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Thesis/Dissertation Sheet

Surname or Family name: Bonch-Osmolovskaya

First name: Tatiana , Other name/s:

Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD

School: Language and Linguistics Faculty: Arts and Social Sciences

Title THE FORMAL LITERARY EXPERIMENTS IN CONTEMPORARY RUSSIAN POETRTY IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE TECHNE

Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE)

The subject of this thesis is contemporary Russian poetry of formal restrictions as a distinctive literary trend. This research is the first attempt to examine this poetry in a systematic way and in.correlation with historical traditions of the European literature techne.

The focus of this research is on exploring the works of Dmitry Avaliani, Boris Grinberg and Elena Katsyuba as leading representatives of this movement, chosen on the basis of the study of contemporai-y publications and from analysis of the interviews with several contemporary authors and researchers. The emphasis of analysis is placed on the formal structures of the texts as the individual keys for their semantic, phonic and visual aspects.

The analysis revealed that the poetry of all three authors demonstrates many similar features as writing with formal restrictions typically combines high poetic messages and a playful character with poetical virtuosity, where the restrictions replace or help accomplish traditional poetic techniques. It was demonstrated that, for Grinberg, formal restriction is a tool to express anew his poetic ideas; for Katsyuba, formal restrictions are creative tools to disclose language possibilities; and for Avaliani, the restrictions disclose the inner correlation between the objects, therefore demonstrating wonders in nature and in human essence. Altogether, the analysis demonstrates that writing in formal restrictions is, on the one hand, a complication aimed to condense vocabulary in order to exempt the poetic language from clichés and banalities, and on the other hand, it is liberation, providing the author with original expressions and sharpened poetic messages defined by the 'restricted' language.

The research concludes that there is a strict correlation of contemporary Russian poetry of formal restrictions with the European literature techne, even though the Russian experimental poets not familiar -with the long history of literature techne in fact independently re-invent these techniques for their own poetic aims. The presented poems are in many aspects similar to the works of Oulipo, which means that the Russian literature of formal restrictions should be considered as a part of the world-wide literature techne up to its most developed contemporary state.

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UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS

TATIANA BONCH-OSMOLOVSKAYA

THE FORMAL LITERARY EXPERIMENTS IN CONTEMPORARY RUSSIAN

POETRY IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE TECHNE

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

2010

Originality Statement

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.

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'I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the Universi^y iibraries \r. 2Ü forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 woFd abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has. not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.'

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express gratitude to my supervisor Dr Ludmila Stem for invaluable support, endless help and attention to the details of my thesis. I am also extremely grateful to my Russian colleagues Dr Sergey Biryukov, Prof Vladimir Aristov, Dr Mikhail Bezrodniy, Dr Daria Sukhovey, Dr Danila Davuidov, Prof Lyudmila Zubova and many others, for their countless consultations and discussions by which this research attain its present form. I also want to express my permanent gratitude to the poets whose poems became the subject of my research, and who kindly agreed to participate in the interviews providing me with the understanding on their creative work. Also I would like to thank John Mahony and Guenter Plum for the editorial assistance in the final preparation of the thesis. Although all care was taken, I alone must be responsible for any lapses. And last not least I am grateful to my family for their encouragement during the research years.

Il l

Explanatory Notes

As this research draws on texts that appeared in Russian, the quotations are provided in

the original, mostly Russian, language, followed by translation into English. All

translations from Russian are my own unless otherwise acknowledged. For the literary

texts, literal translations are provided. The proper names are given in the text in English

transliteration, and in the bibliography - the author's names, titles and publishing details

are transliterated, followed by the original Russian spelling. For the transliteration of the

Russian proper names, the British standard of transliteration of Russian is used (as 'zh'

for '>k'. 'ts' for 'u ' , 'ui' for 'bi' and so on), except for the names of persons and terms

known in different transliteration (for example, Mandelstam, Aygi, bylina and so on).

The quoted proper names are listed in the Appendix II as written in the thesis, together

with their original spellings. The titles of Russian editions are presented firstly in the

original Russian spelling with the translation into English, then in Russian for the next

occurrences. The terms of literary restrictions are presented in italics on their first

occurrence, and thereafter in normal type for the known forms, and continued in italics

for the recently proposed forms. The translations of the newly proposed terms of literary

restrictions are also my own.

Table of Contents

Originality Statement ii

Acknowledgements iii

Explanatory Notes iv

Table of Contents v

Chapter 1. Introduction to the study of contemporary Russian poetry of formal

restrictions 1

1.1. An overview of the research 1

1.2. The aims of the research 5

1.3. Short review of historical roots of Russian literature on formal

experimentation 8

1.4. Overview of unofficial Soviet poetry as a source of contemporary Russian

poetry 10

1.5. Dissemination of contemporary Russian poetry and the choice of sources

for the further analysis 16

1.6. The methods of analysis 21

1.7. The significance and practical importance of the research 26

Chapter 2. The development of literary restrictions in European literature 28

2.1. The aims and the structure of the historical review 28

2.2. Rearranging textual elements 30

2.2.1. Letter anagrams 30

2.2.2. Letter palindromes 32

2.2.3 Verbal anagrams 34

2.2.4. Verbal palindromes 37

2.2.5. Phrase anagrams 40

2.2.6. Phrase palindromes 42

2.3. Emphasising textual elements 44

2.3.1. Tautograms 44

2.3.2. Lipograms 46

2.3.3. Monovocalisms and monoconsonantisms 47

2.4. Selecting text inside the text 48

2.4.1. Abecedaries 49

2.4.2. Letter acrostics and similar forms 50

2.4.3. Syllabic and verbal acrostics 53

2.4.4. Text read by halves 54

2.5. Conclusion 55

Chapter 3. Interview Analysis 58

3.1. Introduction 58

3.2. Identification of the literary movement in which the interviewees

participate 64

3.2.1. Identifying and naming the chosen literary movement 64

3.2.2. The interviewees' methods of learning the chosen poetic tradition 72

3.2.3. Reasons for choosing a particular literary trend and the objectives

established by this choice 82

3.3. Specification of literary forms and methods used by the interviewees 88

3.3.1. Preferred formal restrictions used by the interviewees 88

3.3.2. Content versus form in contemporary Russian experimental writing 94

3.3.3. Restrictions versus inspiration in contemporary Russian experimental

writing 99

3.3.4. Modifications of the existing literary restrictions by the interviewees 102

3.4. Dissemination of experimental literature in the past, present and its

prospects for the future 105

3.4.1. Experimental poets' past and present experience of official and

unofficial publications 106

3.4.2. The interviewees' publishing editions and organising literary activities... 109

3.4.3. The role of the Internet in the contemporary literary process 112

3.4.4. Overall opinions on the perspectives of the chosen literary trend by the

interviewees 115

3.5. Conclusion 117

Chapter 4. Strict formal restrictions in the search for language wonders in poems

by Dmitry Avaliani 121

4.1. Introduction 121

4.2. Literary review of Avaliani's works 123

4.3. Analysis of some poetic works by Avaliani 131

4.3.1. The letter palindromes, virtuoso writing 132

4.3.2. The letter anagrams, in search for the inner truth 142

4.3.3. Ravnobukvitsa, the new invented technique 154

4.3.4. Variations of abecedary forms 158

4.3.5. Listoverten, a unique graphic technique developed by Avaliani 164

4.3.6. A distinctive poem with graphic elements 173

4.3.7. Historhyme, unique numerological technique 177

4.3.8. Minor restrictions in Avaliani's practice 182

4.3.8.1. Vstroy 183

43.^2. Metagram 184

4.3.8.3. Polyconsonant restriction 186

4.3.9. Conventional poetic technique and combination of them with

experimental techniques in Avaliani's 'traditional' poetry 188

4.4. Conclusion 196

Chapter 5. Search for new formal techniques in the works of Boris Grinberg 201

5.1. Introduction 201

5.2. Analysis of Grinberg's poems 205

5.2.1. Grinberg's practice in the long existing restrictions 207

5.2.1.1. Letter palindrome for the start of combinatorial practice 207

5.2.1.2. The syllable palindrome as the development of letter palindrome 214

5.2.1.3. Amplifying anagram to multiple anagram restriction 217

5.2.1.4. Strengthening simplest anagram technique by graphic elements 219

5.2.1.5. Combination of basic palindrome and anagram restrictions 222

5.2.2. Exploration of rare techniques discovered in various literary sources 224

5.2.2.1. Vstroy as development of a recently proposed form 224

5.2.2.2. Boranaut as filling the form with poetic content 226

5.2.2.3. Russian tuyug as a modification of the national poetic form 227

5.2.2.4. Elimination of lexical classes 229

5.2.3. Re-discovered formal restrictions 232

5.2.3.1. Phonic accordance with the names of musical notes 232

5.2.3.2. Monovocalism as an amplification of the lipogram technique 234

5.2.4. Discovering and development of unique formal restrictions 243

vili

5.2.4.1. Initial-ending tautogram restriction as an amplification of

tautogram 243

5.2.4.2. Tauto-monovocalism as a combination of tautogram and

monovocalism 247

5.2.4.3. Combination of the internal tautogram and a metagram restriction...250

5.3. Conclusion 256

Chapter 6. Basic combinatorial forms as a means to express universal creative

ideas in Elena Katsyuba's poetry 260

6.1. Introduction 260

6.2. Analysis of Katsyuba poetry: overall observations on characteristic

features of Katsyuba's poetry 263

6.2.1. Anagram as a technique of creation of substances out of the existing

substance 273

6.2.2 Anagram transformations as a method of creation of substances out of

chaos and chaos out of substances 280

6.2.3. Spontaneous mutation as a modification of anagram technique and a

means to link sequences of phenomena 283

6.2.4. Letter palindrome as the most developed technique in Katsyuba's

poetry: symmetrical transformation of the words 294

6.2.5. Unusual palindrome technique in Katsyuba's poetry: dissymmetry

transformations of the words 300

6.2.6. In search of creative possibilities through rare literary techniques 305

6.2.6.1. Word conglutination 305

6.2.6.2. Phonetic transformations as a representation of entropie

destruction 309

6.2.6.3. Reducing words to vowels 311

6.2.7. Graphic represenations of poems 313

6.3. Conclusion 321

Chapter 7. The heights and breadths of contemporary Russian poetry of formal

restrictions as a part of historical literature techne 324

Appendices 335

Appendix I. Some Russian poems with combinatorial elements 335

Appendix II. List of names 343

References 353

Chapter 1.

Introduction to the study of contemporary Russian poetry

of formal restrictions

1.1. An overview of the research

In this thesis I will study contemporary Russian poetry, focusing on the formal

structures of the texts. Some complex poetic structures such as restrictions on rhythm,

rhyme and stanza schemes are well known and generally included in the history and

practice of Russian poetry. These restrictions result in such poetic forms as ballade,

rondeau, rondel, triolet, villanelle, sestina and others. Less studied are formal

restrictions on letters, words, or sounds and signs of the texts, resulting in such forms as

palindromes, anagrams, acrostic, holorhymes and others. Manifestations of these

techniques in the works of contemporary Russian poets with the detailed analysis of

these texts in English for the English speaking reader are the subject of this thesis.

Formal literary restrictions and complex constrained forms have been widely used

throughout the history of European literature. These works descend from the ancient

Greek art techne that conformed to traditional and formal methods, and developed in

multifarious forms, including elements of word play. Art techne originated with

Aristotle, who understood creative art as a special technique similar to the techniques

needed to create architectural objects, or even medical techniques (Aristotle,

Metaphysics, book 1, chapter 1). He affirmed that the art is the form (Aristotle,

Metaphysics, book 7, chapter 9) and emphasised that to produce art the artist should

learn these forms and understand them (Aristotle, Metaphysics, book 9, chapter 3).

Heidegger explains that the term techne was related not only to technical objects

and processes in the modem sense of the word, but the methods of disclosure of the

most important truth (Heidegger 1977). Heidegger supposes that at the beginning of

European history, the arts called techne raised to the highest level of understanding the

mystery of the human being. The products of these arts were not supposed to be

aesthetic objects but were the instruments of deep comprehension of the fundamental

secrets of divine and human destiny. Poetry was one of these arts: "the poiesis of the

fine arts also was called techne'' (Heidegger 1977, 34, translated by William Lovitt).

The antique techne considered the universe an integral, harmonic and animated

body - the body of cosmos, seeing beauty as a pattern or proportion of parts. Aristotle

confirmed that the most important models of beauty are coherence, proportionality and

obviousness (Aristotle, Metaphysics, book 13, chapter 3). The categories of measure,

symmetry and beauty, lying in the foundation of art techne, were based on a thoroughly

developed teaching of number and numerical structures.

No art comes about without proportion. All art therefore arises through number. So there is a certain proportion in sculpture and also in painting. Generally speaking, every art is a system of perceptions, and a system implies number; one can therefore justly say: things look beautiful by virtue of number (Sextus Empiricus, Adversus mathematicos VII, 106, quoted by Tatarkiewicz 1974, II, 217).

The term Ars for the medieval arts and science was the direct scholastic translation

of the Greek techne. By the understanding of a medieval artist, all kinds of nature and

human creations followed the same laws of harmony and symmetry inspired by God.

The medieval texts are

filled with deep optimism, truth in sufficient man and word, nature that is filled with God's support ... The world considered the united comprehensive truth ... all levels of culture are isomorphous, all levels could be recoded to one another; it is an inexhaustible game of mirror reflections where nothing unpredictable could happen (Zumthor 1972, 32).

Medieval poets invented and used restricted poetical forms such as sonnet,

rondeau, terza rima and sestina that later became the approved instruments of poetry.

Other restricted forms such as acrostic and abecedary were also tools of the search for

poetical harmony, though now are usually related to experimental poetry.

The Cabbala (from Hebraistic qabbalah, tradition), a mystical trend of Judaism,

was developed in the late Middle Ages. The Cabbala was a doctrine of studying sacral

texts in order to attain the essence of the world and the message from God to man. For

cabbalists, the Book was a factor of bringing the universe into being, so they searched

for the genuine Words of Creation inside the written words of the Torah and Talmud.

As a technique, the Cabbala, especially its trend Temurah, was very close to a number

of formal literary practices. Over time, cabbalistic methods began to spread beyond

cabbalistic society, mostly in reduced and modified forms, thus influencing cultures,

and combinatorial literature amongst others.

Formal literary practices were viewed most seriously in such periods as the late

Roman era and the late Middle Ages, while in others such as the Renaissance and

Romanticism eras, they were seen as tiresome games on the periphery of the literary

process, whereas real poetry was believed to be inspirational. Therefore, these

techniques were developed in some eras and forgotten in others, so the authors of the

next cultural period had to invent them anew, or develop their own literary techniques

with a weak correlation to the past.

In the mid-late twentieth century, interest in formal literary techniques was reborn

in the systematic analyses and general writings of the French group Oulipo (Ouvroir de

Littérature Potentielle). This group of writers and mathematicians thoroughly applied

mathematical forms to literary texts, and viewed their synthesis as a central method of

the development of contemporary literature. The literary methods developed by Oulipo

lie mainly in the combinatorial realm of mathematics, thus corresponding to traditional

formal literary constraints. These methods, described in the following chapters of this

thesis, are the framework of my research.

In contemporary Russian poetry, these formal literary techniques are mostly

unknown and neglected, and only recently began to spread among the literary

community as the revival of 'formalism' experimentations (i.e., Fateeva 2003). Several

poets are practising these techniques, yet their comprehension of the preceding works is

mostly negligible. Taking this practice into consideration, I disclose a wide range of

contemporary poetry that is called experimental, combinatorial, or neo-avant-garde

poetry, in all its aspects.

In my thesis, I identify and analyse Russian literary texts of complex formal

structures developed by contemporary authors. The majority of literary scholars regard

these texts as a continuation of the avant-garde movement of the early twentieth century

(i.e., Biryukov 2007; Chudasov 2007). The reason for this attribution lies in the only

dualistic division of contemporary literature to the continuation of either 'traditional'

literature, the term by which Romanticism and the realistic movement is implied, and

'avant-garde' literature, the term by which the futurist and constructivist movements of

the early twentieth century is meant. As the poetry of strict formal constraints cannot be

attributed to 'traditional' poetry, it is consequently attributed to the avant-garde, despite

an evident methodological and ideological difference of futuristic experiments as a

provocative denial of previous forms obeying strict formal methods. As a result, inner

structures of the texts and previous manifestations of these formal restrictions are not

taken into consideration. So, in conventional reading, the meanings of the texts could

not be disclosed, nor could the author's intention for writing and the association with a

relevant literary tradition be identified. On the contrary, I propose an approach of

analysing these texts, considering them among the tradition of literature techne that lead

from antiquity and the Middle Ages through classicism and the baroque. For some texts,

applying this approach to contemporary literature based on constrained forms can be

more relevant than the avant-garde interpretation.

1.2. The aims of the research

The aims of the present research are to identify and analyse contemporary Russian

texts of constrained forms. By literature of constrained forms, or literary restrictions, I

mean that the texts are based on some constraints of textual elements such as letters,

syllables, words, and the like. Among the simple constrained forms are all kinds of

anagrams (texts where a recombination of textual elements, usually letters, forms

another text), palindromes (texts that could be read letter by letter or word by word the

same way forward and backwards) and tautograms (texts where all words begin with

the same letter). Other constrained forms include acrostic (texts where the first letters of

the words or lines of the text form a sensible sequence), abecedary (texts where the first

letters of words of the text form an alphabetic sequence), holorhymes (texts with the

coincidence of phonic of different parts of the texts, for example, lines of the poem,

different meanings and spelling of these parts of the text) and other forms.

These constrained forms are further developed to even more strict formal textual

structures. The amplification of formal structures can consist in modification and

unification of two or more of these techniques in a poem, as for example, a combination

of palindrome and lipogram (text written with a deliberately missing letter), or acrostic

and mesostic (text where the middle letters of the words or lines of the text form a

meaningful sequence) and telestic (text where the last letters of the words or lines form

a meaningful sequence), or an amplification of lipogram to monovocalism (text written

with only one vowel) and so forth. Also, the authors invent their own constrained

techniques in some semblance of the basic forms.

As the historical basis for my research, I aim to systematically present the main

methods of literary restrictions through the history of European literature. Through the

study of a wide range of contemporary poetry, I aim to distinguish the most significant

examples of contemporary Russian poetry that have strict formal constraints. For the

analysis of these poems and interviews with the authors of experimental literature, I

propose the following research questions:

1. How do the authors define their literary trend and see the roots of their

poetry? Where do they place their poetry within contemporary literature?

2. What formal restrictions are used in this poetry? What are the authors'

poetic purposes in applying these forms in their texts?

3. What are the relationships of these restrictions to those used in the literary

texts of the past? What is the authors' knowledge of the works of the

preceding poets' writing with formal restrictions and to what extent do the

authors re-invent these forms?

4. What, by the estimation of the past and present state of this poetry and

from the authors' points of view, is the dynamic for the development of

contemporary Russian poetry of formal restrictions?

In the present chapter, I will provide the background for my research. First, I will

present a brief overview of the history of formal experimentation in Russia. Then I will

focus on the origin of contemporary Russian poetry from unofficial Soviet poetry in

order to identify the poetic realm I will analyse below. I will describe the dissemination

of contemporary Russian literature focusing on literature of restricted forms. Thus I will

outline the boundaries of my research. The methods of textual analysis and notes on the

relevance of the research are discussed in the last section of the introductory chapter.

In Chapter 2, I will present an historical outline of the literature techne noting

manifestations of the Russian experimental literature in the works of poets such as

Velichkovsky, Derzhavin, Bryusov and others. Through this review, I will demonstrate

the range of experimental literary forms and identify their chronological appearance in

Russian literature before the present time. It will provide the objective basis for the

understanding of the contemporary state of experimental literature, though the

limitations of knowledge of these forms by contemporary Russian authors should be

taken into consideration.

In Chapter 3, obtained through the interviews with a number of contemporary

Russian authors, I will present an overall understanding of contemporary experimental

literature by its creators. The interviewees are experimental poets, editors and publishers

of journals of experimental poetry and organisers of literary events. Through them, on

the whole, theoretical and subjective outlines for my analysis will be constructed.

In Chapters 4, 5 and 6, I will present the analysis of texts by three contemporary

poets working in the described poetical trend: Dmitry Avaliani, Boris Grinberg and

Elena Katsyuba respectively. Their works were chosen for analysis due to their virtuosic

practice in a wide range of formal literary techniques, and the diversity of their

realisations of these techniques. I will present a thorough analysis of the totality of the

texts of the chosen authors, thus presenting the whole range of the poetic ideas inspiring

contemporary experimenting poets. The texts will be analysed using multiple methods,

considering the texts on their own as well as in relation to the cultural context. In this

way, I will identify characteristic features of the authors' poetics, specifying their

resemblances and differences. Taking into consideration the history of European

literature of formal experimentation, I will present an understanding of these texts

unachievable in their consideration as avant-garde experiments only.

Through the analysis of the proposed texts, I will demonstrate that the described formal restrictions can play a role similar to the traditional poetic restrictions such as rhymes and metres. I will demonstrate that literature based on strict constraints is likely to be concerned with definitive philosophical and spiritual themes that usually are attributed to high poetry, and aims to achieve a compelling impact on the readers. Also, I will demonstrate the authors' poetic mastery in the described literary techniques, where limitations of the vocabulary used by the authors of the poem due to the strict constraint play a stimulating role for poetic expressiveness. As a result, my approach will demonstrate new ways of development of the theory of contemporary Russian poetry.

1.3. Short review of historical roots of Russian literature on formal experimentation Russian literature based on formal constraints originated in the seventeenth

century with the Russian baroque, and was developed among others by loann Velichkovsky, Mitrofan Dovgalevsky, Simeon Polotsky, Silvestr Medvedev and Karion Istomin, who brought new poetic ideas and techniques from Europe. In Moscow, in the mid-seventeenth century, Simeon Polotsky became the court poet under Tsar Aleksey Mikhaylovich and established the Latin academy for spreading cultural knowledge from Europe to Russia. These experiments ended soon after Polotsky's death, when Tsar Peter the Great closed this school and executed Silvestr Medvedev, one of Polotsky's followers. These practices continued in Ukraine, where in the late seventeenth century, Velichkovsky practised numerous known rhetorical techniques and combinatorial methods as tools for glorifying Christ's and the Virgin Mary's names. In the mid-eighteenth century, Dovgalevsky, a professor of the Mogilev academy, taught students literary techniques in accordance with Latin rhetoric textbooks and wrote his own

poetry on these methods in Ukrainian. Their writings will be presented in greater length

in the following chapter devoted to the history of European formal literature.

Some experiments related to literature techne could be found in the works of poets

of the first Russian literary reform of the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries, including

Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The Romanticism and realism of the

nineteenth century rejected most constrained forms, so this literature went to the

periphery of the literary process, to writing aimed at children, or to amateur album

poetry. In the early twentieth century, revolutionary changes in economic, social and

political life inspired the search for new art, including new literary forms. Attention to

various formal techniques of the past emerged in works by the symbolists, especially in

the poetry and theoretical works of Valéry Bryusov and Andrey Bely. A different

approach to the development of formal literature was made by avant-garde authors such

as Velimir Khlebnikov, Aleksey Kruchyonuikh and Ilya Zdanevich, who rejected

conventional literary structures in the search for new, revolutionary poetical methods. In

the 1930s, all these realms of experiments were terminated and displaced by official

Russian literature with the supremacy of the socialist realism.

A revival of formal experiments in Russian literature began from the late 1950s in

the post-Stalin era. One of the first unofficial literary groups was JluanosoecKm epyma

(Lianozovo group) with Genrikh Sapgir, Igor Kholin, Yan Satunovsky, Vsevolod

Nekrasov and others poets participating in its activities. Their poetics included word

plays to the point of nonsense, conventional prosaisms, vernaculars, and as a whole,

innovation and experiment. The poetics of St Petersburg's authors were closely related

to the nineteenth century tradition. Nevertheless, authors of Owio.ioeuuecKOM uiKo.ia

(Philological School) such as Vladimir Ufiyand, Aleksandr Kondratov. Mikhail Eremin

and others, widely practised constrained forms and literary experiments. Also, a number

of poets such as Vladimir Gershuni and Nikolay Laduigin worked independently in the

realm of combinatorial poetry, yet their texts mostly became known to the reader

posthumously from the 1990s.

To a large extent, experimental works were forbidden and forgotten during the

Soviet era, so the authors of post-Soviet literature could only be familiar with the works

of their predecessors by chance, and had to re-discover these literary trends and re-

invent the methods. In the analysis of the interviews in Chapter 3, I will present the

opinions of the authors of experimental poetry on the history of this trend, and disclose

the ways in which they became familiar with the texts of the poets of the past.

1.4. Overview of unofficial Soviet poetry as a source of contemporary Russian poetry

As mentioned, the focus of my research lies in the study of texts of restricted

forms and the development of these texts in contemporary Russian literature. The time

boundaries of the research are defined by the late Soviet era, that is, from the late 1980s

to recent times, as the period of unrestricted dissemination of any poetry, including the

experimental. The choice of literary works for further analysis was made on the basis of

the study of the overall manifestation of contemporary Russian poetry.

In a broader sense, contemporary poetry emerged from the unofficial Soviet

poetry of the late 1950s which in turn was influenced by futurist poetry and other

poetical experimentations of the early twentieth century. In the early twentieth century,

the development of literature and the search for new poetic methods in Russia paralleled

similar developments in Western literature. In this way, ôydemmHcmeo (budetlyanstvo,

a neologism invented by the Russian poet Khlebnikov for Russification of the term

futurism, from the Russian ôydymee, future) and Russian formalism developed

alongside, or even took the lead over, similar development of European literature.

However, in the 1930s, these experiments were brought to an abrupt halt; henceforth

only socialist realism was tolerated with minor variations in text structures. During the

1950s-1980s, the quantity of syllabic-tonic metres was around 88% of all Russian

poetry, with absolute precision of iambic tetrameter, and iambic pentameter coming

most close to it (Gasparov 1998). Other literary techniques such as vers libre,

amplification of rhymes or rhythms and word-play methods were rare and commonly

discouraged for the Soviet author and reader.

Only authors accepted by the Soviet regime were united in professional Soviet

Writer's Unions, and thus were considered as professional writers and received access

to journal and book publishing, whereas non-members of the Writer's Union could not

expect to officially disseminate their works. Mikhail Epstein argues that double control

by the state censorship and Soviet educational approach led Soviet culture to an

artificial homogeneity, with a resultant elimination of cultural divergences (Epstein

2000). Some writers consider this closed and static status to be a catastrophe. Russian

poet Osip Mandelstam (1891-1938) proclaimed that "'OHCMeHHe' jXByx, xpex

noKOJiCHHH Morjio 6bi npHBecTH PoccHKD K HCTOpHHecKOH CMcpxH" (The 'numbness' of

two or three generations could bring cultural death to Russia, Mandelstam 1987, 60).

Poet and critic Mikhail Aizenberg raised the same issue in 2003: "HnbiMH cjioeaiviH:

COpOK (nilTb/ eCHT H T.;;.) JICT COBCTCKOH BJiaCTH - 3T0 OKOHHaxejlbHtlH AHarH03 HJlH Bce

TKQ npOMOKyroHHbiH? CyLuecTBycM JIH Mbi elite Ha CBexe HJIH 3TO naivi TOJibKO

Ka)KeTCJi?" (In other words, forty (or fifty and more) years of the Soviet regime - is it

the final or interim diagnosis for poetry? Do we exist or does it only seem to us that we

exist? Aizenberg 2003, 306). In this sense, the total homogeneity in literature due to

state politics could not only mean the discontinuance of the development of Russian

literature, but also lead to its disappearance as a vivid and developing phenomenon.

In the post-Stalin era since the mid-1950s, an unofficial literature emerged which

began developing methods and using text structures that differed from the structures of

socialist realism. From the 1960s, non-members of the Writer's Unions began to unite

in small groups and literary movements. Poetic concepts and the methods of

dissemination of their works differ from those of official Soviet literature, and were

made by the authors themselves without the support of official institutions.

The official and unofficial literatures were mostly mutually exclusive. There were

few authors who were both published in the official Soviet press and, at the same time,

were read and valued by authors and readers of unofficial literature. Among these authors

were Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Arseny Tarkovsky, Arkady and Boris

Strugatsky and some others. On the other hand, the poetry of unofficial authors such as

Yan Satunovsky and Vsevolod Nekrasov was distributed exclusively by scanty quantities

of samizdat publications, available to a narrow circle of related poets and friends.

The first literary groups that appeared in this era were dissimilar. Aizenberg

emphasises that the main difference between official and unofficial literature was that

the official literature fundamentally ignored the existence of unofficial literature,

whereas unofficial literature was ready to recognise 'the other', at least among different

kinds of unofficial literature: "an/ierpayH^i He 6 b i J i oGinHOCxbio eAHHOMbiuiJieHHHKOB

(pa3yMeeTC5i, He 6biJi H jiHTepaxypHOH UIKOJIOH). ripoTHBOCTOHHHe CHCTCMC

oGte ^HHiiJio jifOACH, HO OCHOBOH Hx AeHCTBHH GbiJio, CKopcc, omcmoMHue'' (The

underground poetry was not the commonality of like-minded persons (nor was it a

literary school). The confrontation with the system made people consolidate, but the

basis for them rather was counter-solidarity, Aizenberg at al. 1998, 173). In this sense,

"[Heo({)HUHajibHa5i jinTepaxypa] ynHKajibna A-HJI Hamen cxpaHbi. 3 T O nonbixKa

COCYIITECTBOBAHHH H B3AHMOBJIM5IHH5I PASJIUHHOSO BMECTO TNPA>KHPOBAHH5I NODODHOEO''

([unofficial literature] was unique for our country. It was an attempt ^ co-existence and

interference of the different instead of replication of the similar, Aïzenberg 1997, 40).

Attempts to reflect on new poetics and to systematise different literary movements

of the late Soviet unofficial poetry were repeatedly undertaken. Poet and critic

Aïzenberg analyses the characteristic features of various Russian literary groups

(Aïzenberg 1997). Mikhail Epstein focuses on ten literary movements with the opposing

poles being conceptualism and metarealism (Epstein et al. 1999). In 1998, the literary

journal SHGMH conducted a survey of ex-unofficial literature by interviewing a number

of authors (Aïzenberg at al. 1998). These authors, such as Arabov, Groys, Sedakova and

other poets, reflected on the proposed topic and emphasised that the existence of

unofficial literature related to the past, though at the present, literary movements still

appeared from, or connected to, those unofficial literary trends.

These systématisations identified the most significant literary trends of

contemporary Russian poetry. JIuanosoecKcm apynna was one of the first groups of

unofficial poetry to appear. Their poetics differed from socialist realism thus denying

ideological clichés and heroic proclamations, instead developing open-eyed observance

of everyday reality. Some other significant poetic groups originated in the 1980s-1990s

from the poetic workshop lead by poet Kirill Kovaldzhi at the literary journal lOnocmb

(Kovaldzhi, Internet publication). In the late 1980s, that is, during the perestroika and

post-perestroika years, the club IJossm (Poetry) was developed from Kovaldzhi's

workshop, with numerous poets participating in it, including Yury Arabov, Vladimir

Aristov, Nikolay Baïtov, Evgeny Bunimovich, Vladimir Druk, Alexandr Eremenko,

Nina Iskrenko, Viktor Korkiya, Aleksandr Levin, Sveta Litvak, Pavel Mityushev,

Aleksey Parschikov, Vladimir Tuchkov and others.

Reflecting on the emergence of the new poetic movements in the 1980s,

Kovaldzhi observes two significant movements in contemporary Russian poetry, which

he calls hermetism, or superpoetry, and sarcasm, or antipoetry:

yxBepjKjianacb (J)Hji0C0(})CKaii 'MeTa-MeTa())opHMecKaji' (no onpe/iejieHMK) K o H C T a H T H H a Ke/ipoea) JiHpHKa cyryóoM cepbe3H0CTH, 6e3 TCHH yjibiÓKH h npOCTOTbl - CTHJlb, 6J1H3KHH K 330TepHHeCK0My ( H e a H }lCaaHOB, Bj ia^MMHp

A p H C T O B , Aj ieKCCH napmMKOB, M a p K LUaTyHOBCKHH). Jlpyrvix OTHCCJIO B

npOTHBOnOJlOKHyK) KpaHHOCTb, B napO MHHblH BbI30B '3ApaB0My CMblCJiy', e ro

BbiBopaHHBaHHio B a 6 c y p ^ . Tyx BouapHJiacb 'aHTHjiHpHKa' - no/iBox, MacKH,

npe3pHTejibHaa H3AeBKa MHTejiJieKxa, ocKop6jieHHoro xynoH AeHCTBMTejibHOCTbK) ( H H H a HcKpeHKO, Bj iaAHMHp /ípyK, M r o p b HpxeHeB,

AjieKcaHAp JleBHH)

Philosophical 'meta-metaphisticar (by the definition of Konstantin Kedrov) lyric was being firmly established; it was absolutely serious lyrics, without a hint of a smile or simplicity, in a style close to aesoteric (Ivan Zhdanov, Vladimir Aristov, Aleksey Parschikov, Mark Shatunovsky). The other poets went the opposite way, towards parody challenging 'common sense', by bringing it to the point of non-sense. Here 'anti-lyrics' established themselves with tricks, masks, scornful jeer of an intellectual aggrieved by dull reality (Nina Iskrenko, Vladimir Druk, Igor Irtenyev, Alexandr Levin) (Kovaldzhi, Internet publication).

Later the first movement was named MemapeanusM (metarealism), and the second

MocKoecKuu KOHijenmyajiusM (Moscow conceptualismo Metarealism was defined as

"n033H5I BblCUIHX CJIOCB peaJlbHOCTH, 06pa3HbIX yHHBepCaJlHÍÍ, npOHH3bIBaK)mHX BCK)

eeponeHCKyio KJiaccHKy" (poetry of the higher levels of reality, the universal images

embracing the European literary canon, Epstein 1990). On the other hand,

conceptualists operate by social clichés to demonstrate features that have not been seen

by an accustomed eye. Epstein affirms that with works by the Moscow conceptualists:

"o(J)nuHajibHbie jiosyHFH H KJiHiue ; ÍOBOA5 ITC5 I a6cypAa, o6Ha>Ka5i paspbiB Me>KAy

3 H a K 0 M , OT KOTOpOrO OCTaCTCil rOJlblH KOHUenT, nOHJITHHHOe HAPO, H ero 5bITHHHbIM

HanojiHHTejieM - 03HaHaeMbiM" (Official slogans and clichés were brought to the point

of absurdity, baring the rift between a sign that becomes a bare concept as a conceptual

core, and its objective substance as the signified, Epstein 1990). The texts of Moscow

conceptualists are comprehensible only to those readers who are 'submerged' in the

same language and social milieu. Nevertheless, these texts were widely spread through

translations and publications into foreign languages.

Other unofficial poetic trends include the MocKoecKoe epeuH (Moscow Time)

group which existed between the mid-1970s and the 1990s with Aleksey Tsvetkov,

Bakhuit Kenzheev, Sergey Gandlevsky and others. Poetics of this group followed the

Russian poetry of the nineteenth century through the maintenance of exact rhymes,

accurate strophic and rhythmic structures. The poets belonging to this group did not

allow the pathos of official Soviet poetry, while at the same time they avoided formal

experimentation.

On the contrary, the authors of the neo-avant-garde movement followed the

extreme experimental searches of Russian futurists of the early twentieth century. Poets

belonging to this movement concentrated on formal experimentations and the

abundance or obedience of poetic restrictions. Also, poets of this literary trend fulfilled

the search for minimalistic forms. Among the poets who can be attributed to this

movement was Gennady Aygi, who combined Khlebnikov's poetic findings with the

spontaneous writing of French surrealists. Other authors connected to avant-garde

practice, as listed by Biryukov, are Elizaveta Mnatsakanova, Andrey Voznesensky,

Viktor Sosnora, Rea Nikonova, Elena Katsyuba, Anna Alchuk, Sveta Litvak, Larisa

Berezovchuk, Konstantin Kedrov, Sergey Sigey, Vladimir Eri, Valéry Sherstyanoy,

Alexandr Gomon and Arsen Mirzaev (Belikov et al. 2007).

The affiliation with a certain poetic movement is not definite for several poets, as

critics attribute the same poet to different movements. For example, Vsevolod Nekrasov

is ascribed to minimalism by Boris Groys (Aizenberg et al. 1998, 182), to the Lianozovo

group by Mikhail Aizenberg (Aizenberg 1997), and to Russian concretism by Dmitry

Kuzmin (Kuzmin, D 2007). These differences arise from the different classification

criteria (origin or style), from the development and changes of individual poetics and

from uncertainty of classification. In this sense, elements of formal experimentation,

which are the focus of my research, can be found among multiple poetic trends, though

the most promising are the works of the authors attributed to the neo-avant-garde

movement.

1.5. Dissemination of contemporary Russian poetry and the choice of sources for

the further analysis

In the late Soviet era, texts written by unofficial authors were spread by samizdat,

that is, amateur printing and the unofficial distribution of books and periodic editions

differing from the official dissemination of Soviet literature. To quote the unofficial

writer Vladimir Bukovsky, samizdat is "caM COHHH5IK), caM pe^aKTHpyK), caM HS^aio,

caM pacnpocTpaHiiK), caM H OTCH)KHBaK) sa Hero" (I myself create it, edit it, censor it,

publish it, distribute it, and do my own term for it, Bukovsky 1978, 126).

The phenomenon of samizdat exists up to the present time in Russia. The authors

restricted from publication in established editions can be published by unofficial editors

in their independent journals, as well as organising their own publishing group or

literary journal for publication of their works. Thus, from the 1990s, during the late

Soviet and post-Soviet eras, most literary groups started their own editions. For

example, from 1989 to 1994, the club TJODSUR published a newspaper FyMaHumapHbiu

(¡)OHd (Humanitarian Fond) which was disseminated amongst the main Russian and

worldwide libraries, the literary authors and critics. These editions are reviewed by

critics and literary curators and are a significant part of the developing literary process

in contemporary Russia. It is worthwhile to note the difference in dissemination of

political samizdat and literary samizdat; if the first was spread in hundreds of copies

(Alekseeva 1983), the second was done by hand in a few copies, usually for the close

circle of its participating authors and their colleagues.

When the Soviet system that supported the literature of socialist realism collapsed,

the writing of unofficial literary groups became available to the public in publications as

well as through other forms of literary activities. These forms included the functioning

of poetic clubs and salons, in the conducting of literary festivals and poetry readings. At

the present time, these processes widely relate to contemporary Internet technologies.

By these open methods of dissemination of poetry, multiple works of poets of the past

and present, and foreign poetry have become known. As a result, the contemporary

poets, including those working in experimental fields, write in consideration of these

works, and develop their style without fear of physical or cultural repression.

On the other hand, the interaction with the reader of contemporary poetry has

changed. The characteristic feature of contemporary poetry consists in its remoteness

from the mass reader. This fact is confirmed by a limited circulation of poetic issues as

well as by the limited number of listeners on poetic evenings, mostly consisting of the

poets themselves. As Epstein argues, the reason lies in the difference between

contemporary poetry and the poetry of the past: if the poetry of the past was meant to

evoke emotions, the poetry of the present evokes thoughts; "the old-fashioned reader is

soon bored by this material because he is like a pupil who has been presented with a

foreign language textbook instead of experiences to be shared in his own native

language" (Epstein et al. 1999, 149, translated by Vladiv-Glover). To make this new

poetry available to the reader as well as to other practising poets, a number of new

literary activities, including new publishing opportunities, are now functioning.

During the 1990s, the activities of literary clubs and salons became the leading

form to construct a new literary community. The functioning of literary clubs is firmly

connected with contemporary poetic movements, and by its intensity could be compared

to the poetic manifestations of the early twentieth century. During these years, some

literary activities have ceased while others changed. For example, in 2006 Dmitry

Kuzmin closed club AemopuuK (A-Tuesday, authors' club) and ceased publishing of the

journal of young writers BaewiOH (Babylon) and proceeded to conduct the literary

miscellany Bosdyx (Air) and maintain the Live Journal blog, dkuzmin.livejoumal.com

Besides the unceasing literary activities of clubs and salons, literary festivals and

competitions are held regularly so that poets, critics and philologists become familiar with

the new texts of contemporary authors. For example, Oecmueœiu eep.iuôpa (Vers Libre

Festivals) has been held in Moscow and in St Petersburg annually since 1989, with

professor RSUH Yury Orlitsky as a curator and poets such as Genrikh Sapgir, Vsevolod

Nekrasov, Gennady Aygi and Viktor Krivulin participating in the first festivals. Also, the

IIosmuHecKue Euennaie (Poetry Biennale) is held once every two years in Moscow and

\hQ^HU no33uu (Days of Poetry) have been held annually since 1999.

Collections of the poetic works of authors who participated in these literary events

are published by publishing houses such as Apeo-pucK (ARGO-Risk, chief editor Dmitry

Kuzmin), PyccKuii Fyjuiueep (Russian Gulliver, editors include Vadim Mesyats, Andrey

Tavrov, Aleksandr Ulanov) and some others. Most of these publications appear in printed

and web versions, and in some cases, the editions appear on the Internet only. In this way,

contemporary literary texts approved by a representative community during public poetic

readings and discussions, become available to the readers around the world.

Until the present, combinatorial literature belonged mostly to unofficial literature.

Within developing contemporary Russian poetry, the poetry based on combinatorial

restriction exists innovatively and vividly. Enthusiasts in Russian provinces published

the journals of palindrome as new samizdat: TuT (TiT) in Perm, ÂM^upuipMa

(Amfirifma) in Kursk, Kyôum ôyKe (Cubes of letters) in Tula. At present, a number of

literary journals such as OVTVPYM APT (FUTURUM ART), ffemu PA (Children of

RA), )KypHaji UOsmoe (Journal of POets), WepnoeuK (Draft), /Jpyeoe nojiymapue

(Another Hemisphere), concentrate on experimental poetry. In recent years, the

0ecmu6cuiu ncuiuHdpoMoe (Festivals of palindromes) were organised in the years

represented by palindromic numbers: 1991 and 2002, and the Oecmueojiu

KOMÔmamopHoù no33uu (Festivals of combinatorial poetry) were held in Moscow in

2007-2010. It is possible to conclude that the dissemination of combinatorial poetry is

made by the same methods as the dissemination of the other trends in contemporary

Russian poetry.

For further analysis, I have selected texts of contemporary Russian experimental

poets, following the approach proposed by Professor Orlitsky (Orlitsky 2003), thus

limiting my research to the works of authors who participate in the contemporary

Russian literary process by publishing their works in literary journals and books,

regardless of where these texts are published, the author's nationality, or country of

origin and present residence. I restrict my research to the study of the texts written in the

last twenty years when experimental poets worked openly disseminating their texts to

the audience, therefore being included in the overall cultural tradition, finding a

responsiveness to their writing from the literary community. Also, in focussing on the

contemporary works, I could interview the authors, thus receiving an authentic response

to the understanding of their poetry.

I identified the texts that are subjects for my research through examining the

publications in contemporary Russian literary journals, books and other publications in

Russia and abroad, with an auxiliary search through bibliographies of previous reviews

of the topic. These journals can be divided into two groups: the first consists of the

editions that existed in the Soviet times, that mostly continue the traditional poetics and

pay little attention to literary experiments, such as Seesda, Heea, SHQMH, Hoehiu Mup

and the other so called 'rojicTbie >KypHajibi' (thick journal) that mostly focus on

traditional poetry written by established authors. The second group includes newer

journals, such as Hoeoe jiumepamypHoe oôospeHue (New Literary Review, NLO),

^epHoeuK, MumuH ^ypncui (Mitya's journal), Text only, OVTVPYM APT and others.

The literary journal Hoeoe jiumepamypHoe oôospenue mostly publishes theoretical

articles and literary reviews, but also the texts of contemporary authors of wide poetic

spectre. The literary magazine WepHoeuK has consistently published texts of

experimental literature over the last two decades, and some critics consider it to be the

only Russian journal permanently focusing on the neo-futuristic avant-garde literary

trend (Privalov 1998, 218-221). Consequently, the journals of the second group are

more promising for the search for texts for my research, though an examination of

'thick journals' demonstrates that the latter began to publish experimental texts as well.

Finally, minor editions, poetry festival presentations and Internet publications devoted

to contemporary poetry also provided me with texts for consideration.

The main types of formal techniques used in the texts chosen for the analysis, are

of combinatorial poetry in their variety, complex poetical forms and minimalistic forms

developed in post-Soviet poetry in opposition to Soviet rhetorical pathos. The

combinatorial literature includes both letter combinations such as anagrams,

palindromes, tautograms and formal restrictions of larger textual elements, including

syllables, words and lines of the poems. Complex poetic forms include the strict

organisation of poetic structure of the poem. Minimalist poetry tends to limit the

number of sentences (or words, or even letters) in a text, aiming to concentrate and

increase the meaning: "Minimalist art highlights the interaction between the artist, the

perceiver and the culture. In this way, it is a proof that sometimes, the smallest element

of language is richer than verbosity" (Janecek 1992, 19). I will also analyse the visual

component of the poems, as it plays a significant role in contemporary experimental

literature, as it did throughout the history of literature techne.

1.6. The methods of analysis

Several researchers have investigated the works of contemporary Russian authors,

including the neo-avant-garde works similar to the subjects of my research. Biryukov

interprets contemporary experimental poetry as a continuation of Russian avant-garde of

the early twentieth century, proposing a term eHeucmopmecKuu aeamapd (beyond-

historical avant-garde), and popularises works of the poets of the past (Biryukov 1994,

2003a). Fateeva (2002, 2003, 2006) investigates grammar and expressive features of

contemporary poetry which lead to multiple interpretations of the texts, whereas

Sukhovey (2003, 2008) concentrates on the visual aspects of contemporary

experimental poetry. Orlitsky questions the limits of poetical texts obeying a complex of

formal elements, and studies rhythmic features in prose (Orlitsky 2002), and Zubova

(2000) analyses various poems focusing on the wide range of linguistic aspects.

However the methods of analysis of texts of complex formal structure are not yet

defined. In particular, the poetic experiments of Dmitry Avaliani were quoted in a

number of critical works, especially after his tragic death in a car accident in 2003

(Loschilov 2004; Mikhaylovskaya 2004; Zubova 2004, mainly emphasising traditional

poetic features (Grauz 2005) or the experimental nature of Avaliani's works (Bubnov

2004; Fedin 2004). At the same time, an overall analysis of the applied poetic

techniques and the achieved poetic findings were not provided.

Janecek raises the question on the methods of analysis of contemporary

experimental texts:

KaK HaAO HHTdTb c j i o e a xeKcxa, MJIH OH (TCKCT) Bbi^acT TOJIBKO (J)aKTypy, o c o ô e H H o B Tex cj iynaHx, Kor^a He e c e c j i o e a MHxaôejibHbi? < . . . > KaK anajiHSHpoBaTb 3^(J)eKT iiipH(J)TOB, ôyiviarH, cxpaHHMHoro npocTpaHCTsa, uBCxa TCKCTa? n o KaKHM OpaBHJiaM?

How should one read the words of this text? Or does it (the text) demonstrate only the texture, especially when not all the words are readable? <...> How can one analyse the effect of the letter types, paper, page space, and the text colour? What are the rules for it? (Janecek 2002).

Umberto Eco partly answers this question in the article on Raymond Queneau's

Exercices de style, by suggesting the emphasis be placed on the formal constraints used

in the text (Eco 1998-1999). In Eco's opinion, in these texts, complex restrictions are

the basis for the poetic structure, therefore determining semantic, phonic and visual

aspects of the text. Consequently, focusing on the formal structure, the researcher would

disclose the author's message and inner meaning of the text.

Following this approach, I propose a thorough study of the formal structures of the

texts, with references to the long history of the literature techne rather than solely to the

experimental avant-garde practices. In doing so, I suggest that the meaning of the texts

exist, as well as the author's considered intention in its writing, and could be revealed.

Previously, the proposed approach has not been applied systematically to contemporary

experimental texts. The particular methods of the analysis would differ for different

texts as a disclosed structure of the text will be a determinant for the choice of an

appropriate method for its analysis.

To commence the analysis, I will use overall information on the initial appearance

of the texts, including critical and research reviews. The opinions of critics, philologists

and contemporary poets on the structure of the texts, the aims of the authors and the

poetic result, will be taken into consideration when it would add significantly to the

comprehension of the texts. On the other hand, personal estimations of the poetic

quality of the texts will not be taken into account during the analysis of the poems.

The opinions of the authors themselves are also a necessary part of the analysis, so

interviews with the authors, publishers and popularisers of contemporary experimental

poetry are undertaken during the research. Interview questions concern the authors'

opinions on their factual literary practice, to a possible extent also eluding subjective

valuations. The analysis of these interviews provides a wide range of opinions by the

creators of experimental poetry on the questions of aims, methods, knowledge of

variable methods, traditional and contemporary works, and on the dissemination and

perspectives of contemporary experimental poetry.

I will analyse the poetic structure of the texts focusing on formal restrictions in

order to disclose the role of these restrictions in semantic, phonic and visual realisation

of the poems. The applied techniques will be compared with examples of similar usage

throughout the history of Russian and European poetry. In relation to the analysed texts,

I will study the formal literary techniques described above, as well as conventional

poetic techniques such as rhetorical tropes, traditional rhyming, rhythmical techniques

and phonic regularity following the methods of poetic analysis (Gasparov 1997; Lotman

1970, 1976, 1996; Magomedova 2004; Tyupa 2008). Following the methods of poetic

analysis (Magomedova 2004), I will take into account the elements of poetic structures

such as the metre and rhythm of a poem, its vocabulary and grammatical structure, its

phonics and composition, as well as a certain genre, style and topic. Attention will be

paid to the characteristic features of the texts such as syntax (specific or absent by the

choice of the author), strophic and rhythmic structures, morphology, the inner

connection of words in the phrases, the vocabulary of the texts, including using rare,

foreign, occasional, or nonsensical words that could lead to complication or conversely,

the simplification of semantics, to the degree of desemantisation of the text. For a

certain text, some of these aspects of the analysis could provide more appreciable results

than others, so they will appear in the final analysis of the text. On the whole, these

elements provide me with an overall understanding of the text:

Structural analysis is based on viewing a literary work as an organic whole. The text

in this analysis is not perceived as a mechanical sum of its constituent elements and

the 'separateness' of these elements loses its absolute character: each of them is

realised only in relation to the other elements and to the structural whole of the

entire text (Lotman 1976, 10, translated by D. Barton Johnson).

In accordance with the structural methods of poetic analysis (Gasparov 1997),

attention will be drawn to the opposite images within the text, especially inner-outer,

natural-artificial and so on. The texts will be considered as a whole so that semantic,

syntactical, visual and phonic components correlate to each other. The polysemantic

appearances will be taken into consideration in regard to texts of complex combinatorial

structure and minimalist texts.

