influenced by it and may not prefer a candidate to the other, since they have no idea of the content of the advertisement. The import here is that the more frequent the electorates of Anambra state satisfy their needs through these billboards, the more the advert content would influence their voting behaviour.

Persuasion Theory The theory focuses on the psychological characteristics that affect a person’s perception and response to messages. According to Defossard (1997, p.8) the characteristics include:

I .Knowledge and skills ii. Attitude towards behaviour and social issues. Iii.Beliefs and consequences v. Attitudes towards the sources of the messages.

Many of these are related to demographic characteristics, such as age gender, ethnic group, income and level of education. Persuasion theory also draws attention to the importance of message factors and source factors in influencing an audience. Defossard (1997,p.9) argues that message factors are the characteristics

of a message that make it appropriate and effective for a particular audience; how long or complex it should be, what languages is best etc, different audience will have different preferences for message style. Source factors are characteristics of a message’s source that make it interesting, relevant and persuasive for a particular audience member. Among the most influential source are: credibility, attractiveness, similarity, authority and expertise. Persuasion is the process of changing the attitude and perception of a target audience through the content of mass media messages. Steiner (1972, cited in Ezegwu and Nwankwo, 2013, p.196) posits that persuasion is a process in which a communicator attempts to induce the belief, attitude or behaviour of another person or groups. Persuasion is seen as a deliberate attempt to modify the attitude or behaviour of another person or group by transmitting a message through the mass media or any other relevant medium.


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This was the reason Jonathan (PDP) and Buhari (APC) used billboard as a veritable

avenue to canvass, mobilize and whip up support for their candidatures/parties during the 2015 election.

METHODOLOGY

This study used survey research method. Nwabueze (2008, p.180) says that survey research studies both large and small population by selecting and studying samples chosen from the populations. The population of this study consists of registered voters in Anambra state. The population of registered voters in Anambra state for the 2015 presidential elections, according to statistics from the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), is 1,963; 173.The sample size for the study was 384 respondents. This was determined using Cozby’s (2004,

p.130) table for sample size determination. It is estimated that for a population of over 100,000 (hundred thousand at 95 percent confidence level and +- 5% error margin), the sample is 384.

The sample size for this study therefore, comprises 384 voters at the 2015 presidential election in Anambra State. The study adopted multi stage and purposive sampling technique in selecting the respondents. Ohaja (2003, p.82) avers that purposive sampling is used when the researcher seeks certain characteristics in his sampling element and wants to ensure that those chosen have the characteristics. Anambra state has 21 local government areas. In the first stage, Anambra state was divided into three senatorial zones, in the second stage seven (7) local governments areas were drawn from each of the senatorial zones. The researchers and the research assistants purposively selected four (4) local government areas from each of the senatorial zones in the state owing to their strategic nature, such as high population density and their popularity. Here are the selected local governments’ areas.

Table1: Anambra central senatorial zone

NO LocalGovernment Areas Respondents

1 Awka south 32

2 Awka North 32

3 Idemili North 32

4 Idemili South 32

Total 128

Table2: Anambra South senatorial zone

NO LocalGovernment Areas Respondents

1 Aguata 32

2 Nnewi North 32

3 Orumba North 32

4 Ihiala 32

Total 128


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Table 3: Anambra North senatorial zone

NO Local Government Areas Respondents

1 Ogbaru 32

2 Oyi 32

3 Onitsha North 32

4 Anambra East 32

Total 128

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study distributed 384 copies of the questionnaire to selected respondents. But only 372 were returned and found useable, representing 97% high response rate and mortality rate of only 3%.

Table 4: Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Variable Frequencies Percentages

Age

18-28 163 44

29-39 129 35

40 and above 80 21

Total 372 100

Gender

Male 223 60

Female 149 40

Total 372 100

Marital Status

Married 159 43

Single 213 57

Total 372 100

Religion

Christianity 341 92

Muslim 18 5

Traditional religion 13 3

Total 372 100

Educational Qualification

FSLC 43 12

SSCE 87 23

OND/ NCE 64 17

HND/BSC 151 41

Post Graduate 27 7

Total 372 100


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Research Question 1: were the respondents’ voting decision influenced by the

billboard adverts of Jonathan and Buhari? Table 5: Respondents perception on influence of Jonathan and Buhari billboard adverts on their voting decision