An examination of the historical perspective of restrictions used by authors, and

the authors' acquaintance with the certain literary methods, will also be taken into

consideration. Therefore, I will refer to the history of usage of these methods, especially

the formal techniques. Through these, I will disclose the 'semantic-thematic aura' of

these methods by analogy to the 'semantic-thematic aura' of the metre introduced by

Kirill Taranovsky (1963), Mikhail Gasparov (1999) and other researchers. For the

traditional poetic technique, a relationship between the metrical structure of the poem

and its meaning is assumed to exist:

B ocHoee HcnojibsoeaHMJi TpaAHUHOHHbix /TJIA AaHHoii xeivibi HJIH AJI« AaHHoro

>KaHpa MCTpOB 06biHH0 jie>KHT cTpeMJieHHe HanoMHHTb HHTaxejiK) xe o6pa3bi h

nepoKHBaHHJi, Koxopbie cBasaHbi c npoHHTaHHbiMH paHee npoHSBe^ieHHJiMH

CXOIIHORO THna, H TCM YCHJIHXB BneMaxjieHHe OT AaHHoii Bemn. TPA^HUHOHHOCTB

T o r o HJiH HHoro Mexpa nopoio [Aa>Ke] npenHTCTByex ero npHMeHCHHK) jxjin TOH

HJIH HHOH TCMbl.

In the basis of the usage of the metres traditional for the given topic or for a given

genre, is usually an intention to remind the reader of the images and feelings

connected to the texts of the same type written previously, increasing by this the impression of the proposed text. Traditionality of one or another metre even [sometimes] impedes a poet in using it for this or that topic (Shengeh 1940, 24-25).

In the case of experimental methods, the number of poems where particular

techniques were applied is not numerous, so the 'semantic aura' is defined more

evidently, similar to the same phenomena for conventional poetic techniques, "HCM

pe>Ke pasMep, TCM BbipasHxejibHeH HanoMHHaex OH O npeueACHxax CBoero

ynoTpeÔJieHHii: ceMaHranecKaa HacbimeHHOcxb pyccKoro reKsaMexpa HJIH HMHxauHii

ôbijiHHHoro cxHxa OHCHb BejiHKa, a Kaxpena HexbipexcxooHoro jiMÔa HHHxo KHa" (The

more rare is a metre, the more expressively it reminds of precedents of its usage:

semantic richness of a Russian hexameter or an imitation of bylina is significant,

whereas that of a quatrain of iambic tetrameter is negligible (Gasparov 1979, 285)).

Similarly, the 'semantic aura' of a special combinatorial form is significant due to its

rarity, though it possibly changes with every new manifestation.

Also, especially for minimalist texts of obscure meaning, I will use the methods of

close reading proposed by Mikhail Gershenzon (1869-1925) and developed by Lev

Scherba (1880-1944) (Scherba 1957). As argued by Tomashevsky and later supported

by Markov, the prosodie structure of one poetic line is clarified only by adjacent lines

(Markov 1994, 319), so it is difficult to define it for monostich and distich, and the

traditional method of analysis of the poetic text becomes partly inadequate. Conversely,

the close reading method, consisting in the sustained attention and interpretation of

every word of the text in its association with other words of the text passage, would be

useful. Particular attention should be given to the syntax, semantic, phonic, rhythmic

and possibly historical and cultural associations of the words appearing in the poem in

order to unfold the author's intention for a particular writing. As usual for the close

reading method, the danger is in imparting to the texts additional meanings more in

keeping with the researcher's cultural basis than with the author's. To reduce this

25

danger, I will mention when the analysis consists in providing some possible

interpretations among the others.

As a result, a poem will be analysed in its entirety as well as in conjunction with

contemporary experimental writing and the history of literature techne. An integral

understanding of the text will be achieved, which is especially important for texts of

unclear semantics, created on the basis of non-conventional poetic structures. In doing

so, I will demonstrate the characteristic features of contemporary Russian poetry of

formal restrictions, which has not been done previously. This will provide a further

perspective for the understanding of the described literary movement.

1.7. The significance and practical importance of the research

The complex analysis of the presented texts will explore the question of the

existence and manifestation of a number of experimental formal literary techniques in

contemporary Russian poetry. Previously, these texts have not been systematically studied

by researchers. Complex analysis based on a combination of the various methods

described above will provide new understanding of these works, so that the most typical

manifestations of contemporary Russian poetry of formal constraints will be presented

completely. The analysed poems are difficult to understand due to their minimalist form,

obscure and ambiguous meanings, and combinatorial structures usually associated with

realms far from high poetry. As I will demonstrate, these poems could be devoted to high

philosophical and lyrical topics, whereas these interpretations would not be possible

without referring to the history of European literature, including literature techne. In

addition to the accepted division into the traditional, that is, syllabic-tonic rhyming

poetry, and experimental poetry, understood as poetry beyond strict poetic techniques, I

bring into consideration the range of experimental poetry based on several poetic

methods, including the strictest formal constraints playing the role of a complementary

system of organisation of the text. This will make a contribution to the development of the

theory of contemporary Russian literature. These results could be applied to other

examples of experimental poetry and some manifestations of so-called traditional poetry

for which a correlation with the European literature of formal restrictions will provide

additional levels for interpretation of the texts.

Chapter 2.

The development of literary restrictions in European literature

2.1. The aims and the structure of the historical review

In this chapter, I will present a brief history of formal literary techniques in

European literature, with examples beginning from ancient Greece to the present. I will

raise the question of the origins of formal techniques, identify the literary aims of their

authors, and follow the development of the described techniques. Through a discussion

of the history of literary techniques, I will present the background of the experiments of

contemporary authors, both familiar and unfamiliar with these methods, as well as show

the further complication or slackening of these literary techniques in the present. This

will place the phenomenon of contemporary Russian literary experiment into the

historical context of literature techne.

More specifically, in this chapter I will identify and describe the main formal

restrictions that will be later presented in contemporary texts analysed in the following

chapters of this thesis. I will also describe the poetic aims of the authors, insofar as they

are known for these texts. I will explore, where possible, whether these texts were

written within mainstream poetic practices, or whether they lay beyond the main literary

tendencies of the time, according only to the author's personal preference. Thus, I will

demonstrate the development of the formal technique through tradition.

Literary constraints, the study of which in the literary texts is the focus of my

research, appeared as part of a system of literary rules. In the past, literary texts were

written according to strict rhetorical and poetical methods related to ancient natural and

humanitarian disciplines, that is, as a part of the literature techne. Aristotle was the first

to systematise the principles of rhetoric among other scientific and artistic disciplines as

the foundation of European thought. In this system of disciplines, rhetoric was an art to

persuade and create systematic evidence to convince the interlocutor of the correctness

of the proposed theses, that is, "an ability to find possible ways of persuasion on the

given subject" (Aristotle 1978, 19). Aristotle distinguished technical {entechnoi) and

non-technical (atechnoi) rhetorical methods, focusing on the first as the formulation of

rules to create a text. Defined by Aristotle, the rhetorical rules came first to govern the

creation of speeches, and later that of written texts, so that the authors were obliged to

learn these rules before practising writing.

In the late Middle Ages, poetics came to be considered 'second rhetoric', which

expressed "a vague awareness of a specific character of poetry in the literary process"

(Zumthor 2003, 101). Complex systems of poetics were proposed in numerous

textbooks of poetical art describing basic poetic techniques, forms and methods via

appropriate examples. Following European models of poetic arts, the textbooks of

rhetoric and poetics were created in Russia, from Cad nosmmecKuu (Poetical garden,

1736) by Mitrofan Dovgalevsky (1973) to /Jee 3nucmojihi (Two epistles, 1774) by

Aleksandr Sumarokov (1957). In these books, the rules of poetics were explained

through the authors' poems.

In the present chapter, I will provide a history of the most developed formal

restrictions in European literature. I will list the techniques from simple to complex

following the development of the restriction. I will group the restrictions on the basis of

formal similarities, such as combinations of textual elements; allocations; repetition and

the absence of textual elements; and other formal structures. Whenever possible, I will

specify the author of the example of literary restriction and the time of its creation. I

will also demonstrate the major complications and modifications of the restriction,

together with their origins and authorship, where known.

This discussion will form an overview of formal restrictions in Russian literature

with the specification of literary eras and literary movements following these methods.

This will provide the historical perspective for my research, placing the analysis of the

poems by contemporary authors against the background of the history of European

literature techne.

2.2. Rearranging textual elements

I will start the review of the history of formal restrictions with the methods of

rearranging textual elements within a text. These are the simplest methods of literary

constraints, allowing the creation of new texts by using the elements of an existing text,

and to discover a complementary meaning for a text. The smallest textual elements that

can be rearranged are letters, followed by larger elements such as syllables, words,

phrases and paragraphs of text. The methods of rearrangement include anagrams,

palindromes and other techniques. Some of these methods have been known since

antiquity, though the term combinatorial literature appeared for them in the 1960s, when

the authors of Oulipo proposed it for these types of literary restrictions (Berge 1973, 47).

2.2.1. Letter anagrams

One of the most ancient forms of combinatorial literature is the anagram, which is

usually understood as a recombination of the letters of a text made to produce another

meaningful text. In some cases, the produced text is interpreted as an innate text hidden

inside the primary. Through the creation of anagram, the genuine meaning of the text is

thought to be discovered, and the primary and the anagrammatic texts are identified for

profane and sacral meanings, respectively.

Anagrams were already being written by ancient Greeks who changed the order of

the letters of words Apcxri (virtue) and Epaxri (beauty) (Bombaugh 1961, 41) to draw a

comparison between ethics and aesthetics. Pythagoreans composed anagrams of names

in search of the hidden characteristics of personalities. Poet and scholar Lycophron of

Chalcis (3rd century BC) referred to Ptolemy, PTOLEMAIS - APO MELITOS (made

of honey) and his queen, Arsinoe, ARSINOE - ERAS ION (violet of Ion) in the poem

Cassandra (Bombaugh 1961, 49), thus glorifying their inner virtues.

Different functions of anagrams appear throughout time. Later, anagrams of

names became popular as a method of divining the hidden nature of people and their

destiny. D'Israeli indicates that anagrams of a name could serve as either a form of

praise or mockery, and that they may equally allude to an event or a character trait of a

person (D'Israeli 1867, 262). Anagrams were also used as pseudonyms by authors

intending to hide their actual names; for example, Francois Rabelais rearranged the

letters of his name to produce the pseudonym ALCOFRIBAS NASIER. Otherwise,

anagrams could be used as a tool to reveal the original name. Thus, the authorship of the

novel Simplicius Simplicissimus was established by studying multiple pseudonyms

created as anagrams of the name Christoffel von Grimmelshausen (Morozov 1984).

However, it should be mentioned that for N letters of a name, their recombinations

provide as many as N! (N factorial, or product of natural numbers from 1 to N) versions

of anagrams. Therefore, even the simplest name can produce an enormous amount of

recomposed options, some of which would be words with substantially different

meanings.

2.2.2. Letter palindromes

Letter palindrome is a text where reading the letters of a text in reverse order

produces either the same or a different meaningful text. It is one of the oldest literary

restrictions, which has been widely known in Europe since antiquity. The invention of

palindrome in Europe is attributed to the Greek poet Sotade (circa 300 BC), while the

Roman poet Porphyrius Optacian (4th century AD) became known for the first

palindromes in Latin.

The dual readings of palindromes, similar to the reading of anagrams, were

considered to render the text aesoteric. According to Lotman (1992, 19-24), the dual

reading of a palindrome is associated with a contraposition of apparent to secret, of

ignoramus to sacral and aesoteric. Lotman contends that the author of a palindrome

considers the world through a non-linear, holistic perception that turns the flow of time

(Lotman 2000, 218). The notation of some palindromes emphasises this holistic view.

Thus, the recording of palindromes in a loop effectively separates the ignorant outside

area from the closed sacred area inside the ring. For example, the Greek palindrome

vi\|/ov avoiarmaxa |ar| jiovav oi|/iv (Wash your soul as well as the body, Greek) was

engraved around the font in the church of the Sancta Sofia in Constantinople, thereby

setting the sacred inner space apart from its surroundings.

During the Middle Ages, palindromes remained a popular form of literary

restrictions in Europe. They were usually written in Latin, which was the language of

educated people and centred on spiritual themes and invocation. Palindromes that read

the same way backwards as forwards, were considered to be magical phrases and related

to exorcism. Palindromes, as well as anagrams, as texts disclosing inner or sacral

meaning, could be anonymous thus expressing their association more with the language

itself, than with a definite author, or be attributed to a legendary figure. Thus, the two-

line letter palindrome "Signa te signa; temere me tangis et angis; Roma tibi subito

motibus ibit amor" (Cross, cross thyself, you plague and vex me without need; for by

my labours you shall soon reach Rome, the object of your wishes, Latin) was attributed

to St Martin who was told to turn the devil into a donkey with the sign of the cross and

ride him to Rome instead of walking there (Bombaugh 1961, 59).

In Russian literature, palindromes originated in the Baroque era, although there are

some inexact folk palindromes of unknown dating, such as "yBCAH y Bopa KopOBy w

^lesy" (Steal a cow and a girl from a thief) and "na B JIO6, ÔOJIBAH" (Be hit in the

forehead, fool). In his book IJosmuKa (Poetica, 1736), the Ukrainian scholar

Dovgalevsky describes literary techniques, poetical styles and rhetorical tropes in

accordance with Latin rhetoric textbooks. Following Latin models, these poems centred

around meditations on faith. Among a number of other poetic techniques, Dovgalevsky

provides examples of letter palindromes that could have either the same or a different

meaning in reverse and forwards, "Anna nnxa MJI, H Mara nanna" (Anna feeds me, I am

the mother); "Anna Aap H MHC cen MMpa AaHua" (Anna is a gift for me and for all)

(Dovgalevsky 1973, 272).

Similar topics and expressions are presented by Ukrainian poet loann

Velichkovsky (circa 1650-1701) in his book MJICKO om oeijbi nacmtipio HadeofCHoe

(Reliable milk from the sheep to the shepherd, 1691). Velichkovsky gives the name

paKoebie (crab) for the poems of reverse letter reading in reference to a crab's moves:

" B T P M A M H KOTOporo Jitxepti H BcnaK HHTAIOHMCH" (poems of the reversereading of the

letters). Unlike Dovgalevsky, Velichkovsky did not discuss all rhetorical rules. Instead

he wrote poems on literary restrictions considering these forms to be most appropriate

for sacred Christian themes, as in the following examples: "aKH jieB h TaMO o MaxH

BCJiHKa" (As a lion and the mother is great there); "h xaM Hcyc h MaxH" (And there are

Jesus and the Mother, Velichkovsky 1972, 73).

In the late eighteenth century, a number of palindromes were written by Gavriil

Derzhavin, who maintained the tradition of writing on spiritual subjects. By the

nineteenth century however, this tradition had ceased, and an insignificant number of

palindromes were written in the field of word-games and literary jokes, such as that

attributed to Afanasy Fet: "a po3a ynajia na Jiany Aaopa" (And a rose fell on the paw of

Azor). Then, in the early twentieth century, the palindrome technique returned to the

poetic toolkit, and in the poems by Velimir Khlebnikov became an instrument of the

search for poetical expressiveness. In the mid-late twentieth century, the palindrome as

a technique contrasting the accepted forms of Soviet prosody, was employed in

unofficial Soviet poetry by such authors as Khromov, Laduinin and Gershuni, among

others. Some palindromes were not attributed to a specific author, but were rather a

form of folklore. To the present time, the letter palindrome is the most prevalent method

of literary restrictions in Russian formal experimental literature, with a number of

simple short palindromes discovered by several authors independently.

2.2.3 Verbal anagrams

Presented above are the techniques by which letters in words or phrases are

rearranged. In the following combinatorial methods, the larger textual elements are

rearranged. These elements such as words, phrases, paragraphs and even chapters of a

novel, are semantically significant, and their rearranging can produce multiple texts of

similar or differing meanings. As a result, complex relationships between primary and

transformed texts are created.

Compared to letter anagrams, the verbal anagram is a significantly rarer technique

in the history of literature techne. Molière (1622-1673), in his play Le bourgeois

gentilhomme (The bourgeois gentleman, 1670) exemplified the comic possibilities of

recombining words in a phrase. In the play, a philosophy professor demonstrates the

technique of elegant writing by rearranging words in a letter to the marquise. The lyrical

hero considers these eccentric suggestions, but eventually rejects them, deciding that the

initial word order was the best.

Also, loann Velichkovsky creates a poem by the rearrangement of words.

Velichkovsky explains the method as follows: "MHoronpHMeHHxejibHbiH ecx BHpui,

KOTOpblH KHJlKa ACCHT paSblH nepeMCHJITHCil MO>KeT, SKO HH>KeH OÓaHHUIb, y pHMJIJIH

HA3HBAETBCH T O T B H p m npoTeyc" (Poem of multiple reading, which can be read in

dozens of ways, Romans called it proteus, Velichkovsky 1972, 83):

HHBy pacHO NJIO^W yKpauiaiOT HKO, ^ K O NJIOAW pacHO HHey yKpauiaiOT, /],eBy KpacHO po^bi y6jia5KaK)T xaKo. TaKo poAw KpacHO ^esy yóJia KafOT.

PflCHO njiOAbi yKpamaiOT HKO HHsy. HHBy yKpamaiOT pacHO njiOAW HKO, KpacHO po/tbi y6jia>KaK)T raKo jXQBy. Aesy y6jia}KaK)T KpacHO po/ibi xaKo.

njio;IBI yKpamaiOT SKO HHBy pacHO, PHCHO HKO NJIO^BI yKpauiaioT HHBy. PoAbi yGjia^aiOT TaKO ACBy KpacHo. KpacHo TaKo poAbi yGjia^aiOT ACBy.

YKpamaiOT HKO HHBy pacHo njio^bi, rijiOAbi JIKO HHBy yKpamaioT pacHo, yójiajKaFOT TaKO jxeBy KpacHO poAbi. Poaw TaKO ACBy y6jia>KaK)T KpacHO.

YKpamaiOT «KG PHCHO HHBY nnoAbi, y6jia>KaiOT TaKO KpacHo ACBy po^bi.

(As a grain field is very beautiful with the harvest, so the maiden becomes very good with the childbirth)

In the distich, Velichkovsky establishes an analogy between the beauty of

harvesting nature and the virtue of a woman giving birth: "^ko HHBy pacHO hjioaw

yKpamaiOT, TaKO ^efiy KpacHO po^w y6jia>KaiOT" (As a grain field is very beautiful with

the harvest, so the maiden becomes very good with the childbirth). Then he develops

this argument by multiple rearrangements of the words in the further lines of

approximately the same meanings. In this example, the combinatorial technique is used

as a rhetorical method for persuading and convincing the reader.

Another example of a word anagram can be found in the early twentieth century.

In the poem Keadpam Keadpamoe (Square of the squares, 1910; see Appendix I), Igor

Severyanin forms the lines of every stanza by rearranging the same rhyming words,

'HHKOR^a' - 'HH O HCM' - 'ne xony' - 'roBopnTb' (never - not by anything - don't want

to - talk); 'o noeepb' - '51 ycraji' - 'a COBCCM' - 'wsHeivior' (believe me - I am tired - I

am very - exhausted); '6biJi ro^a' - 'najiancM' - 'najiany' - 'ne napHXb' (by the years -

was a hangman - a hangman - can't fly); 'TOHHO 3Bepb' - 'sanjiyxaji' - 'mok no3M' -

'H xpesor' (as a beast - I am lost - between poems - and anxiety, quoted in Gasparov

1993, 198). This format also conforms to the strict mathematical rules of Latin square

(Bonch-Osmolovskaya 2009, 442), where each element of the matrix, for the poem -

each word of the poem, appears once and once only in each line and each column, that

isin each line and each metric foot. Thus, Severyanin applies the combinatorial

mathematical method to prosody, and thereby creates a new poetic method.

Similarly, in the poem ToMUbie ¿pesti. Bapuaifwi (Languorous dreams. Variation),

the poet Valéry Bryusov (1974, III, 378; see Appendix I) uses only twelve words,

combining them in different orders. The poem consists of six stanzas of four lines each,

and the same six pairs of rhyming words are used in each stanza, 'XCHH' - 'JICHH'

(shadows - indolence), 'posbi' - 'rpesbi' (roses - dreams), 'cnajin' - '^ajiH' (slept -

distance/given), 'cKasKH' - 'B nacKe' (tales - by caress), 'xoMHbi' - 'xèMHbi'

(languishing - dark), 'GMJIH' - 'cxbiJiH' (were - frozen). By applying certain strategies

of the rearrangment of words in the stanzas, Bryusov is able to create a meaningful

lyrical poem. It can be counted that there are 15 x 8! x 4! = 14 515 200 possibilities for

a stanza, so Bryusov's version of a six stanza poem is chosen as one in two million.

This enormous range of possibilities demonstrates the author's strict self-restriction for

the creation of the poem.

2.2.4. Verbal palindromes

Similar to the letter palindrome, verbal palindrome is a text that can be read

word by word in reverse. As a letter palindrome is a specific form of letter anagram,

a verbal palindrome is a specific type of verbal anagram. Similar to other

combinatorial formal restrictions, they were commonly used for meditation on

spiritual themes. Verbal palindromes of phrases have existed for a long time. In the

European medieval tradition, verbal palindromes have a special name, anacycle

verses. For example, St Mark of Novell of Florence wrote the palindrome: "Sacrum

pingue dabo non macrum sacrificabo, sacrificabo macrum non dabo pingue sacrum"

(A fat offering is not a great sacrifice, a great sacrifice is not a fat offering, Latin

(Bombaugh 1961, 63)). When read forwards, the phrase is a hexameter line alluding

to the sacrifice of Abel, while when read backwards, it is a pentameter line instead

alluding to the sacrifice of Cain.

Around the turn of the sixteenth century, the group of poets Grands Rhetoriqueurs

worked in extremely complex poetical forms, including verbal palindromes. For

example, Bouchet used this technique in describing the dual nature of the inhabitants of

the Poitier province (Zumthor 1978, 246-247):

Poytevins sont loyaulx non caulx, Feable non voulans meffaire, Begnis non rudes, bons non faulx, Manyables non a reffaire, Amyable non pretz a braire, Amoureux non trompeurs et fins, Traictables non voulans desplaire, Preux non noyseux sont poictevins.

(Residents of Poitiers are loyal, not mordant, / well-wishing, not willing evil, / friendly, not rude, kind, not false, / obliging, not cheaters, / amicable, not brawlers, / loving, not deceivers and frauds, / tractable, not willing to disappoint, / proud not squabblers are Poitiers, Old French)

Here, the negative opinion of the author for the inhabitants of the Poitier province

(mordant, not loyal; willing evil, not well-wishing; rude, not friendly; false, not kind. . . )

is hidden inside the panegyrical lines (loyal, not mordant, / well-wishing, not willing

evil, / friendly, not rude, kind, not false.. .), but can be revealed by reading the lines in

reverse. The contrast between meanings of the forward and backwards readings

produces the comical effect of removing a mask and finding the original ugly face.

In the late seventeenth century, Velichkovsky followed a method of verbal

palindromes known to European poets. He defined verbal palindrome as "paK CJIOBHBIH

ecTb Bepm, KOToporo He jiHxepbi, ajie cjiOBa ecnaK HHTaKDTca" (Verbal crab is a poem

where not letters, but words are read in reverse, Velichkovsky 1972, 73), and writes

several poems of this type:

BbicoKO jxbBa ecT B03HeceHHa, fjiyÔOKO HKO ÔHiiie CMHpeHHa. (Bo3HeceHHa ecT jxbBa BBICOKO, CMHpeHHa Game HKO rjiyóoKO.)

(High is the virgin placed, / because of the great humility)

In this poem, Velichkovsky obeys traditional poetic restrictions such as the initial

and ending rhymes and poetical parallelisms typical of spiritual poetry. The parallel and

contradictory meanings create complex connections between the lines of the poem, and

the reverse reading reinforces the central concept of the greatness and humbleness of the

Virgin Mary.

For the phrases read word by word backwards with a different meaning,

Velichkovsky introduces a term paK npeKOCJioenbiu (contra-verbal crab), "paK

npeKOCJiOBHbiH ecTb B H p m , KOTOporo cjioBa, BcnaK HHxaioHHCJi, n p o T H B H b i ñ TCKCT

Bbipa>KaK)T" (Contra-verbal crab is a poem where words, when read in reverse, express

the opposite meaning (Velichkovsky 1972, 74)), and writes several poems based on this

restriction, for example:

Bory no5Kpy )KepTBy xyMHy He xy^yio, MHory He Manyio, 6jiaryK) ne sjiyio. (Xy;iyK) we xyMHy Kepxey no>Kpy Bory, 3jiyK) He Gjiaryio, Manyio ne MHory.)

(I will sacrifice to God fat, not thin; / big, not small; good, not bad; // thin, not fat; I will sacrifice to God; / bad, not good; small, not big.)

A direct reading of this poem again (fat; not thin; big; not small; good, not bad

sacrifice) refers to Abel, while the reverse (sacrifice bad, not good; small, not big; thin,

not fat) to Cain. This distich is therefore a paraphrase of the verbal palindrome by St

Mark of Novell cited above, and the aim of the author is to adapt the concept to the

Russian cultural domain thus enriching the native culture. Velichkovsky does not

acknowledge the original authorship, as the name of the author was unknown or these

texts were considered to be a common truth beyond the authorship.

Later, verbal palindromes became a form of word-game entertainment far from

poetic tasks, as in the case of G.A. Lindon's phrase, "you can cage a swallow, can't you,

but you can't swallow a cage, can you?" (Gardner 1961, 345). The repetition of the

words produces the effect of an invocation, which contrasts with the absurd meaning of

the phrase. In the early twentieth century, this restriction reappeared as a renewed

poetic, not word-game, method.

The poetical situation of the early twentieth century produced the demand for new

literary topics, poetic styles and poetic forms, and Bryusov responded to this demand by

researching previously developed and by then, forgotten forms. First, Bryusov created

verbal palindromes as translations of poems from the Latin anthology (6th century AD),

although he did not specify the exact original poem. Following this model, Bryusov

created a verbal palindrome poem obeying the restrictions, in which the order of words is

symmetrical when read from the beginning to the end and from the end to the beginning,

although the punctuation marks alter (Bryusov 1974, III, 509; see Appendix I).

Sixty years later, Russian fantasy writer Mikhail Pukhov also experimented with

verbal palindromes. In the short story UajiundpoM e anmuMup (Palindrome to the anti-

world, 1977), the palindromic reversal of the text reflects the time when an Earth

spacecraft transits to the anti-universe. The second half of the story, which repeats the

first half in reverse, presents a further development of the story: what was the neutral

description of an everyday setting, though a fantastic version of everyday life on board a

spacecraft, in the beginning of the story, turns tragic in the end. Here, the formal method

of reversed reading is used to explore the transformation of the structure of the universe

and therefore questions of life and death for human beings.

2.2.5. Phrase anagrams

An even more complex method of combinatorial literature is rearranging and

recombining phrases within a sentence or paragraph, which is very close to verbal

anagrams in terms of technique as well as literary aims for the writing. In the ancient

Latin poetic tradition, this particular form is known as snake verse: the first hemistich of

the first verse echoes the second hemistich of the second verse, so that the poem's

scheme resembles a ring or a snake seizing its own tail. In his search for reviving the

forgotten poetical forms, Bryusov uncovers a poem of this structure amongst the works

of the Latin poet Porphyrius Optacian (4th century AD). Bryusov also translates several

snake verses from the Latin anthology: "He>KHbiH CTHXOB apoiviax YCJIA>KAAET GESACJIHE

AEBBI: / Kpoex npo^^EJIKH 6oroB HE>KHBIH CTHXOB apoMax" (Delicate smell of the flowers

charms the idleness of a maid, tricks of the gods are hidden by a delicate smell of the

flowers, Bryusov 1974, III, 509), as well as some poems by Latin poet Pentady

(Bryusov 1974, III, 510-511; see Appendix I).

This technique reappeared around the turn of the twentieth century in the works of

the French poet Stéphane Mallarmé, who was seemingly unaware of the history of this

form. In his Easter poem, Mallarmé recombines the same four lines in four stanzas

(Mallarmé 1945, 141), "Pâques apporte ses vœux / Toi vaine ne le déjoue / Au seul rouge

de ces œufs / Que se colore ta joue". Each line of the poem was written in gold ink on a

red Easter egg, so that the lines could be rearranged by moving the eggs around the plate.

There are twenty-four possibilities for the reading of the four lines, however in the

complete collection of Mallarmé's verses, only four of them are presented. This

demonstrates how recording a combinatorial poem can reduce the number of options

originally envisaged by the author. This would support the concept of potentiality of the

literature proposed by Oulipo, which states that a poem is more than it appears on reading.

Some years later and apparently regardless of Mallarmé, Russian poet Igor

Severyanin created a poem with a similar technique. The poem Pondojiem (Rondolet)

from Severyanin's first poetic book Kojite npmijecchi (Necklace of the princess, 1910;

see Appendix I) consists of four stanzas, each composed of the same lines arranged in

the following sequences: 1234 4312 2143 3421. I have disclosed the structure of

mathematical Latin square in the rearrangement of the lines of this poem (Bonch-

Osmolovskaya 2009, 442) which is too strict to appear accidentally. This demonstrates

how Severyanin applied mathematical forms for poetic purposes.

In a short text Chapitre premier (Chapter One), Georges Perec, a member of

Oulipo, demonstrates the kaleidoscopic possibilities of creating a character of a story

and an opening scene by rearrangements of the phrases (Perec 1990, 205). In this case, a

combinatorial text consists of one paragraph with three sentences of three phrases each,

able to be combined in any order to create a range of possible meanings. The reader

selects one variant of the text by making a triple choice in every phrase of three

sentences, producing a character described by these choices. Therefore, a single

paragraph has a total number of = 19 683 possible versions, which constitute the

whole text.

In the mid-twentieth century, a new phrase anagram structure appeared in a

collection of poems by Raymond Queneau, a member and a co-founder of Oulipo. In

his book Cent mille milliards de poèmes (Hundred Thousand Billion Poems, 1961),

Queneau applies combinatorial rules to the strict sonnet scheme by rearranging the lines

of ten sonnets. The convergence of rhymes in all ten primary sonnets allows lines to

change: any of the first ten lines of the poems can fill the first line position (i.e., there

are ten possibilities for the choice of the first line); any of the second lines of the poems

can fill the second line position (10 x 10 = 100 possibilities) and so forth. As a result,

the reader obtains the declared number of lO'" , or one hundred thousand billion poems.

This enormous number of versions means that by opening a new page, the reader almost

certainly creates a poem that no one has ever read before. Thus, a new text arises at the

moment of its reading, and in the strict sense, it is created by the reader rather than by

the author. So the relationship of a text of combinatorial literature, its author and its

reader is very different from those for a text of conventional literature, where the reader

is presented with a fixed piece which can only be interpreted, not transformed.

2.2.6. Phrase palindromes

Phrase, or line palindrome is the special case of rearranging lines in texts, similar

to letter palindrome as a special case among all rearrangements of letters in a word. In

Russia, line palindromes were created as parodies to reveal imperfections in the original

poems: if the poem can be read line by line in reverse, the reader is led to the conclusion

that the original lyrical intention of the author has failed. An example is the parody by

Nikolay Polevoy of the poem UoceMUjeHue U.A. IJjiemHëey (Dedication to P.A. Pletnev,

1831) in the Foreword to the first chapter of Pushkin's Eeeenuu Omzuu (Eugene

Onegin). The parody was published in the MOCKOSCKUU MEJIE3PA(P (Moscow Telegraph)

journal immediately after the publication of the beginning of Pushkin's poem.

According to the critic Ksenophont Polevoy, the author of the parody had exposed the

weakness of Pushkin's poem: "ne HAXOAII B HHX CBHBH, H JIJIÎI npHMepa NPEAJIARAJI

HHTaXb HCKOTOpbie OTpblBKH HX C KOHUa K HaHajiy, npHHCM CMblCJl nOHTH He MCHilJlCil"

(Finding no connections between lines, and therefore proposing to read some excerpts

from the end to the beginning, while the meaning remains almost unchanged, quoted in

by Orlitsky, Internet publication). Another example is the parody by Dmitry Minaev

(1863) to the poem VcHyjio osepo; ôesMOJieen nepHhiù Jiec... (A lake has fallen asleep,

the black forest is silent, 1856) by Fet. Minaev's line-palindrome version of the poem

became an independent text sustaining a detailed literary analysis (Gasparov 1995, 170-

171), thus the poetic result exceeded the intentions of the author of the parody.

For large textual elements with their own meanings rearranged, there are various

possibilities for the reading of the resulting text. First, the elements of the text can be

presented as a set of separate extracts, almost unrelated to each other, which are

supposed to be read in any order. Examples of this method include The Notebooks of

Malte Laurids Brigge by Rainer Maria Rilke (1910) and Paths to Paradise by Peter

Corneille (1987). Second, it is possible to create a scheme with forks, or bifurcations, so

the reader can choose a way of developing the story through these bifurcations. These

texts received the title interactive stories, or pick-a-path stories, and have become

popular recently. For the third option, it is the author who defines several possible

orders of reading of the textual elements as a whole text. This is the structure of Rayuela

by Cortazar (1963) and E by J. Roubaud (1967). The choice of a particular scheme of

reading limits the degree of the reader's freedom as the co-author of the text: in the first

approach, the reader is free to recombine text elements; in the second, the reader is

allowed to select options at the bifurcation points, thereby altering the plot of the

resulting text; and in the third, the reader is presented with the defined, though multiple

possible ways of readings. Nevertheless, in all of these options, an overall field of

possibilities is created, with the reader becoming the co-author of the text. This

distinguishes combinatorial literature from the conventional with a singular way of

reading, therefore giving the reader of a conventional text a more passive role compared

to the role of the reader of a combinatorial text.

2.3. Emphasising textual elements

Other techniques used in combinatorial literature consist in repeating and omitting

certain textual elements, usually letters. These methods of emphasising textual elements

are tautogram and lipogram, including lipograms modifications to monovocalism and

monoconsonantism.

2.3.1. Tautograms

The simplest formal method of repetition of the letters of a text is the tautogram^

where the first letters of each word of the text are the same. Tautogram is a

formalisation of alliteration as spontaneous repetitions of sounds, a method which is

widespread in European poetry, for example: "e caddi come corpo morto cade" (And he

fell as a dead falls, Dante) - alliteration on 'c '; "pour qui sont ces serpents qui suffient

sur vos têtes" (For whom are these snakes who hiss on your heads, Racine) - alliteration

o n ' s ' ; "HeBa BS^iyeajiacb H pesejia / KOTJIOM KJioKona H KjiyÔHCb" (Neva swelled and

roared / bubbling as a cauldron and swirling, Pushkin) - alliteration on 'B' (V) and 'K'

(k); "UlHoeHbe ncHHCTbix GoKajioe H nyHuia njiaivieHb rojiyGoH" (Fizzing of foaming

glasses and a blue flame of punch, Pushkin) - alliteration on 'm' (sh), 'n' (p) and 'H'

(n), "B KaKOM KOJiene KJieTHaxoro KjiaHa" (In what generation of a chequered clan,

Brodsky) - alliteration on 'K' (k).

Historically, complex alliterations were the main prosodic method in the ancient

Scandinavian poetry (Steblin-Kamensky 1979, 77-130). Later, some Romantic poets

attempted to use this restriction in order to reproduce an ancient poetical style different

from the modem style of European prosody. In the twentieth century, in the poem The

Age of Anxiety by W.H. Auden, the repetitions of the consonants in the hemistiches of

each line of the poem were used as a notably developed poetical technique marking an

allusion to the Scandinavian martial poetry.

Tautograms differ from alliteration by observing strict repetition of the first letters

of all meaningful words. In tautograms in European languages, minor digressions from

the strict repetitions are permitted in prepositions, auxiliary verbs and a few others. For

some cases, tautogram repetitions can be seen as poetical defects; though for others, the

author can accentuate them intentionally as a poetical method. In a tautogram, the

repetition of the sounds follows a regular pattern similar to the repetition of the regular

stresses in tonic metres, or the phonic repetition of final syllables in rhyming poems,

which are presently widespread poetic techniques. In contrast to these prosodic

methods, tautogram is an artificial technique rarely used in contemporary poetry.

Nevertheless, tautogram is a restriction that has been known since antiquity when

Quint Ennius (2nd-3rd century AD) wrote "O Tite, tute, Tati, tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti!"

(O thou tyrant, Titus Tatius, such great troubles you brought upon yourself! Latin).

Umberto Eco quotes an excerpt from a letter of the English poet Aldhelmus (7th century

AD) in which all words but one start with the same letter 'p': "Primitus pantorum

procerum praetorumque pio potissimum, patemoque praesertim privilegio panegyricum

poemataque passim prosatori sub polo promulgantes..." (Eco 2006, 419). Aldhelmus was

the first Anglo-Saxon poet who wrote in Latin, and he used known poetical restrictions in

the search for the poetical methods for the new national poetry, and as a mark of educated

poetry. In the late Middle Ages, the Grands Rhétoriqueurs poets also practised tautogram

restriction as one of the effective artificial forms, considering the complexity of the

poetical structure as an important quality of the poetry.

In Russian literature, tautogram-based texts can be found in ABC-books, such as

EyKeaph (Alphabet, 1694) by Karion Istomin, where it is used in order to familiarise the

reader with the spelling of the words. At the turn of the twentieth century Bryusov used

strict tautograms in poems Cuoeo. Cmwcu c coseymmMU (The word. Poem with

consonance) and Mou MQHK. Madpueaji (My lighthouse. Madrigal) (Bryusov 1974, III,

204; see Appendix I) to demonstrate the prosodic virtuosity. In the late twentieth

century the authors created extended tautogram texts to show their mastery of the

technique. To develop the method further, contemporary Russian authors propose n-

grams experimenting with the positioning of the repeated letter, thus fixing the second,

middle or last letter of all words of a poem (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 230).

2.3.2. Lipograms

Formal restriction consisting in the deliberate absence of certain letters in the text

is called lipogram (from the Greek 'leipo' - to skip). It is another artificial method used

to accentuate absent sounds or to conceal meaning. Lipograms are one of the most

inconspicuous forms, especially in short texts.

A number of lipograms were written throughout the history of European poetry

from antiquity to the present, mostly as a kind of literary bizarrerie. The first known

lipogram is the poem Ode about centaurs written in the 6th century BC by Lasos of Hermione. This is a poem without the sibilant letter 'sigma' (a), which was considered to be a 'non-poeticaF letter. Unfortunately, this poem has not survived to the present, and only the first line of the other poem by Lasos, Hymn to Demeter, remains, Ar||iriapa |isA.7rco Kopav i s KAviasvoia a>.oxov .

Georges Perec wrote his own texts of this form after presenting a detailed history of lipograms (Perec 1973, 77-93). The novel La Disparition (A Void) by Georges Perec is a lengthy lipogram on the letter 'e', which is removed throughout all 26 chapters of the novel. Here, the structural constraint is used as a means of expressing a profound personal experience. The absent 'e', read as 'eux absents' (those who are absent), refers to losses the author suffered: Perec was a member of a Jewish family, his father was killed at the war front, and his mother perished in Auschwitz. Throughout the novel, the lack of the letter 'e', mirrored in the continuous disappearance of characters, represents a metaphor for the countless losses.

2.3.3. Monovocalisms and monoconsonantisms Monovocalisms and monoconsonantisms are amplifications of the lipogram

restriction. In these methods, the use of letters in the texts is restricted to only one vowel and only one consonant respectively. Through using this technique, the authors demonstrate their poetic mastery allowing them to express thoughts and feelings through extremely restricted vocabulary. The most frequently occurring vowel in English language is 'e'; consequently the simplest and the most popular monovocalisms centre on 'e' (i.e.. Eve's Legend by Henry Richard Vassall-Fox, 1836). Some poets rewrote well-known texts to monovocalist or monoconsonantist poems of similar meanings. Thus, Marie-Christine Plassard reworked the fable The Fox and the Crow to

the poem with only the vowel 'e ' : "Père Merle perché serre entre le bec le bretzel..."

(Oulipo 1981, 214). In these cases, the poems are rather poetical exercises in prosody

practice, though in other cases, they can appear as independent poetical statements.

Velichkovsky writes monovocalistic distich, or, in the author's terminology,

eduHoenacue (one vowel poem), transferring the method from the Latin models.

Velichkovsky defines monovocalism as: "eAUHorj iacHbi i i e c T b B H p m , B K o x o p o M

KSûKjxsi CHJijiHÔa eAHHOK) rjiacHOK) jiHxepOH saMbiKaexcji" (Monovocalism is a poem

with the only one vowel at the end of each syllable, Velichkovsky 1972, 75), providing

an example of a monovocalistic poem together with its interpretation:

C J I O B O n j i O x O H O c H O

M H O F O O J I O A O H O C H O .

M H O F O njiOAa 6 o r a c j i o e o e paii npHHOCHx, B o a xeM 6b ima, eca /laex, HCCOMO KXO npocHx.

(A word is freshful, very fruitful. The God's word brings great fruits to the heaven; everything you need will be given)

This extremely rigid restriction did not re-appear in Russia again until recently,

when contemporary poet Boris Grinberg wrote a collection of monovocalisms and

monoconsonantisms on almost every letter of the alphabet as a demonstration of his

poetical mastery and as a method for expressing poetical ideas. Some of these poems

will be discussed in the following chapter.

2.4. Selecting text inside the text

A selection of the defined part of the text into separate text with another meaning

is another combinatorial literary restriction. Some of these techniques can be

considered as an amplification of the tautogram, such as the methods of reading the

first, middle or last letters of a text {abecedary, acrostic, mesostic, or telestic). In other

restrictions, new text is created by reading only the left or right side of a text, or only

odd or even lines of an original text. Thus, a text hidden inside the existing one is

48

presented, which can serve a range of purposes from a lyrical dedication to the

promotion of political ideas, or can simply be a form of literary exercise.

2.4.1. Abecedaries

Abecedary, or alphabetic text, is a text where all the initial letters of each word or

of each line form the alphabetical sequence. Abecedaries were used for a didactic

purpose: according to Mikhail Gasparov, creation of an abecedary "Gbijio cpeACTBOM

Jiynme sanoMHHTb Ba>KHbiH tckct h HHnero ne nponycTHTb" (was an important tool to

better memorise an important text without missing anything (Gasparov 1993, 23)).

Abecedaries were popular during the Middle Ages, when they were dedicated to

spiritual topics such as the Holy Family, the Saints and objects of faith, and

demonstrated the universality of these themes. For example, the poet Distrees of the

Grands Rhetoriqueurs wrote an octave dedicated to St Margarite. The first letters of

twenty-five words of this poem form the alphabetic succession, with the same letters

used for I and J, for U and F, and ampersands & (et, and) and zd (con-) used for the last

two words (Zumthor 1978, 209).

Later, alphabetic texts were considered both by the authors and the readers as

exercises in practising style and poetical mastery. For example, Harry Mathews, a

member of Oulipo, creates a text that is an ascending abecedary from letter 'a' to letter

'x', then a descending abecedary from letter 'x' to letter 'a', then again an ascending

abecedary from 'a' to 'z' and a double abecedary from 'z' and 'a' to 'a' and 'z' (Oulipo

1981,261-263).

2.4.2. Letter acrostics and similar forms

Acrostic is a poem where the first letters of each line of the poem are combined to

form a meaningful phrase which can contain a name or a message. Acrostic can tag a

text as the signature of the author like the modern copyright symbol; or be a solution to

a riddle proposed by the text. There are 'open' acrostics, where font or colour is used to

highlight the message, and 'closed' acrostics where the selected letters are not

highlighted within the text, thus concealing the message from the 'uninitiated' reader.

The tradition to read only the first letters of each phrase began with the early

Christians who understood the word 1X0YS (fish) as an acronym of the sacred formula

Ir|aoD(!^ Xpiaxoi!^, ©sou Yio(! , ZtiTTrip (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, Greek). For

this reason, a drawing of a fish became a symbol of Christianity and was used among

early Christians as a recognition sign. Another example is the Greek transcription of the

name Adam interpreted as an abbreviation of the parts of the world: East, West, North

and South, to demonstrate a person's relationship to the world as a minor universe to the

major. The cabbalistic method Notarikon consists in creating an acrostic by using the

phrases of the Torah and Talmud. By Notarikon, a phrase is constructed on the basis of

the letters of the word, or the initial or final letters of the phrase are examined to form a

word that should be interpreted as a hidden message. For example, the first letters of

Moses's question (Deuteronomy 30:12), as written in the Torah, "Who shall go up for

us to heaven?", gives MYLH (circumcision), while the final letters give YHWH

(Jahveh), which are interpreted as the answer to the question, "the circumcision will go

up to God" (Eco 1995,27).

Acrostic as a poetical technique appeared in the Middle Ages, approximately at

the same time as the phonic rhyme. The resemblance of the ancient terms for acrostic

(border-selection) and for a rhyme (border-consonance) follows from the similarity of

these poetical methods in the past: phonetic and visual options were equivalent marks to

distinguish elements of the text. Then, with the development of European poetry, the

rhyme became a widespread prosodic technique, whereas acrostic was shifted to the

periphery of literary methods.

During the Middle Ages, acrostics, similar to abecedaries, were dedicated to

spiritual themes, while by the nineteenth century, acrostics basically became a form of

amateur 'album' poetry. For example, Lewis Carroll includes acrostics in his letters as

dedications to young friends, and uses them in the dedications of his books.

One of the first Russian acrostics, or Kpaeepanecue (border-selection), was written

by Velichkovsky to glorify the Virgin (Velichkovsky 1972, 76):

Mbicjiexe, Mbicjib HMEIITE, HO HC MOIMHO 3HaTH, A3, Acea, KdKo Morox rocno^a BanaxH. PUH TOKMO CO BepOK), BCflK XpHCTHHHHHe, H5Ke BCH CBCAbiH, 6o^e, Tbi BecH e/iHHe, A3, HHcxa eziHHa, jxQBa Houiy cbma.

(Think, have a thought, but do not know much, /1 am a virgin who could conceive Lord, / Look only with faith, every Christian man, / You know all, Lord, you are the one, /1 am the pure one, virgin bearing the son)

Among other Russian authors who used this technique were Derzhavin (the early

nineteenth century), who wrote acrostic riddles, and Mikhail Kuzmin, Georgy Ivanov

and Benedict Livschitz (the early twentieth century), who wrote acrostics as lyrical

dedications. Bryusov, as a master of restricted forms, found acrostic restriction too

simple, and therefore complicated it by combining the acrostic with the sonnet, cento, or

bouts-rimes forms.

Far from the spiritual aims, during the first Soviet years, acrostics were a tool of

official propaganda: in 1922, the leading Soviet newspaper Ilpaeda published a poem

where the initial letters of the words formed the phrase "no;innmHCb na FIpaB iy"

(Subscribe for Pravda, Kvyatkovsky 1966, 15). Then, in the cooperative magazine

ropod u depeeHH (Town and Village, 1924, 11-13), the acrostic was used in the

advertising, where the initial letters of the poem formed the phrase "OxKpbiTa noAOHCKa

Ha T o p o A H AepeBHK)'" (Subscription is open for 'Town and Village' (Kvyatkovsky

1966, 15)).

In some acrostics where the initial letters are not highlighted, the meaning of the

phrase can be hidden from the reader, possibly contrasting to the meaning of the whole

poem, so an uninformed addressee is misled by the aim of the author. Thus, Sam Lloyd,

the author of Encyclopedia of Puzzles, quotes a poem that was published in a

newspaper, despite the fact that it contained an obscene acrostic about its editor

(Gardner 1961, 334). In the late 1970s, poet Nikolay Glazkov submitted a poem for

publication in a Tambov newspaper (Biryukov 2003a, 32). The poem was on the verge

of being published, when an editor discovered that the first letters of the lines formed

the phrase "floporoii JICOHHA H J I S H H " (Dear Leonid Ilyich). A reference to the head of

the Communist party, Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev, was considered extremely dangerous

during that era, so the poem was urgently removed from publication. Another political

acrostic was written in the late Soviet era by Alexandr Eremenko as a reply to Felix

Chuev's poem glorifying Stalin. In Eremenko's acrostic, Stalin and Chuev were both

the object of satire (Biryukov 2003a, 86):

CTOJICTHC JLK)6HMOrO B05KAH

Tbi OTMenan c pasMaxoM craxoTBopua, AKpOCTHXOM HTOFH nO BOA« JlH3aHHa canor jiK)6MMbix ropua! H BOX xenepb xbi MO>Kemb He CKpbiBaxb, He mH(J)poBaxb JIK)6BH CBOCH ySoroii. B oxKpbixyK) Mrpa, Bac xo>Ke MHOFO.

;^HpyHxe ^anbuie, ecjiH Bor npocxHx. O^HaKO BCe ilOJDKHO 6bIXb 060IOAHbIM: npOMXH, J1H3HH MOH CKpOMHblH aKpOCXHX, ECJIH HCxpyAHO. ^yMaK), Hexpy/iHo.

(The centenary of the beloved leader / you celebrated with a scale of a poet, / summing up by acrostics / the licking of the beloved boots of the mountain dweller! / And now you can openly demonstrate, / not encipher your miserable love. / The game is in public, you are numerous. / Fatten further, if God forgives you. / But everything should be mutual: / When you read this, lick my humble acrostic, / If it's not difficult for you. I think, it is not)

Even further from the spiritual, contemporary poet Boris Pankin continues this

tradition, hiding an obscene acrostic in his poem HanymcmeeuHhiu conem (Farewell

sonnet (Pankin 2005, 119)) without notifying the editor of the journal in which the

poem was published.

Several variations of acrostics, such as mesostic (formed by the middle letters of

the word) and telestic (formed by the last letters of the words), have been used since the

early Middle Ages. Telestic and mesostic restrictions can appear separately, but

generally they occur in conjunction with acrostics. A further technique is labyrinth,

where selected letters throughout the text form a broken line, as in the works of Latin

poet Porphyrius Optacian (4th century AD). During the Middle Ages, labyrinths were a

widespread form of intellectual entertainment among educated monks. The inner texts

of early mesostics, telestics and labyrinths, as well as of early acrostics, concentrated on

religious themes, such as the name of Christ and the symbols of faith. These inner texts

were highlighted by the use of a different colour or a special font, thus forming figures

inside the text such as stars, sides, diagonals and others (Parmiggiani 2002, 69-77) to

make the inner text evident to the reader.

2.4.3. Syllabic and verbal acrostics

Acrostic poems that mark larger textual elements such as syllables and words are

known as syllabic and verbal acrostics. Syllabic acrostics, in which the first syllables of

each line of the poem form a meaningful text, are less frequent compared to the letter

acrostic described above, though they also exist in the history of literature techne. For

example, Molinet, one of the Grands Rhetoriqueurs, wrote a poem in which the first

syllables of each line formed the Latin phrase "O MaTer Dei MeMenTo Mel" (O

Mother of God, remember me, Latin) to celebrate the liturgical days in honour of the

Virgin (Zumthor 1978, 101-102). However, spiritual themes were not the only topics of

acrostics. This formal restriction has also been used in mocicery texts since the Middle

Ages; for example, Molinet wrote a ballad where the ending syllables formed an

obscene phrase (Zumthor 1978, 103) as a joke to show his poetical mastery.