Variables Frequencies Percentages

Yes 208 56

No 126 34

Can’t say 38 10

Total 372 100

The table above indicates that voting decisions of respondents were to a large extent influenced by their exposure to these billboard adverts, 208 (56%) respondents agreed on this issue. This finding tallies with Nwabueze (2006, p.76)

assertion that “ intimidating nature of these billboards in the middle of cities and on high ways, including the high fidelity of images/messages on them, make a quick but persuasive impression in the minds of the mobile audience. Research Question 2: Which of the billboards message content between Jonathan and Buhari would the respondents recall? Table 6: Respondents view on which of the billboard message content they recall more

Variable Frequencies Percentages

Jonathan 178 48

Buhari 101 27

Can’t say 93 28

Total 372 100

The table proves that those who recall the billboard message content of Jonathan (48%) are more than those who recall that of Buhari (27%). Research Question 3: Which of the billboards the respondents prefer more than the other? Table 7: Respondents most preferred billboard advert


Jonathan 193 52

Buhari 71 19

Can’t say 108 29

Total 372 100

From the table above, most (52%) of the respondents prefer the billboard adverts of Jonathan to those of Buhari (19%).


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Research Question 4: What is the respondents’ level of exposure to Jonathan and

Buhari’s billboard campaign? Table 8: Respondents view on level of exposure to billboard campaigns of Jonathan and Buhari


Always 118 32

Often 137 36

Rarely 96 25

Never 21 7

Total 372 100

The table indicates that 32% (118) of the respondents were always exposed to Jonathan and Buhari’s billboard. This finding agrees with Udeze and Akpan (2013,

p.54) findings that all the electorate in Imo State said they were exposed to political advertising in the last gubernatorial election in 2011. 36% (137) said often. Research Question 5: Is there a significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard adverts and choice of candidate in the election? Table 9: Respondents influenced on choice of canadiate through exposure to billboard political Advertising


Yes 146 39

No 167 45

Can’t say 59 16

Total 372 100

Data from the table reveals that there was no significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard advert and choice candidate. This finding justifies the suitability of the uses and gratification theory in this study. The theory contends that mass media audience are not passive but take active role in interpreting and inter-grating media content into their own live. Supporting this view, McQuail (2010,p.407) emphasized the fact that audience often have social and cultural roots and supports that protect them against unwanted influence and make for autonomy in choice and response to what they receive.

CONCLUSION The use of billboard for political campaign has served as a good political communication medium through which political candidates attempt to market themselves to the electorate. The persuasive messages produce varying reactions from different segments of the voters’, either in favour or against both of them or their political parties. This study concludes that voters in Anambra state were significantly influenced by

their exposure to these billboards campaigns. Most of them recalled the message contents of Jonathan more than that of Buhari. It further concludes that Anambra


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electorates prefer Jonathan’s billboard campaigns to that of Buhari and there is no

significant relationship between exposure to preferred billboard advert and choice of candidate. The implication is that the influence of these billboard campaigns are limited to what people allowed it to be.

RECOMMENDATIONS The study suggests that the electorate should not rely on billboard advert or campaign as the only source of information about contestants. It should explore other sources such as radio, television, social media, friends and party members, who could offer useful information for its voting decisions, because billboards messages are always brief and cannot tell all about a candidate.

More studies should be carried out to find out reasons why respondents preferred and recalled the message contents of Jonathan’s billboard campaign more than that of Buhari. Since 21 respondents said they were not exposed to either of the billboard adverts, this could suggest that more needs to be done to maximize the potentials of billboard campaign for a favourable voting behaviour.

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Richard D. Irwin Inc.

Bhargava, M & Donthu, N , Cherian, J. (1993). Factors Influencing Recall of Outdoor Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research 33, (3). 64-72. Bhargava,M, Donthu,N, & Caron, R. (1994). Improving the Effectiveness of Outdoor Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research. 34 (2) 46-55. Blasko, V.J (1985).A Content Analysis of the Creative Characteristics of Outdoor Advertising: National vs Regional Differences. In proceedings of the 1985 Conference of the American Academy of Advertising, Nancy Stphens, (ed). Tempe, AZ, Baran, S.J. (2004). Introduction to Mass Communication : Media literacy and culture (3rd Ed). New York: Mc Graw-Hill.


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APPENDIXES

(Some of the Billboards of Jonathan and Buhari)


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