In verbal acrostics, the first words of each line form an inner text. Similar to the

syllabic acrostic, the meanings of these inner texts vary from religious topics, such as

Paternoster prayer (Bombaugh 1961, 139-140) to the frivolous phrases found in the

correspondence of Alfred de Musset and George Sand (Duchesne and Leguay 1994, 11).

2.4.4. Text read by halves

In the history of literature, there are numerous examples of texts which contain a

secondary text as half of the original, so that the reader can open it by reading only left

or right side, or only odd or even lines of the original. In these cases, the meaning of the

inner text contrasts to the meaning of the whole poem. Also, for some poems, multiple

combinations of the parts are possible. Thus, in the opinion of Zumthor, the poem of

Jean Molinet about Burgundians written in three columns can be read in seven ways

(Zumthor 1978, 107) producing seven different meanings. The first column expresses

the thoughts of the bourgeois, the second expresses the thoughts of servants, and in the

third there are the thoughts of nobility, while by combining the lines, the double-faced

nature of Burgundians is revealed.

This method provides a forum for those who oppose ruling regimes, to express

their ideas without being persecuted. In the poem, on the whole, a loyalty to the regime

could be proclaimed, while the secondary meaning expresses an opposing view. Thus,

the minority dissenters demonstrate the fidelity to their ideals by secretly expressing

their political, ideological, or personal differences. An example is the poem Jesuit creed

written in both Latin and English, with one version attributed to Jonathan Swift.

According to the method, Protestants read all the lines of the text, while Catholics read

only hemistiches (Percy 1823, 169-170). A similar technique was used in a poem

expressing loyalty to the French royal family or otherwise, to the Napoleon dynasty.

The same text appeared later with minimal modification during World War II, when an

anonymous French author addressed the poem to Hitler (Stone 1966, 9). This technique

was also used in amorous poems (Bombaugh 1961, 4 8 ^ 9 ) , when the lover expresses

the feelings for the poem's addressee while keeping the message hidden from the

spouse and any other uninformed reader.

In Russia, this technique was used for a declaration of personal concerns or as a

literary experiment, rather than for political or religious aims. Thus, in the nineteenth

century, Aleksey Rzhevsky wrote a sonnet that can be read in three different ways by

the halves and by the whole: a declaration of love, a refusal to love and a declaration of

love to another addressee. Later, Bryusov combined this restriction with the sonnet form

(Bryusov 1974, III, 379; see Appendix I).

In some sense, hidden texts are presented in all texts of formal restrictions, as

palindromes could be read in two directions, anagrams refer to the initial phrase, an

acrostic can be read by the first letters and so on. In the text read by halves, this

becomes apparent most evidently.

2.5. Conclusion

Through this short historical review of constrained literary techniques, I have

demonstrated how these forms, originating in antiquity, were developed during the late

Roman era, the late Middle Ages, the Baroque period, and in some respects, during the

twentieth century. Over these eras, literary experimentation was seen as a useful means

for improving poetic mastery and increasing the expressiveness of poetic texts. In eras,

when writers were searching for new literary forms, the literary restrictions were studied

thoughtfully, and some of them became developed poetic tools, while in other eras, they

were almost forgotten until the next period of rediscovery and reinvention. Thus at

different times, the same poetic restriction may be considered an indispensable literary

form, a meaningless constraint, a poetical imperfection, or else be overlooked altogether.

Since antiquity, constrained techniques were used to consider philosophical

questions: correspondence of the ethical and aesthetical, discovery of the hidden nature

of a phenomenon or a personality, unity of a person and the universe, or, at least, they

served to demonstrate the poetical mastery of the author. A writer's choice to use a

particular formal restriction served as a mark of belonging to a certain milieu. Along

with the choice to write in Latin, this would demonstrate the author's level of education

and preference for engaging in intellectual activity. The authors of these texts

considered restricted forms to be the most appropriate method for the expression of their

highest thoughts: the search for eternal truth and glorifying sacred names. In some

cases, through the structure of these texts, a connection of the human body and the

universe is believed to be established, so that formal textual transformation of the text

corresponds to transformation of the universe and the person's being.

Some texts that obey strict formal constraints, such as letter anagrams and

palindromes, have sometimes been supposed to exist a priori in the language, rather

than being created by a particular author. For this reason, such texts are considered to be

a form of eternal knowledge or magical formula. So, the authorship of these short

combinatorial texts can be lost, and the same text can be rediscovered and rewritten by a

number of authors. In other cases, as in the most recent combinatorial texts, the author

intentionally creates the text in such a way that the reader becomes a 'co-author' able to

choose how to read and comprehend it. This form of reading modifies the usual model

of the relationship between the author and the reader of the text.

By applying one of these techniques, an existing poem could be transformed into a

new text thus producing a meaning entirely different to the original. In some cases, the

authors use these techniques to overtly or covertly incorporate secondary meanings in

primary texts to express protests of a political, ideological or personal nature. Also,

these texts serve as literary entertainment, providing relaxation from intensive

intellectual activity as a kind of mind game. Moreover, the transformed text could serve

as a parody mocking the weaknesses of the original.

A national body of literature of poetic restrictions arises as original findings, or as

transposition and adaptation of the existing methods to the national culture. Thus, the

forms of literary restrictions were first introduced to Russia in the early text-books of

rhetoric, where they appeared as translations of Latin constrained texts. In the early

twentieth century, these forms were studied thoroughly and reappeared in Russian

poetry, whereas during the Soviet and post-Soviet eras, the methods of literary

restrictions were used by unofficial authors to express their rejection of the accepted

stylistics of Soviet literature.

Having outlined the history of the formal structures through European literature

and including Russian combinatorial poetry into this tradition, in the next chapters I

will examine the applications and development of these forms in contemporary

Russian poetry.

Chapter 3.

Interview Analysis

3.1. Introduction

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of interviews with the creators of

contemporary literature of formal restrictions, undertaken in order to discover their own

opinions on this literary movement. The shortage of literature on this literary movement

relating to common characteristic features such as its literary history, preceding poets,

literary practice and so on, forced me to collect this information from its creators in

order to synthesise it. The term 'creator' here corresponds to all persons contributing to

the phenomenon of modem experimental literature - not only authors of poetical texts,

but also facilitators of its distribution: organisers of literary events, curators, editors and

publishers. The characteristic feature of the contemporary Russian literary process is the

combination of several roles, such as poet, publisher of literary editions and curator of

literary events, in one person. This makes the contemporary literary process similar to

that of the first third of the twentieth century, when Valéry Bryusov, Mikhail Kuzmin,

Sergey Gorodetsky and other poets combined the roles of writers and editors of literary

journals, and later Shklovsky, Tynyanov and other researchers combined the roles of

writers and theorists. Owing to this combination of roles, an overall representation of

contemporary experimental literature was achieved through a limited number of

interviews with the persons pursuing these activities.

In the present chapter, I introduce the interviewees and present a comparative

analysis of their responses to my questions classified in several thematic groups,

followed by conclusions derived from this analysis. Several themes were raised through

the interviews, including the specification of the chosen literary trend practised by the

interviewees; their acquaintance with the history of similar writing; the specification of

the poetic techniques and formal structures used by the interviewees; the correlation of

content and form, of technique and inspiration in their writing; dissemination of the

specified literary movement and its perspectives. The research questions for this chapter

are as follows:

1. What are the opinions of the creators of modem Russian experimental

literature on the movement in general? How do they define it, its

characteristic features and its historical roots? Is there an accepted common

name for it? What current or past literary movement do they associate with

their writings?

2. What were their sources of information about this literary movement when

they began to practise poetry? What is their knowledge of historical

precedents of this movement? Who do they consider to be the significant

authors and activists of this movement?

3. What literary methods, particularly formal restrictions, are used in their

poetry? What are their intentions and poetic purposes in applying these

forms? How do they develop and modify known literary techniques and

what are their poetic aims in doing so?

4. How do the interviewees understand the mechanisms of their creative

process? What are their sources of inspiration? What are the relations of

inspiration and formal restrictions, of content and formal structures, in their

works?

5. How do they see the dynamics and perspective of contemporary Russian

experimental literature? What are their present publishing and literary

activities? In what editions do the interviewees present their works? What

literary festivals do they participate in? How do tliey describe their roles and

purposes in dissemination of this literary tradition?

These themes will justify the choice of the authors whose texts will be analysed in

further chapters and provide a context for the textual analysis.

Before proceeding to the analysis, I will briefly describe the roles of each of the

interviewees in contemporary Russian experimental literature. I have chosen eight

interviewees: Boris Grinberg, Elena Katsyuba, Sergey Fedin, German Lukomnikov,

Sergey Biryukov, Konstantin Kedrov, Evgeny Kharitonov and Sveta Litvak. They were

chosen to provide information about contemporary Russian experimental literature from

a number of the active authors of this movement and of the creators of the literary

process: curators of literary events, publishers of journals of experimental poetry and

researchers of contemporary experimental literature. I have selected these interviewees

on the basis of my analysis of their publications in contemporary literary editions and

their activities in literary events. On the one hand, the named interviewees are prolific

authors in the field of experimental literature. On the other hand, they are also

significant disseminators of this literature for a number of years: organisers of literary

events, presenters of lectures, publishers of journalistic and academic articles,

monographs and anthologies on the subject. As a result, they are significant experts on

Russian experimental literature, the overall concept of which is created via their efforts.

Boris Grinberg is a leading author working in both traditional and experimental

poetry. As a disseminator of combinatorial poetry, he is a member of the editorial board

of the journal of experimental literature nojiyiuapue (The other hemisphere) and

a frequent guest and active participant of the festivals of experimental poetry in

Moscow and St Petersburg. The interviews were conducted during the festival of

combinatorial poetry JIana Asopa (Azor's paw, Moscow, 2006). Through the interview

with Boris Grinberg, I disclose his formation as an experimental poet and the poetic

ideas of his writing. In chapter 5, this will be compared with the results of the textual

analysis of Grinberg's works.

Elena Katsyuba is an author of combinatorial poetry, with eight published poetic

books. Katsyuba also disseminates combinatorial writing as she is a co-founder and co-

editor (together with Konstantin Kedrov) of the literary edition )KypHaji IlOsmoe

(Journal of POets). The interview with Katsyuba provides me with her programme ideas

and poetical goals as an author and activist of this literary movement. In Chapter 6, this

will be compared with the results achieved through the analysis of Katsyuba's poetry.

Sergey Fedin is a mathematician, a poet and a developer of Russian combinatorial

literature. The publication of AumojiosuR pyccKou najimdpoMHOu, KOMÔUHamopuoû u

pyKonucHou nossuu (Anthology of Russian Palindrome, Combinatorial and Handwritten

Poetry, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002) became a significant event of contemporary

Russian experimental literature and strongly influenced its development. For

contemporary poets, Fedin, though not a practicing poet himself, is an active developer

of the contemporary combinatorial movement, so his understanding of the essence of

combinatorial forms is necessary for my research. Also, Fedin was a close friend of

Avaliani, writing about Avaliani's poetry (Fedin 2004), whose works I will analyse in

Chapter 4. In the absence of Avaliani, I addressed the questions about his poetic

principles to his colleagues.

German Lukomnikov is both a poet with works published in several poetical

books and in many literary journals, and a populariser of modem literature of formal

restrictions. He (together with Andrey Belashkin) was a co-organiser of festivals of

palindromes in 1991 and in 2002 that became the first significant events of

combinatorial poetry in Russia. As a member of jury committees of many contests of

combinatorial literature, he educates contemporary authors and forms the present

realisation for this movement. As I mentioned when presenting Fedin, Lukomnikov is a

co-compiler and co-editor of Aumojioam pyccKoû najimdpoMHoù, KOMÔmamopHoû u

pyKonucHoù no33uu (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002) and is also a close friend of

Avaliani. Through the interview with Lukomnikov, an opinion on the characteristics of

contemporary experimental poetical process in Russia will be presented by an expert

actively practising in this movement.

Sergey Biryukov is both a poet with six poetic books and a researcher of

experimental and avant-garde poetry, currently teaching Russian literature in Martin

Luther University (Halle, Germany). His two anthologies of the history of Russian

formal and experimental literature, Seezua (Zevgma, 1994) and POKY VKOP

(Reproach to the fate, 2003), noticeably influenced contemporary experimental writing.

In ÂKadeMm 3ayMU (Zaum Academy), Biryukov forms a circle of writers of the

contemporary avant-garde movement. Through the interview with Biryukov, I reveal

his bilateral, analytical and creative opinion on contemporary Russian experimental

poetry, as well as on his own poetic aims and ideas that will be taken into close

consideration in the further chapters.

Evgeny Kharitonov is a contemporary poet with seven poetic books and audio-

disks of traditional, combinatorial and sound poetry, and a literary curator. Kharitonov

is the editor of the Internet journal of experimental poetry ffpyaoe nonymapue which is

one of the contemporary editions disseminating Russian and Western experimental

poetry in Russia. Kharitonov's activities as the organiser of MOCKOBCKUU ^ecmuea/ib

KOMÓUHamopHOÜ, najimdpoMHOÙ u caynd no33uu (Moscow festivals of combinatorial,

palindromic and sound poetry, 2007, 2008, 2009) made a significant contribution to the

development of Russian experimental poetry. The interview with Kharitonov provides

me with an understanding of the present, and the perspectives of contemporary Russian

experimental literature, from the point of view of its developers.

Konstantin Kedrov is a poet and a philosopher, who has advocated experimental

writing for many years. Kedrov also disseminates Russian experimental writing: from

1995 to the present, he is a co-publisher of Fasema IlOssuu (Newspaper of POets, later

)KypHaji Uosmoe, Journal of POets), one of the oldest and the most recognisable

journals of experimental poetry. Kedrov is an organiser of the literary process: he has

established the UNESCO World Poetry Day (Moscow, 2000), which became one of the

significant annual literary events in Russia. In the interview, Kedrov provides an

expert's opinion on the existence and development of experimental poetry.

Sveta Litvak is a poet, performer and curator of the literary process. As a poet,

Litvak is the author of many journal publications and several prose and poetry books of

different literary styles: from Russian folklore to neo-avant-garde, sayMb (zaum) and

combinatorial poetry. As a curator, Litvak, together with Nikolay Baitov, is a co-

founder of Kjiyô jiumepamypHOSo nepcpopMauca (Club of literary performance) which is

one of the most original contemporary literary societies providing literary events and

poetical performances of the experimental movement. The interview with Litvak

presents an expert opinion on contemporary experimental poetry and literary process.

For the interviews, the guide approach was used as a method of questioning as it

allowed me to vary the preliminary set of questions, thus focusing on the themes most

important for the specific interviewee and diminishes the pressure on the interviewees.

Nevertheless, some interviewees have taken the opportunity to answer the questions in

written form, and then to discuss some of the topics verbally in addition. Each author

was interviewed once if possible or twice over a fortnight's period for specification of

some themes. For collecting the answers, I have recorded the raw data, then transcribed

the recorded interviews and analysed the answers following the established method of

qualitative data analysis (Atkinson and Coffey 1996, 26-52). I have chosen several code

patterns using key words, mentioning the events and processes. This allows comparing

different opinions by dividing them into separate code fragments, which 1 analyse

focusing on similarities and differences in the answers, and the reasons for these. As a

result, the overall observation on the specific literary movement was achieved through

the opinions of a range of its creators.

In the following sections of this chapter, I present the analysis of these interviews

divided into thematic groups.

3.2. Identification of the literary movement in which the interviewees participate

The experimental literary movement is widely practised by many contemporary

authors, though its distinctive features are not yet clearly pronounced. In the present

section, I aim to present the interviewees' understanding of this literary movement,

including their literary tasks in the context of historical tradition, and identification of

literary works, authors and previous poetic movements that influenced them. As a

result, the understanding of the experimental writing will be presented, together with the

interviewees' creative goals and the methods of learning the chosen literary practices.

3.2.1. Identifying and naming the chosen literary movement

In this section, I disclose the interviewees' self-attribution to the literary

movement defined by various traits such as its historical attribution, poetic goals and

methods. In various definitions of their own chosen literary movement, the interviewees

demonstrate conceptual and methodological similarities and differences. Similar, are the

tendencies for the search for new literary methods with reliance on the tradition of

experimental literature. There is still no accepted name for this literary movement, so

the interviewees understand this tradition either as historical avant-garde, a personal

poetic search, a cosmological vision, or even a branch of amusing mathematics. The

difference lies in the definitions of the personal works as attributed to various historical

traditions or rejecting a tradition for the individual poetic. This difference leads to the

variable choices for practised literary techniques by the interviewees.

The interviewees provided a great diversity of answers to the question of

identification of their chosen literary movements. Certain interviewees, such as

Biryukov and his ideological disciple Kharitonov, emphasise their intention to continue

the historical avant-garde; other interviewees, such as Grinberg and Fedin, attribute

their works to combinatorial poetry; whereas other interviewees do not provide an exact

definition; Lukomnikov and Kedrov speak about 'no33H5i BooGme' (poetry in general),

and Litvak refuses to specify a trend instead listing multiple styles and techniques that

she uses. Through these short names for the chosen trend, the differences of

understanding of the interviewees' literary movements are obvious, reflecting the

differences in their literary concepts and methodologies. However, through detailed

interviewing it becomes clear that there are significant similarities between the

characteristic features of the seemingly differently defined trends, whereas the names

mentioned as the same differ considerably through the in-depth examinations.

The interviewees differ in the accuracy of their definition: Biryukov provides the

exact name of the movement as emucmopmecKuu aeamapd (beyond-historical avant-

garde), while Lukomnikov and Kedrov refer to it as 'noasMJi eooGme' (poetry in

general) or 'npocTO no33H5i' (]usi poetry). The differences can be explained by the

variety of the interviewees' backgrounds. As a philologist, Biryukov emphasises the

accepted culturological name of the literary movement, stressing the link to the well-

known poetic tradition of historical avant-garde of the early twentieth century. As a

poet, he includes an element of self-irony in naming the chosen literary trend as the

beyond-historical avant-garde: the idea of continuation of the historical avant-garde is

expressed here in a phrase similar to ideological clichés of the late Soviet era such as

'beyond-historical'. By this name, the literary trend is related to existence beyond time,

that is, in eternity, and in opposition to official Soviet literary trends. Similar to the term

beyond-historical avant-garde, oxymoronic notions are united in the name of Zaum

Academy established by Biryukov: traditionalism and professional quality in the term

academy and futuristic nonsense in the term zaum, with an emphasis on the latter. While

Biryukov prefers associations to avant-garde, he also recognises other names of the

literary movement such as post-avantgarde, neo-avantgarde and close trends such as

experimental literature and combinatorial literature:

OH Ha3biBaeTC5i H nocT-aBanrapA, H Heo-asaHrapA, H 3KcnepHMeHTajibHa5i jiHTeparypa - n0-pa3H0My coeepuieHHO HasbisaeTca. ^ He npoxHs coBepmeHHO Bcex 3THX nasBanHH, HO h npH/iep>KHBaK)Cb xepMHHa aBanrapA <. . .> xyx nomjiH y}Ke pasHbie /^pyrwe OTBexBjieHHH, K0M5nHax0pHa5i no33H5i. flpyraa sexBb no oxHomenHio K aBanrapAHOH jiHxepaxype, ^ CHHxaio.

It is called post-avant-garde and neo-avant-garde and experimental literature - it is called quite differently. I'm not totally against all these names, but I prefer the term avant-garde, <.. .> then there are a lot of other branches, such as combinatorial poetry. It is another branch in relation to the avant-garde literature, I think (S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March).

Kharitonov, as a practicing poet without specific philological education, supports

Biryukov in his definition of the trend as neo-avant-garde. Similar to Biryukov, he

demonstrates the knowledge of the literary traditions such as Russian historical avant-

garde, contemporary Russian poetry and contemporary Western experimental poetry.

Kharitonov expresses the desire for the continuation of the poetic search started by the

authors of these movements. Hence, he emphasises his poetic task in developing further

the experimentation with words, "MeHH Bce BpeMH HHxepecoBajio, H T O MO>KHO eme c

3THM CAejiaTb, KaK M0>KH0 3T0 BbiBepHyxb, Ha KaKOH yroji nocxaBHTb" (I always

wondered what more can be done to it, how else it can be twisted, or on which comer it can be placed, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June).

Katsyuba, who as well as Biryukov, is a poet with an academic philological background, also offers a specified name for the chosen literary movement, jimeeucmmecKuu pecuiusM (linguistic realism). On the one hand, this name refers to the traditional realist movement of the nineteenth century, and on the other hand, to the literary formalist school. By this name, Katsyuba declares the significance of linguistic units such as words and letters for her creative writing. This idea proclaims the significance of the Word by which the Creation started. In this sense, this name for the trend is referred to an ancient Cabbalistic tradition, establishing the methods of creation of texts:

ECJIM B Hanajie 6biJio C J I O B O , TO ocTajibHbie ece c j i o e a oGpasoeajiHCb OT 3Toro C j i O B a , pa3HbiMH cnoco6aMH - c o c T a e j i e H H e M H3 3 T o r o c j i o e a A p y r H x c j i o e , e r o

y i l J i H H e H H e M , y c x a H O B J i e H H e M B e r o c e p e A H H y K a K H x - x o 6 y K B , x o ecxb ,

Bb icxpaHBaa x a K H e c j iOBecHbie uenoMKH. Ox 3 x o r o a npHxo>Ky K CBOHM xeKCxaM.

If in the beginning there was the Word, then ail other words were formed from this word in different ways: by drawing other words out of this word, by its extension, by putting some letters into its middle, that is, by building verbal chains. From this I come to my texts ( E Katsyuba 2 0 0 9 , pers. comm., 1 2 July). In contrast, Kedrov does not specify a literary trend and speaks about 'no33H5i

Boo6u;e' (poetry in general), emphasising that his goal is to express personal lyrical feelings. On the one hand, Kedrov includes the specific poetic realm into the most general context of poetry, but on the other hand, he emphasises the uniqueness of his poetic concept and technique, as well as the authorship of new terms, uHcaum (insight) and MemaMema^opa (metametaphor) as "KOCMOJiorHHecKHH nepeBopox, Kor^a BHyxpeHHee H BHeinnee poKHpyioxcn, MCHaioxca MecxaiviH, 'nejiOBCK - 3xo H3HaHKa He6a, He6o - 3xo H3HaHKa nejiOBeKa'" (A cosmological overturn, when the inner and the outer castle, they change over, so 'man is the reverse side of the sky, and the sky is the

reverse side of man', K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April). The transformation from

inner to outer and from outer to inner is made by a formal operation of inversion which

is one of the basic combinatorial operations. As a result, in Kedrov's concept, the

personal feelings are seen as equivalent to the essence of the universe through the

cosmological inversion. This understanding is the basis for Kedrov's poetry, as well as

for his understanding of the literary trend.

Definitions of the literary movement given by Lukomnikov and Kedrov vary

considerably, despite the coincidence of their brief answers, 'npocTO no33H5i' (just

poetry). Lukomnikov alleges self-sufficiency of poetry and the absence of preliminary

defined goals: "CMMCJI no33HH B caMoii no33HH, noHBJiJiK)TC5I Hosbie CTHXH" (The

meaning of poetry is in the poetry itself, when new poems appear, G Lukomnikov 2007,

pers. comm., 13 December). Nevertheless, he recognises the subdivision of his own

poetry in several literary styles, such as combinatorial poetry and naïve poetry. The

opposition of these styles will be revealed in the next sections of this chapter.

Compared to Biryukov and Katsyuba, Litvak is on the opposite pole of

concrétisation as she considers herself neither belonging to a particular poetic group nor

to a particular historical literary tradition. This allows her to choose the freedom of

poetic expressions and poetic methods, and to participate in and organise literary events

of different styles. As an experimenting poet, Litvak lists some specific literary genres,

methods and styles important for her writing. These include Mema\tema\iop(pu3M

(metametamorphism, a term proposed by Kedrov), conceptualism (with Prigov and

Rubinstein participating), minimalism (developed in Russia by Nekrasov, and later by

Akhmetiev, Lukomnikov and other poets), combinatorical poetry, nonsense poetry and

sound poetry. These styles are considered to be the different aspects of experimental

poetry. Litvak presents an artistic rather than scientific definition of her own creativity:

no3T, Ha Moîi BSRJIÎIA, paôoTaex c eemecTBOM BHeseiviHoro npoHCxo>KAeHHa. 3 T O

eemecTBo na^acT CKBOSB Hame co3HaHHe, cropaH KaK MexeopHT. Sa^ana noaxa coxpaHHTb MaKCHMajibHo oô-bCM 3T0H C Y Ô C X A H U H H , saBepiiiHB na/;eHHe KaK M0)KH0 ôojiee flpKHM pocHepKOM Ha ii3biKe, eMy HSBCCXHOM.

A poet, in my opinion, works with a substance of extraterrestrial origin. This substance falls through our consciousness, burning like a meteor. The poet's task is to preserve the maximum amount of this substance, finishing the fall with a stroke as bright as possible, in a language known to him (S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June).

That is, in contrast to the exact definition given by Biryukov, Litvak uses a poetic

style of metaphors and comparisons in her definition of the chosen literaiy trend. The

cosmic understanding of the essence of poetry brings her close to Kedrov's concept of

poetry.

In addition to the accuracy of the definition of the chosen literary trend, the

interviewees differ in the definition of their own methodologies. If interviewees with a

philological background such as Biryukov, Katsyuba, Kedrov, Kharitonov and Litvak

refer to literary movements or 'poetry in general', poets with technological and

mathematical backgrounds, such as Fedin, Grinberg and Lukomnikov, equally

emphasise the formal aspects of their works or place them above the poetic. Fedin's

response is the most detailed in this sense. The mathematical basis is, according to

Fedin, a necessary basis needed to realise the combinatorial search for new restrictions.

Fedin emphasises education in exact sciences as an essential part of the biography of the

author of combinatorial literature. He enumerates, sometimes at a stretch, the authors of

the combinatorial literature as graduates of the technological universities: Avaliani

(Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University), Lukomnikov (a winner of

Mathematical Olympiads); and its popularisers: Goldstein (physicist and writer),

Gorobets (biologist and writer). Fedin attributes himself to this line of poets -

mathematicians. In other words, Fedin represents the combinatorial poet as a researcher

with mathematical background, who focuses on formal methods in relation to literary

texts, working with the methods based mainly on mathematical formulae. Fedin

considers creativity at the intersection of exact sciences and arts, in particular in the

enumeration of literary options according to strict schemes. Fedin correctly argues that

Russian combinatorial literature consists mainly of texts with permutations of minimal

textual elements, which are letters, whereas the elaboration of wider literary possibilities

has begun only recently. Grinberg as another interviewee with a technical background

expresses more or less similar opinions on the definition of the literary trend and the

role of formal restrictions in his works. Grinberg stresses the values of combinatoric

literary techniques to which he has converted after working several years in

conventional syllabic-tonic poetry. Lukomnikov also acknowledges his frequent use of

combinatorial techniques, though, in contrast to Fedin and Grinberg, he considers

combinatorial texts broadly, attributing to them texts in which "HCT KAKORO-TO O^HORO

>KecTKoro npaBHjia, Koxopoe coGjiiOAaeTca >KecTKo H HCTKO. BbieaeT, HTO

KOMÔHHaXOpHblH SJieMCHT OÔpaMJlCH B HCKyiO HeKOMÔHHaTOpHyK) paMKy, HO npH 3T0M

SAHHMAER AOCXATOHHO BHAHOC MCCTO" (There can be no definite rigid rule that is

followed stringently and clearly. It happens that the combinatorial element is framed

into a certain non-combinatorial frame, but it is placed in quite a prominent place, G

Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 6 November). Consequently, Lukomnikov strongly

refers to formal combinatorial methods, though in his own poetry, he does not obey

them strictly, but modifies them in accordance with his objectives. Kedrov also links

poetry to exact science, as in his opinion, these transformations are realised in modern

poetry with the development of contemporary science: "ônaro^apa pasBHTHio

COBPEMCHHOH KOCMOJIOFHH, B 0 3 M 0 > K H 0 , MAXEMATHKH" (due to the development of

modem cosmology, and perhaps, mathematics, K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April).

The interviewees' views differ also on the degree of reflection on the origin of

their creativity. Katsyuba, Kedrov and Litvak demonstrate a high comprehension of

poetics realised on a metaphysical scale. Litvak finds her poetic role on a metaphysical

scale as a translator from universal to human language. Similarly to Katsyuba, a poet is

a decoder of the cipher written in the human language and corresponding to the universe

(E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). Katsyuba proposes this definition only for her

own poetic purposes, not considering anyone to be her literary predecessors, nor her

literary follower. Similar to Katsyuba, Kedrov thinks in absolute categories, while

unlike Katsyuba, he proposes personal philosophical concepts and not linguistic

structures. Kedrov presents metaphysical understanding of his poetic goals accentuating

the lyrical character of his philosophical poetry and pointing out that this philosophy is

a product not of the mind, but of the senses: "c OAHOH CTopoHbi, 3TO TOHKOC, He>KHoe,

jiHpHHecKoe nepe>KHBaHHe, a c ApyroH c T o p o H U - 3TO Hoeaii KocMOJiorHHecKan

MO^ejib" (On the one hand, it is a subtle, delicate, lyrical experience, but on the other

hand, it is a new cosmological model, K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April). In

Kedrov's concept, another understanding of time is introduced: "a CHHTaio, HTO

HACTOHMEE speiviH - 3TO ABN>KEHHE H3 npouiJioro H GyAymero B ceGa. M NACTOIIMEE -

3 T 0 peayjibTax BCXPEHH npoujjioro B GyAymeivi" (I believe that the present is the

movement from the past and from the future into itself And the present is the result of

the meeting of the past in the future, K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April). In this

sense, the formal combinatorial methods of anagram and palindrome become the factors

of reversal of time and turning of space.

In contrast to Kedrov, and partly Katsyuba and Litvak, other interviewees such as

Lukomnikov, Grinberg and Kharitonov demonstrate a lower level of philosophical

reflection on their own poetics. Grinberg as a practising poet does not provide historical

knowledge of the movement or philosophical background of his own creative works (B

Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5, 8 November). Lukomnikov deliberately refuses to

reflect, proclaiming adherence to emotional impulses and the importance of spontaneity

in his poetic style. By comparison, Kharitonov focuses on methodological rather than

philosophical aspects of the definition of the literary trend, referring to the combination

of established techniques with a search for new methods: "h crapaiocb, OTxajiKHBaacb

OT Tpa HUHOHHOH CJIOBCCHOCTH, OT y>Ke yCTOJIBllIHXCil (t)OpM, CHJlJiaGoTOHHKH HJIH

eepJiHGpa, coBMecTHXb HX C AOCTH>KeHHHMH aBaHrap/ia XX BCKa" (I try, starting from

the traditional literature and from the well-established forms such as syllabic-tonic or

vers libre, to combine them with the achievements of the avant-garde of the twentieth

century, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June).

As a result, a spectrum of different approaches to literary experimentations is

proclaimed. The interviewees emphasise their differences by assertion of the priority in

literary trends, by the exactness of the definition of the movement and by reflection on

its goals and methods. In the following analysis of the interviews, these different

concepts are manifested clearly.

3.2.2. The interviewees' methods of learning the chosen poetic tradition

To elaborate on the previous topic, in the present section, I will shift the focus

from the authors' identification of their own work as belonging to a certain literary

movement, to the specification of the chosen literary trend as a whole. I aim to reveal

the interviewees' acquaintance with the chosen literary tradition, their sources of

becoming familiar with this literary movement, including listing the names of

precursors, and perhaps infiuencers, among the poets of the present and the past. Thus I

will disclose the formation processes of interviewees' poetics.

All interviewees agree that becoming familiar with non-mainstream literary works

during the late Soviet era when they were formed as practising poets was difficult. As

the works of experimental literature, as well as most of the works of historical avant-

garde and literary experiments of the time, were excluded from the official literary

canon, literary samizdat became the most evident way of dissemination of these works.

Nevertheless, literary samizdat even in comparison to political samizdat, had extremely

weak dissemination in the late Soviet era. As a result, beginner poets of the 1980s-

1990s who searched for significant experimental works were exceedingly restricted in

their searches, bound to rely on limited and sporadic information about their precursors.

This led to the difference in understanding of the practised literary trend.

The interviewees described multiple methods of uncovering the restricted

information on literary experiments. Their interests were mostly beyond the realm of

official Soviet poetry, so they had to find specified methods to become familiar with

these literary works. The methods by which they sought acquaintance with the poetry in

question vary significantly, including official, semi-official or non-official means, such

as using archives of State libraries; reading between the lines of Soviet critical

publications; finding rare publications in East European journals; studying popular

science periodicals; finding samizdat publications; identifying specific topics and

specific poetic methods in texts of various poets; and correspondence and personal

contacts with literary experts and other authors of experimental literature.

The official literature of the late Soviet era mostly denied literary experiments,

although there were some official ways of becoming familiar with them. For example,

some publications of the poets of the past were available through open scholar sources

such as State libraries, though Soviet people rarely used this possibility. Even among

practising poets such as the interviewees, only Biryukov mentioned this resource.

Biryukov demonstrates the possibility of developing an interest in avant-garde poetry

from ordinary school study to professional philological research. Biryukov's

acquaintance with the avant-garde began with Mayakovsky's poetry. This choice was

typical for a Soviet student as Mayakovsky's poems were part of the school program.

However, unlike an ordinary Soviet school student, Biryukov later developed his

knowledge, using researchers' methods - he joined the Lenin State Library, the leading

library of the country, to obtain copies of rare books of other futurists, whose names he

had found in the footnotes of the collected works of Mayakovsky. He found other

sources of information on the avant-garde in publications in Eastern European journals

that were sometimes available in the Soviet provinces, and in critical Soviet

publications, where, despite the overall negative tone, some information about avant-

garde texts and their authors was presented.

In contrast to these official ways, Lukomnikov mostly focused on unofficial

literature disseminated by samizdat. His acquaintance with the poetry of significant

contemporary authors such as Kholin and Nekrasov in which he was interested

happened in his opinion much later than when he needed it. The reason was their

publications appeared only in the literary samizdat that was not available beyond a

narrow circle of friends of the published poets. Nevertheless, to the present,

Lukomnikov has a profound knowledge of the works of contemporary authors along

with the general erudition in overall unofficial Russian poetry.

Similarly, Katsyuba declares with regret that by the time she discovered the

authors whose works she finds important for her such as Mayakovsky, Kruchyonuikh

and Kirsanov, she had already formed her own poetics. The reason for this late

acquaintance is the same lack of access to non-official literature in the Soviet era stated

by other interviewees. As a result, Katsyuba first detects intuitively the strong features

of her own creative works, and then relates them to a certain literary tradition.

In contrast to Biryukov, Katsyuba and Litvak have found their poetic inspiration

not through academic search for the rare avant-garde sources, but through the discovery

of poetic elements close to their poetics in selected works of conventional authors, even

in their single lines and individual themes. The sources of influences for the

contemporary experimental writing can be found in the overall history of poetry, not

necessarily limited to the poetry of formal experimentation alone. Katsyuba quotes her

own interpretation of Lermontov's poQxnffeMOH (Demon): another world, which Demon

offers to Tamara, is attractive not because she will reign there, but because she will be

able to fulfil the creation of this new world according to her own aspirations. Demon,

like other fallen angels, is not satisfied with the completeness of our world, where new

creation is impossible: "CTPOHXEJIH crajiH ne Hy>KHbi, H BOT FLEMOH npcAJiaraex Taiviape

C03AaTb HOBYK) BcejieHHyK), eiviecTe c HHM NPOAOJI)KHTb TBopeHne Midpa" (Builders are

not needed, and now Demon offers Tamara to create a new universe together with him,

thus continuing creation of the world, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). Similar

to Katsyuba, Litvak senses the hidden coincidence in certain poems of the authors of

seemingly different poetics, such as Andrey Bely or Adelaida Gertsuik. So she searches

for the relationships of her own poetics with the poetics of the authors of various literary

styles such as the poets of the Silver age of Russian poetry (the early twentieth century).

Similarly, Grinberg mentions the impact of specific literary and theoretical works,

extremely limited in number: the monograph PyccKue cmuxu 1890-1925 eodoe e

KOMMeHmapuMX (Russian poems of the 1890s-1925 with commentaries, 1993) by

Mikhail Gasparov, the poem Pasm (Razin) by Khlebnikov and Anmojioem pyccKOU

nojiundpoMHoii, KOMÔmamopHoù u pyKonucnoii no33uu (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002).

The influence was methodological, as Grinberg, who was previously familiar with letter

palindromes only, seeks new poetic techniques to express his own feelings rather than a

poetic program or conceptual findings. The desire to create combinatorial text arises for

him from the competitive principle; for example, Grinberg notices an expression

"cKOHCTpyHpoBaxb najiHHApoM" (to construct a palindrome, B Grinberg 2007, pers.

comm., 5 November) in Gasparov's text, and interprets it as a refusal to recognise the

palindromic poetry - otherwise Gasparov would have written 'coHHHHTb' (to compose),

or 'nanHcaTb najiHHApoM' (to write a palindrome) similar to 'to compose a poem' or 'to

write a poem'. In Khlebnikov's poem, Grinberg finds inexact palindromes to be a sign

of insufficient skill, which influenced Grinberg himself to obey the restrictions strictly.

Finally, it was AnmojioeuH pyccKou najimdpoMHOU, KOMÒmamopnoù u pyKonucHOu

no33uu (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002) that became the source of formal methods that

Grinberg needed. Here, the same competitive principle affects him, as he notices

imperfections of poetic implementations of the described techniques, which also forces

Grinberg to create texts of better quality. In summary, Grinberg seeks descriptions of

unknown poetic methods rather than poetic ideas. As a result, the task of acquaintance

with the literary traditions of avant-garde literature or unofficial literature is not as

relevant to him as it is to Biryukov and Lukomnikov. Living far from the centres of

literary activity, Grinberg opposes Biryukov in the opportunity to access limited

information. He is not focused on the study of literary tradition, but is satisfied with

accessible sources, and focuses on the development of his own poetic.

Another source of information on experimental literature not mentioned by other

interviewees appears in Fedin's answers. For Fedin, the way of becoming familiar with

literary experimentations was the publications of combinatorial poetry in the

entertainment sections of scientific and popular science journals. By these publications,

Fedin studied the history of formal experiments as the history of inventions of literary

restrictions and forgotten literary forms.

Lastly, personal contacts with living poets are important for all interviewees.

Through personal contacts, links are formed from the authors of the past to

contemporary authors. In this way, contemporary authors ascribe themselves to a certain

literary tradition. For instance, Biryukov understands modem poetic experiments as a

continuation of the historical avant-garde movement which was passed from generation

to generation of the practising poets. Biryukov attributes contemporary experimental

poetry to the historical avant-garde of the early twentieth century as he presents it

continued by the works of the group OBERIU, destroyed in the early 1930s and re-

emerged in the works of the Lianozovo poetic group in the 1960s, followed by the next

generations of the authors of the 1960s-1970s:

B 50-e ro;ibi aeaHrapiiHCTCKHe npHCMbi HcnojibsoBajiH npe/iCTaBHTejiH xaK Ha3blBaeM0H JlHaHOBOeCKOM UIKOJlbl - KponHBHHUKHH, HH CaxyHOBCKHH, KOTOpbie

6bIJlH pOBeCHHKaMH MailKOBCKOrO, OHH B3aHM0AeHCTB0BaJIH C TCM aBaHrapi lOM,

OHH n p e K p a c H O ROMMMJIH 3TH BCIUH H OHH n e p e z i a B a j i H HX Canrnpy, X o j i H H y H

BceBOJioay H e K p a c o B y . <...> Bojiee pa^iHKajibHO - y>Ke B 60-e ro;ibi - Pbi HHKOHOBA H Cepreii Cnren, OHH H3;iaBajiH >KypHaji « T p a H c n o n a H C » ». / ] , a n b m e

6biJiH n e T e p 6 y p r c K H e a B T o p u : Bjia^iHMHp 3 p ; i b , B o p H c KoHCTpHKxop, BopHC

K y a p f l K O B , n o 3 x i H e e A j i e K c a H ; i p F o p H O H , e m e HCKoxopbie n o 3 T b i .

In the 50s, the avant-garde techniques were used by members of the so-called Lianozovo group: Kropivnitsky, Yan Satunovsky, who were born at the same time as Mayakovsky. They interacted with avant-garde, they perfectly remembered those things and they passed them on to others: Sapgir, Kholin and Vsevolod Nekrasov. <...> More radically, already in the 1960s, there were Rea Nikonova and Sergey Sigey, who published the magazine Tramponance. Then there were St Petersburg authors: Vladimir Erl, Boris Konstrictor, Boris Kudryakov, later Alexandr Gomon and some other poets (S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March).

As a result, an interrupted, but retrievable current of avant-garde tradition exists in

a complicated historical situation, where personal communications with authors of the

past played an important role in the detection of the important traits of new poetics.

The interviewees emphasise their communications with poets of previous and

present poetic generations for finding poetics of interest to them. For Biryukov,

correspondence with Savvaty Gints, an expert in the historical avant-garde and the

compiler of the works of Kamensky, one of the poets of the historical avant-garde,

became an important source of knowledge of the literary movement. Kedrov also

emphasises the importance of personal acquaintance with the preceding poets. For him, it

was Kruchyonuikh, a poet personally belonging to the historical avant-garde movement.

For Kedrov too, personal acquaintanceship with this author became an important sign of

the extension of this tradition to the present. Katsyuba and Litvak communicated with and

were influenced by the poets of the present rather than the poets of the past. Litvak

confesses the personal impact on her from the poets of the club Ilossm which was one of

the first unofficial poetic groups in the 1980s-1990s: "GbiJia omapameHa pa3Hoo6pa3HeM

coBpeMCHHbix no3THK, nooaB Ha Benepa KJiy6a 'no33H5i"' (I was dumbfounded by a

variety of contemporary poetics of the authors when I came to the readings of the club

'Poezia', S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June). As a result, through the listed

independent sources of information, the poets had become familiar with the unofficial

literary movements and authors whose works became significant for them.

The interviewees listed a number of names of the poets whose creative works are

of great importance for them. Through these names, it is possible to reconsider the

sources of poetic influence on the contemporary experimenting poets. Undoubtedly, the

most influential figure for all interviewees was Velimir Khlebnikov. Fedin and

Lukomnikov also reminded of the importance of Khlebnikov for Avaliani, both his

poetic ideas and experimental methods. Other frequently appearing names are

Mayakovsky as a poet of the early twentieth century, and Vsevolod Nekrasov as a

contemporary poet. Some interviewees answered with longer lists of names including

other authors of historical avant-garde and experimental literary movements. Biryukov,

as a scholar specialising in the avant-garde, lists poets, educators and researchers of the

historical avant-garde: Elena Guro, Vasily Kamensky, David Burlyuk and others.

Although not a scholar, Kharitonov, similar to Biryukov, lists several literary

movements and a large number of authors, whose works influenced him, so he attempts

to reproduces their findings to some extent in contemporary Russian poetry. Litvak lists

numerous authors, even significantly different ones, who influenced her poetics. In

addition to the names of Khlebnikov, Mayakovsky and poets of the group OBERIU,

Litvak mentions various sources of her creativity, such as sound poetry, which became

known to her through the lectures of Dmitry Bulatov. The last, in turn, became familiar

with experimental literature via Biryukov's publications, thus reaffirming the thesis of

the continuity of the avant-garde poetic tradition. To the contrary, Kedrov mentions

only two of the authors of the historical avant-garde: Khlebnikov and Kruchyonuikh,

whose work influenced his creativity. Nevertheless, Kedrov distances himself from the

historical avant-garde and emphasises the lyrical component of his poetry, which he

defines as "aGcojiiOTHyio jinpHKy, HcnoBCAajibHyK) jinpHKy" (absolute lyrical poetry, a

confessional lyrical poetry, K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April). Here again is a

duality of Kedrov's poetics, experimental by method and traditional by the content.

The understanding of the importance of personal acquaintance with significant

authors of the previous generation continues to the present. Some of the interviewees

name other interviewees as the sources of influence, thus demonstrating their prestige

and their belonging to the same literary circles. In particular, Lukomnikov recognises

Avaliani as a poet of the most significance for him. Similarly, Fedin and Grinberg

emphasise their personal friendship with Avaliani whom they proclaim to be the most

productive combinatorial author of the 1980s-2000s. In the opinion of Lukomnikov,

Russian combinatorial poetry reached its culmination in the works of Dmitry Avaliani,

"KOTopbiH B KOHue 7 0 - x - Hanajie 8 0 - x aaHiiJica KOMGHHaxopuKOH OHCHB c e p b e 3 H 0 H

ocHOBaxejibHO, ropasAO c e p b e s H e e H ocHOBaxej ibHee, HCM BCC e r o npe^mecTseHHHKH

BMCCTe B35iTbie" (who elaborated combinatoric poetry seriously and thoroughly in the

late 70s and early 80s, much more seriously and thoroughly than all his predecessors

together, G Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 6 December). In this case, their personal

contacts and collective works with Avaliani became a literary school for experimenting

authors. In his turn, Kharitonov emphasises the prestige to him of Biryukov, arguing

that it was Biryukov who revealed the possibilities of poetry: "BO MHOFOM NO^TOJIKHYJI

MeH5i K TOMy, HCM 51 ccHHac 3aHHMaK)Cb" (In many ways he pushed me towards what I

am doing now, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). The most important influence

on Katsyuba was made by Konstantin Kedrov, which consists in an emphasis on the

game factor in Katsyuba's works, recognition of its poetical means and

recommendations to work on its expressiveness. Finally, Litvak specifies the influence

of Lukomnikov, who demonstrated to her not only an example of poetic techniques, but

also poetic freedom and confidence.

Unlike the influence of Russian poetry, that of the past and contemporary Western

poetry on contemporary Russian experimentation is limited. Only Kharitonov and

Litvak list several Western poets and literary movements in addition to Russians. For

Kharitonov, the important feature of the mentioned Italian Futurism, German Dadaism

and French Lettrism is the search for new expressiveness and new poetic methods.

Litvak lists various Western authors, again searching for the intersection of her poetics

with the poetics of different styles, such as that of symbolist Emile Verhaeren, and neo-

romantics Stefan George and Aloysius Bertrand.

These differences in the understanding of their predecessors determine different

ways in which interviewees present the origins of their own literary trends. As I have

demonstrated in the historical review of experimental literature, combinatorial literature

began in Russia long before Avaliani and Khlebnikov's literary experimentation.

However, Lukomnikov supposes it was being actively developed in Russia during

approximately 20 years up to the present, since the late 1980s and the early 1990s. He

mistakenly proclaims Dmitry Avaliani to be a poet who began the combinatorial poetry

in Russia; though he notes Bryusov and Khlebnikov's works at the origins of

combinatorial poetry, thus acknowledging the existence of combinatorial poetry in

Russian in the early twentieth century. This opinion is commonly widespread even

among practising experimental poets. Biryukov also proclaims the origin of the

movement in the early twentieth century, though his own research of the poetic

techniques starts from the works of the authors of the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries

(Biryukov 2003a). Fedin distinguishes the combinatorial literature from historical

avant-garde - he correctly argues that an essential poetic component of the latter is

emotional effect, whereas the style of combinatorial creativity is akin to scientific

research, laboratory or alchemical work: "3TO JiHTepaxypa SAXBOPHHHECKAII, H 3THM ona

TO>KE C6JIH>KAETC5I c HAYKOII. To ecxb, 3TO XAKAA XHXAN KPONOTJIHSAII paGoxa" (It is a

solitary literature, and in this sense it is also close to science. That is, it is quiet and

detailed work, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October). Fedin observes that

combinatorial literature developed in Russia "cnanajia BO speivieHa /],ep>KABHHA, NOTOM

Bpiocosa, NOTOM KMpcaHoea, HOTOM AsajiHaHH" (firstly in the era of Derzhavin, then

Bryusov, then Kirsanov, then Avaliani, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October). Hence,

a mathematic and literary experimenter, Fedin refers to the origins of the chosen literary

movement more reasonably than Lukomnikov and Kharitonov, the connoisseurs of

overall literary history.

To summarise, the methods of learning and mastering the chosen literary trend

differ for the interviewees - from an accurate scientific approach of a compilation of

detailed bibliography by Biryukov, to the search for specific aspects in the overall literary

history by Katsyuba and Litvak. The tradition of experimental writing is also developed

through contacts with the poets of the previous generations. For some interviewees, the

acquaintance with the works of their predecessors preceded or happened simultaneously

with the elaboration of their own creative works (Biryukov, Grinberg, Kharitonov and

Litvak), while other interviewees (Lukomnikov, Katsyuba and Kedrov) have found their

predecessors' poetry when they have already formed as authors.

Some reflections on the reasons for following the defined literary movement are

provided in the next section of the interview analysis.

3.2.3. Reasons for choosing a particular literary trend and the objectives

established by this choice

In this section, I reveal why the interviewees select their particular literary division

and what creative goals they raise by this choice. Through these questions, the

interviewees, having already identified the boundaries of their literary trend and primary

sources of their poetic creativity, make analytical conclusions about the reasons for the

personal attraction to this literary trend. As a result, their poetic goals are presented in

association with the general poetic goals.

The poetic goals of the interviewees differ ideologically and methodologically.

The ideological differences are caused by the attribution of their own works to formally

different literary movements such as the neo-avant-garde, combinatorial literature and

individual lyrical styles. Methodologically, some of the interviewees reject the fixation

on strict poetry forms, whereas for the others the formal methods are of crucial

importance. Kedrov and Katsyuba set their creative goals through philosophical

understanding of the essence of the universe. Biryukov, Kharitonov and Litvak

understand their roles as promoters and developers of the literary trend which was

ruptured in the mid-twentieth century. Lukomnikov and Grinberg aim to express their

feeling in maximum poetic virtuosity. They search for new literary methods to achieve

this goal. Finally, for Fedin as a mathematician concerned with literary experiments, the

creative program is the development and popularisation of the techniques of

combinatorial literature rather than his own literary works.

The key to Katsyuba's poetics is creativity itself, akin to the Creation shaping the

universe by saying the Word. Therefore, Katsyuba works towards realisation of this co-

creation in her poetic texts using the combinatorial letter methods. Katsyuba, following

her understanding of Lermontov's ffeMon, concerns herself with creation: "npomjio

KaKOe-TO BpeMfl, h 5I 3aH5IJiaCb H M C H H O 3THM , C03AaHMeM, KaK HaHHHail C COTBOpeHHil

MHpa" (After some time, I engaged myself in precisely this, the creation which follows

the beginning of the world, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). A poetic text

appearing through this process is understood as a reflection of the universe created from

the same source of the language material and by the same laws of permutations and

combinations of the primary elements as those by which it is believed the world was

created. In this sense, the poet is likened to the Creator, producing and observing the

poems as universes in miniature.

For Biryukov, the reason to choose the avant-garde poetic trend arose from an

aesthetic coincidence with his own feelings: "oxKpbiTOCTb nepe^aHH HyscTBeHHoro

Hanajia" (openness of demonstration of sensuality, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6

March). Biryukov highlights different aspects of the influence on him of the avant-garde

art: "nyBCTBeHHbie H MbicjiHxejibHbie BCIUH, S M O U H H , <...>, caivi rojioc MASKOBCKORO B

sanHCH, <.. .> OHCHb HecTaH^apTHbie ÔHorpa^)««" (sensory and mental subjects,

emotions, <...>, the very voice of Mayakovsky's recordings, <...> his very unusual

biography, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March). Together, these subjects generate the essence of avant-garde - the existence on the front Hne of the poetry, 'nepe/iOBbie no3HUHH' (pioneering positions). In this case, the purpose of creativity is understood as a mission to hold these front-Hne positions and develop them further. Thus, Biryukov's main poetic task is to build on the foundations of the historical avant-garde: "paHHuii aeaHrapA BbipaGoxaji KaKoe-xo KOJIHHECTBO npneMOB, C^EJIAJI TO, HTO HaM NPEACTOHT

AOBepujHTb" (The early avant-garde has developed a certain number of methods; it began the things we have to finish, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March). In his lectures and publications, Biryukov passes on this aim to his followers, thus forming a public understanding of the role of the contemporary experimenting author.

Similarly, Kharitonov as a curator of the literary process aims to develop the

interrupted historical tradition of avant-garde to the present. Kharitonov understands his

goal as a mission to restore the interrupted history of Russian avant-garde: "Bce

o6py6HjiH, H coBpeMeHHbiH MOJIOAOH HHTaxejib, KOTopbiH aBaHrap^y ne Hy>KA, <.. .> OH

3Ty cneuH(})HHecKyK) no33HK), no33HK) SKcnepHMeHxajibHyio, cjio>KHyio, He

BocnpHHHMaeT" (All was chopped off, and today's young reader who is possibly

interested in avant-garde is out of it, <...> he is not receptive to this poetry, experimental

poetry, complex poetry, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). Kharitonov also aims

to teach the reader and the literary milieu in general to understand avant-garde poetry.

Therefore, he works on the promotion and development of experimental poetry with a

passion similar to that of Russian futurists of the early twentieth century.

As for his personal literary method, Kharitonov indicates that it consists in the

preservation of rapidly changing language: "no cyu^ecxBy 3TO nonbixKa coxpanHXb asbiK,

KOTopbiH sa CHex cTpeMHTCJibHOH 3B0J1K)UHH yMHpaex" (In essence, it is an attempt to save

the language, which is dying rapidly due to its own evolution, E Kharitonov 2009, pers.

comm., 6 June). Kharitonov emphasises the possibilities of extended semantics for literary

texts similar to the semanticisation of letters and sounds started in zaum works.

More generally, Litvak and Lukomnikov declare traditional poetic goals, as Litvak

admits the same tasks of continuing the poetic discoveries of the poets of the past,

though she does not specify a definite literary trend, instead choosing some poetic

elements of the overall poetry:

H nOHCMy-TO CHHTaK), HTO npO^OJDKaK) HCHTO MHOFOKpaTHO H y pa3HbIX n03T0B oGopeaHHoe b Hanajie ecKa. Ho He to, hto mo;iho h o6meH3BecTHo, a hchto HeyjiOBHMoe, HCHasBaHHoe. Hto-to ÓJiecHyBuiee, ho hc cocTOflBiiieecji b nojiHOH Mepe.

Sometimes I think that I continue something that many different poets began repeatedly at the beginning of the century and that was interrupted. However, it was not something fashionable and well-known, but something elusive, unnamed. Something that gleamed, but did not fully realise itself (S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June).

Litvak's main literary goal is the traditional impact on the reader, though the

accent is made on the formal technique, "jiocthhb HanGojibiiieñ BbipasHxejibHOCTH h

rapMOHHH B BbiGpaHHOH 4iopMe" (to achieve maximum expressiveness and harmony in

the selected form, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June). The other tasks listed by

Litvak are also general for the poet - the internal goal to surprise herself, that is, to

change herself by producing a poem, and the external goal "cAeJiaxb npopbiB (hjih mar)

K HepasjiHHHMbiM Aoccjic JiaHAiiia(J)TaM" (to make a breakthrough (or step out) to the

landscapes indiscernible before, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June). Consequently,

the main poetic goals established by the experimenting poet can be similar to those of

the poet working in conventional literary techniques.

Lukomnikov presents a global poetic goal which he aims to achieve with his poetry,

"nejioBeKa MCHiiTb, kohchho" (to change the person, of course, G Lukomnikov 2007,

pers. comm., 13 December). Lukomnikov explains the multiple choices of poetic

methods, asserting that the diversity of his works appears subconsciously. He emphasises

the continuity of creative activity: "KaK aexop a or axoro Bce paeHo OT/ibixaxb He Mory.

Hy, coHHHaeTca Bce paBHO, HHKy/ a He iteneiubcji" (As the author, I can not relax away

from it. Well, I write it all the same, I just can't help it, G Lukomnikov 2007, pers.

comm., 13 December). Therefore, for Lukomnikov, creativity is more than a profession,

but the very essence of the existence of the author. This trait, expressed by Lukomnikov,

is a shared notion of the experimental and conventional poets.

Grinberg and Fedin are more specific in their poetic commitments. Despite the

similarity in literary techniques practised by Grinberg and Fedin, they express different

poetic goals of their literary experimentations: Fedin limits himself to inventing new

formal restrictions: "MHC Gojibme ecero HpasHTCH e KOMGwHaTopHKe NPHAYMBIEAXB

HOBbie nyxH, HOBbie cnoco6bi K0M6HHHp0BaHHfl" (What 1 like the most in combinatorial

literature is inventing new ways, new methods of combining, S Fedin 2007, pers.

comm., 17 October). In other words, Fedin does not raise a specific poetic goal, but is

satisfied by the knowledge that the given literary restriction can be realised. This

understanding is similar to the mathematician's satisfaction from the knowledge of the

pure possibility of solving a problem. On the contrary, Grinberg uses strict literary

constraints for poetic purposes, not to practise for the sake of practice. For Grinberg, the

choice of combinatorial poetry is determined by the feeling of exhaustion of traditional

poetics: "B C H J U I A 6 0 T 0 H H K E R AOMEJI AO KaKoro-xo ypoBHJi, KOR^A R caM ceGa Hcnepnaji,

xo ecxb a nepecxaji ceGa y^MBJiJixb" (I have reached a certain level in syllabic-tonic

poetry, where I had exhausted myself, that is, I have ceased to surprise myself, B

Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November). The same factor of surprising himself arises

here, similar to that expressed by Litvak. As a result, Grinberg seeks new poetic

methods to achieve the permanent goal to be changed through the creative process.

Grinberg's main task is also a poetic expressiveness similar to those expressed by other

in t erv i ewees . H e pract i ses strict formal constraints as the bas i s for his creat ive work and

t ends to h ide t h e m in h i s poetry - he u s e s formal restrictions as a mere technical m e t h o d

for the revi ta l i sat ion o f poe t i c e x p r e s s i o n , rather than the m e a n s to a m a z e the reader by

h i s v irtuos i ty . First o f all , he creates a poe t i c text , w h e r e a s the exact formal technique is

s o m e t i m e s h idden f r o m the reader: "nHcaxb CTHXH, n p o c x o HTOGBI OHH HHXAJIHCB

CTHXaMH, a naJlHHApOM HTOGBI 5bIJl nOTOM, BXOpblM ;iHOM KaK 6bl, < . . . > TO eCTb 3T0

M05I BHyxpeHHHii 3SLjiaHa, OHa He ;ioji>KHa 0Tpa>KaTbC5i nenocpe/icTBeHHO Ha KaHecxee

CTHxoTBopeHHH" ( T o wHtc poctry so that it w o u l d be read as poetry, w h i l e a pal indrome

is h idden, < . . . > that is m y inner task w h i c h shou ld not a f f ec t directly the quality o f the

p o e m , B Gr inberg 2007, pers. c o m m . , 5, 8 N o v e m b e r ) .

To summarise, the interviewees explained their choice of a specific poetic trend as

the means of addressing their creative goals. Some of the interviewees set global goals -

to re-enact the Creation becoming a co-creator (Katsyuba), to disseminate the universal

revelation (Kedrov), to change (surprise) themselves and the world through the creative

process (Litvak, Lukomnikov, Grinberg). In addition, Biryukov, Litvak and Kharitonov

express the messenger's mission of spreading the literary movement. These goals are

implemented in various ways: from enthusiastic possession by an idea (Biryukov,

Litvak), to quiet desk-work without agitation (Fedin). Consequently, the interviewees

choose various aspects of experimental poetry, functioning in various roles: from a

prophet and a messenger to a revolutionary and a scientist.

To achieve their poetic goals, the interviewees use multiple experimental literary

techniques. In the following section of this chapter, the interviewees' specification of

these techniques is presented.

3.3. Specification of literary forms and methods used by the interviewees

As my main research topic is the Hterature of formal restriction, I asked the

interviewees a number of questions about literary techniques; in particular, the poetic

restrictions they practised in their works. First, I asked each of the interviewees to name

or describe the literary techniques they prefer to use in their works. Then, I asked the

interviewees' interpretation of the relationship between form and content, and between

restriction and inspiration in their texts. Finally, the interviewees were asked to name

modified and innovative restrictions they have produced for their writings. Through

these questions, their poetic intentions in applying these techniques are revealed as well

as their understanding and reflection on their own literary methods in the context of the

history of formal restrictions.

3.3.1. Preferred formal restrictions used by the interviewees

In this section, I reveal the interviewees' description of the literary methods, in

particular, the formal restrictions which they prefer to practise. The responses of the

interviewees vary in the precision of naming formal techniques, as well as in defining

their intentions and poetic purposes in applying these forms. For the authors whose

works will be analysed in the following chapters, their responses will be further

compared with the results of the literary analysis of their texts.

Some poets (Katsyuba, Grinberg, Avaliani, Fedin and Lukomnikov) are aware of

specific techniques they use, even if they approach this differently. Katsyuba deeply

reflects on her poetics, providing the researcher with ideas and mechanisms of her works.

She understands formal restrictions as the means of communication with the eternal truth,

whereas the poet becomes only a 'spokesperson' for their own poetic texts: "3to HCKoe

o6meHne Ha caMOM ^ene co CJIOBOM" (This is actually a kind of communication with the

word, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). The text is understood as participating in

its own creation, while the author discovers though not creates it: "BOT noaxoiviy H JIK)6JIÎO

najiHHApoM, noTOMy HTO xyx MHCTOC napxHepcTBO, TM nHiuemb OAHO, a OHO xeôe nHmex

/^pyroe" (That's why I like palindromes, because it is a pure partnership, you write one

thing, and it writes another, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). In contrast, for

Fedin, combinatorial techniques are just a specific tool, rather than sacred expressions of

eternal truth or revealing hidden inner meanings of the texts: "STO scerò jiHiub

HHCTpyMCHT. To eCTb C nOMOUlbK) 3TOrO HHCTpyMCHTa MO>KHO C03AaTb BCe, HTO yrOAHO,

H uiyTOHHbiH, H TpaPHHecKHH, H 5o>KecTBeHHbiH, H ôopoxyjibHbiH TCKCT" (This is just a

tool. That is, with this tool, you can create anything you want, either a comic, or a tragic,

or a sacred, or a profane text, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October). This is

undoubtedly a true statement, and historical examples of literary restrictions provide

evidence that, by using combinatorial methods, authors make statements of the various

contents. However, the tendency to compose combinatorial texts on sacred topics, as it

was already demonstrated in the previous chapter, shows the specific nature of

combinatorial literature, which will be supported also by the analysis of contemporary

writings presented in the following chapters of this thesis.

For Avaliani, the interviewees who personally knew him, indicate his

overwhelming preference for formal constraints. In particular, Lukomnikov emphasises

Avaliani 's virtuosity in expressing poetic feeling through the strict formal technique as

a distinctive feature of his poetic. Fedin focuses on the swiftness and virtuosity by

which Avaliani responded to a new invented technique with a fresh poetic work.

For Lukomnikov himself, he specifies letter palindromes as a preferred

combinatorial form he practises. He emphasises the great number of palindromes he

wrote, "A oneHb MHOFO Hanwcaji, MO>KET Gbixb, THCJIHH 3THX NAJIHH^POMOB H

paeHo6yKeutj, jia h Apyrwx" (I have written a lot, maybe thousands of these palindromes

and equal-letters, as well as other formal restrictions, G Lukomnikov 2007, pers.

comm., 6 December), though for the other texts, he denies the use of any formal

constraints emphasising their spontaneousness and naivety.

Grinberg also openly declares a preference for literary restrictions as the basis for

his creativity, naming a number of formal techniques he uses. For him, the strictest

letter constraints are the tools to elaborate further his poetic expressiveness and to elude

banalities. He lists a multiple number of letter formal constraints (palindrome,

hiperlipogram, tautogram) which he knew before practising experimental writing and

with which he later became familiar (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November).

The most focused on the formal constraints, sometimes to the neglect of the

content of the poem, is Fedin. He proclaims a preference for a wide range of forms, "ece

(l)opMbi, KaKHe ecTb" (all the existing forms, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October).

Fedin correctly argues that, in Russian poetry, letter restrictions are elaborated more

thoroughly, while other forms still require further development. Also, Fedin nominates

highly unusual techniques such as tactile poems and combinations of emotions, which

did not exist at the time, thus requiring an initial implementation and comprehension.

Summing up, it is strict formal constraints of the most variable status that are of primary

interest to Fedin, and he actively focuses on the search for their discovery mostly

abandoning further literary realisation.

Other authors (Kharitonov, Litvak and Biryukov) are less certain in their preferred

techniques. For example, Biryukov provides a contradictory answer to the question on

the poetic restrictions he uses. Despite his deep knowledge of the history of formal

experimentation, Biryukov understands formal techniques as artificial, in contrast to the

open expressiveness of the avant-garde artists of the early twentieth century, thus

emphasising his preference for the spontaneity of his works: "Kor^a H nnuiy

coGcTBeHHyK) KaKyK)-To Bemb, a, KOHeHHo, npaMO He ep>Ky B naMHTM KaKOH-To

npHMep HjiH oGpaseu" (Of course, when I write my own text, I do not keep in memory a

sample or specimen, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March). Though he recognises

the essentiality of the formal restrictions, "paayivieeTCfl, 4)opMa Gbisaex cyu;ecTBeHHa"

(Of course, the form can be quite significant, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March),

Biryukov finds it difficult to name a specific constraint he practises. However,

Biryukov's verbal neglect of formal practice is in contradiction to his own work on

teaching the forgotten literary techniques to poets.

Similarly, Kharitonov focuses on an emotional factor in choosing the literary

technique for his creative works, though he admits the diversity and exact understanding

of the practised literary forms: "MyAOBHiuHoe h pa3;ipa>Kaiomee pasHOoGpasne,

CBHSAHHOE c MOCH TBOPNECKOH >KAAHOCTBK)" (It is a monstrous and irritating diversity,

following from my creative gluttony, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). As well

as Kharitonov, Litvak also describes the most general genres and styles rather than

naming specific techniques; "nposa HJIH BHsyajibHoe HCKyccTBO, cnjiJiaGoTOHHKa,

BepjiHGp, ayAMO noasHJi" (prose or the visual arts, syllabic-tonic poetry, vers libre, audio

poetry, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June).

Finally, for Kedrov, there is no question of preference of formal technique, as he

considers all poetic methods to be equally formal. Thus, he demonstrates a

comprehension of his own writing important for the understanding of the overall

essence of experimental poetry. Kedrov totally disagrees with the separation of literary

methods into 'poetic', which are the accepted literary techniques, and 'formal', seen as

extravagant methods. Kedrov observes that for some constraints their formal component

is denied despite certain existence, whereas for the others, their formal component is

accentuated and their poetic is neglected. That is, in Kedrov's opinion, the neglect of

combinatorial literary techniques unreasonably narrows the boundaries of lyrics,

intuition and intimacy in the poetry. This position raises the literary constraints to a

generalisation usually not recognised by the literary community.

In addition to the specification of the known formal literary techniques, some

interviewees (Grinberg, Kharitonov and Lukomnikov) admit their efforts in

modification or inventing new techniques, though their methods and poetic goals also

differ. Grinberg tends to toughen the formal restrictions in order to achieve new

expressive possibilities. Grinberg deliberately practises newly invented forms, though

regretting these forms were actually re-invented due to his lack of knowledge of the

history of experimental literature: "B OCHOBHOM, A NPHAYMBIBAJI BEJIOCHNEAW, TAK HJIH

MHane" (Basically, I re-invented the wheel, one way or another, B Grinberg 2007, pers.

comm., 5, 8 November). On the contrary, Lukomnikov tends to destroy the known

restriction as he uses specific forms such as pseudo-palindromes which are the texts

with a meaningless set of letters for the right side of the text, reproducing the

meaningful left side in the inverted order. With this technique, Lukomnikov creates

parodies of weak palindromes, expressing in particular, his negative attitude to the

numerous attempts of beginner palindromists to create palindromes: "OHH Bce >Ke

nmuyx OAHO H TO >Ke, NOBTOPAIOT APYR iipyra, H Ka>KABIM AYMAEX, HTO OH 3TO nepsbiii

npHAyMaji" (They all write the same, repeating each other, and each one thinks he is the

first who invented it, G Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 13 December).

Grinberg accomplishes his formal search inspired by the understanding of the

capabilities of Russian language: nyBCTBOBaji, HTO HSBIK, OH rjiy6>Ke, OH nosBOJiaeT

c^iejiaTb Gojibuie" (I could feel that the language is deeper, that it allows you to do more,

B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5, 8 November). Katsyuba also underlines the

absoluteness of a word, coinciding with Grinberg's and Kharitonov's opinions about the

richness of the Russian language: "CJIOBO BCAB 3TO enojiHe 4)H3HHecKa5i peajibHocxb.

KOHCHHO. OHO H cosAaex Bce. y>K E pyccKOM 5i3biKe TOHHO" (A word is physical reality.

Absolutely. It is the word which creates everything. At least in Russian language, E

Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). Also, Kedrov agrees with Katsyuba about the

existence of original texts in the language and on extensions of the possibilities of

language through the usage of strict formal constraints. In addition, Kharitonov works

to enlarge the possibilities of literary genres in contemporary poetry, searching for new

techniques in Western poetry. For example, having been familiar with samples of

Western sound poetry, he works in the realm of sound poetry tending to produce

significant examples of sound poetry in Russian.

Predictably, some interviewees (Kedrov, Kharitonov and Biryukov) included their

thoughts on zaum language in their answers. For them, one of the techniques of

experimental writing is restoration of the vocabulary forgotten in the present day and

possibly interpreted in contemporary texts as a fabricated avant-garde language. Kedrov

proclaims that in some cases he uses some obsolete vocabulary which is read as zaum,

fulfilling the task to preserve these forms in the language. When these forms are used in

the modem poetic language, they are interpreted as strange and unusual, that is, as

avant-garde forms, though actually they are much older and had an exact sense in some

eras. Similarly, Kharitonov rejects the typical accusations of the meaninglessness of

neo-avant-garde works as there could be meanings unknown to the uninformed reader:

"51 paGoxaio, o6jio>KHBmncb cjiOBapjiMH, y mch i cjiOBapH jie>KaT cxapocjiaBJiHCKoro,

6ojirapcKoro, jiaxbiHM, H eme ecTb Apyrwe. >I Bce noHHMaio, o HCM H roBopio" (I work,

surrounding myself with sets of dictionaries. I have old Slavonic, Bulgarian, Latin and

other dictionaries. I fully understand what I mean, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6

June). This is close to Klilebnikov's understanding of zaum, as stated by Markov

(Markov 1994, 180), as the language which meaning exists though possibly

unrecognisable for the reader. Again, Biryukov relates his writing with avant-garde

literary methods which are mostly a denial of previously existing literary forms, though

it should be mentioned that through the denial of recent literary forms, avant-garde

poets searched for appropriate literary methods among folk and ancient literary forms

forgotten to the early twentieth century. To the contemporary reader, these methods

seemed unusual and were regarded as avant-garde writing, though they were actually a

return to old techniques. Similarly, Biryukov supposes that, at the present, the purpose

of the use of formal restrictions is to make the text look unusual.

Concluding, the interviewees provide different descriptions and explanations for

their use of specific literary techniques, from combinatorial restrictions with majority of

letter forms to the variety of styles and forms, up to denying practising restrictions. Some

of the interviewees are more focused on the formal aspects of their poetry whereas others

see these methods as subordinate means. Their aims in using or avoiding literary

restrictions also differ as the means to disclose the sacred meaning (Katsyuba), tools to

elaborate further poetic expressiveness (Grinberg) and a range of poetic possibilities

(Kharitonov), or 'just a specific tool' (Fedin) in a wide range of language potentiality.

The further analysis of the interviewees' reasons for these choices is presented in

the following sections of this chapter devoted to their understanding of relationships of

content versus form and inspiration versus restriction.

3.3.2. Content versus form in contemporary Russian experimental writing

In this section, I present the interviewees' opinions about the interaction of content

and form in their works, as well as in the whole literary trend to which they relate

themselves. It is a common perception that, on one end of the spectrum of literary styles

there are texts determined by strict constraints to the detriment of the meaning, and on

the polar opposite there are texts determined by their content to the detriment of the

form. Nevertheless, the members of Oulipo proclaimed that a formal restriction

reinforces the content rather than contradicts it (Le Lionnais 1973, 23-27). In this

context, I raised the question regarding the interviewees' perception of a linkage

between form and content in their texts. To a great extent, the interviewees were not

familiar with the ideas of Oulipo, though some of them came to similar conclusions

independently, believing the literary restriction to be a powerful tool for disclosing new

meaning, whereas other interviewees accepted the common belief of contradiction of

strict constraint and content of the text.

The most extreme opinion about the form-content duality is expressed by Fedin.

For him, the form is highlighted, while the content of the text is the question of minor

importance. Therefore, Fedin works on the restriction for the sake of the restriction

itself, not for a poetic purpose. He limits himself to the creation of pure formal

constructions rather than an elaboration of them to expressive poetic techniques.

Grinberg, though not on such a deep level of reflection, supposes the

expressiveness of the poetic text as condensed by the use of formal restrictions. For

Katsyuba, his understanding of creative possibilities of a literary constraint is similar to

that of Oulipo. For Grinberg, the literary restriction provides the increase of poetic

expressiveness: "neKOTopbie o6pa3bi, KOTopbie BOSHHKAIOT B PEBYJIBTAXE NAJIHHAPOMHH

HJiH aHarpaMMHH, OHM MHC KAK CHJIJIAGOXOHHHECKOMY NO3TY npocxo e rojioey He

npMUJJiH 6bi" (Some of the images that come to me in palindrome or anagram poems

would never arise if I was writing syllabic-tonic poetry, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm.,

8 November). Consequently, formal restrictions become an essential trait for the

creation of a text, and strongly and positively affect the content of the poem, though, in

contrast to works of the members of Oulipo, the presence of literary constraint in

Grinberg's texts is not evidently demonstrated to the reader. Grinberg prefers to

emphasise poetic aspects of his texts, proclaiming: "H o H i u y CTHXH, KOTOPBIE oGjia^AIOT

TaKHM-TO CBOHCTBOM, < . . . > flpOCTO JlHlUHCe CBOHCTBO CTHXOTBOpeHHH, M BCC" (I wHte

poems of such a feature, <...> it is just an extra feature of the poem, that's all, B

Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November).

Other interviewees express a more traditional understanding of the form-content

duality. Lukomnikov and Litvak recognise the significance of formal techniques that

provide new possibilities for the authors, but prefer to steer the middle course. In

Litvak's notion, form and content are inextricably linked with each other, and ideally a

text should be in a state of balance between them: "TOJILKO RAPMOHHFL H

BSAHMONPOHHKHOBCHHE. l l e p e B e c B x y HJIH HnyK) c x o p o n y ^^ej iaer p e s y j i b x a x M e n e e

reHHajibHbiM" (There should be harmony and mutual cooperation. Preponderance of one

side over another makes the result less brilliant, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June).

Finally, Biryukov and Kharitonov, following the ideas and methods of the

historical avant-garde, adhere to the concept of the minor interaction between content

and formal restriction. Biryukov notices that formal restriction could be understood as a

poetic method: " X J I C G H H K O B ocosnaji NAJIHHJIPOM KaK na caMOM ACJIE NO3XHHECKHH

npHCM, KaK o iHy H3 (J)yHKUHH n o 3 3 n n , xaK >Ke KaK pH(J)Ma, HanpHMep" (Khlebnikov

realised that palindrome, in fact, is a poetic method, as one of the functions of poetry, as

well as rhyme, for example, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March). Nevertheless, in

Biryukov's opinion, despite Khlebnikov's revolutionary achievements in palindromes,

formal methods were, in general, used insignificantly by avant-garde poets and had a

minor effect on the content of their poems. Consequently, Biryukov does not consider

literary restrictions as the main method of reinforcing the text, but appreciates their

benefits. Similarly to Biryukov, Kharitonov links form and content of his text in the

same neo-avant-garde sense. He insists that in his texts he presents strict meanings

evident to the author: "axo BnojiHe KOHKpeTHaa HH4)opMauH5i" (It is absolutely precise

information, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June), but the key to its perception is

hidden from the reader. Consequently, the restoration of avant-garde is fulfilled through

this practice with literary constraints used to a certain degree.

Some interviewees raise the question of the originality of the texts of

combinatorial poetry. For example, Fedin distinguishes poetic texts and texts created on

the basis of formal restrictions, by their originality. In Fedin's opinion, poetic texts are

individual: "3TO TBOH npo^iyKT, OH HHKOR/ia HE NOBTOPHTCA" (It is your own creation, it

will never be repeated again the same, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October), whereas

combinatorial texts are closer to mathematical lemmas that, despite being named after

the discoverer, are not created by anyone personally. Fedin supposes these texts exist

initially in the language, and sooner or later, would be discovered. Moreover, in some

cases, multiple authors discover these texts independently, which also decreases their

originality. Fedin supposes that this feature detracts from the quality of combinatorial

text: "3T0 KaK Haxo;IKH rpHÖoe, KOToptie ne TLI BbipacxHJi" (This is like finding the

mushrooms that were grown not by you, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October).

Although Katsyuba's notion of the primordial existence of combinatorial texts in the

language is close to Fedin's, she evaluates this feature positively. In Katsyuba's

understanding, the text of the strict constraint is not created by the author, but is a

manifestation of the pre-existing meaning: "BOSHHKaex nojinoe omymeHHC

;XHKTOBaHHoro TCKCxa" (An absolute feeling appears of a dictated text, E Katsyuba

2009, pers. comm., 12 July). Katsyuba admits even a possibility of the text appearing in

spite of the will of the author: "xoneiiib HaBjiaaTb CBOH TCKCT, a xeGe orryjia. jxuKTyKfT

Apyroii TeKCT" (You want to impose your own words, and instead you are dictated a different text from out there, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). Consequently, Katsyuba argues that the texts of strict constraints manifest the highest form of creativity, appealing to the word as the original essence. The text based on a strict constraint becomes a co-author of the poet, as it changes itself according to its own will defined by language rather than by the writer. In this case, the role of the author decreases, as the creative process becomes a dialogue, "y MCHJI xaKoe omymeuHe, HTO

MHorHe OHMYX KaK MOHOJIOF, a Bce-xaKH, MHC Ka>KETCH, HTO B JIKDGOM cjiynae TBopnecTBO 3T0 AHajior" (I have a feeling that many authors write a monologue, but still, I think that in any case, creativity is a dialogue, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). On the whole, in Katsyuba's opinion, the content of the text follows the language itself expressed through the strict literary constraint.

In addition, some interviewees (Litvak, Kedrov) admit the interaction and mutual influence of the form and content, up to the necessity of harmony between them. Litvak states the necessity of the practical search for poetical harmony, whereas Kedrov presents a more theoretical position arguing the indivisibility of the context of a text from the language, intensified by using formal restriction. According to Kedrov, a connection between the content of a text and the use of formal restriction is manifested on a deeper level of language's structure, and through the language - in the structure of the universe. Kedrov emphasises the philosophical meaning of palindrome as the reflection of time: "rpaMMaTHKa - 3TO npocxpaHcxBO H Bpeiviii; cjiaraeMbie, npe/iJiorn, OHH BeAb nepeziaiOT npOT5i>KeHHe H JiorHKy, OHH nepe^AKDR npocxpaHCTBo H BPEMA"

(Grammar is space and time; substantives and prepositions, they transmit extension and logic, they transmit time and space, K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April). In other

words, according to Kedrov, the relationship between the universe and a human being

exists in the language originally and manifests itself through texts, which is a concept

expressed by those looking for the perfect language (Eco 1995).

Summarising, the interviewees' opinions differ from acceptance of the strictest

constraints for the increase of impressiveness of the text, to almost complete negation of

the formal restriction in the name of content, or almost complete negation of content in

the name of the form. Apparently, it can be assumed that even the interviewees

expressing extreme opinions, inevitably find a compromise between these concepts in

their poetic practice.

3.3.3. Restrictions versus inspiration in contemporary Russian experimental writing

My next questions, regarding the inspiration for the interviewees' writing, aimed

at a revelation of their understanding of the mechanisms of their creative process, and

how they address the craft-inspiration dichotomy in regard to the practising of formal

restrictions. According to Oulipo, it is strict constraint that leads to poetic discoveries

(Oulipo 1973), whereas Russian experimental literature has been developing mostly

intuitively, without a profound concept, thus following the main concepts of the

preference of inspiration in creative process. By my questions, I aim to reveal whether

inspiration is understood by the interviewees in the usual way as the main means for

poetic writing, or whether they instead focus on the craft in the form of strict literary

constraints.

Predictably, the interviewees' answers were vague, or the interviewees

reformulated the question to their convenience, as for example, by discussing the initial

impetus for their creative process. In this interpretation of the question, the sources of

creative motivation differed among the interviewees: from initial revelation for Kedrov

and the desire of co-creation for Katsyuba, to the search for a new formal restriction for

Grinberg and Fedin, and emotional expressiveness for Kharitonov. Nevertheless, in

some answers, the interviewees indicate the relationship between literary restriction and

inspiration, and certain interviewees such as Fedin and Grinberg proclaim literary

restrictions as the main impetus and reason for their creativity.

What is common to some of the interviewees is a permanent state of poetic search,

when an initial impetus for writing a particular poem is not necessary. To illustrate,

Kedrov is influenced by the revelation experienced in 1958, which he expresses as

" n e p e > K H T o e KOCMHHecKoe O T K p O B e H n e , KOTOpoe o c x a j i o c b H a e c e r A a " ( A c o s m i c

revelation that I have experienced that will remain forever, K Kedrov 2009, pers.

comm., 13 April), permanently reflected in his poetry. Biryukov and Lukomnikov

equally indicate their state as a constant poetic creativity.

Nevertheless, some interviewees define the sources of their inspiration more or

less concretely. For example, Katsyuba describes the creative process as a process based

on formal techniques close to ludicrous children's games. On the other hand, this

concept echoes the complex and formal cabbalistic writings:

Bepy 3anHCHyK) KHH>KKy, KaK B ^ICTCKOH Hrpe, Kor ia H3 O^HORO cjioea cocTaBjiHKDTCH cjiOBa, cJiaK), ;;ejiaK) 3TH cjiosa, < . . . > NOTOM 3TO CJIOBO, H3

KOToporo iiejiaiOTCJi cjioBa, OHO MO^KCT H HC NPHCYTCTBOBAXB, OHO 3a6biBaeTCJi, HO

KaKaa-TO TaHHCTBCHHaJI CBiI3b MOKAy CJlOBaMH OCTaCTCH.

I take a notebook, and as in the children's game, when words are created from other words, I create, and keep creating these words, <...> then this first word, from which the others were made, may even disappear, it is forgotten, but somehow a mysterious connection between words remains (E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July).

Also for Grinberg, the initial impetus for poetry writing is definitely working with

literary form, relying on the possibilities of the Russian language: " [ p y c c K H i i JI3BIK 3 T O ]

j iyHUJHH B M H p e 5i3biK, B p a M K a x 3Toro H3biKa H e x HHHero H e B 0 3 M 0 > K H 0 r 0 " ([Russian

language is] the world 's best language for this purpose, there is nothing impossible for

this language, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November). With a close attention to

the language, Grinberg exactly follows formal techniques tending to make the

restrictions even tougher. For example, it was the inaccuracy of Khlebnikov's

palindromes which led Grinberg to the creation of his own palindromes; it was the

discovery of literary restriction expressed as formula by Fedin and Lukomnikov, but not

yet as a literary text, which led Grinberg to its further exploration:

^ T a M HaxojiHJi KaKyK)-TO njioxo B b i n o j i H e H H y i o sam^y, JIH6O COBCCM

H e B b i n o j i H e H H y i o 3a;iaHy, cKa>KeM, npo HaHajibHo-KOHCHHbie xasTorpaMMbi 6biJio HanHcaHO npocro, HTO OHH ôbieaiOT. A A B3HJI H CAEJIAN UMKJI H3 BocbMH C T H X O T B O p e H H H , HaHHHaiOmHXCH H SaKaHHHBaiOmMXCil Ha 0 ; i H y ÔyKBy.

I found some poorly accomplished task, or a completely unaccomplished task; for example, the initial-fmal tautogram, it was just said that they exist. So I tried and made a cycle of eight poems that start and end with the same letter (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November).

Consequently, for Grinberg, the creative process becomes conceptual problem-

solving, when the existence of unexplored poetic limitations is a challenge.

Even more, Fedin understands his creativity as mostly analytical research for new

literary restrictions, "npo;ioji>KeHHe xex >Ke aaujiTHH MaxeiviaTHKOH, HO ^pyrHMH

cpe/lCTBaMH" (the continuation of the same activity as in mathematics, but by other

means, S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17 October). In this case, he interprets combinatorial

literary works as an intellectual game rather than an inspirational process, comparing it

to recreation from more intensive intellectual studies.

In contrast, for Kharitonov, the emotional inspiration aspect is the most

significant. Though he supports Grinberg and Katsyuba in the estimation of the

possibilities of the Russian language allowing the search for new forms, he differs

significantly from the above authors in the inspiration-restriction subject. Kharitonov is

passionate about words, even for letters and sounds, and expresses this passion in his

poetic works: " 6 E 3 Y M H O xonexca oxsaTHTb see CJIOBOM, a CJIOBO xjiemex pasHbiM,

NBHHHT, MAHHT. Bccf/ia xonexcii nero-xo HOBOFO , a HXO eme MO)KHO C 3XHM CJIOBOM, C

3 X 0 H ôyKBOH c/iejiaxb?" (I want madly to encompass everything with a word, and the

word spurts, makes me drunk, beckons me. I always want something new, to see what

else can be done with this word, with this letter, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6

June). In other words, for Kharitonov, a necessary factor for creativity is the state of

poetic possession rather than an elaboration on the restriction.

Finally, Litvak is ambivalent in the restriction-inspiration dichotomy as she uses

both edges: inspirational and deep inner concentration (S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26

June). In this case, her choice for experimental writing is caused by the importance of

the state of uncertainty for creativity, "HAXO^HTBCH B COCTO^HHH HAMHHAKDMERO" (to be

in a state of a pioneer, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June) which means "saMHpaHHe

cep;;ua" (bated breath) and "Haxo>KAeHne HSLJX ÖCSAHOH" (hanging over the abyss, S

Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June). This condition is, according to Litvak, the true state

of the poet. Therefore, unelaborated literary forms and literary restrictions become for

her the means of attaining this ecstatic state necessary for writing.

Concluding, the interviewees do not consciously set this dichotomy before

themselves, so their answers mostly concern the common inspirational forms of

creativity, up to a universal revelation (Kedrov, Biryukov and Lukomnikov).

Nevertheless, for some interviewees (Grinberg, Kharitonov and Katsyuba), balanced

careful work on words in order to find new possibilities of the language is also a

characteristic trait of the creative process. This careful work can be supported by a

passion for words, which is also typical for the practitioner of combinatorial poetry.

3.3.4. Modifications of the existing literary restrictions by the interviewees

The search for new possibilities of literary expression demands new literary

restrictions, developed in particular by the interviewees. Their opinions on the

modifications of existing techniques, and inventions of completely new restrictions, are

described in this section of the analysis of interviews.

All interviewees agree that experimental literature is developing rapidly in

contemporary Russia. Many literary forms are practised at present, some with

modifications according to the authors' choices. In their works, most of the interviewees

invent, amplify, or simplify existing restrictions, adapting them according to their

personal ideas. The modification of literary restrictions occurs through amplification of

the existing techniques in the texts of Fedin and Grinberg on the one hand, and through

its simplification in the texts of Lukomnikov and Litvak on the other. Additionally,

some interviewees refuse to acknowledge their efforts in the development of formal

restrictions.

Katsyuba, Fedin and Grinberg openly admit their intention to modernise some

literary restrictions. To an extreme, for Fedin, the invention and following

popularisation of a new restriction is the most important component of the creative

work, which is close to Lewis Carroll's understanding of experimental writing.

Katsyuba also follows the same understanding, even proposing a new restriction which

is very similar to the word-game method chain of words invented by Lewis Carroll

(Gardner 1996, 102). According to Katsyuba. the restriction named by her spontaneous

mutation is the development of an anagram. Here Katsyuba uses genetic terminology to

describe a literary technique, thus demonstrating similarity between a word and a living

being. Contrary to Carroll, the final result of the writing is a lyrical poem, rather than

just a word-game set of works. Katsyuba's poems in this form will be analysed in

Chapter 6 of the thesis. Moreover, Grinberg understands the modification of a

restriction as the mainspring for creativity - he searches for new literary methods

previously unknown to him in available publications, and writes poems on their basis.

For example, he notes: "B Anmojioeuu ncuiundpoMa npHBO/injiacb xasTorpaMMa

AfiajiHaHH, r^e noBTopaiOTCH nepsbie xpH 6yKBbi, 'cTpaHHHUbi-CTpeKosbi', a a HaoHcaji

maemoapaMMy-5, r^Q nosTopjiiOTca nepsbie naxb ôyKe" (In Anthology of palindromes

there was a tautogram by Avaliani, where the first three letters were repeated,

'wanderers-dragonflies', and then I wrote tautogram-5, where the first five letters are

repeated, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November). It should be noted here that

Grinberg's aspiration for naming newly invented restrictions, such as hiperlipogram or

tautogram-5, is typical for the combinatorial literature in general. On this occasion, the

restriction is known by multiple names due to a limited number of literary forms, and

insufficient knowledge of the history of formal restrictions which led to their re-

proposing and re-naming by multiple practitioners of experimental literature.

Contrary to the interviewees mentioned above, other interviewees such as Litvak,

Lukomnikov and Kedrov, admit that they modernise strict literary forms, though they

insist on the spontaneity of this practice. Litvak, on the one hand, claims that she did not

intend to discover new techniques, but on the other hand, proclaims that she was

engaged in development and modernisation of existing poetic forms (S Litvak 2009,

pers. comm., 26 June). Similarly, Kedrov denies formal invention of new restrictions,

though admits their intuitive creation, "H HX He H3o6peTaK), H HX HyscTsyio" (I do not

invent them; I just feel them, K Kedrov 2009, pers. comm., 13 April). Finally, Biryukov

follows the strategy of a denial of formal methods. Even if he creates and applies new

formal restrictions, he does not mention any modified form in the interview (S Biryukov

2009, pers. comm., 6 March).

To conclude, some of the interviewees claim that they especially focus on

modification of literary restrictions as the development of existing methods, while

others create them spontaneously or totally deny an intention to work on restrictions.

Nevertheless, all interviewees use both well-known forms and a variety of newly

invented literary methods. The interviewees' opinions about applications of formal

restrictions in their poetic practice vary from the denial of their intentional applications

(Biryukov) to the statement of the formality of all poetic techniques (Kedrov) and the

preference for the form over the content of the text (Fedin). The modification of existing

restrictions relates to its amplification as a means of concentration on poetic

expressiveness (Grinberg), and to a destruction undertaken in accordance with the

author's purposes (Litvak). In the analysis of the poetic works of Avaliani, Grinberg and

Katsyuba in the subsequent chapters, I will explore which of the declared statements are

fulfilled in their works.

3.4. Dissemination of experimental literature in the past, present and its prospects

for the future

In this section, I present the responses on the methods of dissemination of

experimental literature in contemporary Russia. Specifically, I asked the interviewees

about their literary activities such as participation in literary readings and festivals;

organising these festivals; publications in literary journals; and publishing of these

journals. By these efforts, the interviewees' texts together with their poetic concepts

become available to the readers; thus the texts develop from personal author initiatives to

being part of contemporary literature. To make this happen, the interviewees widen their

activities from authors to curators and editors. I was also interested in the estimation of

the distribution of these publications and the dynamics of the readers' and the publishers'

interest in the works of the interviewees in particular and in the literary trend in general. I

was specifically interested in the interviewees' opinion on the role of the Internet in the

dissemination of this literary trend, as the Internet is a modern tool for texts publications.

In the conclusion of the interview, I asked the interviewees about their understanding of

the overall role of experimental literature in modern Russian poetry.

3.4.1. Experimental poets' past and present experience of official and unofficial

publications

During the Soviet era, the literary process in the Soviet Union was a part of the

State planned economy and was managed to a great extent for political, rather than

cultural, reasons. The experimental literature was not a part of the official literature in

the Soviet era, so it could hardly be published in official editions, and was forced into

samizdat publications. Nowadays , the experimental literature is no longer in an

underground state, nor is it a commercial trend, so the publications are mostly presented

in non-profi t journals through enthusiasts ' efforts.

In the late Soviet era, the dissemination of unofficial literature was extremely faint

and slow. The most widespread type of samizdat was political (Alekseeva 1983), and in

the present, it is musical samizdat (Tupikin 2009). Literary samizdat is significantly less

common (Kuzmin, D 1998). The interviewees are active participants and experts in

unofficial literary activities in Russia, and as such they agree with this view on the

dissemination on literary samizdat. The interviewees began practising poetry in the very

last years of the Soviet era and mostly in the post-Soviet era, so for them, Soviet literary

samizdat was one of the ways of becoming familiar with the unofficial literature rather

than an option for publication. Biryukov argues that literary samizdat circulated in

narrow circles of readers. Lukomnikov expresses the same opinion, emphasising the

distinction between official, semi-official and unofficial literature of the late Soviet era.

Lukomnikov correctly supposes that the difference was in the number of published

copies and, accordingly, in the accessibility of the publications to interested readers. In

this regard, official literature was published in print editions of hundreds of thousands

of copies and was foisted on to the Soviet reader. Semi-official literature, which

included the books of such authors as Anna Akhmatova and Arseny Tarkovsky, was

published in thousands of copies and was available to the reader through town libraries,

where the book could be borrowed, read, copied by hand or on a typewriter, thus

creating a product of semi-official samizdat. The texts of the authors of unofficial

literature such as Kholin and Satunovsky were printed by amateur editors in dozens of

copies and distributed within a narrow circle of authors' and editors' acquaintances.

Nevertheless, even in the late Soviet era, some authors of experimental literature,

including the interviewees, have published their works in official editions. Biryukov

affirms the possibility of becoming published in the official press, for him beginning

with the local editions, starting from the university newspaper and the newspaper of

Tambov city, to collection of texts of the writers of Central Russia. Kedrov also lists the

number of his books published in the late Soviet years.

After perestroïka, a number of private publishing houses and independent literary

journals appeared, so the difference between official and unofficial editions became

obliterated, and the authors had more publishing possibilities. Some of these editions

were of considerably experimental orientation with the works of most interviewees

published in these new editions. Biryukov especially mentions the ^epnoeuK (Draft)

journal, in which he regularly publishes his poetic and analytical texts. Biryukov also

appreciates the efforts of the publishers of experimental literature, as he lists several

editions: Mypuwi UOsmoe of Kedrov and Katsyuba, OVTVPVM APT (FUTURUM

ART), Memu PA (Children of RA), Smsueep (Zinziverj, JJpy3ue (The Others) of

Evgeny Stepanov and fl,py2oe no/iymapue of Evgeny Kharitonov. Mostly the same list

of journals appears in the answers of other interviewees. Kharitonov lists three main

editions: ^ypncui IlOsmoe, journals of Evgeny Stepanov and his own online journal of

literary and artistic avant-garde Jipyeoe nojiymapue. Lukomnikov recalls that his texts

were published first in the 1990s in FyMaHumapHbiu (pond (Humanitarian Fund), one of

the first independent cultural newspapers. Litvak's first publications were in the same

editions as Lukomnikov's: the newspapers PyMaHumapHbiu ^^ond, CoeemcKuu LfupK

(Soviet Circus), LFUPK OJIUMU (Olimp Circus) which she calls 'MaprHHajibHbiii

aHAerpayHA' (marginal underground, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June). Litvak lists

the same journals as Biryukov, and as an active participant in the literary process, she

adds a number of regional journals: AKT (St Petersburg), Slovolov (Word catcher, St

Petersburg), CejihCKan Jtcusub (Country life, St Petersburg), STYH (Dnepropetrovsk)

and Cjioea (Words, Smolensk), to which she contributes. Grinberg believes that

currently Evgeny Stepanov, the editor and publisher of several avant-garde editions, is

the main publisher of experimental literature in Russia.

Nevertheless, these new editions are published in a restricted number of copies

and disseminate slowly. Kedrov notices a low circulation of modem publications and

their weak dissemination: "xenepb THpa>K B xbicjiHy 3K3eMnji5ipOB - y>Ke Gojibuiaa

y/tana, NOTOMY HTO H ero-xo nonpoGyii pacnpocxpaHH" (Now a thousand copies is

already a big success, then it is hard to distribute even them, K Kedrov 2009, pers.

comm., 13 April). It is a common point of view, supported by the participants of the

literary process, and by the interviewees, Lukomnikov and Grinberg in particular.

Grinberg estimates the numbers and swiftness of circulation of the experimental

literature, "ceHnac moh KHH>KKa BbiHAex, KaK OHa ^iohact ^ o HHTaxejiJi? CKOJibKo Jiex

OHa 6yAeT pacxo^HTbca B 170 MHJIJIHOHHOH cxpane? TbicjiHHbiH THpa>K!" (Soon my

book will come out, but how will it come to the reader? How many years are needed to

disseminate a thousand copies in the country with a population of 170 millions? B

Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5, 8 November). Even so, Grinberg believes that this

situation is similar for all kinds of poetry, not just combinatorial: "ecjiH ynecTb, HTO y

no33HH Boo6me cewHac Hex HHTaxejiH, TO ecxb HMxaiox xe, KXO nnmex, xor^ia xo, HXO

K0M6HHax0pHKy HHxaKDx, 3X0 Boo6iij,e, caivio no ce6e y>Ke nenjioxo, B npHHunne" (If

one considers that poetry nowadays in general has no reader, that the readers are mostly

poets themselves, so the fact that combinatorics is read, it is good enough, B Grinberg

2007, pers. comm., 5 November). Therefore, as a participant in the literary process, he

accepts the current situation. Other interviewees make attempts to change the situation.

They apply efforts to publish unofficial editions and organise literary events by

themselves.

In general, at the present time, there is no persecution for experimental literature,

though readership of poetry in general is small, with experimental poetry being only a

section of it. In this case, the dissemination of experimental poetry strongly depends on

the efforts of the participants of the movement. The interviewees are some of the most

active enthusiasts of contemporary experimental literature, so their efforts are

determinative for its development. This information is presented in the following

section of the interview analysis.

3.4.2. The interviewees' publishing editions and organising literary activities

To participate in the dissemination of their works, the authors of experimental

literature became their own, and their colleagues', publishers. This process is not

exclusive for combinatorial literature, but is a trait of a historical and contemporary

literary process. The literary journals were independent in Russia in the nineteenth

century, when Pushkin and Pletnyov published the journal CoepeMeHHUK

(Contemporary) in 1836, then the edition was continued by Pletnyov and colleagues,

and from 1846 to 1866 by Nekrasov and others. The works of the editors and the

authors with literary and ideological concepts similar to those of the editors were

published in the journal promoting these ideas and literary styles. Contemporary

independent literary editions have a similar publishing policy.

After perestroïka, some of the established authors of various literary movements

beyond official literature published their own literary editions. For example, in 1995,

Kedrov decided to publish the journal of experimental literature, the above mentioned

)KypHaji nOsmoe, which became a significant edition of unofficial Russian poetry. The

journal is published in paper issues and online versions, as Kedrov is strongly positive

towards the dissemination of literature on the Internet. Interestingly, Katsyuba,

publishing Mypnaji TlOsmoe along with Kedrov, has not mentioned this journal while

listing the editions of the experimental literature. Instead she mentions Stepanov's

editions, Kharitonov's JJpyaoe nojiyuiapue joumal and, in addition, Anatoly

Kudryavitsky's online joumal OKHO (Window), where prose, experimental and visual

poetry are published. The reason for not listing her own journal was perhaps due to

considering herself as a poet, rather than an editor or publisher, when answering the

questions of the interview. As was already mentioned, Kharitonov lists his own online

joumal of literary and artistic avant-garde JJpyeoe nonyiuapue among the contemporary

editions of experimental poetry. In this journal, Kharitonov publishes avant-garde,

combinatorial and visual poetry, as well as articles and essays on experimental

literature. Kharitonov emphasises the educational purpose of his edition: "^^ypnaji

'/Ipyroe nojiymapne', KOTopbiii 6biJi USHANAJIBHO HAUEJIEN na HOHCK, ua aeanrapA, na

NYÔJIHKAUHK) H npoABH KCHMe jiynmero, KOTopbiii 6biJio CO3JXSLHO xyx, HTo6bi noKasaxb

C O B P E M E H H Y K ) KAPXHHY ABANRAPAA ne xojibKo B pyccKOH jiHxepaType, HO no

B 0 3 M 0 > K H 0 C T H H 3a n p e ^ C J I A M H P O C C H H " (Joumal The Other hemisphere was originally

targeted for the search for the avant-garde, for publication and promotion of the best of

contemporary Russian poetry created here, and not only Russian avant-garde, but

Western too, if possible, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). As Kharitonov

proclaims the rupture of Russian avant-garde tradition and the necessity to work on

teaching young readers to perceive avant-garde texts, he makes it the programme goal

for his edition.

The interviewees are active promoters of their chosen literary trend, organising

literary circles, workshops and festivals since the early 1990s up to the present.

Biryukov is a good example of the author who combines pedagogical and analytical

activities with educational and organisational ones, as well as with writing his own

poetry. His educational and literary activities include the creation of a literary studio in

Tambov, later in AKadeMim Say.MU, where he enrols all the authors who work in the

field of so-called beyond-historical avant-garde. Biryukov also organised conferences

on the poetics of Russian avant-garde, with Lukomnikov and Rea Nikonova among the

participants. In 2007, Biryukov collected the works of the members of Zaum Academy

in the first official almanac. In addition, when Biryukov stays in Russia, he lectures in

Moscow and St Petersburg universities and schools, further developing the literary

trend. For his part, Lukomnikov, although at present more focused on his own writings,

has worked on the popularisation of this trend too. As the compiler of the anthology of

combinatorial literature and organiser of literary festivals, Lukomnikov argues that he

made great efforts to popularise combinatorial poetry: "MHC >KE npnmjiocb B cBoeii

>KH3HH npOHHTaXb HC npOCTO TblCSHH, ^CCilTKH TblCHH 3THX naJlMHApOMOB H ApyrOH

K0M6HHaT0pHKH" (In my life I had to read thousands, if not dozens of thousands of

palindromes and other combinatorics, G Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 6, 13

December). His initiative of organising festivals of combinatorial literature was

continued in the first decade of the 2000s by Kharitonov who conducted several

festivals of combinatorial poetry in Moscow.

Concluding, the interviewees work on the development of experimental literature.

By their efforts, both as the authors and as the promoters of experimental literature, it

exists and develops as a poetic movement.

3.4.3. The role of the Internet in the contemporary literary process

At present, the technical methods for the dissemination of the literature include

Internet editions. The interviewees' opinions on these editions are examined in this

section to present the overall view on the contemporary means of disseminating

unofficial literature.

In recent years, the role of samizdat of the late Soviet era has partly moved to

Internet publications, a new method of dissemination of poetry that did not exist before.

In general, the interviewees note that currently the Internet became a significant source

of information, as it contains copies of published books and manuscripts of the authors

of the past and the present. Interviewees generally and positively estimate the literary

Internet, using it as an archive of literary texts of the past and the present, as a

possibility to publish their own texts and literary editions, and as a literary milieu to

correspond with their colleagues and readers. Without doubt, the Internet became a

significant source of literary activity, so even the interviewees refuting Internet literary

possibilities do it with a proviso.

Most of the interviewees are in favour of positive reading web-editions and

publishing their works there. Kedrov, Katsyuba and Kharitonov as the editors of web-

joumals strongly rely on the Internet. Grinberg explains that he uses the Internet as a

learning resource and publishes his texts in the Internet open publishing sources.

Lukomnikov points out both positive and negative aspects of the literary Internet. He

notices that multiple Internet publications make the present situation opposite to the

situation of his youth - now a beginner poet is saturated with information rather than

suffering from its absence. At the same time, Biryukov and Litvak express little to no

interest in Internet literary sources, finding them mostly amateurish and profane.

Other interviewees relying on the Internet find several positive features there. For

instance, Lukomnikov lists several advantages of online publications, in particular of

blogging on LiveJoumal: 1) an extremely short period of publication: "a Hanwcaji

CTHuioK, Hepe3 6 ceKyHA OH y MCHH B }K>K onyGjiHKOBaH, a Ha Gyiviare scer/ia KaKwe-

HH6y;ib Mecjiubi, HHorjia ;ia>Ke h roAu" (I wrote a short poem, and in six seconds it is

published on my blog, compared to months, sometimes even years of paper

publications, G Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 13 December); 2) an easy access to his

texts published in his blog in LiveJoumal - there are around a thousand people who

read Lukomnikov's blog daily, which is significantly more than the total circulation of

his printed books; 3) the lack of spelling errors and a possibility to correct them quickly

if they occur, which is essential for minimalist text, "y MCHH CTHXH NACTOJIBKO

MajieHbKHe, HTO ecjiH O^NY GYKOSKY HJIH SHSLK npenHnaHHa H3MeHHTb, see ,

CTHXOTBopeHHe npocTO yHHHT0>KeH0" (My poems are so small that if one letter or a

punctuation mark is changed, the whole poem is just destroyed, G Lukomnikov 2007,

pers. comm., 13 December); and 4) the rapid dissemination of texts comparing to the

disseminat ion o f paper publ i cat ions : "STH necKOJibKO COTCH 3K3eMnjiHpoB, OHH oneHb

Me jieHHO HaxoAHT CBoero HHTAXEJIJI, ro/iaMH, MO>KET 6biTb. OHH Moryx ^ecjiTb-

njiTHaAUaTb Jiex paccacbiBaxbca" (Those few hundred copies, they find their readers

slowly, in years, possibly. It could take ten to fifteen years to disperse all of them, G

Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 13 December). These reasons are undoubtedly

important to the interviewee, though Lukomnikov did not mention another decisive

advantage - as the author of his Live Journal blog, he is in charge of publishing his

writings, as opposed to editions where the decision is made by a detached publisher.

Kharitonov and Grinberg also positively evaluate the advantages of the literary

Internet as the easiness and cheapness of publication and quickness of dissemination to

readers all over the world. To demonstrate, Kharitonov explains the choice of Internet

distribution of his journal as opposed to a paper edition, due to the same factors

mentioned by Lukomnikov: rapidity of publication and availability for the reader

around the world, and financial factors, important for a volunteer publisher. Kharitonov

notes the success of his project, estimating the large number of readers of his journal by

the high traffic of the website (E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). Grinberg

expresses a practical reason - for him living in the province, the Intemet is of even

greater importance than for the Muscovite Lukomnikov, because in the absence of a

local literary milieu it allows him to find modem publications and to present his texts to

a wide range of readers (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November). On the other

hand, Kedrov, as a philosopher, focuses on the ontological aspects of Intemet

publications: "cero^HJi HHTepHex axo H00C(J)epa. HH(j)opMauHJi y>Ke cymecTByex"

(Today the Intemet is a noosphere. The information already exists, K Kedrov 2009,

pers. comm., 13 April).

On the other side of the Internet perception, Biryukov prefers to remain within the

concept of traditional paper publishing, while he does not disapprove of the Intemet

publications specifically, allowing his articles to be reproduced in the Intemet literary

sources (for example, http://topos.ru/article/1746). Litvak argues that publishing her

texts on the amateurs' poetic websites such as stihi.ru and poezia.ru, was necessary for

her: "MHTepHex - 3TO SAMEHAXEJIBHO, xaivi oneHb MHOFO HHxaxejieii <...> npHHecjio HE

MCHbuiyio H3BecTH0CTb, HCM npHBHJiernpoBaHHbie >KypHajibi" (The Internet is great,

there are so many readers there, < . . .> brought me no less fame than the privileged

journals, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June). On the other hand, Litvak has a

preference for paper publications, both for ideological and practical reasons, as these

publications are usually paid: "AJIJI MeHH, KaK HejioseKa, He HMeiomero HHUX

caMOCToaTejibHbix AOxo;;oB, 3to cyu^ecTBCHHo" (For me, as a person without another

independent income, it is essential, S Litvak 2009, pers. comm., 26 June).

To summarise, by answering the interview questions, the interviewees have

identified the main traits of their literary movements as the search for new

expressiveness with the focus on unusual literary methods understood as neo-avant-

garde or combinatorial techniques.

Concluding the interview, I asked a question about the interviewees' opinion on

the dynamics and the perspectives of the experimental literary trend in Russian poetry.

3.4.4. Overall opinions on the perspectives of the chosen literary trend by the

interviewees

The final section of the interview analysis is devoted to the interviewees' opinions

on the overall assessment of the present and future of their literary works and

experimental poetry in general. This question demands a conceptual rather than factual

or emotional response from the interviewees. In their answers, the interviewees propose

an understanding of experimental poetry as an advanced literary trend of great, or

modest, poetic significance. They emphasise their viability as poets, listing a number of

publications in literary journals, poetry collections and individual books, as well as

performances at literary events. The interviewees also emphasise their efforts to spread

this literature, and in general, they believe its prospects to be positive.

Almost all the interviewees evaluate their own work and that of their peers highly, which is not surprising for professional writers. Biryukov argues with self-irony about the world-wide dissemination of his literary society: ''AKadeMm saymu - 3TO, KOHCHHO,

MHpoBoe cooGmecTBo" {Zaum Academy is, of course, a world-wide community, S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March). Grinberg is also confident that readers understand and appreciate this literary trend: "STO HACTOAMAA NO33H5I, B KOTOPOH y>Ke

pa6oTaK)T HHxepecHbie aBTopti H HanncaHbi KanecTBeHHwe xeKCTbi" (This is real poetry, interesting authors already work there, and texts of good quality are written, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November). Grinberg supposes that the low opinion of the movement was due to the absence of popularisers: "HC GUJIO NPOMOKYXOHHORO

3BeHa MQyKjxy HHTaxejieM h aBxopOM" (There was no an intermediary link between the reader and the author, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November). As it was demonstrated above, this lacuna is definitely closing by the number of editors and promoters of experimental literature, though the critical analysis of this literary trend has not appeared until the present.

The total notion on the dynamics of popularity of the literary trend is positive. As the editors of experimental journals and organisers of literary events of the experimental thematic, the interviewees express their overall estimation on the increasing interest in experimental poetry during recent years. For example, Katsyuba answers the question briefly and with conviction: "/la, KOHCHHO. no-Moeiviy, YBCJIMHHBAETCII" (Yes, of course. In my opinion, it is increasing, E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). On the basis of his knowledge, Biryukov assumes the growing interest in the avant-garde movement among young people (S Biryukov 2009, pers. comm., 6 March).

The most positive opinion on the future development of experimental literature is expressed by Kharitonov. Kharitonov, partly relying on his editor's experience and

partly wishing thinking, expects a renaissance of the avant-garde: "asanrapA cennac

nepe>KHBaeT BTopoe po>KAeHne, OCOGCHHO B P O C C H H " (Avant-garde is now experiencing

a rebirth, especially in Russia, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). He argues that

the avant-garde approaches a new level of its development: from reminiscences on

developed techniques, through mastering of new techniques and creation of new forms,

to becoming a real poetry: "xenepb 6y/ieT HanojineHHe aBanrap/^a CMBICJIOM, BOT 3TO

3Tan, KOTopbiii JXONYKQH CQPIHSLC HacrynHTb, <. . .> xenepb Gy^ex npcBpaiueHHe

aBaHrap^HOH no33HH B no33HK)" (Now it will be filling avant-garde with sense, that is

the step which will occur soon, <...> it will be the turning of the avant-garde poetry into

poetry, E Kharitonov 2009, pers. comm., 6 June). He believes that the activity of

enthusiastic promoters of experimental poetry, including himself, leads to positive

changes in understanding and the dissemination of this literature, though additional

efforts should be applied.

3.5. Conclusion

Interviewing the authors and promoters of modern Russian experimental literature

allowed me to identify their opinions about their literary works and the literary trend in

general. Conducting a semi-structured, in-depth interview has provided a wide variation

of responses from the authors. Despite conceptual and methodological variety of the

individual styles of the interviewees, the interviewees recall generally similar intentions

to practise experimental poetry, as well as indicating the same fields of representations

of their works: the editions that are their source of information about this literary trend

and where their works are published and literary events in which they participate. They

name the same poets, including the other interviewees, as significant authors and

activists of the movement. This allows me to see them in the same literary movement.

despite the absence of a common name for it and variability in tlie understanding of its

history and literary methods. The variations are expressed along the axis: avant-garde -

experimental poetry - combinatorial poetry, which follows multiple traditions, from the

Russian historical avant-garde to the historical combinatorial literature and the modern

Western poetry. The interviewees use various formal methods as they provide deeper

poetic possibilities to express their ideas compared to the conventional poetic methods

only. On the other hand, some interviewees express an opinion on the conditional

character of the term 'restriction' or 'formal method', as all poetic techniques such as

rhythm and rhyme are considered to be restrictions too. One of the reasons for the broad

self-attribution to a definite literary movement consists in the restricted dissemination of

unofficial literature in the late Soviet era, when the interviewees were formed as

authors. Also, differences in the literary concepts expressed by the interviewees are

explainable by the difference in their approach to literary occupations: as a professional

poet, a poet and a linguist, a poet and a mathematician and so on.

The interviewees demonstrated their similarity in the search for non-standard

literary techniques with reliance on the tradition of experimental literature. They work

in various sectors of the experimental literature, from letter combinatorial poetry to

visual and sound poetry. They use multiple experimental poetic techniques in their

works, applying them for actual poetic tasks. Most interviewees mentioned the

significance of formal constraints in their works, pointing to the interaction and

reciprocal influence of the content of the text and its formal structure. The interviewees

choose various formal restrictions, both traditional such as the palindrome and anagram

and their modifications such as formal restrictions invented in accordance with the

interviewees' current creative tasks. Some interviewees have considered the interaction

of the form and content, of restriction and inspiration that are uncharacteristic of the

conventional literature, but typical of the combinatorial. Some interviewees also express

an opinion on specific relations between the author and the text, supposing the text of

the literature of formal restrictions to be partly its own 'writer'. This concept also differs

from the established concept of the text's appearance by the author's inspiration.

All interviewees are active authors, almost all of them are active promoters of

experimental literature, understanding this activity as a duty to develop the chosen

literary tradition interrupted in Russia during the Soviet era. For this missionary goal,

the interviewees publish editions of experimental literature, organise literary evenings

and festivals and conduct literary unions and workshops. These events and publications

are supported by on-line presentations, so most of the interviewees have noted that in

recent years the role of the Internet in disseminating the literature has increased. In

general, interviewees appraise positively the outlook for experimental literature.

From the interview-based information, I will move to the analysis of the texts of

the authors who focus the most on formal constraints. The often-mentioned name of an

author appearing in the responses of the interviewees is Dmitry Avaliani, which

confirms my choice for the following text analysis. By their responses, Elena Katsyuba

and Boris Grinberg have also been confirmed as authors most focussed on formal

restrictions in their works. All three authorsbelong to the Russian intelligentsia, though

they differ from each other by other social parameters: they are persons of both genders

(male for Avaliani and Grinberg, female for Katsyuba), different ages (Avaliani 1938-

2003; Katsyuba b.l946; Grinberg b.l962), different area of education though similar

educational level (the Faculty of Geography of the Moscow State University for

Avaliani, the Faculty of Journalism and Sociology of the Kazan University for Katsyuba

and the Faculty of Radio Engineering of the Novosibirsk Technical University for

Grinberg) and different place of residence (Moscow for Avaliani and Katsyuba,

Novosibirsk for Grinberg). It should be mentioned that, except for Katsyuba, the

presented authors studied sciences rather than art and humanities, so they had an

educational base and liking for formal combinatorial techniques, when they were

searched for their creative style.

An analysis of the poetic works of other interviewees, particularly of Lukomnikov

and Litvak as well as other creators of contemporary Russian experimental literature, is

not included in my research, which is the first attempt at a thorough examination of the

contemporary Russian literature of formal restrictions. This analysis could be continued

in future research.

Chapter 4.

Strict formal restrictions in the search

for language wonders in poems by Dmitry Avaliani

4.1. Introduction

This chapter is dedicated to the analysis of the poems by Dmitry Avaliani (1938-

2003), the author whose texts are based on formal combinatorial constraints, some of

which have existed in Russian literature since the Russian baroque era. Avaliani was

bom in Moscow in 1938. He graduated from the Geographic faculty of the Moscow

State University and participated in literary activities since the 1960s. Avaliani is the

author of four poetry collections: IIjiaMR E nypee (Flame in blizzard, 1995), MHOU

peecmp (Another register, 1997a), VjiumKa na CKJione (Snail on the slope, 1997b),

Jlasypuhie KyemuHU (Azure pitchers, 2000). His work has also been published in

literary journals, initially in those of limited circulation such as KyK-Apm (Cook-Art),

ryManumapHhiu (pond (Humanitarian fond), POCCUUCKGH MYSBIKAJIBHAN aasema

(Russian musical newspaper), then in prestigious literary editions such as Hoehiu Mup

(1994, 9, 12; 1997, 8), Bojiaa (1995, 7), HJIO (1995, 16), SUGMR (1996, 2) and others.

These works together with other texts not presented in paper editions are also

reproduced on numerous electronic sites such as Heo^uijuajibHaM no33UR (Unofficial

poetry, www.rvb.ru), CxpuH (Serin, http://www.screen.ru) and other sources. These

Internet publications mark the high appraisal of Avaliani's poetry by professional poets

and amateur readers.

Avaliani successfully worked both in the field of traditional poetry and in many

experimental genres. However, Avaliani is most known as the author of texts based on

strict formal constraints. Among these experimental genres, there are a number of widely

known forms such as letter palindrome and anagram, and forms invented by Avaliani

himself such SLS jiucmoeepmneHb (listoverten, page revolver^ that will be described below.

In his works, Avaliani expresses certitude in world harmony, which is similar to

the certitude attributed (Zumthor 2003, 32) to medieval artists. Devoting his life to

creativity, Avaliani constantly searched for an accurate and lively word. He adhered to

absolute formal accuracy in his works, rejecting approximate restrictions and zaum

neologisms. Avaliani created an enormous number of works under numerous literary

restrictions, unmatched in contemporary Russian literature by the totality of their

techniques and lucidity of poetic ideas.

In November-December 2007, Avaliani's heirs granted me permission to access

his personal archive. Working on the archive with Sergey Fedin, I have identified

several works, including traditional, experimental and visual poems that were not

published until now, and prepared them for publication. Some of these texts are the

subjects of my analysis in the present chapter.

In this chapter I will summarise literary information about Avaliani and provide a

short review of his works by Russian literary critics. It will serve as a background to my

analysis of Avaliani's poems, including those from the unpublished archive. Then I will

analyse Avaliani's texts considering texts on their own as well as in relation to their

cultural context (Gasparov 1997; Lotman 1976).

In the process of the analysis I will identify the characteristic features of

Avaliani's poetics and demonstrate how he had developed strict literary restrictions in

Russian literature from an amusing literary exercise into a successful poetic technique.

4.2. Literary review of Avaliani's works

The literary review undertaken here is based on a broad selection of articles where

Avaliani 's texts are examined. However, a comprehensive analysis overall of Avaliani's

works has not yet been presented. Like other contemporary literary texts, his works

have primarily attracted the attention of literary critics and journalists who proclaim the

poetic quality of these texts expressing their personal views. Only some works by

Zubova, Biryukov, Kukulin and some other researches represent a proper literary

analysis of Avaliani 's texts, while other works, including those by Loschilov, Bubnov

and Uritsky, are literary reviews or emotional responses to his sudden death in a car

accident. On the other hand, analytical works are focused on particular selected aspects

of Avaliani 's creativity; for example, Biryukov matches Avaliani 's texts with

Khlebnikov's, focusing on the latter's, while Zubova analyses Avaliani 's textual-visual

method of nucmoeepmeHh (Jistoverten, page revolver), studying the possibility of

semantic interpretation of these graphic poems. A comprehensive analysis of Avaliani's

works has not been done until now.

The critics unanimously praise the quality of Avaliani 's works. Specialists in

contemporary poetry such as Dmitry Kuzmin (2004, 232-233) and Andrey Uritsky

(2001, 218-219), as well as specialists in poetic experiments and word play poetry such

as Sergey Fedin (2004, 237-239) and Alexandr Bubnov (2004, 233-237), all express a

high opinion of Avaliani as being extremely talented in all literary styles he practised.

The high quality of Avaliani 's poetry is supposed to be the result of his insight into the

deep essence of the language. It is an absolute liking for words and the virtuosity of

poetic technique that make him achieve the poetic goal (Biryukov 2004, 58). Critics

find insights in the works of Avaliani where a word shows properties unknown until

these experiments (Loschilov 2004; Zubova 2004). To Avaliani, an intent understanding

of the words "npoaBJiiieT hx rjiy6HHHbie h noiinac HOBbie HepapxHnecKHe

cooTHomeHHa" (demonstrates their deep and sometimes new hierarchic relations, Grauz

2005). As a result, Avaliani has made a breakthrough in poetry, changing the perception

of strict literary limitations from exotic eccentricity and trivial word games into a poetic

method: "oh b o/iHHOHKy yiviyApHJicji co3AaTb uejiyio co6cTBeHHyK) jiHTepaxypy,

noAHJiB 6yKBeHHO-cjiOBecHyK) Hrpy (4)0HeTHHecKyK) h BHsyajibHyio) ao ypoBHa

BbicoKOH no33HH" (Alone he managed to create his own literature, raising the word

games (phonetic and visual) to the level of high poetry, Lukomnikov 2004, 231).

Creativity was more than an occupation for Avaliani as his whole life was

subordinated to the creative process: "oh >khji b cjiobc. MnororpaHHocTb Aapa,

HHTOHauHOHHan njiacTHHHOCTb no3THHecKoro rojioca ABajinaHH, paBHO KaK ero

TpyA0JiK)5He h njio^^oBHxocTb, neBepoHTHbi" (He lived in words. His multifaceted

talents and the intonational plasticity of Avaliani's poetic voice, as well as his diligence

and fecundity, are unbelievable, Lukomnikov 2004, 231). Fedin, Davuidov and

Mikhaylovskaya agree that Avaliani constantly wrote, drew or sketched on a random

piece of paper, and the result was always special, different from the works of any other

author (Mikhaylovskaya 2004). Consequently, over the last five or six years Avaliani

had created an incredible amount of works of different genres: poems, drawings, poems

with drawings, paintings with poems and other works, the publication of which is

essential to Russian poetry and that is yet to come (Mikhaylovskaya 2004).

The fundamental feature of Avaliani's versatile writings mentioned by critics is a

deep spirituality. Mikhaylovskaya emphasises an intimate character of his faith,

supposing him to be a poet of "BHyxpeHHero noxaeHHoro pejiHrno3Horo nyBcxBa"

(hidden internal religious feelings, Mikhaylovskaya 2005, 72). Avaliani finds

manifestations of the divine essence in daily harmony. That is, Avaliani meditates

without the religious institutions, he is a poet "HBH oTHouieHHH c BoroM BbicxpaHBajiHCb no BepTHKajiH, HO no NPJIMOH H 6e3 nocpeAHHKoe" (whose relationship with God was created vertically, in a straight line, without intermediaries, Mikhaylovskaya 2005, 72).

In search of the keys to Avaliani's poetics, researchers found in his works parallels with a variety of authors and literary traditions. Kuzmin suggests that Avaliani combines word play, research, experiment and lyrical utterance in various proportions, comparing the author with a wide range of Russian poets: from Khlebnikov and Mandelstam to early Pasternak and Zabolotsky, and sees this as a sign of a particular creative temperament (Kuzmin, D 2004, 232-233). Kukulin, on the other hand, considers Avaliani's works in the framework of the Western cultural tradition, comparing them to the experiments of Guillaume Apollinaire (Kukulin 1996, 227). Furthermore, Vyazmitinova matches Avaliani's poems to the early Christian tradition: "[y AsajiHaHH] npoHHTbiBaexcii MHpoBosspeHHe, 6jiH3Koe panneMy xpncxHaHCTBy, eme nOMH5imeMy CBOH BBIXO I H3 3JlJlHHHCTHHeCK0H Kyjlbxypbl H eu^e ÔJlHSKOMy K po>KAecTBy XpncTa" ([Avaliani] expresses a world outlook which is close to early Christianity still remembering its roots in the Hellenistic culture, yet close to the birth of Christ, Vyazmitinova 2005). Zubova looks in the history of literature, comparing the method of reverse reading of Avaliani's visual works with the magic folk rituals that

offer "KOA OÔmeHHH C nOXyCTOpOHHHM MHpOM, KJIKDH K HHOÔbITHK), B KOTOpOM npo5iBJi5ieTC5i cyu HOCTb HBJieHHH" (a code of communicating with the other world and the key to other being in which the essence of phenomena is reflected, Zubova 2004). Alternatively, Davuidov expands the geography of the literary comparisons by mentioning Chinese palindromes and referred to Lotman's notion about palindromes (Davuidov 2000, 134). Indeed, the deepest characteristic feature of palindromes

described by Lotman (Lotman 2000, 203-219) as producing the sacral internal meaning

in addition to the ignoramus external meaning, is complied within Avaliani's works.

Among the varied opinions regarding the origins of Avaliani's poetics, the most

accurate statement seems to be its attribution to the avant-garde on the one hand, and to

the Russian baroque and classicist poetry on the other (Kukulin 1996; Uritsky 2001).

These traditions are partly united in subjects that Avaliani was most interested in such

as components of Khlebnikov's poetry as anagrammatic, palindromic and

historiosophic (Biryukov 2004, 58). Indeed, in the history of the literature of formal

restrictions (Chapter 2 of this thesis), Russian poets such as loann Velichkovsky,

Simeon Polotsky and other authors of Russian syllabic poetry, wrote combinatorial

literature of the same formal techniques, though the contemporary perception of the

traditional techniques differs from that of the previous eras. Such methods as inversions

and complex alliterations, both widely used by Avaliani, producing the overall feeling

of grandeur, are modified by him providing a game in didactics instead of traditional

didactics itself (Kukulin 2000, 144).

The focus on the avant-garde interpretation of Avaliani's techniques can be

attributed to the lack of knowledge of the history of literary experimentation by

contemporary poets. So Lukomnikov, only partially paying tribute to Bryusov and

Khlebnikov, assumes that Avaliani was the founder of Russian combinatorial literature

(G Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 6 November). Vyazmyatinova supposes that, in

Avaliani's texts, the eternal truth of " M H 0 R 0 3 H A H H 0 C T H H nepexcKaHHH C M B I C J I O B " (in

their polysemantics and modification of meanings) is expressed by unusual neo-avant-

garde techniques (Vyazmitinova 2005), not noting that medieval and baroque authors

used exactly the same techniques for the same purposes. On the other hand, when

Kukulin mentions several seventeenth and eighteenth century literary sources (Kukulin

2000, 141), he just demonstrates the possibilities of formal constraints not referring to

the continuity of this tradition as these works are mostly unknown to contemporary

authors, including Avaliani. More likely, the literary experiments of the eighteenth

century Russian poets were available to Avaliani through their adoption by the

twentieth century avant-garde poets. Avaliani himself expressed an interest in

Khlebnikov's poetics and the philosophy of history (Biryukov 2004, 58), whereas he

did not mention the Russian baroque poetry.

Meanwhile, in the critics' opinion, Avaliani has surpassed the Russian avant-garde

poets of the early twentieth century. According to Kuzmin, Avaliani developed

Khlebnikov's poetics, turning the palindrome from an exotic exercise to an expressive

speech, forcing it to be "CBEPKAIOMEH Ha Bce jiaAti: TO a(J)0pH3M0M, TO MeTa(j)opoH, TO

HrpoH CTHJ15I" (sparkling in all possible ways: sometimes as a maxim, or as a metaphor,

or else as a game of the style, Kuzmin, D 2004, 232).

Zubova mentions the post-modernistic paradigm of the poetics of Avaliani in the

sense of equalising the hierarchy of the subjects of reality where there is no division

between true and false: "KA>KABIH KOMNONEHT BBICKASBISAHHA HCTHHCH H JIO^KCH

0;iH0BpeMeHH0" (Each component of the utterance is true and false simultaneously,

Zubova 2005, 472). However, the absence of an hierarchy of facts and phenomena is a

feature of a post-modernistic paradigm as well as of baroque poetics. In reverse, a post-

modernistic era is also seen as a Neo-baroque era (Calabrese 1992). Moreover, the

rejection of hierarchy is also a characteristic feature of the archaic perception (Zubova

2005, 472). Zubova supposes that this mixture of temporal attribution is compiled in the

multiple ways of presenting Avaliani's works, the modem and the archaic: by special

computer programs available since recently, or on cardboard strips, plates and clothes as

in ancient times.

In Avaliani's texts, a formal transformation of a text becomes a reflection of the

internal symmetry of the universe (Fedin 2004, 237; Uritsky 2001, 218-219), as the

world corresponds to a book and a book to the world, also in accordance with the

medieval concept. The understanding of the variability of the world defines the

variability of Avaliani's texts expressed by different means: palindromes allow the

forward and backwards reading, paeHoôyKeuija {ravnobukvitsa, equal-letter) poems

demonstrate variations of reading by segmentation of the text, and graphical writings

are examples of letter variability (Kukulin 2000, 141).

As an overall feature of Avaliani's poetics, the critics mention kineticism as a

phenomenon descending from the works of Russian constructivist artists V. Tatlin, A.

Rodchenko and others, arguing that some kinetic features are the distinctive

characteristic of the works of many avant-garde authors, especially in performance art,

though Avaliani "nocjieAOBaxejibHO H ynopno co3í aBaJ^ CBOK) KHHeTHMecKyK) CHCxeiviy,

cyMeji N P H M C H H T B ee K HCTHHHO n03THHecK0My Marepnajiy" (consistently and

persistently works on his own kinetic system, making it possible to apply it to truly

poetic material, Mikhaylovskaya 2005, 71). Uritsky also notes a kinetic component of

the works of Avaliani: "jiioôaii cxaTHKa oxpuuacTca, OTpHuaexca jnoGaa nonbixKa

SAMEHHTB o5pa3 SNAKOM, CJIOBO - p a c c y > K A E H H E M o CJIOBC" (Any static is denied, any

attempt to replace an image by a sign or a word by discourse on words is denied,

Uritsky 2001, 218). Thus, by the contemporary concept of kinetism, another definition

of universal mobility and variability is presented.

Several formal techniques used by Avaliani are mentioned in accordance with the

contents of his books, though different critics propose different names or descriptions

for the same techniques. If such restrictions as palindromes and jiucmoeepmeHh as

graphic forms developed by Avaliani are usually named by using the same terms, other

methods appear by a vagueness of names caused by their rare use as the forms of

Russian literature. Thus, the accepted Hterary terms are not yet established.

The most developed experimental form used by Avaliani is a letter palindrome. In

a widespread opinion, the Russian language is not suitable for palindromes (Gasparov

1993, 30). Avaliani contested this opinion by producing hundreds of palindromes of

absolute precision and of high poetic quality, "najiHHApoMbi - o^ua h3 caMbix

3HAHHTEJIBHBIX (H no oôteiviy, H no Ba>KHOCTH HanncaHHoro) HACTEFI Kopnyca TCKCTOB

ÄBajiHaHH" (Palindromes are one of the most significant parts of the corpus of

Avaliani 's writings, by volume and by importance, Davuidov 2000, 131). In

palindromes, Avaliani reaches a combination of linguistic flexibility, complexity and, at

the same time, clarity of poetry. In Lukomnikov's opinion, those are the traits leading to

the "öesycjiOBHoii n03TMHH0CTH" (indubitable poetry, Lukomnikov 2004, 231) of

Avaliani 's palindromes.

If the palindrome is the ancient and most known form of literary restriction,

jiucmoeepmeHh developed in Avaliani's numerous works is a unique graphical form.

The name for the restriction was proposed by Lukomnikov (Fedin and Lukomnikov

2002, 259), and is now accepted by the literary community. JiucmoeepmeHh is a

graphical text which can be turned upside down, so that it can be read differently,

forming a new meaning. In JiucmoeepmeHh, the graphics of the text is deformed,

impeding the automatism of the reading (Davuidov 2000, 134). The researchers

emphasise unexpected associations between meanings oiJiucmoeepmeHh:

'npaMbie' H 'oópaxHbie' cjioBOCOHexaHHii nacTo HaxoASTCii e Heo>KHAaHHbix OTHomeHHHx Apyr c ApyroM: AonojiHsiOT, onpoeepraioT, HJIH, HaoöopoT, 'nepcBepHyToe' SHaneHHe pe3K0 CHH^KCHO no OTHomcHHio K naxeTHMecKOMy 'npHMOMy'

'straight' and 'reversal' phrases are often in unexpected relations to each other, they supplement, disprove them, or the 'reversal' meaning is substandard comparing to the pathos of the 'straight' (Kukulin 2000, 142).

A comprehensive analysis of Avaliani 's jiucmoeeprriHu is presented by Zubova

(Zubova 2005, 465-482) who argues that poetics of Jiucmoeepmenb are defined by the

non-linearity of texts: "nosTHKa jiMCTOBepTHew cBHsana c HejiMHewHocTbio TCKcxa, ero

npHHUHOHaJlbHOH nOJlHCeMHeii, JlHTeparypHblM MHHHMaJlH3M0M, BHHMaHHCM K

AeTajiHM H3o6pa>KeHHa, cHHKpeTHHHocTbio cpeACTB Bbipa>KeHH5i" (The poe t ics of

listoverten is in non-linearity of the text, its fundamental polysemantic, literal

minimalism, attention to the details of the picture and syncretism of the expressive

means, Zubova 2005, 466). In Zubova's opinion, contrasting to the opinion of Kukulin

stated above, there are no defined initial and final positions of jiucmoeepmeHh as these

positions are interchangeable, and jiucmoeepmeHb has a cyclical structure. In the present

chapter, the in-depth results of Zubova's analysis of jiucmoeepmHu are compared to the

conclusions of the analysis of other techniques practised by Avaliani.

Critics agree that the traditional and experimental parts of Avaliani's writings are

inseparable, and there is no clear border between them. Vyazmitinova and Kukulin put

the word 'traditional' in quotation marks, while Davuidov uses the term 'KaK-6bi-

NPOCTO CTHXH' (as though-simply-poems, Davuidov 2000, 134) understanding the

conditional character of the term in regard to Avaliani's works. Davuidov emphasises

that, in Avaliani 's poems that seem to be conventional, "apcenaji TexHHHecKHx

cpe^iCTB" (an arsenal of technical means) could be seen through an attentive

consideration (Davuidov 2000, 134). Moreover, it is in particular the high quality of

Avaliani 's conventional poems, which forced the critics to examine thoroughly his

experimental writings (Kukulin 1996, 229). For his experimental texts, the strict formal

restrictions are not perceived as a final goal of the author, but as "AonojiHHTejibHaH

B03M0>KH0CTb BbiflBJieHH« CMbicjia" (an additional opportunity to identify the meaning,

Uritsky 2001, 218). Word-game techniques become meaningful methods of poetics,

while the virtuosity of the experimental texts of Avaliani is determined by his ability to

write 'usual' poetry (Zubova 2004).

In conclusion, the critics and scholars agree on the notion of Avaliani's

innovations. At the turn of the twenty-first century, he reintroduced the combinatorial

experiments as the components of Russian poetry as they were in the baroque era. A

general concept of Avaliani's poetics as a means for the search for eternal truth is

similar to the certitude of the medieval authors. In the contemporary situation, when

these poetic techniques have already been mostly forgotten and are unknown to the

modem authors, Avaliani had to work alone, following only their avant-garde

developments.

4.3. Analysis of some poetic works by Avaliani

For the analysis, I have selected some of the poems from the immense collection

of Avaliani's writing based on the following structures: first, texts based on traditional

formal restrictions such as palindromes and anagrams; second, texts based on rare and

unique restrictions such as paeHOÔyKeuija {ravnobukvitsa, equal-letter^ poems, alphabet

poems and a jiucmoeepmeHh {listovertem, page revolver) graphic technique, together

with a remarkable poem with graphical elements, and ucmopu(pMa {historhyme) as a

technique with the inclusion of graphic elements; third, texts based on less developed

restrictions such as ecmpou {ystroy, insert), MemaepaMMa (metagram) and

polycomonant poems; finally, I will present 'traditional' poems in which Avaliani uses

seemingly conventional poetic techniques whereas the total structure of the latter poems

becomes clear with consideration of Avaliani's experimental practices. As a result, I

will demonstrate the broadest range of techniques used by Avaliani in his works.

finding the metaphysical, social and lyrical contents of Avaliani's poems. Through this

analysis, Avaliani's acknowledgement for the preceding poets will be disclosed.

For the study of short combinatorial texts, I will refer to their formal structure and

possibly the history of the technique, and analyse the poems using the method of short

rendering of the poem's content (Gasparov 1997) by which the idea of the poem

becomes evident, and the close reading method which provides a possible interpretation

of the texts word by word (Scherba 1957, 2 6 ^ 4 ) demonstrating that, due to the brevity

and figurativeness of the texts, there would be multiple ways of reconstructing their

meaning through the close reading method. I will show that, in the poems based on

various formal techniques, Avaliani devotes great attention to the finest details of the

writing when he uses similar rhetorical methods for faint transformations of the

meaning of the text of the limited vocabulary. For the poems of conventional poetic

structure, I will use traditional methods of text analysis (Gasparov 1997, 9-20;

Magomedova 2004; Tyupa 2008, 102-128) as well as methods of analysis of short texts

mentioned above. I will demonstrate that the prosody of'traditional' poems is combined

with elements of experimental techniques, together elaborating upon metaphysical and

lyrical topics of the poems.

4.3.1. The letter palindromes, virtuoso writing

The definition of a letter palindrome as a text that can be read the same forward

and backwards was provided in Chapter 2. Palindrome is the most developed

experimental form in late Soviet and post-Soviet Russian experimental poetry. In

contrast to the other combinatorial forms, mainly known to specialists and

experimenting poets only, an average Russian person is familiar with famous

palindromes from the childhood story Buratino by Aleksey Tolstoy (1936). As a result,

palindromes became the first form of the Russian combinatorial literature written in the

1960s-1970s by numerous unofficial poets such as Nikolay Laduigin, Valentin

Khromov, Vladimir Gershuni and other authors (Biryukov 2003a, 168-169). Some

official and semi-official Soviet poets such as Andrey Voznesensky also included

palindromes in their works. The Russian palindrome movement experienced a great

surge in popularity in the early 1980s, when the central newspaper Ko.McoMo.ibCKan

npaeda ran a literary competition which consisted in writing in experimental techniques

such as palindromes, anagrams, cross-words and other forms. Avaliani participated in

this competition which became an impulse for his combinatorial creativity (G

Lukomnikov 2007, pers. comm., 6 November). Since then, Avaliani created a large

number of concise letter palindromes (quoted in

http://rubtsov.penza.com.ru/biblio/avalian.htm) that approach aphorisms, philosophical

and religious maxims by their brevity and expressiveness. Avaliani's palindromes

usually consist of one or two lines, though in some cases they are multi-line texts with

all letters combined in the palindrome structure from the beginning to the end of the

poem. Avaliani's palindromes are precise, avoiding any approximate replacement of

letters 'ii' (y) by 'H' (i), 'm' (sh) by 'u;' (sch), signs 'b' (the soft sign) b y ' t ' (the hard

sign) and vice versa, that many authors of palindromes usually allow in their texts.

I will analyse seven short letter palindromes chosen for their expressiveness.

These poems cover the main topics of Avaliani's poetry: a tribute to Khlebnikov as a

precursor poet, meditation on the essence of the poetry, on the relationship between

earthly and spiritual life, and social topics of resistance to totalitarianism and preference

for private life. I will introduce a concept of a palindrome rhyme which for these short

texts plays the role similar to a traditional rhyme for a traditional poem. 1 will

demonstrate that Avaliani uses variability of palindrome meanings in the search for the

answers to lyrical, social and metaphysical questions.

In the following example, Avaliani uses the form of multiple-line palindrome

expressing homage to Velimir Khlebnikov as a master of Russian experimental poetry:

PHM EJIE BH/^HM H KOHH, ^OMA ... TbMY A3HATA TAH, SAYMb TAM. O/iHHOKHM V\m, BEJIEMHP.

(Rome is hardly seen, and horses, houses... / hide the darkness of the Asian, / Zaum is there. / Go on alone, Velemir).

The four-line text is read the same, letter by letter forward and backwards, with

variation of the segmentation of words and of the order of punctuation marks. This

defines the palindrome nature of the text. In the poem, Avaliani clearly addresses

Khlebnikov with an appeal to continue following his fate: " O A H H O K H M HAH, BejieMHp"

(go on alone, Velemir). The meaning of the poem is obscure, as thoughts are expressed

in a fragmentary style similar to that of many other contemporary poems, though the

possible meaning could be restored by the close reading method. The person being

addressed can be reconstructed by the occasional mention of the unique name Velemir

invented by Khlebnikov in imitation of the Russian name Vladimir, meaning the one

who rules the world. It is worth noting also the transcription of 'Velemir' as a version

used by Khlebnikov in addition to the name 'Velimir'. The latter spelling became more

recognised nowadays, though, to fulfill palindrome restriction, Avaliani needs the first

one. By using the first name and addressing in a singular form, Avaliani reaches an

intimate intonation of addressing a close friend. The phrase " O A H H O K H M H/^H" (go on

alone) can also be understood in a strict sense as an allusion to multiple journeys of

Khlebnikov around Russia, Ukraine and in former Persia in the 1910s-1920s. Here,

singular words seem to be reminders of different features of Khlebnikov's life and

poetry, all together leading to the final appeal to the precursor poet. In the first line of

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the poem, the word 'Rome' is a reminder of one of the simplest palindrome words,

'PHM' - 'MHP' (Rome - world) as the foundation of palindrome writing and an allusion

to the proverb "Urbi et orbi" (to the city [of Rome] and to the world, Latin). By the

following contrast of wild nature (KOHH, horses) and civilization (^OMA, houses), this

union of oppositions is developed. Also, the mention of Rome in a far distance, together

with the appeal (go) can be a statement of understanding of Khlebnikov's

historical role in poetry despite non-recognition of his poetic achievements by the

world. By the word 'KOHH' (horses), an allusion is made to Khlebnikov's palindrome

IJepeeepmeHb (Pereverten' 1912) which begins with a line "KOHH, TOHOT, HHOK"

(Horses, trampling, a young monk). Due to the recognition of Khlebnikov as a first

experimental poet and despite the history of Russian literature of formal techniques, the

palindrome IJepeeepmeHb is still referred to as the first Russian palindrome (Chudasov

2005). Even more so, Avaliani in the 1990s could become familiar with poetic

palindromes mostly via Khlebnikov's works, so he referred to Khlebnikov as the

pioneer of the genre. In the second line, the word 'xbivia' (darkness) reminds the reader

of the next line of Khlebnikov's palindrome "Ho ne penb, a nepen OH" (But not a

speech, and he is dark), and by the word 'aanax' (the Asian) - an allusion is made to

Khlebnikov's travels in Asia. In the third line, Avaliani includes the word 'sayivib'

(zaum) as a denomination for linguistic experiments in words' creation made by

Khlebnikov and other poets of Russian futurism. The short line consists of the statement

of the existence of zaum and its attribution to the addressee of the poem, "3ayMb xaM"

(zaum is there), so Avaliani proclaims poetic property of zaum and possibly points to

the Asian sources of Klebnikov's experimental writing. The overall tragic tone of the

short poem is created by a group of negative words: 'xbivia' (darkness), 'xanxb' (hide).

'OAHHOKHÎÎ' (lonely), all together providing an allusion to Khlebnikov's tragic end at the

age of 36 on the way to St Petersburg in 1922.

This compact palindrome poem is an expressive text reviewing the creative works

and life of Khlebnikov. By this poem, Avaliani demonstrates his knowledge of the

circumstances of Khlebnikov's life and characteristic features of Khlebnikov's poetry

and expresses his admiration of Khlebnikov as a precursory poet. However, it is only

through the analysis of the palindrom-based technique used in the poem that its meaning

and allusions become apparent.

From the hundreds of Avaliani 's short palindromes there is a series based on the

same palindrome pairs of words which have significant meanings for him. Some of

these palindromes are collected in poetic mini-cycles, and some are scattered through

the corpus of Avaliani 's works. The repeated pairs are placed on the outermost or

central border of palindrome semi-phrases, becoming an analogue to traditional rhyme

linking the ends of lines. These recurring words are: 'iviysa' - 'pasyivi' (muse - reason),

'neôo ' - 'HaiioôeH* (sky/heaven - need) and other pairs. In the following analysis, I will

demonstrate that these repetitions are a manifestation of Avaliani 's intense reflections

on the spiritual subjects and the essence of poetry.

Avaliani closely studies the palindrome rhymes to a word 'Mysa' (muse). In the

following distich he addresses the muse with advice to appeal to reason:

My3A! PARHCb UIHJIOM OOblTA, TbI nOMOJlHUJbOI HA PASYM

(O Muse! Once hurt by an awl of experience. / You will pray to reason)

From the text, previous poetic experience is interpreted as a failure that leads to

defeats only ( P A H H C B U J H J I O M onbixa, being hurt by an awl of experience), which forced

a change of poetic concept - the lyrical hero of the poem now leans towards reason. The

sentence is grammatically correct, the phonics are sufficiently harmonious, and the

meaning is clear as an announcement of the poetic expressions and the basis of the

author's style.

On the other hand, in the following palindrome, the same palindrome rhyme is

used to express the opposite meaning:

THLUE, PASYM. MYSA PEIUHT

(Quiet, O Reason! The Muse will decide)

Here Avaliani acknowledges the superiority of the intuitive sensation over mental

reflection and suggests 'the reason' to obey the decision of 'the muse'. In this case,

meditation on the essence of poetry provides a different result, though both possibilities

are included into the language. Avaliani does not propose a definite choice between

intuitive and logical styles of writing, but leaves both opinions to co-exist, the same as

occurs in a collection of proverbs and folk sayings. Since the texts are published, it is a

choice of the reader to note and remember one of the phrases. In the case of this pair of

palindromes of the opposite meaning, the first text became more popular, attributed to

Avaliani's poetic concepts and cited on numerous literary sites and by multiple critics.

This word 'My3a' (muse) appears not only in the palindrome rhyme with 'pa3yM'

(reason), but with other subjects in a number of Avaliani's palindromes, such as "Myaa

pasMOTana. floBO^^, anaTOM, sa pasyivi" (The muse is unwound. An argument as

anatomist is for the reason); "H MY3 HSYMH" (And surprise the muses); "5HJIH 5 aapasy

Mbi, My3a, pasÔHjiH 6 " (If we'd fought with infection, o muse, we would have beaten it);

and in other texts. In the first phrase, Avaliani again supports reason; in the second he

proposes to surpass the traditional poetry inspired by muses; and in the third, he appeals

to the muse as to a companion-in-arms fighting the same enemy. In other words,

Avaliani frequently meditates on the nature of poetic inspiration, finding different

aspects of the subject.

Another word that appears repeatedly in Avaliani's palindromes is 'He6o' (sky,

heaven). Physically, Avaliani, a Bekhterev disease sufferer, had a curved spine and in

normal conditions could not stand raising his head up to the sky. However in his poems,

he often turns to the sky, or heaven, which is one of the meanings of the word 'neGo'

(sky) in Russian. Through this, Avaliani's Christian spirituality becomes apparent.

The opposition of the earthly life and heaven or hell is displayed in the following

palindromes:

AOPOrO HEBO, J\A HA^OBEH OrOPOA

(The sky/heaven is dear, but a vegetable garden is needed)

This relationship between the earthly 'oropozi' (earth, a vegetable garden) and the

elevated 'neGo' (heaven, sky) recognises the necessity of both the earthly and the

corporeal. Avaliani uses metonymy, a rhetorical method of shifting the meaning of the

word 'oropoA' (vegetable garden) to represent the earthly life, thus contrasting to the

word 'He6o' (heaven, sky) representing spirituality. Also, Avaliani refers to the

circumstances of life during the late Soviet and post-Soviet era as a 'vegetable garden',

which has not only a metaphysical meaning as a metonymy for the earthly, but is also a

realia reflecting the property of millions of Russians of the 1980s-1990s. Without a

plot of land, a 'vegetable garden', granted to citizens by city administrations to grow

vegetables for their daily needs, the existence of ordinary people was problematic.

Consequently, 'vegetable garden' has a predicate of necessity as it was really 'Ha/^oGen'

(needed) whereas 'the sky' has a predicative '^oporo' (precious). The opposition of

categories of the need and the desire is similar to that proposed by Venedict Yerofeyev

in relation to the stigmas of St Teresa: "A jxnii nero Hy>KHbi CXHRMATBI CBHTOH Tepese?

OHM BCAB Qpi TO>Ke He Hy>KHbi. Ho OHH CH >KejiaHHbi" (And why does holy Theresa need

her stigma? They, too, are not needed to her. But she longs for them, Yerofeyev 1990,

25). In this sense, 'the sky' and 'stigmas' as the way to the sky are not needed in 138

everyday corporeal life, for St Teresa, as well as for Avaliani's lyrical hero, but, in their

desire for the heaven, they search for the categories beyond 'the need'. Nevertheless, in

this palindrome, Avaliani's choice between these categories is made in favor of the

'need', emphasised by the conjunction 'jia' (but) and the closing of the phrase with a

statement about a vegetable garden - keeping the sky in mind, the lyrical hero chooses a

piece of land that feeds the corporeal body. At the same time, he does not limit himself

to corporeal categories, but also obeys the idea of heaven. Therefore, Avaliani's lyrical

hero accepts the necessity of earthly activities and simultaneously reminds himself not

to forget about the posthumous existence.

There is a variation of the palindrome with the pair 'He6o' - 'nazioGeH' (sky -

need). According to Lukomnikov (2004, 232), Avaliani was not satisfied with the latter

palindrome for the preference of the earth to the sky. However, palindromes can be

easily modified by placing some letters into the centre of the phrase and adding

punctuation, which results in the change of the meaning to the opposite one. When

Lukomnikov placed the negative particle 'HC' (no) into the centre of the palindrome and

added exclamation marks, the meaning of the word '^a ' changed from 'but' to 'indeed'.

The resulting phrase "f lOPOFO HEBO! flA! HE HAflOBEH OfOPOf l ! " (The sky is

dear! Indeed! A vegetable garden is not needed) extremely pleased Avaliani

(Lukomnikov 2004, 232). With three exclamation marks, it shows a clear choice in

favour o f ' t h e sky'. The phrase loses its brevity and dynamism, but gains expressiveness

of an ideological proclamation emphasised by an abundance of exclamation marks.

Another way of providing the opposition to 'sky/heaven' is to contrast it with the

infernal hell:

M , HEBO M H O , HO HA/iOBEH A/ i

(Yes, the sky is given, but hell is needed)

The heaven here is described as 'given', so far as it is eternal and miraculous,

as was expressed by Kant in the conclusion to Critique of Practical Reason (Kant

1965, 499), while the hell is 'needed' as the eternal human aspiration to indulge in

their weaknesses. The palindrome is more controversial than the previous one, but

together they remind the reader of various Christian understandings of posthumous

existence: the heaven and the hell.

As it is seen from the above examples, Avaliani's palindromes can be read as

maxims, even when they are expressed in obviously emotional overtones and propose

contrasting meanings. This function corresponds to the understanding of minimalist

combinatorial texts not as a personal experience of the author, but as a substance of the

language. These short combinatorial texts are supposed to exist in the language initially,

so the texts can be seen as anonymous, whereas the role of the author comes in the

finding of an abstract truth. Multiple correlations between the phrases provide a set of

conceptual choices.

Another topic which frequently appears in Avaliani's palindromes is the

interaction between social and personal life, as in the following palindrome where an

allusion to Stalinism is made:

KOJIH MHJIH B l i lAry ->KAH A>KyrAlUBHJlM, MHJIOK. rAUjy lUAr.

(If your steps are miles long, / wait for Dzhugashvili, my dear. /1 diminish my steps)

The short text consists of two palindromes: the first in the two first lines and the

second in the third line. The two-letter palindrome includes a proper name

'Dzhugashvili' which is difficult to include into a palindrome due to its length, though

Avaliani succeeded as it was important for his poetics. In this palindrome, Avaliani

compares the broad steps (MHJIH B mary, miles long) to large-scale deeds, supposing that

the latter means the neglect of details including the personalities of private individuals,

140

which in return leads to tyranny. Avaliani expresses the notion of tyranny by the

metonymical mention of Stalin's original name, Dzhugashvili. In the second short

palindrome (FAlIiy LUAr, I diminish my steps), Avaliani induces himself as well as

the reader of the poem to reduce the scope of their deeds by reducing the steps. In this,

he urges to debar totalitarianism, which prefers large social deeds to small private ones.

The preference for small subjects explains Avaliani's choice of minimalist forms and

his attention to the details of text to the extent of letters and the details of letters.

Finally, in the following palindrome, a comparison of creative and social life is

described:

JIMPA UBEJIA, A JIEB UAPHJl

(Lyre was blossoming, but the lion was reigning)

Avaliani uses here common allegories - 'jinpa' (lyre) as a fragile instrument of

Orpheus, representing the arts and, in particular, poetry, and 'jiee' (lion) as the powerful

king of animals traditionally representing the authorities. The 'lion' of the palindrome

reigns, where the word 'reign' is used in a strict sense; as a predicate for the 'lyre',

Avaliani applies catachresis, a rhetorical technique by which an unusual quality of

blossoming is attributed to the lyre. Therefore, Avaliani finds the intersection of the

notions of lyre and blossom, expanding the notion of the lyre from a musical instrument

to an overall aesthetic means of creativity, and the notion of blossoming from its strict

meaning of producing flowers to an overall aesthetic quality of creating beauty. This

allows Avaliani to confront these artistic notions to the social notion of the 'reigning

lion'. The contradiction is made with the conjunction 'a ' (but) with the accentuated

'reigning lion' at the end of the sentence. Consequently, the presence of authority is

declared as an opposition and an overall background for artistic activities.

Concluding, Avaliani created palindromes in series using the same palindrome pairs

that play a role analogous to the traditional rhyme. In these palindromes, the reflections

141

are expressed on the nature of creativity, social questions and associations between

creativity and social roles. As a virtuoso of palindrome writing, Avaliani provides

different answers to the topic questions. This brings his writings close to a collection of

proverbs that also express the opposite meaning in laconic sentences. In his short

palindromes, Avaliani uses the rhetorical techniques of metonymy and catachresis,

shifting from the conventional sense of words to the figurative, and creating an unusual

picturesque context. As a result, many themes and motifs arise: Avaliani's admiration for

Velimir Khlebnikov with reference to his biography and creative works; his Christian

spirituality; and references to the late Soviet era. The latters look natural as references

tothe circumstances of the authors' era, whereas the references to the past Stalinist years

are onlyoptional for an author living after this years. But it is also inevitable for those who

still feel the totalitarian legacy and resists its restoration. The preference for local subjects

instead of global is the same as the preference for private life in social aspects and

attention to the diminutive details of writing in creative aspects.

4.3.2. The letter anagrams, in search for the inner truth

The definition of a letter anagram as a text created by the rearrangement of letters of

an existing text was provided in Chapter 2, together with the short history of the technique.

The anagram techniques examined here vary and include the following sub-techniques:

two-word anagram, minianagram and multiple anagram (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002,

210-215). A two-word anagram is a phrase of concrete meaning consisting of two words

that are anagrams of each other. A minigram, or minimal anagram, is a phrase where a

minimum number of letters is interchanged. A multiple anagram is a text consisting of

several short letter anagrams on the basis of the same letter set.

For the analysis, I have selected Avaliani's letter anagrams in which the important

themes of Avaliani's poetry appear. I will start with the shortest anagrams, then proceed

to the anagrams dedicated to the precursor writers, including Khlebnikov. who

influenced Avaliani. Next, I will analyse anagram poems devoted to reflection on

spiritual subjects and the harmony of the world, and on Avaliani's self-appraisal as a

poet. These meditations result in poems of varying meanings, which is a characteristic

feature of Avaliani's combinatorial poetry. Avaliani's virtuosity will be shown in the

expression of his poetic ideas by using the extremely restricted language defined by the

letter constraint.

While writing a significant number of short anagrams. Avaliani developed this

technique from a word game to a method of Russian poetry. In his short two-word

anagrams, Avaliani succeeds in achieving the laconism of proverbs. Similar to

Avaliani's palindromes, these phrases are exact and expressive of the extent of

supposed preliminary existence in the language. Avaliani widens the poetic possibilities

by paying close attention to the minimal language units, thus demonstrating the

surprising potentiality of the language. He finds anagrammatic links between

conventional multiple-letter words, connecting them in a short phrase by conjugation

and punctuation. As a result a laconic statement is achieved. "J1AK0HH3M:

3AM0J1KHM!" (Laconism: Silence!), where laconism is brought to the extreme of total

silence, and 'TABHOBECHE - CBOEHPABME" (Equilibrium - wilfulness), where

the equilibrium is counterbalanced by the freedom of will. 'Wonder' and 'dream' are

key notions of Avaliani's poetics, so these words are frequently used in his texts:

' ' yBMf lHMOI - y f lHBHMCi l " (We will see each other and will be surprised).

"YBHAEHHOE flVHOBEHHE" (A seen waft). "OZIHHOMECTBO HMCTOBOflHOE

flHBHOCHHEE CHOBHflEHHE" (Loneliness pure-water wonder-blue dream).

Phrases such as "YBHflEHHOE flYHOBEHHE" and "f lHBHOCHHEE

CHOBHflEHHE" create a feeling of lyrical wonder and express Avaliani's

understanding of the beauty of the world and his reaction to a 'wonder ' .

In the following eight-line poem, Avaliani refers to the writers whose works are

significant for him:

HEBO B JIHKAX XJIEBHHKOBA COJDKEHMUblH HO}KHHUbI C'EJl BYJIEAKOB BOr JIYKAB TAHH / iPEBA OOJIOH AH^PEH nJIATOHOB

(Sky is full of Khlebnikov's images, Solzhenitsyn ate scissors. Bulgakov - God is sly, Audrey Platonov is full of mysteries of trees)

The interpretation of the writers" creativities made on the basis of letter anagrams

of their names is a developed technique for interpretation of the inner essence of a

person (Bombaugh 1961, 49-57). The meanings of short anagrams of names proceed

from the known details of biographies and ideas of these persons. By finding phrases of

certain meaning by a re-arrangement of the letters of the name, an impression is created

of the predetermined fate of the character. Similar to the preceding authors of anagrams

of names, Avaliani widens the technique by using different styles of spelling of the

names: for three names. Khlebnikov. Solzhenitsyn and Bulgakov, he uses surnames

only, whereas in the case of Platonov, the first name is united with the surname, so that

the re-combinations of letters provide the desired meaning. First. Avaliani mentions

Khlebnikov, placing the image of Khlebnikov's face to the sky as he sees Khlebnikov as

a poet who searched for the eternal beauty. "HEBO B JIMKAX / XHEBHMKOBA" (Sky

is full of Khlebnikov's images). The archaic 'JIHK' (face, image) comes from the Old

Slavonic Church language. By using this word. Avaliani creates an elevated style while

referring to Khlebnikov. In the next two lines, Avaliani mentions Solzhenitsyn, whose

name he presents in an anagram "HO^KHHUBI c'eji" (ate scissors) which is not deferential,

but possibly evokes children's teasing rhymes "Toponbi>KKa GbiJi rojio/iHbiH, npornoTHji

yxior xojio/iHbiH" (Toropyzhka was hungry, so he swallowed a cold iron, Nosov, 1954).

In other words, Avaliani's attitude to Solzhenitsyn is ambivalent: Solzhenitsyn is an

important figure, as his name is included in the poem, but not a praising one as he is

referred to humorously. The same is true for Bulgakov, in whose name Avaliani finds a

contradictory bond between 'Bor' (God) and 'nyKaecTBo' (slyness) which is a

traditional attribute of the devil, as seen in the Biblical phrase in Russian, "H He BBCAH

Hac B HCKymeHHe, HO HSGABH Hac ox jiyKaBoro" (And lead us not into temptation, but

deliver us from evil, Matthew 6:13). Connecting these contradicting categories in the

anagram of Bulgakov's name, Avaliani makes an allusion to the novel Macmep u

Mapeapuma by Bulgakov (Master and Margarita, first publication 1966), in which a

devil character Woland is described as a wise force that "Benno >KejiaeT 3J i a H BCHHO

coBepmaex Gjiaro" (always wants to cause evil and always makes good, Bulgakov 1988,

11), whereas a divine character leshua is described as a weak person: "OH [Jesus Christ]

MCHbuie Bcero noxo>K na GyjiraKOBCKoro Hncyca, Memya Fa-HoupH. <...> T o x - xaKOH

MHjibiH 4)aHxa3ep, dpojx^Hnvi (J)HJioco(j)" ([Jesus Christ] has little in common with

Bulgakov's Jesus, leshua Ga-Nocri. <.. .> That is such a kind dreamer, a wondering

philosopher, Men 2001). Consequently, Avaliani states that in the novel Master and

Margarita Bulgakov mixed the devil's and God's attributes. Avaliani admits the

significance of Bulgakov's writing by including his name in the anagram, though

reconsiders Bulgakov's message. Lastly, the connotation to Platonov is of a high lyrical

nature, as to a writer who understands the mysteries of nature: "TAHH flPEBA

nOJlOH / AHflPEH n U A T O H O B " (Andrey Platonov is full of mysteries of trees). By

these words, Avaliani expresses admiration for Platonov's creative findings. Also,

working in the 1990s as a night watchman at the NLO publishing house, Avaliani

possibly finds a close bond to Platonov who worked as a yard cleaner at the House of

the Soviet Writers in his own time. Consequently, Avaliani sees the comparison

between Platonov and himself as based both on creativity and biographical features. On

the whole, in this anagram poem, Avaliani lists four writers who influenced his own

spiritual, creative and social reflections. Similarly, in the poems of other techniques that

will be analysed later, Avaliani lists other writers significant for him.

Khlebnikov's name appears again as a dedication in the anagram poem UaMMmu

Bejiimupa, eojibHoeo acmpaxaHija (In memory of Velimir, a free Astrakhan resident).

The poem begins as follows:

AHAPXHCTA ACTPAXAHH rycjiH-cjiyrH

PA3HHUEB, 3BEPHHUA

3bIBHTbC>I, HSBblTbC^

HOPOBY PEHHOMY Bbl BOPOHY Bbl MEPHOMY <.. .>

(Of the anarchist of Astrakhan / gusli-servants / of Razin's people, menagerie / to shake, to rid of / the river temper / of the black raven)

Here, Avaliani uses the rhetorical method of metonymy, referring to Khlebnikov

by Astrakhan, the name of the region where he was born and which he visited

repeatedly, and by the definition 'anapxHCT' (anarchist), referring to his absolute

freedom, poetical and social, following which Khlebnikov excluded himself from any

social institution, even starving and freezing to death. Khlebnikov's creative genius is

confirmed by the mentioning of his mastery over 'rycjin' (gusli), an ancient Slavic

musical instrument made by Khlebnikov to become his 'cjiyrn' (servants). The

reference to gusli creates an allusion to Khlebnikov's preference for Russian folklore in

the search for new expressiveness (Jakobson 1979, 340-342), to the extent of self-

146

naming by the old-Slavonic name Velimir and naming the literary movement as

Budetlyane (from the word '6y;iymee' - future) as Russification of the term 'Futurists'.

The mention of Razin (pasHHuee, Razin's people) is in reference to Khlebnikov's

anagrammatic poem Razin which is another allusion to Khlebnikov's rebellious

anarchist nature. On the other hand, the poem Razin was written in letter palindromes,

thus becoming an example for experimenting authors. Avaliani's mention of 'shaking'

(sbiÔHTbCH, to shake - about the sands) is a reference to the sands of Persia as the land

where Khlebnikov travelled. Worth mentioning is a form of anagrammatic enjambments

in the poem, as the second word of the anagram is connected semantically to the word

of the next line: "cjiyrH pasHHueB" (servants of Razin's people) - "3BepHHua sbiÔHTbCJi"

(to shake menagerie) - "HsGbiTbca Hopoey" (to rid of the temper). That is, instead of a

set of pairs of words combined together in a line, the poem develops in continuous

growth by adding the final words of the anagram into the next line of the poem.

Biryukov (2004, 59) finds formal correlation of this text with Khlebnikov's poem Tien

IlaH (Pen Pan), where Khlebnikov invented the anagrammatic rhymes: 'o 6ece' - 'o

ce6e' (about demon - about myself), 'Ha nne' - 'neH nan' (on a stump - Pen Pan,

Khlebnikov 1987, 101). Though Khlebnikov proposed this method, in Avaliani's

writing this technique is developed, providing phrases of profound poetic message.

There are other topics important for Avaliani and explored in his letter anagrams.

First, there are anagrams on spiritual subjects. In the following anagram, Avaliani

searches for the sincere faith: "HEBY BA}KHA>I MEPA - HE ByMA:^HA^ BEPA"

(The important measure for the sky is faith which isn't on paper). More precisely, the

formal methods used here are a minimal anagram as only two letters'M' (m) and 'B' (V)

are interchanged, and a minimal resegmentation of the words in the phrase is made

(He6y BaHCHaH - He 6yMa>KHa5i), which is another of Avaliani's literary technique that is

studied below. By this phrase, Avaliani represents his choice of finding the faith in

natural harmony rather than in sacral or philosophising texts.

Close to the meditation on spiritual subjects is the meditation on the universal

harmony and paradoxical combination of harmony and meanness: "MHP B AFOHMH

H B rAPMOHHH" (The world is in agony and in harmony). Here, Avaliani considers

the beauty and the horrors of existence: the agony of the world does not prevent him

from understanding its harmony and vice versa. There is a variation of this phrase,

"MHP H TABHO B rAPMOHHH" (The world and shit are in harmony). The word

choice of the second phrase borders on the obscene, and its meaning is a disparaging

avowal of the ugliness of the world. Again, different anagrams on the same word pair

(here: the world and harmony) represent Avaliani's multiple reflections on the same

subject and his mastery of the language allowing him to express different opinions.

In the anagram "CHMMETPHil HMil CMEPTH" (Symmetry is the name of

death), Avaliani also reflects on the essence of the universe and on the meaning of his

own creative methods. Avaliani, who uses strict symmetrical combinations in his

writing, creates an expressive phrase in obvious contradiction of the concept of

combinatorial creativity. A frightening discovery of the nature of symmetry provided by

the language itself was possibly unpredictable and unpleasant for him, so together with

Fedin, Avaliani re-wrote this phrase as a more optimistic triple anagram,

"CHMMETPHil - PHTM H CEM^I MHCTEPRaM" (Symmetry is rhythm and semen

for the mysteries). In the latter anagram, symmetry is correlated to the mysteries of

humanity. The mysteries here can be understood as ancient sacral rituals for the renewal

of nature. Manifestations of symmetry in the mysteries can be found in musical and

dance figures, ornamental paintings and the same annual repetitions of rituals. By the

content of the anagram, these repetitions are the key concept of the mysteries.

A similar denial of combinatorial creativity is expressed in the anagram "HECHOCHbl HOHCEHCbl" (Non-senses are insufferable). Non-senses as a term for word play developed in English literature by Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll, including combinatorial poetry. The anagram can be interpreted as Avaliani's declaration of the rejection of writing without sense for the sake of the writing, combinatorial or any other. To the contrary, Avaliani announces his choice for the writing of definite meanings and clear substantive ideas.

Reflections on the meaning of his own life and death are expressed in the following multiple anagram by Avaliani:

HE A o n y c K A i o nACKYAOK) HE )KHJ1. m\BY HHAKO, HTO HKOHA. HTO BVDKY HHOKA HA JIOHE? HTO HA HOJIE TbI, HA MEJIH. HTO TbI HMEJl - CHAJIH.

(I do not allow lies. I haven't lived as a creep. 1 live differently, similar to an icon. Can 1 see a young monk on bosom? You are down, on the rocks. All you had -burn it out)

In a six-line anagram, the mastery of Avaliani's poetics becomes apparent due to his reflection on vital subjects expressed in lyrical ways, using the strictest letter restriction of paired anagrams and developed rhetorical technique. Formal structure of the poem is complicated as all the words with only one exception are anagrammatic pairs: '/^ONYCKAIO' - 'NACKY/IOK)', 'JI>KH' - ')KHJI', 'JIOHC' - 'HOJie', 'HMCJI' - 'MCJIH'

(allow - creep, lie - live, bosom - down, had - rocks), including one triple: 'nHaKo' -'HHOKa' - 'HKOHe' (differently - young monk - icon), and some trivial combinations: ' H e ' - 'He', 'na' - 'na', 'HTO' - 'HTO ' , ' T H ' - 'XTR (not - not, on - on, that - that, you -you). The anagram structure of the poem is complicated: in the beginning, the anagram words are connected in pairs inside the lines; while in the following lines, the anagram links including a triple anagram, connect words both in the same and adjacent lines.

This change of the strict structure demonstrates the author's emotional tension, similar

to an emotional tension represented by deviations from the regular rhythmical structure

for traditional poetry. Less noticeable is a conventional rhythmic and rhyme structure of

the poem, as the lines are written by three- and four-feet iamb with pair rhyming: 'JDKH'

- 'HCHJI' (lies - lived), 'HKOHC' - 'JIOHC' (icon - bosom). The conventional poetic

structure is weak as the stresses and rhymes are inexact, whereas the anagram structure

of the poem is emphasised and obeyed extremely well. Nevertheless, the concluding

effect of the poem is achieved by the poetic ideas and by rhyming, not by an anagram,

'na MCJIH' - 'cnajiH' (is down - burn it), which is a significant feature for the

understanding of Avaliani's uses of formal constraints. In the first line of the poem,

there is an allusion to Solzhenitsyn's manifesto He no JI>KH" ( T O live without a

lie, 1974). In the second line, which is an anagram of the first, Avaliani condenses

Solzhenitsyn's appeal by using an abusive vocabulary (nacKy^a, creep), though another

connotation is to the ninth commandment, "You shall not bear false witness against

your neighbour" (Exodus 20: 2-17) which is closer to Avaliani's poetics than

Solzhenitsyn's political manifesto. In the next lines, proximity to religious subjects is

confirmed by the relevant vocabulary (HKona, HHOK; icon, young monk). By the third

line, Avaliani proclaims his monastic style of living, ":H(HBY UNAKO, HTO HKona" (I live

differently, similarly to an icon). The fourth line is obscure and difficult for

interpretation due to the limitations of the vocabulary. Possibly, by a rhetorical method

of catachresis, the word 'HHOK' (young monk) substitutes for 'a child', and the words

'na JiOHe' (on womb, on bosom) substitute for the phrase 'on lap'. That is, the image is

created of a child on a mother's lap, which provides the image of an icon. This

interpretation corresponds to the religious lexicon of the poem and an allusion to the

Bible mentioned above. Consequently, in the first four lines of the poem, Avaliani

presents an image of himself praying in front of the icon and meditating on his life. In

the last lines of the poem, Avaliani concludes his meditation with an unpleasant self-

appeal, "Ha Hyjie TBI, na MCJIH / HTO T U HMCJI - cnajiH" (You are down, on the rocks. All

you had - bum it). It is an assonance rhyme, 'na MCJIH' - 'cnajiH' (is down - bum it), by

which a poem comes to its expressive end. As a result, in this short poem, Avaliani

presents deep spiritual meditations, achieving virtuosity in the formal techniques and

making them the means of poetic expressiveness together with conventional poetic and

rhetorical techniques.

Another important theme of Avalian's reflections expressed in the anagrammatic

poems is the result of his life and creativity, though his self-estimation varies for the

following two short poems. In an anagram "CJlEflO TOnHYT - FIOCJIE nOHTYT"

(They trample [you] blindly, but will honour afterwards), negative estimation is reduced

to some extent by a hope for post-mortal understanding. The phrase is addressed to any

person, with whom Avaliani sympathises, but undoubtedly to himself as well.

In contrast , the next poem concems Avaliani's positive self-appraisal in the

history of literature. In this text, every word of an odd line of the poem has an anagram

pair with the word of a following even line. Compared to the previous poem, the

structure of this one is more balanced, representing harmonic emotions of the author:

A3 ECMb CTPOKA, )KHBY H, MEPOH OCTP. 3A CEMb MOPEH POCTKA ^ BH}KY POCT. H B MMPE CHPOTA. ^ B PHME APHOCT.

(I am a line, I live exact by a measure, /1 see a sprout growing beyond seven seas, / I am an orphan in the world, /1 am Ariosto in Rome)

Here, Avaliani argues that he represents creativity (As ecMb cxpoKa, I am a line).

It is worth noting the repeated use of Old Slavonic vocabulary, magnifying the

statement to a Biblical representation of the Lord expressed through the set of letters: "I

am the Alpha and the Omega" (Rev 1:8). Though this expression is usually understood

151

in a metaphoric sense, in accord with the biblical phrase "the beginning and the end",

the strict meaning corresponds to the concept of Creation of the world out of the letters

of the Word which was in the Beginning. Thus, Avaliani compares his creativity to the

initial divine creativity, and himself to the set of letters, as his life is totally devoted to a

creative process. The expression "Mepoii ocxp'" (exact by a measure) can be interpreted

as a reference to strict formal limitations as the base of Avaliani's work in which he

achieves virtuosity. And by the next line (3a ceMb Mopefi pocTKa h BH>Ky pocT, I see a

sprout growing beyond seven seas), Avaliani accentuates his perfect understanding of

the quality of his works. In this line, Avaliani presents his notion that this still new

poetics will evolve in the future. In the third line, Avaliani defines himself as an orphan

(H B MHpe CHpoxa, I am an orphan in the world) in the corporeal life that in the strict

sense explains and recognises his poverty, and in the figurative sense indicates a lack of

predecessors, therefore the need to create his own poetic rules. In the last line, Avaliani

identifies himself in the cultural history with Ariost. Ludoviko Ariosto (1474-1533)

was an Italian poet and playwright who wrote in Latin and Italian, and served at the

court of Italian cardinals. Avaliani attributes the author of the Renaissance era to ancient

Rome as an eternal city, thereby increasing the historical distance and prestige of

Ariosto as a comparable person, and shortens his name as is accepted in Russian poetry,

as for example in Akhmatova's line ''MORJIA JIH E H H C CJIOBHO FLANJ X B O P H T B ' ' (Could

Beatrice possibly create like Dante? Akhmatova 1986, 108). The reference to the second

line (51 BH>Ky pocx, I see a sprout growing) appears here, strengthened by the rhyme,

'pocT' - 'ApHOCT' (growing - Ariost). Each word of the third line, B MHpe CHpora"

(I am an orphan in the world), correlates to the words of the fourth line, B P H M C

ApHOCT" (And I am Ariosto in Rome), creating phonic and semantic pairs - a poet is an

orphan in the physical world because, and in so far as, he is great in history. Avaliani

believes that, looking from a close distance, his creative significance cannot be seen,

while in a longer time interval his place in the pantheon of literature will be discovered.

Thus, in this multiple-line anagram, Avaliani affirms his high self-estimation, placing

himself in the pantheon of Latin classics and comparing his creativity to the universal.

This conviction is supported by the formal virtuosity of the text, by the clarity of

phonics and by the expressiveness of the images.

In conclusion, Avaliani's short anagrams are close to maxims and proverbs in their

form and content. As well as palindromes, anagrams also appear in series, presenting

various opinions on the same subject. In the cited texts, Avaliani expresses his rejection

of a-semantic writings for the sake of formal restriction, instead focusing on creating

texts of definite meanings and ideas. The topics of these short poems include spiritual

and creative subjects and the author's self-appraisal. According to his poetry, Avaliani

is a sincere believer, though his faith is expressed more in personal prayer meditations

and finding God in the natural harmony than in official Church rituals and philosophical

readings. Avaliani addresses several writers who influenced him, though also supposes

the lack of predecessors and creative companions. Avaliani uses a wide range of

vocabulary registers in his poems, from the elevated Old Slavonic to the vulgar,

expressing a diversity of thoughts and emotions. His mastery results in finding anagram

pairs in a vocabulary extended by combinatorial restriction. Shifting the meaning of the

words by multiple rhetorical techniques results in the poetic expressiveness of the texts.

These techniques are similar to those that appear for palindromes. The function of

enjambments and irregularity in anagram poems are similar to those in traditional

poetry as manifesting the author's emotional status. Avaliani confirms his total devotion

to the creative process and believes in the understanding of his poetry over time.

4.3.3. Ravnobukvitsa, the new invented technique

A formal technique paeHodyKeuija {ravnobukvitsa, equal-letters) is rare and still

new in experimental literature. It consists in segmenting the phrase into different words

by means of creating breaks between words in different places (Fedin and Lukomnikov

2002, 193-202). In paenodyKeuiia, converted phrases are united in an overall text with

two ways of segmenting the whole set of letters; for example, " C J I O B H O poB CJIOB

Hopoe" (Obstinacy of words is like a moat, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 200). In the

English experimental literature, the term hyp-hen is used for this restriction, described

by David Austin, the editor of the Internet site fun-with-words.com, as descending from

incorrect hyphenation on printing; for example, producing a 'hyp hen' out of a

'hyphen'. The name for this technique in Russian literature is still evolving. This

restriction was referred to as holorhyme, or pantorhyme (Beregovskaya and Verger

2000, 63), which is an incorrect attribution, as the form pantorhyme is known as the

total phonetic identity of two lines, "Ce cachalot / Se cache a I'eau. / Cetace, paraissez, /

C'est assez paresser" (This cachalot / is hiding in deep water. / A whale, show yourself,

/ Enough of being lazy, French, Beregovskaya and Verger 2002, 62), whereas in the

present restriction an identical written order of letters is required, while pronunciation

and punctuation of the two parts of the phrase can be different. Zubova names this

restriction nepecesMeHmupoeauHhiii meKcm (over-segmented text, Zubova 2000, 310-

318); Lukomnikov proposes the term oMoepaMMa (homogram), while Fedin Russifies it

as paeHodyKeuija {ravnobukvitsa, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 193-202). At present,

the latter appellation has been adopted by most of the practitioners of Russian

experimental literature, so I will use it to describe this technique.

I will analyse five single paenodyKeuifa and one multiple paeHo6yKeu^a text by

Avaliani from among a greater number of his texts on this formal restriction. In these

texts, the characteristic topics of Aval iani ' s poetry are shown: comparison and contrast

of eternal to earthly life, of creativity to social responsibilities, on the one hand, and to a

social career, on the other. The topics are developed with the vocabulary similar to that

which Avaliani uses for other techniques.

The word 'HCGO ' (sky, heaven), which is frequent for Avaliani 's palindromes,

reappears in paeHo6yKeu^a text: " H E BOIVDKH Bbl, HEBOM :H(MBbI" (You are not

homeless, you live by the heaven). Here, Avaliani encourages both himself and the

persons with whom he associates, towards the preference of spiritual life despite

strained living circumstances. The content of the phrase is similar to the content of the

following paeHodyKGuua " n 0 3 T A H Y T b M O H - 0 0 3 T A n y TbMOM" (My path as

poet is through halting places in darkness), though their intonations are different. In the

first paeHodyKeuija, Avaliani supports the addressees of the poem referring to the

heaven, whereas in the second, he accepts the living difficulties, referring to darkness

and 'halt ing places ' . Rhetorical methods used in the la t te rpaeuodyKeui ja are metaphors:

'nyxb MOH' (my path) for a life, 'HCGO ' (heaven) for spiritual subjects; and hyperbole

' no 3Tany TLMOH' ( through halting places in darkness) for adverse circumstances of life.

In the fol lowing paeHo6yKeuija, Avaliani again uses the word 'muse ' as he did in

pal indromes presented earlier: "HA M H E flOM, Y3h\ - H A M HE flO MYSbl" (I

maintain my home, I am bound - We have no time for the muse). Here, Avaliani

contrasts the creativity with family responsibilities. The possibilities of restricted

vocabulary are increased again by slight semantic and grammatical shifts, as Avaliani

addresses himself in singular form in the first line, referring to his own responsibilities,

and in plural in the second as an appellation to persons similar to him.

Another repeating contradiction for Aval iani ' s poetry is a contradiction of creative

activity to the social: " H E B P Y H O P XAIOIUHM - HE BPY, H O F X A I O m M H . . . " (I

am not wrangling in megaphone - I do not lie, I am fluttering ...)• By metonymy, the

meaning of the word 'xa^ixb' (rude: to abuse, badmouth) is shifted to that of 'yell',

creating an image of a vociferous political leader, and the meaning of the word

'nopxaiomMH' (fluttering) to that of a 'lyrical poet'. In this way, Avaliani affirms his

denial of the lies in everyday life, and consequently the rejection of political activity for

which he supposes the lie is inevitable.

Also, in the following paenodyKeuija, Avaliani emphasises the contradiction of

creative achievements to financial and social status: "3J1AT0 H TOfH. 3J1A TO

HTOFH" (Gold and togas. Those are the results of evil). Here, by using metonymy, the

implied meanings for 'wealth' and 'power' are substituted by the words 'gold' and

'togas', which are considered by Avaliani to be the result of evil deeds: "3jia TO HTOFH"

(Those are the results of evil). On the whole, an intense attention to the language

together with the named formal and rhetorical techniques allows Avaliani to present his

ideas in the most aphoristic way.

Short paeHodyKeuija texts can also be combined, forming a multiple-line

paenodyKeuija poem:

HE 3AKOH - HYHEJIO BEHHOE. HE 3AKOHHy HEJIOBEHHOE, HBO rj\E TOHKA? YTPO -BABOMKA, H B O r - ^ i E T O H K A : YTPOBA - BOHKA.

(Not a law it is, but an eternal scarecrow. /1 will not finish humane deeds, / Because where is the full stop? / The morning is a butterfly, / And God is a child: / The gut is a keg)

In the poem, both experimental and traditional formal restrictions are obeyed. The

lines of the poem are connected in pairs by the paeHodyKeuija technique: the first and

the second; the third and the fifth; and the fourth and the sixth. Also, the lines rhyme:

the first and the second, as well as the third and the sixth lines of the poem are

connected by exact female rhymes and the fourth and the fifth lines - by an inexact

dactyl rhyme. So, the rhyme and paeHo6yKeu^a structure of the lines are independent,

corresponding to different pairs of lines of the poem, which provides a supplemental

strength to the structure of the whole poem.

In the poem, Avaliani opposes spiritual concepts to material ones. In the first line,

with the words '3aK0H' (law) and 'eenHbiH' (eternal), he makes an allusion to Roman

law, as Rome is the place of origin of jurisprudence and is corresponded to an eternal

city. By negative definition (ne; but, is not) of 'saKon' (law) as 'nynejio' (a scarecrow,

idol), Avaliani proclaims his opinion of the substitution of the established justice system

with a menacing mechanical substance. With the second and third lines, Avaliani asserts

his belief in the continuation of life after death, which does not put 'TOHKa' (a full stop)

to humane deeds. The final three lines of the poem are united in one sentence of

contrasting meanings. First, it is an image of the eternal Garden of Eden where God

exists as an innocent child, "yrpo - 6a5oHKa, / h Bor - AexoHKa" (The morning is a

butterfly, / And God is a child), and second, an image of the physical body as an

insatiable creature which constantly requires more goods, "YrpoGa - 6oHKa" (The gut is

a keg). It is worth noting here that material human substances (3aK0H, yrpoGa; law, gut)

are listed in the marginal lines of the poem, while natural and spiritual ones (yxpo,

6a6oHKa, Bor; morning, butterfly, God) are in the inner lines, with words 'BCHHoe'

(eternal) and '^leroHKa' (a child) on the edges belonging to both areas. As a result, in

this short poem, Avaliani provides a developed metaphor for a soul enclosed by a

material body, as spirituality enclosed by the frame of corporeal and social substances,

with attribution to eternity and the childhood of a soul as an intermediary between them.

To conclude, the technique of modification of the phrase by re-segmentation of the

words is another poetic method to express the same messages typical for Avaliani's

poetry - it is the opposition and unification of material and spiritual subjects in a human

being, with Avaliani's personal preference for the latter. The expression of 'wonder' in

Avaliani's short paenodyKeui^a texts is close to that of proverbs, thus demonstrating

Avaliani's artistry of the language. Their vocabulary, poetic messages and applied

rhetorical techniques are similar to those of the texts based on other restrictions

described above.

4.3.4. Variations of abecedary forms

Abecedaries, or alphabetic poems, were known since the Middle Ages as texts

with an alphabetic order of the first letters of the lines of the text (Bombaugh 1961, 34-

36), as was described in Chapter 2 of this thesis. This formal constraint is presented in

some Russian texts; for example, those written by Velichkovsky in 1691, though it is

unlikely that Avaliani knew these examples. However, Avaliani wrote several texts

based on the alphabetic restriction. He re-invented this form, working in accordance

with his method of detailed attention to the language. Using this technique, Avaliani

expressed the same ideas already disclosed by the analysis of his works on other

techniques: the negation of totalitarianism, the preference for creativity and natural

perfection instead of social institutions.

For my analysis, I have selected four of Avaliani's poems written in different

types of alphabet structures. In these poems, Avaliani modifies and amplifies existing

alphabetic structures: >ImepKa lOxjimeHCJi 3noxH..." (I am a lizard of a passing

era...); "Ay, apxejibmHK Aji4)aBHT..." (Halloo, Alphabet the team worker...);

"yBHBaiou^HH / yBa>KeH / yro>KAaK)u;HH / yfloGen..." (A killer / Is respected / A

pleasing person / Is convenient). In the first example, the technique consists in starting

every word of the poem with a sequenced letter of the alphabet listed backwards; in the

second example, each word per two lines of the poem starts with the same letter,

corresponding to the letters of the alphabet listed forward; and in the third example, all

words start with the same letter 'y ' (u), whereas the second letters of each word

correspond to the consonants of the alphabet listed forward. All these restrictions are

stricter than the usual alphabetic form where only the first letters of the lines are fixed.

In the first of the poems (Avaliani 2000, 124), the alphabetic restriction is

combined with traditional poetic techniques, such as rhymes and rhythm:

M ilmepKa K)THmeHCH 3noxH, IHeMHiuHH LUejiecT HyBCTBCHMbix UHKa;;, XjionyujKa OoKycoB y6orHx, TpeBO)KHbiH CBHCT, PbiBOK floBepx Orpaii. HaHTHe, MHHyxa JlHKOBaHbH, KejiCMHHKa HcnoBcziajibHH. SeMHaj! )KH3Hb Eme JlapuT, fopa, BbicoKoe Bjia>KeHCTBo Ajixapa.

(I am a lizard of a passing era / poignant rustling of sensual cicadas / a firecracker of pitiful tricks / a disturbing whistle, a spurt over fences. / An inspiration, a minute of exultation, / a confessional of cell hermit. / Material life still grants, burning, / the perfect bliss of an altar)

The poem is written in the formal technique of word abecedary and obeys the

regular rhythm of iambic pentameter with a traditional rhyming scheme aBaBccDD. A

combination of formal restrictions and conventional poetic techniques is used by

Avaliani as the means of tightening the expressiveness of the text. Here, the lyrical hero

identical to the author of this confessionary poem describes his searches for the meaning

of life. In the beginning, the lyrical hero exists in the context of the contemporary era

(K)T5ima5ic5i 3pa, passing era) which provides multiple temptations (HyBCTseHHue

UHKa^bi, xjionyujKa ({)0Kyc0B yGornx; sensual cicadas, a firecracker of pitiful tricks).

Choosing the spiritual way of life, the lyrical hero throws himself over these hurdles,

"pbiBOK noeepx orpa^i" (a spurt over fences). An image of a 'cell hermit' as a figure

with whom the lyrical hero identifies himself is followed by an image of 'altar' as a

church sacramental place which metonymically is the highest goal for the earthly

existence of the lyrical hero of the poem. That is, the content of the poem is the

adherence to a meditative prayer leading to approaching and integration with

ecclesiastical religious subjects.

The next poem (Avaliani 2000, 41) is also written by obeying conventional

rhymes and rhythm structure in addition to a strict alphabetic constraint. The poem

begins as follows:

Ay, ApTejibmHK Aji(j)aBHT, AsapT, ApeHa, AnnexHT, By^H, ByKBapb, Bo^ipji Bece^y, Bpocaa By6jiHK ByKBoe^iy, BHTHHCTBYII, BecjiaMH BJICKOM,

BeHMaacb c Bep6oH 6OCHKOM < . , . >

(Halloo, team worker, the alphabet, / Excitement, arena, appetite, / Wake up, an alphabet book, stimulating a talk, / Throwing a bagel to a hair-splitter, / Orate, pulled by paddles, / Getting married with a willow, barefoot / <.. .>)

The formal constraint can be described as a triple alphabetic poem, as all three

meaningful words of each pair of the lines begin with the same letter in alphabetic order

from 'a' (a) to 'h' (ya) with the only omitted letters being 'e' (yo), 'h ' (i), '-b' (the hard

sign), 'bi' (ui), 'b' (the soft sign), that mostly cannot be initial letters of a word. The

poem is written in iambic tetrameter with conjugate male and female rhymes in tums.

Some of the lines of the poem are banal or insipid due to the strictness of the constraint;

for example, "BHTHHCTByH, eecjiaiviH BJICKOM" (orate, pulled by paddles). Nevertheless,

the lyrical message of the whole poem can be deciphered by a short rendering of the

poem: here, the lyrical hero, again identical to the author of the poem, appeals to the

language as his co-author and to himself and similar poets as masters of the language.

The preference for the natural beauties of the world instead of intellectual arguments is

expressed in the poem. In the line on 'u ' (ts), "UBCTbi, uenjiaHxecb, uHnamH" (the

flowers, clutch at them, you tsuipashi), an allusion to Khlebnikov's famous line "O

sacMCHTecb, cMexaHH!" (Oh, laugh, you laughers!), from the poem SamMmue CMCXOM

(Spell by laugher, Khlebnikov 1987, 54) is made by grammatical and phonic proximity

of the phrases. The word 'uHnauiH' (tsuipashi), as an occasionalism rare for Avaliani,

can be interpreted as a description of an object such as a flower with thorns catching

passers-by to draw their attention to natural beauty. At the end of the poem, Avaliani

concludes his appeal calling on poets to be natural and create clear poetic works through

attentive work on the language, "^BbiHecTByHxe hbukom" (make heathenism by the

language). That is, Avaliani succeeds in expressing his conceptual creative preferences

through an extremely complex formal literary technique, and it is this realisation of the

technique which proves the validity of his ideas.

Another poem (Avaliani 1997b, quoted from

http://www.screen.ru/zombie/avaliani/) is devoted to Daniil Kharms (1905-1942), a

poet of the group OBERIU who worked on his own poetics in the 1930s, was

imprisoned in 1941 for anti-Soviet statements and died in a mental hospital. In the

poem, Avaliani combines tautogram and abecedary restrictions to offer tribute to his

predecessor:

yBHBaiomHH yBa>KeH yro>K;iaiomHH y/],o6eH y>KacHyBiuHH ySaKOHCH yKoKomcH yjlyMiuaBUJHH yMep yHHKyM ynpaMbiH yPaBHHBUJMCb yCpe;iHHBmHCb yTBOpH yOop;ibi6aHa yXoxoweMCH yi4eHHM yHHTCJieH yiUeiluiHx ymeMJieHHbix

(A killer / Is respected / A pleasing person / Is convenient / A terrifying person / Is legitimated / That who has been improving / Is knocked off / An obstinate / Unique person / Is dead / The stubborn one/ Having become average / Having created / Been restive / Laugh until sick / We'll reduce the price of / Deceased / Wounded / Teachers)

Tautogram is a technique in which all words of the text begin with the same letter

(Bombaugh 1961, 37-39). The tautogram restriction is applied here to the first letters of

the words, whereas an abecedary restriction, demanding the alphabetic order of certain

letters of the text, is applied to the second letters of all words of the poem. By the last

restriction, twenty consonant letters of the Russian language are presented in the

alphabetic order. The number of lines of the poem corresponds to the number of

consonants in the Russian language as the words are placed one per line. The first two

letters of each word are capitalised, so that the restrictions become clearly visualised.

The double meaning of the word ' cor j iacHbiH* (consonant), meaning both "a consonant'

and 'concordant; one who agrees', is exploited in the poem. The message of the poem is

a contraposition of the concordant majority of Soviet people in Stalin's era, buying their

own lives with silence, and Kharms as a poet of a precise mind and original language

who was forced into cruel death by the totalitarian system. The epithets for the poet are:

'yjlyHuiaBiuHH' (improving), 'YHHKyM / YOpiiMbiH' (obstinate / unique person),

'YMHTejieH / yiUezimHX / YIHeMjieHHbix' (deceased / wounded / teacher), whereas the

epithets for the ordinary people are: •Yro>KjxaK)uiHH' (pleasing) and 'Yi^acHyBiuHH'

(terrifying), and for the henchmen of the regime it is the only one epithet:

'YBHBaiomHH' (killing). Though there are no punctuation marks in the poem, the

attributions are easily distinguished: ' Y K o K o m e H ' (knocked o f f ) . ' YMep' (dead) for the

first, 'Y/lo6eH' (convenient) and 'YSaKOHeH' (legitimated) for the second, and

'YBa>KeH' (respected) for the third. The result of the physical elimination of the poet,

discordant with the uniformity of the thoughts and the language, is a total

standardisation: " Y P a s H J i e m M C b / Y C p e ; i H H B i u H C b " (became equal / became average).

opposite to creativity: "YTBopii / yOop;ibi6aHa / yXoxoHCMCii'' (having created / be

restive / laugh until sick). The overall message of the poem is negative, as at the end of

the poem, Avaliani reminds the reader of the diminishing evaluation of the deceased

poet by surviving people: "YUeHHM / YMHTejieH / yiUe;iujHx / YmeMjieHHux" (Well

reduce the price of / Deceased / Wounded / Teachers).

The last alphabetic poem analysed here was discovered in Avaliani's unpublished

personal archive:

BOJlb sarjiyuiHT JIH BAJl J I E J I C M SBCHEN O T O W J I A J I OOJlwaHTbi sacpaji 6yueOAJl B O J I K ) 3aryji B 3 B O J I H O B A J 1 M O J L O / i o c T b 3Jia KAK Tbi MAJl XOJlozi sajiyji Tbi 6yXAJl rOJlo;i 3a HHM 3amarAJl HOJlb 3anycTeHbH nosHAJI UEJIh 3Be3;ibi oxpHlJA-n /iOJlroH 3HM0H Tbi pbi/^AJl F I O J I HO 3anjiaKaji yOAJl MEJloBCKa 3anoH 3aKaHAJl !^EJLTBIH 3AKAT oxpa^CAJl P O J I H SANEM pasbirPAJI LUEJlecT 3HAMEH oxzibilUAJl 30JlymeK 3aMbicjiOB 3AJ1 C O J I H U C M 3EBAK noxpaCAJl LUEJLKYHHHK 3AT0 saxpemAJl KOJlbua sanacTba jiacKAJl TOJlbKo 3aBpajiCH ycTAJl

(Can pain suppress the ball / a revelry has disturbed the will / the hunger followed / you wept during a long winter / yellow sunset reflected / a hall of Cinderellas' intentions / you caressed rings of wrists / jingled as Lei, burned to the end, / youth is evil, you are so small / [you] learned the zero of desolation / in full. You cried, fell down / for what reason have [you] played the roles / you amazed idlers with the sun / but became tangled in lies, became tied / Bucefal crapped on folios / cold came, you drank / denied the goals of stars / a drinking bout stumbled a man / finished breathing the rustle of banners / instead a nutcracker began to crackle)

By tightening of restrictions via combination of formal techniques, Avaliani

expresses his emotional response to dissipated faithless life. Each line of the poem

consists of the same word's group in which the first word starts with the '*-oji(b)' set of

the letters, the last words ends with where is a consonant letter in

alphabetical order; and the words of the median part of the poem start with the same

letter '3' (z). Muhiple restrictions are applied here: an alphabetical sequence of the first

letters of the lines defines a form of abecedary; repetitions of syllables and initials of the

second words of the lines makes it similar to tautogram, and repetitive endings represent

monorhyme on the initial male consonant rhyme '-aji' (-al) and on the ending male

consonant rhyme '-oji(b)' (-0I). The three feet anapaest rhythm is implemented in the

majority of lines with disturbance of the rhythm in the lines with the rare letters (f),

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'h' (eh) and 'm ' (sch). The lyrieal hero of the poem is described by the consequence of

his occupations - he moves from feast and jovial drinicing to famine and suffering, then

again to the feast, in turn replaced by desolation, weeping, lying, fatigue, cold, denial

and hard drinking. At the end of the poem, when the lyrical hero approaches the denial

of eternal purposes ( U E J I h sBesAbi OTPHUAJI, he denied the goals of stars) and is again

staggered by permanent drinking, another character appears: "lUEJlKyHHHK sarò

saxpelHAJl" (Nutcracker began to crackle). Nutcracker here is a figure confronting the

lyrical hero. When the lyrical hero fails to fulfill the supreme purposes, a mechanical

being appears in the lyrical hero's nightmares, chirping without tiredness during the last

minutes of the lyrical hero's life. That is, the message of the poem is on the inevitability

of disillusionment in life and the hopeless end after unwise joys. The message is

expressed by means of a set of formal restrictions, which makes this poem unique in

form, though difficult to read, understand and interpret.

In summary, Avaliani worked on the abecedary restriction, studying the possibilities

of the language. In these poems, lucid poetic expressiveness is achieved by this strict

formal technique. In some poems, the abecedary restriction is combined with traditional

poetic techniques, such as rhymes and rhythm, together forming an original text. The

complicated letter restriction is again a tool of expressing Avaliani's emotions and ideas.

4.3.5. Listoverten, a unique graphic technique developed by Avaliani

JIucmoeepmeHb {listoverten, page-revolver) is a visual text written using a special

hand-writing technique invented by Avaliani - when rotated, usually upside down, it

can still be read, but a different meaning appears, "cjioea hjih cjioBocoHeTaHH«,

HanHcaHHbie OCOGBIM 06pa30M, xaK, HTO B nepeBepHyxoM BHJXQ OHM - Apyrwe" (Words

or phrases written in a special way so when they are turned upside down they become

others, Kukulin 2000, 142). These visual poems differ from any other works of Russian

poetic tradition (Uritsky 2001, 218-219), though some predecessors to .lucmoeepmeHb

can be found in double-valued pictures by Russian and Western authors and in some

schemes of experimental texts (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 259).

Avaliani's Jiucmoeepmeuh were studied in detail by Zubova (Zubova 2005, 465-

482) who finds in them a visual realisation of multiple ambiguities of the language and

sees the rotation of JiucmoeepmeHh as a form of transformation of a text similar to

transformation of an image in a distorted mirror revealing the inner essence of a subject

(Zubova 2005, 4 7 2 ^ 7 5 ) . Zubova argues that jiucmoeepmHu are created with attention to

the smallest detail of a picture, so that syncretism of hand-writing provides an unlimited

amount of graphic implementation of a word. It is worth recalling Kruchyonuikh and

Khlebnikov's manifesto EyKea KQK maKoem (Letter as such) written in 1913 (

Kruchyonuikh and Khlebnikov 1999) where they proclaimed the necessity of close

attention to the graphics of the writing: ''jxonyKHO nocxasHTb Bonpoc o HHCbMeHHbix,

3pHMfaix HjiH n p o c T O o c s s a e M b i x , TOHHO pyKOK) c j i e n u a , B u a K a x " (The question should be

raised about written signs, visible or simply touchable, as by a hand of a blind man,

Khlebnikov and Kruchyonuikh 1999, 49). Therefore, Avaliani again follows the idea

proposed by the early futurists and develops it into a unique literary method.

The reading of .lucmoeepmeHb demands from the reader a mental activity of

searching for possible options to transform unclear or polysemantic signs into letters

of a meaningful word. This process is similar to solving a riddle, rewarded not only by

the intellectual joy of finding a solution, but also by the aesthetic joy of arising from a

direct association between the deciphered words or phrases. As a result,

JiucmoeepmeHb is a poem in which two objects or categories are presented as

inversions of each other, brought into correspondence by the generalised metaphor

method realised in the unique graphic form.

Avaliani widely uses Jiucmoeepmnu, even for the covers of his books where the

name of the author and the title of the book or two parts of the title are presented in this

technique:

jirtUmHfa ^ HHOtknOSff

(fl j iaMH - B nypre; Flame in blizzard) (V j iHTKa Ha CKJIOHC - ^^MHTPHH

AeanHaHH; Snail on the slope - Dmitry Avaliani)

Avaliani's JiucmoeepmHu are presented here in order to demonstrate the

mechanism of their writing and the characteristic features of these kinds of texts,

namely to demonstrate that they are expressive visual texts on various high-level topics.

Also, a similarity will be clearly seen between topics, vocabulary and rhetorical

methods used in these short graphic poems and those used in other forms of Avaliani's

poetry. In particular, Avaliani expresses in Jiucmoeepmnu his attitudes towards famous

historical figures, especially to the writers who had influenced him. In jiucmoeepmnu,

Avaliani achieves significant expressiveness, making them his distinguished poetic

technique.

The overall mechanism of understanding of Jiucmoeepmenb poems is founded on

the mental ability to interpret an unclear statement. It is the core mechanism for

understanding Avaliani's texts, where an ambiguous meaning defined by the restricted

vocabulary is shifted by metonymy and catachresis into a proverb-like expression.

Particularly in jiucmoeepmeub, it is possible to make an interpretation of graphic

elements of visual texts, transforming them in one's mind into letters as signs of

meaningful words. This way, some lines are seen as parts of letters in one position and

are neglected in the other, so that the same sign is interpreted as '3' (z) and rotated 'K'

(k), or ' n ' (p) and rotated 'CT ' (st), or (d) and rotated ' r ' (g), or 'a ' (a) and rotated 'p '

(r); and so on for other signs:

< A O U O F L L ^ ^ ^

(3ana;I - BOCTOK; west - east) (/ipyr - spar; friend - enemy)

Avaliani created a vast number of visual texts based on this complicated method.

Similar to other techniques analysed above, in jiucmoeepmeHh, Avaliani works in series.

This characteristic feature of Avaliani 's jiucmoeeprriHu was noticed by a number of

researchers (Zubova 2004; Mikhaylovskaya 2005; S Fedin 2007, pers. comm., 17

October). For example, Avaliani transforms a writing of the word 'pyneH' (stream) into

a number of writings creating several short visual poems (Avaliani 2001a, 72-78):

P W T I E I L nif^^fQ t^viei^ F U / I / E C Q M E ^ ftwQ

P A J E I T pifzeil f^viei^ ttvffi^ fryiieU jt9t/ed

(pyneH pyHeii pyneH pywcH - (pyweH pyHeii pyncH pyMeii (pyneH pyHePi pyneH pyneH -3 a a u H r p a e T CMepTb Kapaex; - K a n j i H peHKH 3Be3Abi eepbTe rjTa3aM e n a r e c j ie3aM;

stream stream stream stream - ceeHKM; stream stream stream stream stream stream -hare plays death punishes) stream stream - drops believe the moisture the eyes

rivulets stars candles) the tears)

The surface of a stream here is also a natural mirror where all the surrounding

objects are reflected: the sky, bypassing animals, a person bent forward to the water. In

other words, multiple reflections in the quickly changing surface of the stream become a

natural realisation for the distorted mirror transformation of mcmoeepmeHh.

The numerous topics of Avaliani 's jiucmoeepmHu include spiritual and Biblical

subjects (see below list. 1-3); reflections on poetic matters (list. 4) and comparisons of

167

combinatorial art and universal structure (list. 5); the author's opposition to

totalitarianism (list. 6-7) and negative notions on politics (list. 8-9); realities of Soviet

life (list. 10) and personal feeling of loneliness in a crowd (list. 11) (Avaliani 1995;

Avaliani 1994, 6-7; Zubova 2005, 465-^82). Referring to previous sections of the

analysis of Avaliani's poetry, these topics are similar to the topics of his texts based on

other techniques.

S 0 9 '

ff)3K€

list. 1. 3/iecb Bor -Bor Bes^e (God is here - God is everywhere)

Haomcoa

nfniu

list. 2. ripH/lH K rocno/ iy - K rocnoi iy npH/iM (Come to the Lord -to the Lord you come)

list. 3. ÄBCJib KaHH (Abel Cain)

^oò^mimi CjplOpeit list. 5. riaJlHHJipOM -Mo^iejib MMpa (Palindrome is a model o f the world)

list. 6. ())K)pep - H3 CTa;ia (Führer - from a herd)

Bnam y^ma

UfOOi BHOZaWH

iPPCàiminùiù list. 7. eypiiajiaKa-Pycb po;iHJia (A vampire - Russia gave birth to)

m o ^ n o

// 9JT]HK>i

list. 4. My3a H 3THKa - KjiMuie H pe5yc (Muse and ethics -cliché and rebus)

BUfiOPhi list. 8. cyeTayMa-Bbi6opbi (Mental vanity - elections)

list. 9. BJiacTb He Ta - list. 10. h/icm b Bcer^a He xa (Power Mara3MH - HHwero is wrong - always nex xaM (We go to a wrong) shop - there is

nothing there)

list. 11. x o j i n a -CHpoxa (Crowd -orphan)

j oifmoTv I list. 12. OpaB^ibi Hex - Mepx no;iepH - npaB/ia upaBna npaB/ia - eii 6ory He BpHxe He Bepb (There is no truth -damn it - truth truth truth - honestly don't lie don't believe it)

The rhetorical techniques and vocabulary used in .lucmoeepmnu are also typical

for Avaliani. It is metonymy, by which the word '(¡Diopep' (fuhrer, list. 6) is related to

Hitler and to a tyrant in general, and the word 'cxa^o' (herd, list. 6) is related to a nation

following a tyrant's orders. Similarly, the word 'eaMnnp' (vampire, list. 7) is related to

168

Stalin in accordance with the overall content of Avaliani's understanding of Russian

history. Certain words, frequent for Avaliani's poetic vocabulary, are also included in

jiucmoeepiriHu; for instance, the word 'iviysa' (muse, list. 4) in the text concerning the

reflections on the essence of poetic creativity. In this jiuctnoeepyneHh^ Avaliani contrasts

an inspirational factor and the necessity of ethics in poetry to the enigmatic nature of art

and meaningless repetitions commonly understood as combinatorial art. Hence,

Avaliani's thoughts on poetic art are paradoxical as referred to the combinatorial art he

himself works within.

In the graphic poem "npaBAu Hex - nepx no^epH - npae^a npaB^a npaB^a - QPI

6ory He epHxe He sepb" (There is no truth - damn it - truth truth truth - honestly don't

lie don't believe it, list. 12), Avaliani also presents an ambiguous statement in the style

of logical paradox. In the framing phrases, he declares the absence of truth in human

life, "npaBAbi Hex" (there is no truth), and simultaneously expresses his frustration with

this fact: "nepx noAepH" (damn it). But in the inner phrase, Avaliani convinces the

reader of the existence of truth by multiple repetition of the word, making a statement

similar to a spell, and in the rotated phrase he provides various transformations of the

same word, confirming his belief (eii 6ory, honestly), convincing the reader to be

truthful (ne spHxe, don' t lie) and to not trust anything (ne eepb, don't believe it).

Similar as in the line of the paenodyKeuija poem analysed above, "He saKon Hynejio

BeHHoe" (Not a law it is, but an eternal scarecrow), the contradiction of the outer and

inner statements can be understood as a contradiction of a body and soul, or of evil and

good in a person. The sentence "eii Gory ne Bpnxe" (honestly, don't lie, don't believe)

can be interpreted as an appeal to not trust evil who declares the absence of truth;

otherwise do not believe that the truth exists; or do not believe in God; otherwise it can

be a reference to a known prison motto "ne Bepb, ne 6OHC5I, ne npocn" (Do not trust, do

not be afraid, do not ask for anything). The brevity of the statement makes any

interpretation possible, though analysis of the overall Avaliani poetics makes the first

interpretation more plausible.

The genre of JiucmoeepmeHh makes these short phrases similar to epitaphs in

which the inner nature of a person is described in a few words. Many of Avaliani's

jiucmoeepniHU are of this kind. The frequency of referencing to a historical figure

reflects the measure of influence of this character on Avaliani. In this sense, Avaliani

creates a series oinucmoeepmHu for Aleksandr Pushkin (Avaliani 2001b, 94-103):

QJifjUftH^ TjOHmnoht« J « * " ® ® C F W R E I I M

List. 13. AjieKcaH/ip List. 14. AjieKcaH^p CepreeeHM List. 15. ^om Ha N Y U I K H H - njiyxaii BO - npasHji He Hy>KHo (Aleksandr M O H K C -

MHe aHrejT (Aleksandr Sergeevich - no need for rules) 3aK0HHeHH0CTb (A Pushkin - an angel, roam house on Moika -around in me) completeness)

FFO^HC myAwaih UojavMo/i List. 16. BopHC Fo^IYHOB - ycxajiocTb ^HKAA List. 17. /^SEHA/iuaTb - a FepMana HCT

(Boris Godunov - terrible tiredness) (Twelve o'clock - [but] Hermann is not here yet)

By these jiucmoeepmHu, Avaliani expresses his appreciation of Pushkin's poetry,

connoting its lightness and elevation by the elevated vocabulary 'anreji ' (angel, list. 13).

He refers to specific texts of Pushkin: dramas Eopuc Fodynoe (Boris Godunov, list. 16)

and nuKoem daMa (The Queen of Spades, list. 17) and reminds the reader of the

biographic detail of Pushkin's death in the house on the Moika River in St Petersburg

(list. 15). The references are made by an interpretation of a character, "Bopnc ToAyHOB

- ycxajiocTb / HKaii" (Boris Godunov - terrible tiredness), and by a close citation,

''JlBQHamsiTh - a repMana Hex" (Twelve o'clock - [but] Hermann is not here yet).

Again, to recognise the meaning of the visual text as referring to Pushkin's story, it is

necessary to know the latter subject. In this case, the word '^eeHaAuaxb' (twelve) is

170

interpreted as ' twelve o ' c lock ' or 'midnight ' , reminding the reader of the quote of the

Pushkin story "y>K N O J I H O H B 6JIH3HTC5I, a TepiviaHHa Bce Hex" (Midnight is close, but

Hermann is not here yet). Consequently, Avaliani plays with the reader a literary game

assuming the reader ' s knowledge of the classic text. In this game, readers of the same

cultural milieu (Russian intelligentsia) should recognise allusions to Pushkin 's text. In

this case, the understanding of Aval iani ' s texts becomes a variation of a postmodern

game of allusions and a criterion for belonging to a certain cultural milieu.

The same is true for Aval iani ' s .lucmoeepmHU for Tolstoy (Avaliani 2001b, 9 4 -

103):

fuum, no/iA^a ^eBlVOUOhoC

List. 18. >IcHaa nojiHHa - List. 19. saneM CMepTb - List. 20. TOJICTOM -

;ipyroH nyjb (Yasnaya Jlee TOJICTOH (Why the nocjie 6ajia (Tolstoy -Polyana - another path) death - Leo Tolstoy) after the ball)

fnoMJoilu Ìftok/Qinou

M E R F T O R O A S

List. 21. TOJICTOH H HeKpacoB - 6opubi 3a List. 22. Jlee TOJICTOH - NONYZIHJICJI

HHCTOTy (Tolstoy and Nekrasov - fighters Bace (Leo Tolstoy - Basho is for purity) imagined)

Here, Avaliani presents an allusion to Tolstoy 's individual spiritual search (list.

18, 19); a reference to the title of Tolstoy 's story (list. 20); and an understanding of

Tols toy 's ideological and aesthetical companions (list. 21, 22). It is worth noting the

different interpretations of the last sentence, as grammatically it is not clear who is the

imagining person and who is the imaginary one, which also makes the text close to a

logical paradox and word game.

Other names referred to in Avaliani 's jiucmoeeprriHU are those of Batyushkov and

Platonov; Molière and Gogol; Blok and Gumilyov; Tsvetaeva, Mandelstam and a number

of contemporary authors (Avaliani 2001b, 94-103) who also are important for him:

wawmKm Homer

trogowi VH^ósp List. 23. BAXFOIUKOB - List. 24. Mojibep H Torojib List. 25. BJIOK H TYMMJIEB -OJIATOHOB (Batyushkov - ABHBO;I H 3AK0H (Molière BOJIHBI H JIK)6OBB (Blok and - Platonov) and Gogol - devil and law) Gumilyov - waves and love)

List. 26. MapwHa List. 27. OcHn List. 28. OacTepHaK UBCxaeBa - pasopBH MaH/ienbuiiaM - luajiHT Bpo/ CKHH - /^MHTPHH 3anpeT (Marina TBOC cep/iue MY3A (Osip ABAJIHAHH (Pasternak Tsvetaeva - break the Mandelstam - your heart is Brodsky - Dmitry Avaliani) prohibition) jumping, muse)

By these phrases also, Avaliani presents a set of cultural references recognisable

as marks of belonging to certain cultural circles. The connection of two authors in the

same jiucmoeepmeHh provides an idea of their inner similarity, as the reflection of one

another in a transforming mirror. In particular, Avaliani directly identifies himself with

some Russian poets, Pasternak and Brodsky, by reflecting his name in theirs (list. 28).

This graphic modification is a poetic way for Avaliani to nominate his predecessors.

It is also worth noting the remark on the essence of Tsvetaeva's poetry as stated to

be the violation of rules: "MapMHa UsexaeBa - pa3opBn sanpex" (Marina Tsvetaeva -

break the prohibition, list. 26). The similar characteristic feature is declared in the

JiucmoeepmeHh for Pushkin's poetry: "AjieKcaH^p CepreesMH - npaBHJi He Hy>KHo"

(Aleksandr Sergeevich - no needs for rules, list. 14). Here, Avaliani expresses a

reverence for literary geniuses, so following these statements his understanding of the

essence of poetry is presented as a denial of existing rules and a demand for uniqueness

in poetry. This may be seen as opposition to Avaliani's own experimental practices with

formal constraints, though the multiplicity of Avaliani's concept should be mentioned,

as well as the possibility of achieving maximum literary freedom and an outburst of

meaning through obedience to the most complex restrictions. In this sense, the necessity

of restriction was declared (Le Lionnais 1973, 23-27) and then realised by Oulipo. It

can be also understood as such for Avaliani's poetic aims.

In conclusion, Avaliani's JiucmoeeprriHU are fulfilled by a unique poetic technique in

which the idea of Russian futurists paying close attention to the details of hand-writing is

realised to a great extent. Two objects are compared in the jiucmoeepmeHh by the

graphical metaphor method as the external and inner essences of the same image. The

relationships between parts of the JiucmoeepmeHh are provided by composition of a

phrase, by repetitions, resemblance or contraposition of reverse objects. In this case, the

reading of the JiucmoeepmeHh becomes a sort of literary game which demands certain

cultural knowledge of the subjects and biographical details of the people to whom the

author refers. As demonstrated through the analysis of the Jiucmoeepmnu, their topics,

vocabulary and rhetorical methods are those typical for Avaliani's poetry overall. Also,

writing in series is a characteristic feature of the JiucmoeepmeHh as well as for the other

Avaliani techniques. The frequency of mentioning certain writers such as Pushkin and

Tolstoy can be understood as an acknowledgement of their significant influence on

Avaliani. An important confession made by Avaliani through JiucmoeepmeHh is the

understanding of poetry as the negation of existing poetic rules for the achievement of

maximum poetic freedom. For Avaliani himself, contradictory though not impossible, this

freedom follows obedience to, and strict fulfillment of, the most complex constraints.

4.3.6. A distinctive poem with graphic elements

In addition to defined visual texts such as JiucmoeepmeHh, Avaliani also wrote

other poems with graphic elements. One of the existing graphic techniques consists in

emphasising text elements via capitalisation and colouring of certain letters of the text.

Such poems were written in medieval and baroque eras, and some later as poetry for

children. For example, in one of the first Russian alphabetic books, Big ABC-book by

Karion Istomin (1694), letters of the alphabet are presented on each page of the book in

various writing types, so that in a short illustrated poem, several objects with the names

starting with the letter in question are presented. The technique of emphasising certain

elements of the text was reproduced in the twentieth century; for example, by E.L.T.

Mesens who included short poems for various letters of the alphabet in Alphabet sourd

aveugle (Mesens 1933, 63, cited in Parmiggiani 2002, 295):

A dulte

ne point dmirer id ant u commerce d' dages rmé pour ne point être imé

(Adult / does not at all / admire / helping / at the beginning of / proverbs / armed by not being / loved, French)

Although Avaliani was not familiar with the latter works, he possibly knew some

of the Russian alphabetic poems of the past when creating his poem:

y / ^ JIO TBOë ajio

y ^ y o Moë TH X X ^ 3 o TBoë rjiy j f o

(Scarlet is your sting // quiet is my ear / deaf is your echo)

This poem "AJIO TBOC >Kajio" (Scarlet is your sting) was also discovered in

Avaliani's unpublished archive. Despite the short length of the poem, Avaliani follows

multiple formal restrictions, expressing deep poetic thoughts in only three short lines.

The poem is graphically divided into two parts, the first line with emphasised letters 'A'

(a) and '}K' (zh) and the second part with emphasised letters 'X' (kh). The first part of

the poem is graphically divided into two rhyming hemistiches: 'ajio' - 'TBOC >Kajio'

(scarlet - is your sting), and the second part follows a homeoteleuton pantorhyme which

is a semantic rhyme combining almost all words: 'yxo' - '3x0' (ear - echo), 'xBoe' -

'Moe' (yours - mine), 'THXO ' - 'rjiyxo' (quiet - deaf). Graphically, the letter 'X' (kh) is

similar to the letter (zh), so these lines are additionally connected.

Two characters are presented in the poem corresponding to each other in a

conversation and confrontation as the protagonist and his inner voice. Addressing 'xBoe

>Kajio' (your sting) provides an allusion to the Death pronounced by St Paul: "CiviepTb!

r^e TBoe >Kajio? a^! r^e TBOH noGe^a?" (O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is

thy victory? First Epistle to the Corinthians, 15:55-56). It is one of the well-known

Biblical phrases cited by numerous English and Russian poets; for example, Alexander

Pope (O Grave! where is thy victory? / O Death! where is thy sting? The Dying

Christian to his Soul, Pope 1948, 31); Konstantin Balmont (HTO K CiviepTH neji B TOT

Mac: - / T ß o e rjxe >Kajio?' What did you sing to the Death in that hour: - / 'Where is

your sting?' Bs^m, Balmont, Internet publication); Vladimir Nabokov (HsmaHHe, r^e

TBoe >Kajio, / Hy KÖHHa, rjxQ CHjia TBOJI? Exile, where is your sting, / a foreign land,

where is your power? Poduna, Nabokov 1991, Internet publication). Moreover, the

word ')Kajio' (sting) rhymes exactly with the word 'ajio' (scarlet) in Russian poetry as in

Avaliani's poem: "JlerKO H ajio / BoH3MJiocb >Kajio / TBOHX NJIEHHTCJIBHUX OTPAB"

(Easy and scarletly / stabbed a sting / Of your charming poisons, Mmwiun, Kuzmin, M

1989, 111); "Hy H H njiiOHyjia - y HOP .ne>Kajia / Hrna, CBCTJicb isiepTBO H ajio / H c Heio

B Jiec 51, K SMCHKaM, no6e>Kajia: / T/ie HHmaa? ^ no/^apio en >Kajio"' (So I spat - at my

feet lay / a needle glowing deadly and scarletly, / And I ran with it to a wood, to little

snakes: / 'Where is a beggar woman? I will give her a sting', Cmapma, Shvarts 1993,

Internet publication). In this case, the lyrical hero of Avaliani's poem also appeals to

death, finding it inside himself, as another reflection in a transforming mirror, and

communicates with it.

There are semantic interconnections between the lines of the second part of the

poem - commonly the predicate ' dea f is associated with 'ear ' , while the predicate

'quiet ' is associated with 'echo' , but here Avaliani changes the logical order, producing

an unusual combination of meanings. The letter 'X ' (kh) connecting the lines can mark

the change of reading order, then standard connections appear, "yxo TBoe rjiyxo, 3xo

TBoe THxo" (Your ear is deaf, your echo is quiet), while by the straight order of reading,

described non-standard connections are formed. An ear becomes a transmitter rather

than a receiver of sounds; nevertheless it is not functioning in the absence of sounds.

Also, an echo that should capture and reflect sounds is dumb and cannot hear (rjiyxo,

deaf). In the poem, only silence is presented, constantly reflected by 'ear ' and 'echo',

and the reason for this dumbness and deafness in the second part of the poem is in the

effort of ')Kajio' (sting) of the first part. In the tradition of alphabetic poems, emphasised

letters are often coloured in red, so the letters of bigger size 'A ' (a), ')K' (zh), 'X ' (kh)

graphically represent the scarlet colour. The perception is reduced to tactile (sting) and

visual (scarlet), whereas audio reception is lost as a result of the exposure of the sting,

so the poem is self-describing.

The poem's message is opposite to that of Pushkin's famous IlpopoK (Prophet), in

which the lyrical hero is provided with 'omeHHbiH' (fiery) tongue instead of his own

"cjia6biH, rpeujHbiH HSBIK" (weak, sinful tongue, Pushkin 1985, 385). After this, Pushin's

lyrical hero will ">KeHb cep/iua jiio^ieH" (Bum the hearts of people), while Avaliani's lyrical

hero becomes deaf and mute under the impact of the 'sting', permanently listening to the

endless silence. Consequently, Avaliani's poem contrasts with Pushkin's in its techniques,

namely Avaliani's minimalist poetry, graphic methods and homeoteleuton pantorhymes as

opposed to Pushkin's traditional versification, and its message. In the presented poem, Avaliani's meditation on impending death is expressed in the most dramatic way.

4.3.7. Historhyme, unique numerological technique Hcmopu^Ma Qiistorhyme, historical rhymes) is a technique for combining significant

biographic or historical data in defined time periods. It was invented, developed and practised in contemporary Russian poetry by Avaliani exclusively, thus it is a distinguishing feature of his creative style. A reference can also be made to Khlebnikov's ideas proposed in his works SaKOHbi epeMenu (Laws of time, 1915) mdMocKu cydbdbi (Plaques of destiny, 1921), as well as to overall numerological practices. The most important component of Avaliani's ucmopu(pMbi is semantic rather than phonic and visual, though they are made with visual elements. As an example, I will analyse seven short ucmopu(pMbi based on 'a solar year' period and an extract from a multiline poem with ucmopuipMbi based on 'a lunar year' period. Through these works, I will identify both the mechanism by which the relationships with historical events and certain historical subjects are effected.

In the following ucmopuipMbi, Avaliani connects pairs of historical events differing by a period of 365 years, or 'a solar year:

poflnncq MuKenaHflxeno

1475 ,

KaSHb

CaBOHapojibi 1498

flxOKOHfla

1503

1840 1863 poflnncq

foreH rpaxflaHCKafl Ka3Hb

HepHbiLueBCKoro

1808 ^^. .

iiJe iiiMnnoBHa

Historhyme 1. POJIHJICJI

Historhyme 2. KasHb CaeoHapojibi

Historhyme 3.

MHKejiaH>Kejio 1475 + 1498 + 365 = 1863 1503 +365 =1868 365 = 1840 rpa>KAaHCKafl Ka3Hb HacTacbJi pOAHJica foreH MepHbimeBCKoro OHJiHnnoBHa (Michelangelo bom (Savonarola's execution (La Gioconda Gauguin born) Chernuishevsky's civil Nastasia Philippovna)

execution)

t Bocx

1881

t flocToeecKnii

Historhyme 4. Bocx 1516 + 365 = 1881 XlOCTOCBCKHH (Bosch Dostoevsky)

t riHDTep

^^^

" CTOjibinnH peoc SMa—;

Historhyme 5. JIlOTCp pe(J)opMaTop u e p K B H

1546 + 365 = 1911 CrojibinnH pe(l)OpMaTOp X03HHCTBa (Luther. reformer of Church Stoluipin. reformer of economy)

OnPUHHUHA

1564

1929

PACKYJIAHMBAHME

Historhyme 6. O n p M H H H H a

1564 + 365 = 1929 PacKyjiaHHBaHne (Oprichnina, dispossession of the kulaks)

• flxOH flOHH

1631

1996

HOCHCÌJ BpOflCKUliì

Historhyme 7. JIJKOH JlOHH 1631 +365 = 1996 HoCHiJ) BpOJCKMH (John Donne Joseph Brodsky)

Avaliani created these short texts with graphic elements emphasising semantic

links between the opposed elements of the pairs. He has modified the chosen period of

time by which the dates differ from 317. which Khlebnikov supposed to be a perfect

number for numerological rhyming, to 365 as 'a solar year', or a macroscopic analogue

of a calendar year. With the revolution of an historical wheel during 'a solar year', the

latter subject mentioned in a text is seen as a repetition of the prev ious w ith only minor

variations, and the connected persons are understood as reincarnations of the same

person. This idea coincides with Nietzsche's idea of eternal return: "This life as you

now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times

more" (Nietzsche 1974, 273-274). In ucmopucPMbu Avaliani demonstrates the

recurrence of history and the reoccurrence of persons, supporting this concept by a

lengthy list of corresponding dates. The historical link is a semantic analogue of

metaphor as poetic link by which differing objects are brought into correspondence. For

example, Avaliani compares Michelangelo, the genius of Renaissance painting, to

Gauguin, the genius of Impressionism (hist. 1); a Netherlands painter Bosch to Russian

writer Dostoevsky (hist. 4); and English metaphysical poet John Donne to Joseph

Brodsky, Russian poet of the twentieth century influenced by John Donne (hist. 7).

When Avaliani compares historical figures, he chooses from a large set of biographic

data: their birth dates, dates of publication of creative works, significant biography

events, death dates. The opposing elements of a pair can differ by their magnitude; for

example, the physical execution of Savonarola is related to the civil execution of

Chemuishevsky (hist. 2), Luther as a successful reformer of the Christian Church is

related to Stoluipin, an unsuccessful reformer of Russian economy in the early twentieth

century (hist. 5). The elements can also differ by the category of the subjects: in this

case, an artist Bosch, who created demonic and malformed figures in visual art, is

compared to a writer Dostoevsky, who revealed psychological and social ugliness in his

literary works. This breadth of the compared subjects provides Avaliani with freedom to

operate with extremely multitudinous data. Hence, he can choose exactly those subjects,

persons and events that are significant for him, such as the publication of certain art and

literary works, the birth and death of certain creative persons and even literary

characters; certain historical events such as religious and economical reforms, national

tragedies and many other events. Consequently, attention to particular subjects in

Avaliani 's ucmopucpMhi should be interpreted as the manifestation of his interest in

them, similar to that expressed in Avaliani's anagrams, palindromes and paeHo6yKeu^a

texts analysed above. Amused by these temporal coincidences, Avaliani uses them as a

means to prove his confidence in strong relationships between the compared subjects, in

this sense approaching numerological studies.

Avaliani also combines data relating in a defined temporal period into multiple

lines poems. Below is a fragment of the poem Tlopeaiacb censh epeMen... (Time bond

is broken, quoted in http://rubtsov.penza.com.ru/biblio/avalian.htm):

TpH, HOJlb, HCTbipe - CJlbllUHllIb JIH CHHKOnbl, OT CMyxbi K c M y r e , m a , nHTCKaHTponbi,

OT llIJiaXTbl B pOH ÔOJlbUJCBHKOB, 1 6 1 3

POMaHOBCKHH OOIUHT H OOpsaH 6apM nOKpOB - 3 0 4

HeôecHbiH jiyHHbiii roji xaKoe . 1 9 1 7

Coce;iH - xypOK uapcTBCHHbiH ajibKOB 1300 yiïBOH jiyHy - nojiyMHuib Kpyr OcMaHOB 304 (noÔHJiH yiiMy rpcKoe, KasaKOB, 304 HO B nape 6pK)K nponajiH ôacypMaHbi). 1908

H TOT >Ke 30B, H TOT >KE CpOK

B scMjie r/ie jibeTca nacM mejiK, 1368 He pa3pbiBaeM B3MaxoM »TaranoB - 304 KOHHHHa M a o , Kpax MHHrH30B-XaH0B . . . 3 0 4

TaK JiynoK) JICT ÔJICCTHT HOTOK. 1976

(Three, zero, four - do you hear the syncopes, / from a revolt to a revolt, hold it, pithecanthropes, / from Polish gentry to Bolsheviks swarm, 1613 / Romanov's ceremonial robe is sewn and torn - 304 / sky's lunar year is such, 1917. // The neighbours - Turks' majestic alcove, 1300 / double the moon - you get an Ottomans' circle, 304 / (they killed many Greeks, Cossack, 304 / but in trousers Basurmen disappeared). 1908 // And the same appeal, and the same term / in land where silk pours like tea, 1368 / not tearing the yataghans by a wave of a hand, 304 / the death of Mao, crash of Genghis-khans... 304 / that is how a flow shines under the moon.)

This poem is typed without graphic elements, though placing the years at the ends

of the lines demonstrates the similarity of the ucmopu(pMa technique to conventional

rhyming. In this poem, Avaliani brings into correspondence historical events separated

by 304 years, a period which he calls 'a lunar year'. The events include: the beginning

(1613) and the end (1917) of Romanov's tsar dynasty in Russia; the beginning of the

conquest of Asia Minor by the Ottoman Empire (1300 approximately) and the Bosnia

180

crisis (1908); the disintegration of Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire (1368) and the

death of Mao Zedong, the leader of the People's Republic of China (1976). The events

are chosen arbitrarily among an enormous number of historical events, so these

relationships can hardly be considered a proof for any theory. More interesting is the

method allowing the reader to compare the events - it is similar to the metonymy

rhetorical method shifting the meaning of a word to the nearest meaning. For historical

events, Avaliani substitutes the date of the event in question with the date of a close

event separated from the first by the required time period. On this occasion, the

beginning of the rise of the Ottoman Empire (1300) is connected not to the end of the

Ottoman Empire with the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878. but to the

Bosnia crisis (1908), the next important event in the region that happened 30 years after

the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Further still, if for the historical dates for the

Ottoman Empire, Avaliani tends to bring into correspondence its beginning and its end.

then for China the comparison is even more vague - Avaliani does not link the creation

of the Mongol Empire (early thirteenth century) to the creation of the People's Republic

of China (1949), or the death of Genghis Khan (1227) to the death of Mao Zedong

(1976), instead he compares the date of the disintegration of the Mongol Empire (1368)

to the date of the death of the leader of China (1976). In this case, the People's Republic

of China is seen as another realisation of the Mongol Empire, though historically they

are not identical, and a leader is seen as the personification of the countr>. though the

death of Genghis Khan did not result immediately in the crash of the Mongol Empire,

nor did the death of China's leader lead to the cleavage of China. Summing up. the

similarities between the compared events are mostly forced and exist only associatively

to prove Avaliani's understanding of the histor>. Nevertheless. Avaliani himself is

convinced of the theory and concludes in the last lines of the poem:

BOJlbl OnJITb nOACTaBHT BblH,

HO 3 a p y 6 H ce6e, yceoii, Tpare/tHJi n p o m a e T c a c Hrpoi i .

(Bullocks will again offer their necks / but you should remember and understand /

the tragedy leaves the game)

The word 'onaTb' (again) here is a reference to endless repetitions of the turns of

the historical wheel, whereas the last line is a statement connoting the idea of a tragedy

being repeated as a farce. Therefore, Avaliani paradoxically contradicts the conclusion

to the basic idea and method of the poem, as the concept of finishing after a full

revolution of the historical wheel contradicts the basic idea of the eternal return.

On the whole, Avaliani uses ucmopu(pMa as a formal technique to express

semantically and visually his ideas of an association between different subjects and to

express his concern with special historical subjects that, he asserts, happened in pairs in

defined temporal intervals. To correlate the subjects in pairs, Avaliani voluntarily

identifies various pairs of events. He uses a method similar to metonymy for shifting the

compared events to the nearest associated ones, choosing from the unlimited number of

events available. In order to persuade the reader of the identical inner essence of the

subjects, Avaliani lists numerous pairs of subjects linked together by this technique, so

that the great number and cultural significance of the compared subjects provokes an

emotional, not analytical, response from the reader.

4.3.8. Minor restrictions in Avaliani's practice

While studying Avaliani's poetry I identified a number of other restrictions he

practised. These could be a rare form applied sporadically in experimental literature, or

a new invented technique he was the only one to practise. Some of these forms have

been given names such as ecmpoii (vstroy, build-in) and MemappaMMa (metagram),

while others are unnamed even though the technique is clearly formulated. In these

forms, Avaliani experiments with the possibilities of language, searching for new

literary restrictions and working on their development into literary techniques. By these

techniques, namely ecmpou (vstroy), MemœpaMMa (metagram) and so called

polyconsonant restriction, Avaliani expresses his philosophy of natural beauty and

religious belief.

4.3.8.1. Vstroy

The ecmpoii {vstroy, build-in) restriction, named so by Fedin (Fedin and

Lukomnikov 2002, 216-217), consists in dividing a word or a phrase into two parts that

should be read together with the original word or phrase as a whole meaningful text.

Graphically, division into two parts is marked by capitalisation of letters of one of the

parts. Punctuation marks are added to the text for its better understanding. For example,

Fedin's vstroy 'pa^ViiC^' (rejoice) should be read in capital letters as ' / ÏVOI' (Dusya)

and in small letters as 'pan' (heaven), resulting together in a phrase "PA/IYMOI,

/ lYC^ - PAH" (Rejoice, Dusya, it is heaven, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 217). In the

works of Oulipo, a similar technique named beau present consists in emphasising inner

letters of a text, thus creating a hidden message, "EnViE - EVE", "je rêve de pAsser

uNe Nuit Avec vous - ANNA" (Oulipo 1973, 44). A similar technique was applied to

the texts in other languages, including Russian (Velichkovsky 1972, 85-86). In

comparison to these examples, ecmpou is a more complicated restriction by which not

some but all letters of a word or phrase are included in the message. Avaliani has

written a number of ecmpou, the most remarkable being 'XPncTHAHaM' (To

Christians). In this text on the subject of faith, the letters 'X' (Kh), 'P' (r), 'A' (a), 'M'

(m) are capitalised, hence the word 'XPMCTMAHAM' is divided into two words,

'XPAM' (temple) and 'HCTHHA' (truth), connected together into the phrase

"XPHCTHAHAM - HCTMHA XPAM" (For Christians, the truth is the temple).

Avaliani's virtuosity in language allows him to refer to key concepts of Christianity by

naming the believers - he discovers the word 'truth' as an inner component of the word

'Christians', referring to the statement of Jesus Christ, "I am the way, the truth and the

life" (John 14:6), and the word 'temple' as a reference to Christian church and Christ

himself who declared he would rebuild the temple of his body in three days (Mark

14:57-58). To conclude, in the short phrase, Avaliani proclaims the essence of his belief

in the truth itself as in the purpose and sense of Christianity.

4.3.8.2. Metagram

MemaepaMMa {metagram) is a rare formal restriction consisting in changing

appearances of a defined letter in a line of a poem to another letter in the next line; for

example, "yna/],H SBea/^ona/], / ynaCw 3Be3AonaC" (Fall down, shooting stars / save me

star shepherd, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 217-219). As a result, a double phrase is

created by combination of two lines of an almost identical set of letters. This

transformation provides the same effect of reflection in a distorted mirror as appears in

other Avaliani texts analysed above. MemaepaMMa is a new invented restriction, and in

some cases, the shortcomings of experimental literature are obvious as the meanings of

MemaepaMMa phrases are extremely obscure; but in some of Avaliani's metagrams, the

meaning can be clearly deciphered. For example, "hcóo ÍÍCHO / He GohSho" (The sky is

clear, I am not frightened) relates to the absence of fear of death; "MCyC / n3 y3" (Jesus

from bonds) relates to the suffering of Jesus Christ; and "/^ap h Hafle>Kfla pycb /

MapHHa Me>K Mapycb" (Gift and hope of Russia / Marina amidst Marusyas) relates to

the poetry of Marina Tsvetaeva which evidently influenced Avaliani as he repeatedly

referred to this poet in his works. As is seen, the topics of Avaliani's MemaepaMMhi are

also spiritual and poetic subjects.

MemaapaMMG is a minimal restriction used independently in such Avaliani

distiches as "yflHpa^i noiifly / yMnpaa noiiMy" (While running away I'll go / I will

understand while dying), or united with the paeHodyKeuija technique as in the above

examples and in the following Avaliani distich: " I I C M C K ) JI MLICJIK) / A SMCKD HMBI

3JIK)" (I dare I think / 1 anger pits for the snake). In the first example, all letters ' f f (d)

in the first line are changed for letters 'M ' (m) in the second, so that associations

between the words 'y^^Hpaxb' - 'yMHpaxb' (die - run away), 'noH^y' - 'noHMy' (go -

understand) appear, similar to metaphor associations. In the second example, letters ' C

(s) in the first line are changed to letters '3 ' (z) in the second, together with the

resegmentation of the phrase "A MtiCjiio" - "aMbi 3JIK)" (I anger pits - I think). Here,

Avaliani refers to Descartes statement "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) and

to the Biblical serpent. With the associations between phrases, the connection between

thinking and counteraction to temptations is declared. Therefore, for Avaliani,

meditation is understood as a necessary tool for proper existence, in accordance to

Descartes maxim.

In summary, MemaapaMMa is a new developing restriction pending further

development to become an original literary technique. The restriction is rather simple,

though existing MemaepaMMa texts are few in number, and their meanings are

sometimes obscure, not achieving the expressiveness of texts based on other techniques

practised by Avaliani.

4.3.8.3. Polyconsonant restriction

I use the term polyconsonant to describe the technique in which only some, three

or four, defined consonants are allowed in a poem. It is a technique practised by several

authors of Russian experimental literature including Avaliani, though it has not yet been

named. Avaliani has written several poems in this restriction, naming the poems by the

set of used consonants. For example, in the poem ^ P B H (DRVN), only the titled

consonants are included:

^pcBHeeepHe AepeeHH, H BepaHA, ABopaH Ha ipbiBbi, y Hapo^oB HCAOBepMe, Bbi/tpaHHbie HepaAMBbi.

(Old faith of a village, / and verandahs, tears of nobles, / distrust from peoples, / those who are flogged, are negligent)

As in some poems analysed above, Avaliani here combines an experimental

restriction with conventional poetic techniques such as regular rhythm and rhymes,

which strengthens the structure of the poem. By multiple phonic repetitions such as

alliterations and trochee rhythm, the poem approaches a spell, on the one hand, and a

tongue twister, on the other. The latter similarity is strengthened by conformity of the

set of consonants used in the poem to that in the popular tongue twister: "Ha Afiope

Tpasa, Ha Tpaee Apoea" (Grass in the yard, firewood on the grass). In contrast to the

twister, in this polyconsonant poem, Avaliani operates with profound semantics

providing a meditation on the national history, rather than a jolly game of words.

Similar to this understanding of the poem, Mikhaylovskaya (2004) also finds "history,

as well as philosophy and sociology" in this poem.

In the poem^r / / (DTN) with the same restriction, only named consonants are used:

HeOACTOH / HaHOH Ha TbI Ha TaHTH yHTH HhAHH HHTH HaiiTH

Ha flaHHH AK)Hbi He ;iyTb He yHbiHHe xaiiHa OTHK);ib 3TH HOTbl H TOH OACOH He HblTbe HyACil

3T0 AeHb Hoa-Hoa naajx aoHH/ibi ^awaH

OTTJIHH OACHMMe TCHTa Ha^ Heio

AaHb oTAaH A^OHaH

(To go to Tahiti as undressed Diana to you / to find the threads of India / do not

blow on the dunes of Denmarlc/ mystery is not depression at all / these notes and

tone Odeon are not the moaning of Jew / this is the day Noa-Noa of naiads of

Danae aonide / pull off the garment of tent over her / give a tribute to Adonai)

Here, Avaliani presents with a praising for the natural joy of life and love. Again,

he reaffirms his preference for natural religiosity, here for pagan Greek mythology

against Biblical prohibitions. In contradiction to the preference for natural simplicity

proclaimed in the poem, Avaliani uses a strict letter constraint and complex cultural

allusions to various historical and geographic data, including the Danae myth. Hence, a

declaration of rejection of complex ideological constructions is made by these

constructions themselves. Similarly to Eco's character who quotes Liala's writing (Eco

1997, 636) to declare his passion, Avaliani uses strict formal constraints in a lyrical

poem to declare his preference for naturalness. Paradoxically, Avaliani needs the

complicated techniques to open his lyrical feelings, which is possibly the available way

for Avaliani to do so.

On the whole, the polyconsonant restriction is also only a minor technique

developed in contemporary Russian experimental poetry. Though the topics of

Avaliani's poems written with this restriction are similar to those written with other

techniques, the messages are expressed in a lengthier manner, thus losing in

expressiveness when compared to Avaliani's minimalistic phrases in the style of

proverbs.

By using minor developed literary restrictions as well as the other techniques

described above, Avaliani searches for the tools to present his ideas in the most

expressive way. He focuses on spiritual and creative topics, reflects on historical

situations and expresses his lyrical feelings. Avaliani is extremely attentive to the

smallest details of writing, discovering the inner meanings of a combination of letters

hidden or transformed in existing words.

4.3.9. Conventional poetic technique and combination of them with experimental

techniques in Avaliani's ^traditional' poetry

The corpus of Avaliani's texts is usually divided into 'formal experimental

poetry', such as the examples analysed above, and his 'traditional poetry'. To illustrate,

this is the structure of his poetic book with chapters on palindromes, anagrams,

listovertens and a poetry section (Avaliani 1997b). Nevertheless, in some cases, the

division is not obvious as both traditional and experimental poetic techniques are

applied to a poem. It is known that Avaliani began to write traditional poetry before he

discovered the possibilities of formal experimentation (G Lukomnikov 2007, pers.

comm., 6 November), though afterwards Avaliani included elements of formal

restrictions to some extent into all his writing. This trait was already demonstrated in

such poems analysed above as the alphabetic poem EOJIh daeaymum ju EAJJ, where

complicated letter restrictions are combined with conventional three-feet anapaest metre

and male consonant rhyme, though standard poetic techniques are less evident than the

experimental. That is, for some poems, conventional techniques are not recognisable

compared to the mastery of strict letter restrictions; for example, in the anagram poem

He donycKQio .ijtcu analysed above; and for some other poems, experimental techniques

are only minor components of the poetic structure, and are not evident compared to

conventional poetic techniques such as regular metre and exact rhyming. Also, the

division is not clear between some conventional and experimental techniques; for

example, between alliteration as a conventional technique and tautogram as a letter

restriction. In this case, 1 will analyse here some of Avaliani's poems considered to be

'traditional' in search of various extents of experimental technique, from poems in

which these techniques are hidden by conventional methods, to those in which they are

really not apparent. I will analyse these poems after the examination of Avaliani's

experimental practices in order to be able to recognise the minute details of his

techniques, thus demonstrating the similarity of his poetic methods in all his works.

In some of Avaliani 's texts, letter restriction is included in a poem structure,

though it is not recognised by the readers. For example, Mikhailovskaya (2004) quotes

the following poem as a conventional one with elements of anagram technique:

51 He B Hepee, He B Hpese, He B Kone

M Benep, Benep,

FL B OKHe.

(I'm not in a worm, not in a womb / not in a horse / 1 am an evening, an evening / I am in a window)

Mikhaylovskaya finds an expression of eternity in the content of this poem:

H Bce-TaKM jiyuia. ne yMHpaeT - ee ne ecT nepBb, H ona ne 3apo>K;iaeTCJi B

MpeBe, OT nee Hejibsa >K;iaTb npe/iaxejibCTBa HJIH THGCJIH, KaK OT T p o a n c K o r o

KOHFL HJIH MepTBOrO KH5I>KeCKOrO KOHH, - ^yLUa BCHHa, S^eCb, pJI/lOM.

Nevertheless, a soul does not die - a worm will not eat it, it is not created in a womb, it can't betray or die as Trojan horse or the dead prince's horse - the soul is eternal, it is here, near (Mikhaylovskaya 2004).

Nevertheless, the actual formal structure of the poem is strictly anagrammatic,

similar to the poem As ecMh cmpoKa analysed above - in this poem as well, every word

of the first two lines has its anagrammatic pair or pairs in the last two lines, 'nepBe' -

'npeee ' - 'Benep' (worm, womb, evening), ' K O H C ' - ' O K H C ' (horse, window), including

some trivial pairs, ' a ' - '5i' (I, I), 'HC' - ' ne ' (not), 'B' - 'B' (in, in). The simplicity of the

words and the profound lyrical message of the poem prevent the reader from disclosing

its formal structure which becomes evident after studying all the formal techniques

practised by Avaliani. Multiple anagrams of the poem also provide multiple alliterations

on the sounds 'H' (ch), ' p ' (r), 'B' (V): 'nepBe' - 'npcBe' - 'Benep' (worm, womb,

evening) and other sounds repeating in the poem, which can be considered to be a

conventional poetic technique, though in fact it is caused by a letter restriction. The

poem is too short to compare its rhythmic structure to any of conventional metres,

whereas the endings can be defined as male on even lines: 'KOHC' - 'OKHC' (horse,

window). More accurately, the endings are an analogue of anagrammatic rhymes as

proposed by Khlebnikov in the poem Flen Uan (Pen Pan): "Y BOA a noAyMaji o 6ece / H

o ce6e..." (By waters I thought about an evil spirit, / And about myself, Khlebnikov

1987, 101). In the case of Khlebnikov's poem, it is the 'o - 'o ce5e' (about an evil

spirit, about myself) endings, and in Avaliani's poem, it is the 'Hpeee' - 'eenep' (womb

- evening), 'KOHC' - 'OKHC' (horse, window) endings, which support the hypothesis of

experimental rhyming rather than the hypothesis of conventional male rhyming. The

lyrical message of the poem consists in a confrontation of perfection of nature with the

incompleteness of human being, here, with the temporality of the human body. So,

Avaliani connotes himself with 'Benep' (evening) behind 'OKHO' (window), negating the

notions of 'worm' and 'womb' as initial and final stages of the human body. As a result,

a short poem which seems to be written in a conventional technique appears to obey

strict letter restrictions, whereas its lyrical message is again a reflection on the

relationship of corporeal and spiritual subjects, which is a characteristic topic for

Avaliani's poetry overall.

The following two poems discovered in Avaliani's personal unpublished archive

represent his proficiency in various techniques, both conventional and experimental.

The first poem is seemingly written in traditional techniques, though thoughtful analysis

demonstrates that Avaliani also uses here multiple alliterations to the extent of

tautogram:

Beji CJIOBHO Men Bbior CHer c Hor

BbirjiHHyxb Bcex KTO nocMeji ceajiHTb 5bi xoTCji KaK ôyjibAor

Beji ôyATO 5an uiKOJibHHu 3a6biBiuHx ypoK eexep ece BHxpH coseaji BaJlbCOM BCKpy>KHJl

B HeÔO KaK B nOTOJlOK

(White as a chalk / blizzard snow off the feet / those who dare to look outside / it would like to knock off their feet / like a bulldog. // White as a ball / of school girls who forgot their lesson / wind called for all whirlwinds / turn round with waltz / upwards to the sky as to a ceiling)

The short poem consists of two stanzas of five lines each with male endings. The

rhythm is irregular with the tendency towards dactyl emphasised by reference to a three-

feet rhythm of waltz in the second stanza. There are nine monosyllabic words among

sixteen words of the first stanza, so by the rhythm, an impression of interrupted

movement is created, facilitated by the absence of punctuation marks. The scheme of

rhyming is similar to a variant of roundel. Two stanzas of the poem have a similar rhyme

structure that is not typical for roundel, but creates an effect of return in time and space.

In the beginning of each stanza, a simile is used connecting 'Gen' - 'mcji' (white -

chalk) and '6eji' - '6aji ' (white - ball) respectively. The opening line of the second

stanza is a tautogram, "5eji óy^TO 5aji" (white as a ball) emphasising repetition of the

initial sounds. The pair '6eji' - 'ivieji' (white - chalk) of the first line of the poem is

developed in the second stanza, where 'lUKOJibHHUbi' (schoolgirls) appear, shifted from

schoolrooms to a dancing festival. The word 'BCKpy>KHJi' (whirl - turn around) has a

strict meaning of repeatedly turning around, possibly in dance, and a figurative meaning

of turning somebody's head while falling in love. That is, the meaning of the first stanza

is ambiguous - it represents a snow blizzard, dancing girls and girls falling in love

while dancing.

The poem is filled with phonetic and semantic repetitions. In the first stanza, there

are numerous alliterations on the labial consonants 'B' (V) and '5 ' (b) at the beginning of

the words 'Bbior' - 'SBIRJIHHYTB' - 'BCCX ' (blizzard - look - all), '5eji ' - '5bi' -

'5yjib;ior' (white - if - bulldog); on the velar consonant ' r ' (g) at the ends of the words

'BbKDr' - 'cHer' - 'c Hor' - '5yjib;ior' (blizzard - snow - feet - bulldog); and on

resonant consonants 'H ' (n) and 'JI' (1) in the middle and ends of the words 'CJIOBHO' -

'cHer' - 'BBIRJIHHYTB' - '5eji ' - 'CJIOBHO' - 'MEJI' - 'BBIRJI5IHYTB' - 'nocMeji' - 'CBAJIHTB'

- 'xoxeji' - 'Gyjibzior' ( i f - snow - look - white - as - chalk - look - dare - drop - wish

- bulldog). So, the articulation of the poem demands repetitive change from closed

labial consonants to open velar consonants, sometimes through resonant consonants.

In the second stanza, numerous alliterating repetitions also appear as words starting

with the letter 'B' (V): 'Bexep' - 'Bce' - ' B H X P N ' - 'BajibcoM' - 'BCKpy KHJi' (wind - all -

vortices - waltz - turn around); alliteration on the hushing sounds 'm' (sh) and (zh):

'ujKOJibHHu' - 3a6biBmHx' - 'BCKpy>KHJI' (schoolgirls - forgotten - turn around) and

sibilant ' c ' (s): 'Bce' - 'cosBaji' - 'sajibcoM' - 'BCKpy>KHJi' (all - call - waltz - turn

around). Then, in the fifth line, repetition of the consonants is replaced by repetition of the

vowel 'o' (o), in some cases pronouncing as 'a' (a), "B ueôo KaK B HOTOJIOK" (to the sky as

to a ceiling). By this, the movements are changed from whirling to ascent upwards.

By the described techniques, an impression of whirling snowflakes is represented,

developing a metaphor of waltz movements. The whiteness here relates to freshness and

virginity. Whiteness can be found figuratively as the attribute of schoolgirls

representing innocent youth and literally in their white school clothes, white chalk on a

school blackboard and white ceiling of a schoolroom. The blizzard is seen as a festival,

and specifically, a ball of schoolgirls who neglected their boring lesson for a lively and

natural joy of a dance: "3a6biBmHX ypoK" (forgot their lesson). At the end of the poem

the snowflakes shoot upwards to the sky, closing the scene and changing the point of

view from the earth to the sky beyond the white ceiling. As a result, Avaliani creates a

picture of a blizzard in a strict sense as a description of whirling snowflakes, together

with a metaphorical picture of a ball of young girls going round in their first waltz.

In conclusion, the generalised metaphor for a blizzard as a rounded movement of

snowflakes is executed by numerous poetical methods: by the stanza structure

(roundel); by the rhythm as irregular dactyl; by frequent use of monosyllabic words; by

repetitive articulations; by vocabulary with reference to vortices, waltz and whirling; by

metaphor of dancing young girls; and by numerous alliterations close to tautograms.

Avaliani uses these poetic methods, both conventional like rhyme and rhythm and

experimental like tautogram, in order to create an impressive image of the first winter

blizzard. Conventional methods such as rhyme and rhythm structure are obeyed slightly,

whereas more formal techniques such as alliterations and tautograms are applied

frequently and strictly, resulting in the overall expressiveness of the poem.

The second poem in conventional poetic techniques found in Avaliani's personal

unpublished archive concerns a spiritual topic as Avaliani expresses his understanding

of the physical presence of God in the everyday life of people. In the short poem,

experimental techniques are not apparent, though the topic and vocabulary of the poem

are close to those of other texts of Avaliani:

A Bor H cKyKy npexepneji, H, n o 3 a 6 b i B , HTO 6biJi OH HCGOM,

nOKHHyjl CBOH nOJlHTOWJl,

OH KaK H Mbl CTOHT 3a x j i e 6 o M .

(And God had suffered from boredom, / And, having forgotten that he was the sky, / He left his political department / And stands in a queue for bread, like us).

The short poem of four lines is written in four-foot iambus, with alternation of

male and female endings and cross rhyming: ^npexepneji' - 'nojiHTOx^ieji' (suff-ered -

political department), 'HCGOM' - 'XJIE6OM' (sky - bread). As it was already

193

demonstrated, Avaliani frequently used the word 'He6o' (sky, heaven). Here, this word

is connected by a rhyme to the word 'xjieG' (bread) which is a simple and frequent

rhyme in Russian poetry. For instance, it appears in Khlebnikov's poem of a similar

meditative intonation (Khlebnikov 1987, 256):

...KoBpHra xjie5a, JXa Kanjifl MOJiOKa, J\a. 3T0 He6o, Jla 3TH o6jiaKa ...

(...A loaf of bread, / And a drop of milk, / And this sky, / And these clouds...)

An intonation of wonder also makes Khlebnikov's poem similar to Avaliani's.

The same pair 'xjieGa' - 'He6a' (bread - sky) is used by Avaliani in the ending of

the poem also found in his unpublished archive:

<...> H HcnpeMeHHO co3ByMHe

pM4)MyeTca xjie6a h He6a.

(<...> And constant is consonance / of sky and bread.)

The poem is based on the Biblical topic of the sacrificial offering by Cain and

Abel. Here 'bread' and 'sky' are united together in a line instead of a rhyme,

demonstrating Avaliani's fondness for this pair.

Another comparison can be made between the topics of the analysed poem and

Avaliani's poem first published by Mikhaylovskaya (2004):

Ha BCiiKHH cjiynaH, BApyr TaM HTO-TO ecTb, Kor;ia 6e>KHmb c yjpa 3a xjie6oM, jiaivinacaM 3opb (j)ejib;iMapiuajibCKoro He6a Tbi OTiiaeujb yKpaaKOH necTb

(Just in case, / supposing there is something there, / when you run for the bread in the morning / to stripes of dawn of the field-marshal's morning sky / you salute furtively)

By the key coincidence of the rhyme 'He6a' - 'XJICGOM' (sky - by bread), and the

described situation of a queue for a loaf of bread, the topics of the poems are close, but

not identical. In the latter poem, the lyrical hero salutes the everyday natural wonder of

a sunrise manifesting divine appearance in the world. Most likely, it is a Christian

194

crossing rather than a military gesture, emphasised by its reticence, 'yKpa^iKoii'

(furtively), required by the rules of the Soviet life. As a contrast, in the analysed poem,

Avaliani sets into a queue for bread not his lyrical hero, but God himself, thus

accomplishing the transition from 'heavenly' to 'earthly'. By a metonymy, bread

becomes the very obvious and vivid representation for the corporeal food. God indeed

obtains a human nature when he ceases to be an ideology only (noKH^aeT nojiHTOT;ieji,

leaves his political department) and acquires corporeal concerns such as a need for food.

Here an allusion is made to Jesus Christ's statement: "I am the living bread that came

down from heaven" (John 6:51). Further, in the Eucharist ceremony, bread becomes a

symbol of divine blessing, so when Aviliani sets God into a queue for bread, he refers to

the personification of God into a man. On the whole, Avaliani creates this poem without

formal letter restriction, though by an overall intonation of wonder and manifestation of

divine presence in everyday life, this poem undoubtedly belongs to his most distinctive

creative works, and a conventional aspect of Avaliani's poetical techniques becomes

apparent through this poem.

To summarise the section on 'traditional' poetry, Avaliani uses a wide variety of

poetic techniques to express his understanding of natural and spiritual marvels. In some

of his poems written by seemingly conventional poetic methods, elements of formal

letter techniques can be discovered, and in some cases, they are not presented, without

difference to the lyrical message of the poems. That is, Avaliani uses a complex of

poetic methods, both 'experimental' and 'traditional', in order to express his ideas,

whereas obedience to strict letter constraints is not a necessary trait for his poetic.

4.4. Conclusion

In the present chapter, I have analysed Avaliani's texts based on various types of

combinatorial formal constraints as well as texts of conventional poetic techniques. The

analysis was made in comparison with the conclusions of researchers who previously

worked on Avaliani's texts. Through the analysis, characteristic features of Avaliani's

poetics have been demonstrated.

By the exploration of formal constrains, Avaliani discovers new poetic

possibilities of the language. The formal restriction becomes a poetic tool by which

exact meaning, the writing and sound of the texts are presented. In many one-line

poems, he achieves the expressiveness of proverbs. In his multiple-line poems,

combinatorial restrictions are used together with conventional poetic techniques, such as

rhyme and regular rhythm, to achieve a maximum poetic result.

In the situation when most formal techniques have been neglected and abandoned

by late Soviet Russian authors, Avaliani rediscovers these forms, following some

examples from the authors of the historical avant-garde. Particularly, Avaliani practises

a number of formal restrictions, following Khlebnikov's findings and elaborating them

into developed literary techniques.

It should be mentioned that the border between 'formal' and 'traditional' Avaliani

texts is relative, as the topics of such texts are similar, as well as the rhetorical methods

used to obtain poetical expressiveness. In his poems written by seemingly conventional

poetic techniques, formal methods can be discovered by thorough examination. Also,

the division between some traditional and experimental techniques is not evident. Thus,

Avaliani's creative writing is inseparable, leading to the same poetic purpose of

demonstrating wonders in nature and in human essence.

Avaliani strictly obeys a formal restriction chosen for a poem. In doing so, he

focuses on creating a poem of definite meanings, rejecting a-semantic writings and

experimentation for the sake of formal experimentation. For a number of formal

restrictions, he develops existing or newly invented formal techniques into poetic

methods. However, in some forms, such as AtemœpaMMa, Avaliani's ideas are not

expressed clearly, making the shortcomings of experimental literature obvious. In these

cases, limitations of the vocabulary impede the development of the restriction into an

original literary technique.

In his poetry, Avaliani expresses his overall feeling for the essence of the

miraculous nature of the world. His conventional poetry reveals his understanding of

manifestations of wonder such as natural beauty, innocence and divine presence in

everyday life, that is, it expresses the traditional poetic concepts. In poems written in

formal techniques, he creates combinatorial rhyming and combinatorial metaphor,

making an unusual combination and comparison of two subjects of a poem: in the case

of palindrome, the two parts are combined reading forward and backward; in the case of

anagram, it is the initial and recombined order of writing; in the case of paenoôyKeuifa,

initial and resegmented writing; in the case of jiucmoeepmenb, initial and rotated

writing; in the case of ucmopu(pMa, it is two dates distanced by a certain time period; in

the case of ecmpoii, the whole and inner words; in the case of MemaepaMMa, initial text

and text changed by a letter.

Transformations of the subjects of poems are made by the methods of

combinatorial formal techniques, whereas comparisons of the subjects are created by the

use of generalised metonymy techniques through shifting the meaning of one part of the

text to corresponding meanings in the other part of the text: semantically in anagram,

graphically in jiucmoeepmenb, temporally in ucmopu(PMa. Avaliani finds such

transformations of the slightest details of the initial text that bring semantically distant

subjects into associations as the external and inner content of the same object. Attention

to minimal details of the texts is required for these transformations. Avaliani uses

words, letters, graphic details of letters, close meanings and historical data to juxtapose

differing subjects and demonstrate their surprising similarity. These associations,

together with the brevity of texts, multiple numbers of poems on chosen topics and the

cultural significance of explored subjects, are aspects of persuading the reader in the

proclaimed ideas.

The main topics of Avaliani's works are similar for the texts of different formal

structures. They include meditations on the essence of poetry; meditations on spiritual

subjects and on the harmony of the world; the relationship of earthly and spiritual life;

preference for natural perfection to human institutions; interaction of social and

personal life; the negation of totalitarianism; references to life during the Soviet era;

tributes to the writers and other cultural and historical figures of the past; reminiscences

on precursors and creative companions. Through his texts, Avaliani expresses his strong

Christian spirituality.

Avaliani's proclamation of the preference for natural harmony and simplicity to

complex mental findings is paradoxically expressed with complex combinatorial

techniques. In his poems, he writes about the denial of existing poetic rules while

obeying strict formal restrictions. This can be understood as a search for poetic freedom

through maximum self-restriction, a concept which is in accordance with the

preferences of the literary experimenters of Oulipo.

Some combinatorial analogues of conventional poetic techniques appear in

Avaliani's formal texts. These are palindrome rhyme, anagram enjambments and

graphical metaphor, all described above. By these techniques, Avaliani creates a poetic

effect similar to that of the named traditional techniques: link between two parts of a

phrase, change of rhythm indicating brokenness of the thought, emphasis of specific

details of the text and other effects.

The vocabulary Avaliani uses in restricted texts is broad, with multisyllable words

of various styles, from elevated Old Slavonic to the vulgar. Vocabulary is similar for the

overall corpus of Avaliani's texts. For some restrictions such as alphabetic poems and

polyconsonant poems, Avaliani uses them as methods of decelerating the flow of

writing leading to banal poetic. Similar deceleration was a literary means used by

various authors, for example by Beckett who chose writing in a foreign language for

this purpose. As a result, literary restriction becomes for Avaliani a tool for finding non-

trivial words and expressions for his texts.

Avaliani writes poems in series, especially one-line poems based on combinatorial

letter restrictions. These texts are close to proverbs in their brevity, language virtuosity,

expressiveness and variations in meaning. The role of the author of these texts is also

close to an anonymous role of a creator of a folk-saying. Avaliani let the readers choose

a version of the text based on their own preferences from the corpus of writings on the

same topic. Avaliani's poems are filled with cultural allusions, demanding

understanding from the reader. In this case, reading Avaliani's texts becomes a sort of

intellectual game requiring a certain cultural knowledge of literature, history and facts

of social life, that is, showing a belonging to the same social milieu of the Soviet

intelligentsia to which Avaliani belongs. The attention to minimalist forms and details

of the text to the extent of letters and even details of letters, demonstrates Avaliani's

preference for personal life compared to public activities. The latter he understands

negatively as a possible resource of totalitarianism.

Altogether, vocabulary, poetic messages and practised rhetorical techniques are

similar throughout the corpus of Avaliani's texts. The high poetic message of the

presence of miracle in everyday life together with virtuosity in language are the most

significant traits of Avaliani's poetry overall which have already become a considerable

part of contemporary Russian poetry.

Chapter 5.

Search for new formal techniques in the works of Boris Grinberg

5.1. Introduction

Boris Grinberg, a contemporary author working in experimental poetry, was bom

in the Siberian city Novosibirsk in 1962, where he still lives. An established author, he

works in multiple genres: in prose (under the pen-name Eped Oasep (Brad Fazer), he is

the author of the novel Ceon ruiaHema (Own planet, Kreschatik 2002)); in dramatic art

(under the pen-name PHC KpeiiSH (Ris Krayzi), he won prizes at the playwright

competition Eepaswi 2004 (Eurasia 2004)); and in poetry, including experimental

poetry. His poetic works were published in various literary journals: CudupcKue oenu

(Siberian Lights), OVTVPYM APT {Vm\]K\}M ART), Kpeuiamm (Kreschatik;, Kmo

sdecb? (Who is \\QVQ1), ffemu Pa (Children of Ra) and other editions. Grinberg began as

a traditional poet with a book published in 1991. Since 1995, he has been also writing

experimental poetry, which was later included in Aumojioem pyccKoeo nanundpoMa

deadijamoao ecKa (Anthology of Russian palindromes of the twentieth century, Minsky

and Ruibinsky 2000), AHmojioem pyccKou najimdpoMHoii, KOMdmamopHou u

pyKonucHOU no33uu (Anthology of Russian Palindromes, Combinatorial and

Handwritten Poetry, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002) and other editions of experimental

poetry. In 2000, Grinberg published a book of experimental texts with a palindrome title

OnblTbl no (Experiments on, Grinberg 2000), and in 2008 he published another one,

also with a palindrome title, AC PEBEPCA (AS REVERSA, Grinberg 2008a). Despite

the distance from Novosibirsk to Central Russia, Grinberg is a permanent participant of

Moscow and St Petersburg literary activities, for example, of the Festivals of

combinatorial literature (Moscow, 2007-2010).

Although critics' references to Grinberg's works are still few, some of them

provide a detailed literary analysis; for example, that of palindromes and other

restrictions (Chudasov 2007). Chudasov believes Grinberg's works to be a significant

contribution to the arising literary movement which focuses on literary forms, especially

on the letter restrictions, and emphasises Grinberg's extreme mastery which leads to

clarity and the high poetic quality of his texts. His works were also referred to in a

review on contemporary authors of the Novosibirsk region:

BopHC TpHHÔepr - 'bcjihkhh KOMÔHHaxop', HCMnHOH najiHHApoMHHecKoro OHCbMa. nopa>KaK)T KOMÔHHaXOpHbie B03M0>KH0CTH aBTOpai OH CnOCOÔCH 'epamaxb' e rojiose eoKpyr o^hoh ôyKBbi CBHSHbiH tckct jxo ;iByx cotch rpa())HHecKHx 3HaK0B!

Boris Grinberg is a 'great schemer', a champion of palindromic writing. His combinatorial prowess is striking: inside his mind he can 'rotate' around one letter a connected and meaningful text up to two hundred signs! (Loschilov 2005, 343).

In the interview in November 2007, Grinberg expressed his opinions about his

aims for writing and the characteristic features of his texts. Grinberg confirmed this

aspiration for the formal search (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November.), as he

understands traditional poetic techniques such as rhythm or rhyme as some variations of

the broader cases of literary restrictions. In this case, he only chooses a special type of

restriction when he focused on experimental methods: "a KaK-TO Aomeji ao KaKoro-TO

ypOBHH, Korjxa ÎÎ nepecxaji ceGa yAMBJiaxb. ^ cran TonxaTbCJi na mcctc, cxano cKyHHO

OHcaTb TO >Ke caMoe, hto nncaji jiBa rojya Hasa^, h « oôpaxHJicH k KOMÔHHaxopHKe"

(Somehow I have reached a point when I no longer could surprise myself Then I began

to run round in circles so it became boring to write the same things 1 wrote two years

ago, so then I turned to combinatorial poetry, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5

November). For Grinberg, a restriction becomes a factor stimulating his imagination

and a tool to find the expression which would not occur to a syllabic-tonic poet (B

Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November).

On the whole, Grinberg indicates three sources as the impetus for his creativity.

First, it was Gasparov's book on Russian poetry of the early twentieth century

(Gasparov 1993) through which Grinberg became familiar with some constrained

literary forms other than the simple palindrome. Second, Grinberg's creativity was

influenced by the imperfections of Khlebnikov's formal experimentation, in particular

in the palindrome poem Pasun (1920). As Grinberg mentioned in the interview, he

highly appreciates Khlebnikov's poetry (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November),

though in this specific poem he saw a large number of formal deviations from the exact

form, whereas Grinberg is sure that a poet is able to create a strict palindrome on any

subject in Russian language, and he decided to fulfill this task. Finally, it was

AHmojio2UH pyccKou naiuHdpoMHou, KOMÔuHamopHoù u pyKonucHou no33uu (Fedin and

Lukomnikov 2002) which became for Grinberg a source of unknown formal restrictions

to work within: "a Haxo^iHji KaKyio-TO njioxo Bbinoj iHeHHyio a a ^ a n y , JIH6O COBCCM

HeBbinoj iHCHHyio sa^any, H h Hanaji n H c a x b na 3 t h MexoAbi" (I found there some

restrictions that were fulfilled poorly or not at all, and I began to write poems following

these methods, B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November). By this approach,

Grinberg wrote cycles of poems based on such restrictions as initial-ending tautograms,

five-letters tautograms and other forms following techniques proposed in Anmojioem

pyccKOu najiundpoMHOU, KOMÔuHamopnoù u pyKonucuoii no33uu (Fedin and

Lukomnikov 2002).

The poetic restrictions play a significant role in Grinberg's poetry. Primarily a

practising poet, in his interview he provided little reflection upon the meaning and

message of his own texts. Instead, Grinberg argued that he just writes poems, while he

does not reflect on the relationship between form and content, or meaning and graphics

(B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November). Nevertheless, Grinberg emphasises that

he understands traditional poetic techniques such as rhymes and syllabic-tonic metre to

be insufficient for modem poetry as they provide the author with a too broad

vocabulary. In this understanding, he searches for new poetic methods among the

literary restrictions. He believes that though in the recent past these restrictions usually

relate to word play and children's poetry, at the present they become a real poetic tool

demonstrating the possibilities of the Russian language. As Grinberg admitted in the

interviews, he either searches for existing restrictions in the publications of

combinatorial literature then tries to reproduce them, or proposes some of these methods

himself, which inevitably leads to re-discovering techniques already existing in the

history of experimental literature (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November).

I will analyse Grinberg's texts using the traditional methods of text analysis

(Magomedova 2004) consisting of examining the poetic elements in their unity: metre,

phonetic, vocabulary, grammar, literary style and genre as well as other aspects when

appropriate. Many of Grinberg's poems are extremely short, consisting of one or two

lines only. For these short poems especially, when traditional methods of text analysis

are insufficient, I will also use the close reading method (Scherba 1957, 2 6 ^ 4 ) and the

method of rendering the poem to identify its content (Gasparov 1997). These methods

are especially needed to discover the meanings of Grinberg's short poems, as based on

an extremely limited vocabulary defined by letter restrictions, the poems sometimes

include words of multiple meanings which, in concert with the other words, multiply the

meanings of the whole poem.

I will show that Grinberg achieves accuracy and expressiveness by constraining

his creativity with rigid formal restrictions. In the analysis of the presented poems, I will

demonstrate that Grinberg constantly searches for new poetic restrictions in the texts of

the poets of the past and present, in the specific forms of national poetry, and in the

works of the researchers. Grinberg revives the medieval understanding of poetry -

instead of the romantic opposition of a hero and surrounding world, he proposes a

profound meditation through constraint techniques on the essence of the human self and

the universe. In past centuries, texts based on formal restrictions were often seen as

spiritual works created to glorify God and saints. Since the early twentieth century,

formal literary experimentations were moved into avant-garde techniques aimed to

épater the reader and deconstruct the language. In Grinberg's poems, these methods

return to the former task of the search for the true meaning of the word.

5.2. Analysis of Grinberg's poems

For the analysis, I have selected several of Grinberg's poems written with widely

known, rare or unique restrictions. The poems were published in his latest book AC

PEBEPCA (Grinberg 2008a), vajlpyzoe nonynuapue (The other hemisphere) journal and

in Grinberg's Live Journal blog (b_grinberg.livejoumal.ru). I will present Grinberg's

poems in the following order: first, poems written on the basis of traditional formal

restrictions such as letter and syllable palindrome, anagram and the united palindrome-

anagram restrictions; second, poems written on the basis of rare restrictions which were

discovered by Grinberg in numerous literary sources, such as ecmpou {ystroy),

ôopaHaym (boranaut), PyccKUÙ myjop {Russian tuyug), a poem written without words of

the main lexical classes; third, poems written on the basis of restrictions re-discovered

by Grinberg such as a poem on the basis of musical notes and monovocalism; finally,

poems based on forms developed by Grinberg as the modification and amplification of

existing restrictions, including initial-ending tautogram as a modification of tautogram;

tautomonovocalism as a unification of the tautogram and monovocalism form; a

restriction made as a unification of the internal tautogram and a variation of the

aeration form. I will present these restrictions in their increasing order of complexity,

approximately following the development of the poetic task from a simple exercise in

language virtuosity to a tool for discovering new poetic meanings. I will provide a

definition of the formal technique and when possible refer to the existing texts of the

same formal structure.

I will demonstrate that in his works, Grinberg seeks the amplification of existing

letter restrictions in order to increase poetic expressiveness. In doing so, he complicates

the well-known methods of anagram and palindrome by producing new forms such as

multiple anagram and syllable palindrome. In the case of ecmpou (vstroy, built-in),

Grinberg works on an amplification of the restrictions proposed by other authors such as

Fedin and Avaliani. For the development of the tautogram, he creates an initial-ending

tautogram defining both identical initial and final letters and, as an extreme

amplification of lipogram, Grinberg proposes monovocalism, using it under the title

hyper-lipogram. The amplifications Grinberg achieved by composing monovocalism

and complex tautogram restriction are unique in the history of experimental literature.

Through the analysis, I will disclose the contents of Grinberg's poems that are

sometimes hidden in the texts of extremely strict formal restrictions. The meanings of

some of Grinberg's poems are obscure, though not altogether inaccessible for

understanding. This is not an exclusive trait of combinatorial texts, but is typical for

overall obscure poetry, for example, symbolist texts. Despite some difficulties in

comprehending the meanings of Grinberg's texts, it is certain that he follows correct

grammar and semantics in order to provide the reader with profound thoughts and

lyrical feelings. In some of Grinberg's texts, an extremely strict constraint makes the

text mostly an exercise in poetic mastery. In his other texts, the formal structure of a

poem does not emerge as the first impression upon reading it. Therefore, the accuracy of

the restrictions can be checked by reading the poem letter by letter, paying close

attention to a specific letter's order, though the observance of a restriction is not the

final aim of its writing. As Grinberg admits in the interview (B Grinberg 2007, pers.

comm., 5 November), he applies strict formal technique to his poetic ideas to maximise

poetic findings, not intending to demonstrate the chosen constraint, but using it as a

poetic tool when conventional poetic tools were unsatisfactory for him. Through the

analysis of Grinberg's poems, I will demonstrate how these constraints are embodied in

literary texts of extreme density achieved due to their formal structure.

5.2.1. Grinberg's practice in the long existing restrictions

The most frequently used restrictions in Russian literature are letter restrictions

with a preference for letter palindrome and letter anagram. In this section, I will

demonstrate how Grinberg explores these forms, tending to combine them and amplify

them further in more restricted and unusual forms.

5.2.1.1. Letter palindrome for the start of combinatorial practice

The definition and a short history of the letter palindrome were provided in Chapter 2.

For Grinberg, as for many other experimenting authors, letter palindrome was the first

known and the most practised restriction. He has created a significant number of

palindromes aiming for poetic expressiveness and formal perfection. The poetic

expressiveness can be found through the elevated topics and emotional contents of the

poems, and the formal perfection consists in the strict use of the words and letters of the

Russian alphabet, for example, avoiding inexact identity of letters -e' (e) and 'ë' (yo); 'h ' (i)

and 'h ' (Ï) and other pairs. In some of Grinberg's poems, titles are included in the formal

structure of the text so that the title clarifying the meaning of the text plays the role of a clue

to the riddle. This practice is in accordance with the tradition of combinatorial literature, and

was typical for the works of such authors as Derzhavin (1984) and Bryusov (1974).

I will analyse six short palindromes from numerous palindromes written by

Grinberg. I chose the poems for their topics as a tribute to the recently deceased

Avaliani who was an important creative figure for Grinberg, as an exotic zaum text in a

style unusual for Grinberg for the most typical topics and subjects, and as a

demonstration of word virtuosity representative of the virtuosity of a jongleur art. As a

result, I will demonstrate that for Grinberg, letter palindrome is a type of poetic exercise

by which he practises his poetic skills, expressing his feelings in a text.

Grinberg opens the collection of palindromes in the book AC PEBEPCA (Grinberg

2008a) with the dedication to Dmitry Avaliani, "UE/ipE CYTH M nMHTY CEP/IPU -

CBCTJIOH NAMHTH CBexjieiimero /ÎMMTPH^ ABAJIHAHM" (To the zest of essence and the

poet of hearts - to the blessed memory of the blest Dmitry Avaliani, Grinberg 2008a, 6).

The first part of the dedication is a palindrome, "UE/ipE CYTH H OHHTY CEP/]PU" (To

the zest of essence and the poet of hearts). By the second, non-palindrome line, Grinberg

presents the addressee "CBCTJIOH NAM IXM cseTiieiiiuero fl,MMTPHiI ABAJIMAHH" (To

the blessed memory of the blest Dmitry Avaliani). Behind the dedication expressed as a

manifestation of respect to a master and proclamation of the quality of Avaliani's works,

there is also a promise to continue the similar task of lyrical writing through letter virtuosity,

of Grinberg's own poems. In ililfillment of this promise, Grinberg presents further in the

book numerous poems based on literary restrictions similar to those practised by Avaliani,

and on other literary techniques that became known to him from different literary sources.

The first poem I present here is unusual for Grinberg as it is a single example of

zaum style writing in the book (Grinberg 2008a, 43). Here Grinberg demonstrates his

ability to write in a poetic style associated with avant-garde poetry:

OxHCTH pa>KOBa! Kpy>Ka6a }Ka5a>KypKa

B0>KapHT CHXO.

(Okhristi razhova! / Kruzhaba zhabazhurka / Vozharit sikho)

This short palindrome is the third, final part of the triptych paHndrome poem

OTCHMBOJlHflOOyTyPHnTHX (OTSIMVOLIDOFUTURIPTIKH). In an

abbreviated word chosen for the title of the poem, the names of the symbolist and

futurist movements are mentioned compressed together with a description of the form,

'xpHOTHx' (triptych). In this case, Grinberg presents a tribute and exercise in style in

literary movements significant for him. Nevertheless, it is the only one example in

obscure writing in the book (Grinberg 2008a) an . For other poems, he prefers to obey

the rules of Russian language strictly, even while condensing them with letter

restrictions. Hence, after expressing a tribute to zaum writing, Grinberg does not return

to this technique, preferring other literary methods.

In some poems, Grinberg achieves extreme word virtuosity. These poems could be

made to the detriment of meaning, being a practice in word juggling. As such, these

practices are close to medieval 'jongleur' poetical practices (Zumthor 2003). To

illustrate, in the following poem Koda (Grinberg 2008a, 61), a numerical series "one,

two, three, four" is included in the palindrome text:

KO/iA

F h C B H T H MHp . . .

npHMepbi TCHH pxa B AHH lOJirHX HFJi: OAHH,

A B a ,

TpH, HCTbipe .. .

M h P npHMHTHBCH, ra^OK.

(Code It enrages even the world... / Examples / of leaks of a mouth during the days of long needles: / one, / two, / three, / four... / The world is primitive and dirty)

This poem is a palindrome as, whether one reads it from the beginning to the end

or backwards, the text is the same, "KO/iA // rneBHT m mhp <...> npHMHTHBen, ra;ioK"

(Code. It enrages even the world <...> primitive and dirty). A numeric series in the

middle of the poem defines an arbitrary set of letters when the poem is read backwards,

'pbiTeHHpTaBAHHAo', which Grinberg succeeds in transforming into a meaningful phrase

by adding some letters to the beginning and to the end and by appropriate division into

words, "ripHMepbi / TCHH pra B A H H AOJIPHX HFJI" (Examples / of leaks of a mouth

during the days of long needles). As a result, the poem has an obscure meaning in

symbolist style and a definite feeling of imperfection of the world, "Mnp npHMHTHBCH,

raAOK" (The world is primitive and dirty) and of a person, " T C H M pxa B J X H H AOJIFHX HFJI"

(Leaks of a mouth during the days of long needles). Therefore, for this poem, Grinberg

achieves both letter virtuosity by finding a palindrome phrase for an arbitrary set of

letters and poetic expressiveness presenting his feelings about the world in a poem of

vague meaning.

For other poems, the technical skills are diminished in favor of lyrical impression

and clarity of the text. In the following poem, the palindrome structure of the text reflects

the plot of the poem as the graphics of an outline of a hill on which the lyrical hero, a

cyclist, clambers up to the top and then descends to the bottom (Grinberg 2008a, 57):

Bejioziopory 6y>Ky TCHJIMH,

OT coHKH - Jieeee BH>Ky MJiTy, xyx - ocbi, BH>Ky jiy>KM, Bbicoxy... xyx... HMy!!! >KHBee, BCJIHK!..

nocxoHM... ^ He x y > K y , 6yrop o;iojieB.

(I awaken a bicycle track with my shadows, / from a hill to the left I see mint herb, / there are wasps, I see puddles, heights... / here... a hole!!! Quicker, my bike!.. // Let's stay a bit... I'm not sad, having overcome the mound)

By the plot of the poem, the lyrical hero drives a bicycle uphill and downhill. The

palindrome structure is as usual symmetrical, starting from the beginning of the poem

and finishing at its end, with the palindrome centre point on the letter 'ji' (1) of the word

' jiy)KH' (puddles) in the third line. The word 'aMa' (hole) in the next line represents

another meaning of the word 'jiy>Ka' (puddle), so the whole picture of uneven path is

created, whereas punctuation marks such as dash and omission points present the pauses

as holes in articulation. That is, by meanings of the words and by the articulation of the

poem, as well as by its palindrome structure, Grinberg creates an image of a broken

road through the feelings of a bicyclist ascending the hill and descending it.

Consequently, the palindrome structure becomes a poetic tool equally important for the

understanding of the poem comparing to phonics, metre, vocabulary, grammar and

other elements examined in the analysis of a poem.

Several topics are repeatedly presented in Grinberg's poems, with the topics of

speech and silence being the most frequent. According to Grinberg's texts, speaking and

silence are the categories not absolutely opposed, but interconnected as reflections of

each other. In MUM (Mime, Grinberg 2008a, 39-40), the lyrical hero speaks silently by

his body and face as a mime:

. . . O , M H M b i !

T O M H M b I

T e j i o M H . . .

< . . . >

MHMO . . .

J l e x b l MHMO . . .

T b I - M H M -

O!

(... O, mimes! / You are tormented / by your bodies and... / < . . . > / pass by... / pass by Lethe.../ you are a mime - Oh!)

By the image of a mime, Grinberg makes a reference to a poet who virtuously

works in the language avoiding common speech and searching for extreme

expressiveness, similar to a mime who virtuously works with his body, avoiding any

convention of speech though fully expressing himself. The interpretations of the

palindrome poem can be multiple, either the lyrical hero identified himself with a mime,

"TBI - MHM" (YOU are a mime) and leaves an oblivion of the Lethe by this unusual silent

speech, "Jlexbi M H M O " (Pass by Lethe), or the mime is left aside by an indifferent

passer-by, "TH - M H M O ! " ( YOU pass by). In the latter interpretation, the address 'you'

can also vary from addressing by a mime to a passer-by with an appeal for attention to

his silent art, to self-addressing of a lyrical hero not achieving miming virtuosity and

consequently moving toward oblivion. In any case, by using the image of a mime,

Grinberg refers to a poet who writes in an unusual way in an attempt to avoid banal

poetic techniques and vocabulary.

Similar to Avaliani and other poets experimenting in palindromes, Grinberg writes

poetic sets based on the same palindrome rhyme to develop and diversify versions of

meanings. The palindrome rhyme 'o, MHM' - 'MHMO' (O, mime - by), as in the cited

poem, is repeated in the next poem (Grinberg 2008a, 39):

O , MHMbi!

TOMHMbI HMH

MHMO TBI, MHMO.

(O, mimes! / You are tormented by them / passing by them, passing by)

Common to these poems is also a motif of suffering, though presented with

nuances: in the first poem, the lyrical hero identifies himself with the mime suffering in

constant creative practice, " O , MHMLI! / TOMHMLI / T CJ IOM" (O, mimes! / You are

tormented / by your bodies ...), whereas in the second poem, the lyrical hero is most

possibly suffering by envying the virtuosity of the mime, "O, MHMBI! / T O M H M U HMH /

M H M O TW, M H M O " (O, mimes! / You are tormented by them / passing by them, passing

by). Through repetition of the limited number of sounds, 'o' (o), 'M' (m), 'H' (i), an

impression of whirling is created, presenting a generalised image of a circus artist such

as an acrobat or juggler rather than a mime in the strict sense of the word. In this sense,

this poem is close to the next where an image of a circus appears.

In the following palindrome poem, a wandering circus is described if interpreted

literally, while metaphorically Grinberg presents his understanding of a poet (Grinberg

2008a, 11). Again, a representation of physical virtuosity is a metaphor for literary

virtuosity of the experimenting poet:

Ta6op KAHAXOM SHHCT.

Onjibiji, noxea, HsMoxaH aKpo6ax.

(A gypsy camp is yawning with its rope. / Guttered, sweating, / Exhausted is the acrobat)

Here, a wandering circus or a gypsy tribe is presented, 'xa6op' (gypsy camp).

Grinberg finds the word 'aKpoGax' (acrobat) for a palindrome rhyme to the word

'xa6op' (camp). By this rhyme, Grinberg moves the focus from an overall observation

in the first line to specific notation in the last - from a group of circus performers such

as acrobats, ropewalkers, animal-tamers and jugglers to an acrobat in the course of a

circus performance in front of watching people. The word 'xa6op' (gypsy camp) can

also have a figurative meaning for wandering public who enjoy the circus performance.

However, by the central word of the palindrome, 'onjibiJi' (guttered), another clue to the

text is provided, as 'Kanax' (rope) and 'xa6op' (gypsy camp) are opposite as a candle

and a wick by which a camp is divided. It is worth noting the phonetic similarity of the

words '3H5ixb' (to be open wide/to gape) and 'cn5ixb' (to shine) by which this

interpretation is endorsed. In this case, an acrobat represents a flaming wick on a candle

- he is transforming into the fire and by this performance inspires the public. On the

other hand, people watching the performance (xa6op, camp) represent the wax that

feeds the flame; hence their role is not passive but in turn inspiring the acrobat. Again,

Grinberg uses a metaphor of circus artist, here an acrobat, to express his understanding

of poetic activity as exotic work demanding exhausting efforts (noxeji, sweating;

HSMOxaH, exhausted) from those seeking to achieve extreme virtuosity.

Concluding the letter palindrome section, Grinberg creates palindromes as a form

of poetic practice. He demonstrates his virtuosity with the language, creating

palindromes on arbitrary sets of words such as numerical series and writing versions of

texts on the same palindrome rhyme. In short letter palindromes, Grinberg succeeds in

condensing the poetic vocabulary to present his thoughts and feelings. The similarity of

this virtuosity to those of medieval 'jongleurs' is confirmed by Grinberg's self-

definition as a circus artist - mime and acrobat. Grinberg's letter palindromes are

similar to mind game poetry, though they are not just riddles, in which the only

authorial aim is to hide the meaning and create difficulties for the reader to understand

the text. Neither are these poems any form of sacral texts concealing the meanings from

uninitiated readers, as the meanings are available through close reading. By letter

palindrome, Grinberg practises the most known formal technique before proceeding to

other techniques less known in Russian, and more complicated.

5.2.1.2. The syllable palindrome as the development of letter palindrome

Syllable palindromes, where syllables, instead of letters, are read in reverse

direction, are rare in Russian literature, although some simple texts were created in the

late twentieth to early twenty-first centuries (for example: "Pocbi. Cbipo. / Cepo poce.

// BbicH CHBbi. / PH3a 3apH", Dews. It is damp. / Grey for the dew. // The heights are

grey. / Chasubles of the sunrise, Bubnov 1998; ^My KOMy Konaji a? Whom for I dug a

hole? Silivanov 2007), Grinberg still is a unique author developing this restriction to

the texts of multiple meanings and poetic quality. Grinberg produces syllable

palindromes to amplify the existing letter palindrome technique. Two short poems

illustrate this technique.

In the following syllable palindrome poem, Grinberg presents his formation as a

poet (Grinberg 2008a, 121):

Tbi, 3noxa crpaHbi cbipoii, Hrjia cTaHeT... HeT-cxana Hrpoii! CbiHbi cxpaxa - no3Tbi.

(You, the era of the damp country, / The needle will become... / No, it has become

a game! / The sons of fear, they are poets)

The rhythm of the poem is close to anapaest, especially evident if uniting the

second and the third lines together. The first and the third lines of the poem are

connected by the rhyme 'cbipoii' - 'Hrpoii' (damp - game). That is, in the poem of rare

formal restriction, Grinberg also obeys conventional poetic techniques.

Russian social realities of the 1980s, years of stagnation when Grinberg was an

adolescent and began to write poetry, are presented here. Grinberg describes the late

Soviet era in terms of a 'cbipaa' (dump), and of 'cxpax' (fear), revealing to the reader his

feelings about the time. In Grinberg's opinion, the consequence of living in that era could

be drug usage, "nrjia cxaHex" (needle will become). Instead, the lyrical hero chooses to

become a poet, "CbiHbi cxpaxa - no3Xbf' (The sons of fear, they are poets). The

transformation into a poet is expressed in writing by ellipsis points followed by a line

break and an exclamation of negation, ''Hex!" (No). Then, 'Hrjia' (needle) is transformed

into a writing tool and an analogue of a sword as a warrior's weapon reduced to an absurd

minuscule size, as a metaphor of a combinatorial word-game poetry tool, ''cxajia Hrpoii"

(Became a game) in preference to the 'damp' and 'fearful' pathos of the Soviet socialist

poetry. Therefore, the path of self-identification is presented in the poem as outgrowing

the social fear by poetry, "CbiHbi cxpaxa - noaxbi" (The sons of fear, they are poets),

specifically for Grinberg, by choosing combinatorial poetry.

The following distich is also written in the form of syllable palindrome. A

meditation on the role of the poet is presented here:

Mbi xpaHHTCJiH HAeii (jiK);;eH?), HJTH TCHH-XpaMbl?

(We are the keepers of ideas (people?), / Or shadows-temples?)

The rhythm of the distich is regular trochaic: five-feet with shortened last foot for

the first line and three-feet for the second line. The poem is written without

conventional rhyme, though with multiple phonic repetitions, 'xpa-HHTejiH'-'xpa-Mbi';

'Mbi' - 'xpa-Mbi'; 'xpaHH-xejiH' - 'TCHH'; 'H-ACH' - 'JHO-ACH' (keepers - temples, we -

temples, keepers - shadows, ideas - people) which is evident for a palindromic poem.

By the distich, the dual poetic task of preservation of knowledge and reflection upon

new knowledge is proclaimed. The centre of the palindrome distich is on the syllable

'JIK)' (lyu) of the word 'JNOAEII' (people) which is emphasised by punctuation of the

text, so the poem is balanced on the word 'JIK)AH' (people). Grinberg distinguishes all

people to the circle of companions and the whole humanity by using the pronoun 'MW'

(we) and the noun 'JUOACH' (people). When 'we ' represents poets as a creative

community, the topic of the distich is a reflection on poetic concepts. The task of poets

is therefore the preservation of the thoughts of humanity for the people of the future:

"Mbi xpaHHTejiH HjxePi'' (We are the keepers of ideas). This task coincides with the

definition of poetry provided by a scholar: "CTHX - 3TO TCKCT, omyutaeMbiii KaK penb

noBbimeHHOH Ba>KHOCTH, paccMHxaHHaji Ha sanoMHHaHHe H noBxopeHHe" (A poem is a

text of higher importance intended to be remembered and repeated, Gasparov 2003, 7).

In the second line of the distich, another role of poetry is presented supplementary to the

first - poets are themselves the shadows of temples (TCHH - xpaMbi, shadows - temples).

These shadows copy mysterious existences, as shadows in the Plato's cave copy eternal

unchanging Ideas (Plato 1999, 135-191). In this case, the role of the poet is similar to

the role of platonic philosopher, and consists of the transmission of eternal ideas to

common people, 'TCHH ' - 'xpaMbi' (shadows - temples). Consequently, by the second

line, the role of the poet is understood as a messenger similar to Daniil Andreev's

understanding (Andreev 1991) of the poet translating eternal concepts to the people. In

brief, in the first line, poets preserve human thoughts for history, while in the second

line, poets convey superhuman knowledge to humanity. These two roles of the poets

seemingly contradicting each other are united formally by the palindrome structure of

the poem, as the conjunction 'HJIH' (or) formally includes the conjunction ' H ' (and), so

on the letter level, contradiction includes correspondence. As a result, two tasks of the

poet, to keep the knowledge in written words and to bring new knowledge to people, are

the single dual task reflecting one side with another. This duality is proved by the

palindrome structure of the poem which unites two lines in the whole.

To conclude, in the analysed syllable palindrome poems, Grinberg re-discovers

and develops the unique restriction to achieve personal and universal understanding.

There are only a few of these poems, and their meanings are obscure and demand a

thorough interpretation, though Grinberg's intention is evidently to create texts on the

topics of social and metaphysical subjects.

5.2.1.3. Amplifying anagram to multiple anagram restriction

Anagram is a widespread combinatorial technique consisting of the re-

arrangement of the letters of a word or a phrase in order to produce another word or a

phrase. Some of the examples of anagram were provided in Chapter 2. The method is

well known among the contemporary Russian authors working in combinatorial

literature. In Russian, the most developed are pair anagrams, where two anagram words

are connected in a short phrase, "Cxeivia CMexa" (Diagram of laugh, Mayakovsky),

"HecHOCHbi HOHceHCbi" (Non-senses are insufferable, Avaliani), "MajiHHa MaHHJia"

(Raspberry lured, Fedin), "BaroH roBHa" (Carriage of shit, Lukomnikov) and by several

anonymous authors, "HcKpa pHCKa'' (Spark of risk), "HKOHa HHOKa" (Icon of young

monk), "ABTopyHKa KypnaxoBa" (Kurchatov's pen), ''ABTO/iopora ^loporoBara" (Too

expensive road, Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002).

Due to the simplicity of the method, Grinberg rarely applies this technique in his

poems; instead, he works in the multiple anagram technique which is a method of

presenting a text consisting of several meaningful anagrams of the same word. By this

form, Grinberg complicates the letter anagram restriction, aiming to create a poem with

anagram words only. In French experimental poetry, Jacques Jouet worked on an even

more complex technique when he used multiple letter anagrams as the rhymes for the

sextine (ancres - cernes - crânes - écrans - nacres - ranees, agiles - aigles - algies -

gelais - glaise - liages, étains - sainte - satiné - tenais - ténias - tisane, ceruse - césure

- creuse - curées - écrues - sucrée, émeris - merise - mirées - misère - remise -

rimées, néréis - reines - résine - serein - serine - sirène, Jouet 1992, 21-22). However,

there is possibly no analogue of this technique in Russian experimental literature, and

Grinberg worked on this method independently of Oulipo's findings, composing only

anagram words in his short poem (Grinberg 2008a, 120):

HajiHMa jTHMaHa MaHHJia MajiHHa MHJiaHa!

(Raspberry of Milan lured an eelpout of estuary)

The short poem is written in one-foot anapaest with rhyming endings of semi-

phrases, 'jiHMaHa' - 'MHJiaHa' (of estuary - of Milan). That is, even for this exotic

form, Grinberg applies conventional poetic technique to make the text sound like a

conventional poem. In the poem, he explores re-combinations of phonetically similar

letters'm' (m) - (1) - 'h ' (n) in the style of tongue twisters. This combination of

letters can be found in the refrain of a popular song by Plyatskovsky and Dobruinin,

218

"^roAa-MAJIHHA Hac K ce6e M A H H J I A " (berry-raspberry lured us). The resemblance of

these sounds is also used in an actor's articulation exercise, " H a MCJIH MBI JICHHBO

HAJIHMA J I O B H J I H " (We tried to catch an eelpout on the shoal) and in Fedin's two-word

anagram presented above. Consequently, these re-combinations are evident for the

Russian language, though Grinberg presents the largest possible number of exact

anagram words combining in a poem. Through this, unconventional associations and

logical connections between simple words with similar sounds are produced. The total

number of possible re-combinations by which vowels alternate with consonants of the

word 'MajiHHa' (raspberry) can be calculated as 27 (3! x 3 x 3/2 = 27). In his short

poem, Grinberg uses five anagram words, or about 22% of the possible re-

combinations, which is a significantly larger percentage of letter combinations than in a

pair anagram, where only two versions for a multi-letter word are presented.

Concluding the section of multiple anagram technique, it is shown that in a poem

of accurate grammar and simple meaning, Grinberg demonstrates his 'jongleur"

virtuosity in combinatorial letter restrictions in Russian language. The poem is close to

children's poetry in its absurd associations leading to the amusement of the reader.

5.2.1.4. Strengthening simplest anagram technique by graphic elements

Grinberg does not create full-fledged visual poems himself, though some of his

poems are transformed into graphics by his co-authors (Grinberg 2008a, 98-103). In

other poems, Grinberg combines basic combinatorial techniques with simple graphics.

In the poem EecKoneuHhiu nepeseon (Eternal chime, Grinberg 2008a, 129), he uses a

technique similar to those used by Georges Perec in Ulcérations (1974). The technique

consists in creating a text by recombination of limited letters, allowing multiple reading

options. The book Ulcérations was not translated into Russian and this technique was

not mentioned in Russian critical or popular literature, so Grinberg obviously worked

independently, without acquaintance with Perec's texts, when creating his poem

(Grinberg 2008a, 129):

BECKOHEHHblH OEPESBOH K O J I O K O J I O K ... O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J1 O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K O J I O K

KOJIOKOJI O KOJIOKOJI,

O K O J I O - KOJl O KOJIOKOJI,

O K O J I O - KOJIOKOJI 0 KOJl,

O KOJl, O KOJl, O KOJIOKOJI,

O KOJIOKOJI, O KOJl, 0 KOJl,

O , KOJl! O , KOJlOKOJl!! . . .

O , K O J I O K ! ! !

(A bell by a bell, / nearby - a stake by a bell, / nearby - a bell by a stake, / O stake, o stake, o bell, / o bell, o stake, o stake, / O stake! O bell!.. / Oh, prickly!)

In the first part of the poem, Grinberg provides both visual and sound patterns as

the consonants 'K' (k) and 'ji' (1) are rearranged with a vowel 'o ' (o) forming the word

' K O J I O K O J I ' (bell) in the lines of the poem. In the second part of the poem, Grinberg

provides a re-segmentation of the infinite set of letters into words connected into

phrases in a method similar to that used by Perec (1974).

Grinberg's poem includes semantic, visual and phonic aspects. Semantically, the

poem is a representation of a bell ringing. Visually, the first part of the poem is

presented in the form of a square created by nine lines with nine letters in each. Letters

'o ' (o) graphically represented by circles are alternated by letters 'K' (k) and 'ji' (1)

visually close to crosses. The letters form symmetrical ornament, or a table where

elements are repeated and alternated by diagonals. This ornament is a visualisation of a

symmetrical phonic pattern of repeating silence and alternation of sounds. In Grinberg's

poem, this visual-graphic pattern can be reproduced without limit. Unfortunately, in the

process of printing the book, the column of dots to the right and to the bottom of the

poem had disappeared. In the manuscript, kindly provided to me by Grinberg, these

signs are clearly distinguished, thus demonstrating the possibility to continue the table

of letters ad infinitum.

For the second part of the poem, the symmetrical ornament of letters is followed

by a text created by the division of the sequence of letters into meaningful words and by

the addition of punctuation marks between words, thus forming phrases. While the first

part of the poem is read as an endless repetition, in the second part a more complex

phonic structure is obeyed, thus producing an effect of varying chime sounds. Here,

Grinberg uses only words of exact meanings from the common vocabulary. There are

numerous options for the reading of the given letter pattern by dividing lines into words,

though Grinberg proposes one of the possibilities to the reader. The meanings of the

words correspond to the phonic of the poem as by alternation of vowels 'o' (o) with

voiced consonants 'ji' (1) and unvoiced consonants 'k' (k); an imitation of a sound of a

bell ringing and a sound of knocking-ringing are created: " K O J I " (stake), " O K O J I O "

(nearby), "o K O J I O K O J I " (by a bell), "o KOJI" (by a stake), "KOJI O KOJIOKOJI" (stake by a

bell). Also, by alteration of stresses in the lines of the poem, an allusion is made to the

non-regular rhythm of the chime.

There are numerous manifestations of symmetry in the poem such as "KOJIOKOJI O

KOJIOKOJI" (a bell by a bell) in the first line, and anti-symmetry such as "KOJI O KOJIOKOJI"

(stake by a bell) and "KOJIOKOJI O KOJI" (bell by a stake) in the second and third lines, "o

KOJI, O KOJI, O KOJIOKOJI" ( O stake, o stake, o bell) and "o KOJIOKOJI, O KOJI, O KOJI" ( O bell, o

stake, o stake) in the fourth and fifth lines. By these elements of phonic and semantic

repetitions, the total symmetrical structure of visual text is partly doubled. In the final line

of the poem, the repetition of the words 'bell' and 'stake' is broken by the appearance of

the word 'KOJIOK ' (prickly), thus bringing the sound to an abrupt end, emphasised by

triple exclamation marks. That is, in contrast to the infinite pattern presented in the first

part of the poem, the second part is deliberately made finite by the author.

Summing up, Grinberg creates multiple visual, phonic and semantic inter-

relationships in the poem aiming for a perceptual impression only, not proposing any

religious interpretation for the sounds of a bell chiming, as could have been done by

Avaliani. As a result of the re-combinations of letters, visual and phonic components

that could produce differing meanings in poetry (Janecek 2002), are here connected for

the creation of a total impression of repeating chime sounds.

5.2.1.5. Combination of basic palindrome and anagram restrictions

Further amplification of the basic letter technique consists in the combination of

palindrome and mini-anagram as a variation of anagram restrictions. Mini-anagram was

defined as a method consisting of re-combination of two letters of a text exclusively in

order to produce another text (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 216). In the following

poem, Grinberg uses the letter palindrome technique together with the mini-anagram

technique, so that the poem is read the same forward and backward, and two parts of the

poem differ by re-arrangement of two letters only, 'ji' (1) and 'h' (ch). Also, in

accordance with palindrome and anagram rules, re-segmentation of letter sets into

words is made (Grinberg 2008a, 65):

Hy, jiHxo! / BepH - ujHpe! B/IOXH xyM...

H y ! T H X O !

fleepH - ujHpe! Baox h... JlyH !

(Hush, trouble! / Open the doors widely! / Breaths of clouds... // Hush! Silence! / Open the doors widely! / Breath - and a ray!)

Grinberg works to the full extent of the techniques so that one restriction intensifies

another for the overall poetic expressiveness. The repetition of sounds with slight

variations provides the effect of a spell. The letters 'ji' (1) and 'h ' (ch) are exchanged in

palindrome phrases, 'JIHXO' - 'THXO ' (trouble - silence), 'jiyn' - ' ryn' (ray - cloud)

creating an expressive lyrical poem. Here again, the palindrome basis of the poem is not

obvious. Instead, the meaning is emphasised. First, it is an image of a finishing storm,

"BAOXH Tyn" (breaths of clouds) which can be interpreted as a natural phenomenon as

well as a psychological condition of personal misfortune. The latter interpretation is

supported by an appeal to the disaster to leave the lyrical hero of the poem: "My, JIHXO!"

(Hush, trouble!). Second, an image is presented of a sun ray coming through the hard

clouds: "Jlyn!" (ray). On the whole, the poem can be read as expectations of the end of

everyday troubles followed by illumination; "B;iox H... Jlyn!" (Breath - and a ray!). On

the other hand, multiple exclamation marks and an abrupt change from 'clouds' to a 'ray'

can be seen as a description of the death of the lyrical hero who is willingly accepting it:

"ABepH - ujHpe!" (Open the doors widely!). That is, the struggle with everyday troubles

has been finished for the lyrical hero with a posthumous illumination. To conclude, by

using a combination of basic letter restrictions, Grinberg creates a lyrical message with

the profiandity of metaphysical poetry.

The poems analysed above represent Grinberg's practice in basic letter restrictions

such as palindrome and anagram, their modification and unification. It has been

demonstrated that Grinberg uses these techniques for practising word virtuosity in the

style of medieval 'jongleurs' and children's poetry, as well as for expressing personal

thoughts and feelings in a profound poetic message. Already by these basic methods, it

is apparent that Grinberg develops the existing techniques further, for example,

amplifying anagram to multiple anagram, and combines the techniques together; for

example, palindrome and mini-anagram. As a result, he discovers new poetic methods

that can be used in combination with conventional poetic methods such as rhyme.

Newly found poetic techniques become for Grinberg a tool to expound his creative

ideas. This conclusion made for the analysis of basic restrictions will be confirmed later

through the analysis of poems created on the basis of other techniques proposed,

developed and amplified by Grinberg.

5.2.2. Exploration of rare techniques discovered in various literary sources

As Grinberg discovered the poetic possibilities of letter restrictions such as

palindrome and anagram, he began to explore literary sources for the search of other

literary restrictions (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5 November). Then he applied these

new formal techniques to his poetry as less developed poetic methods leading to

profound poetic discoveries. He constantly widens the sources for his findings from the

abovementioned Gasparov book on poetic techniques used in the beginning of the

twentieth century (Gasparov 1973), to national literary collections and more recent

researches (Bonch-Osmolovskaya 2009). In the following section, I present the analysis

of Grinberg's poems written on the basis of these specific restrictions.

5.2.2.1. Vstroy as development of a recently proposed form

The technique of ecmpou (vstroy. built-in) was presented previously in the

analysis of Avaliani's works (Chapter 4). It consists in a segmentation of letters of a

word or a phrase into two parts by capitalisation of letters of one of the parts, which

leads to the entire word and these parts being read together as a meaningful phrase

(Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 216-217). As Grinberg himself admitted, he used this

technique after he became aware of its invention by Fedin and Avaliani (B Grinberg

2007, pers. comm., 5 November). In his book AC PEBEPCA, Grinberg devotes a

section to ecmpou (Grinberg 2008a, 124-127) starting with a title on the same

technique: "eCTpOH. >1!" (Built-ins. I!). By this title, an interpretation of the techniques

is proposed as the phrase can be understood as "MOH BCTpon" (my built-ins) by reading

it as "BCTpoH H h" {built-ins and me). Also, by the same ecmpou technique, the phrase

can be read as "BPH CTO>I" (Tell lies [while] standing), where the word 'epn' (lie) is

written in lower letters and the word 'CTOH' (standing up) in capitals in accordance with

the technique. The call to "BPH CTO>I" (Lie upright!) is similar in content and

emotions to the common expression "epH 6ojibme!" (Lie more!), which represents a

sarcastic expression of distrust for the speaker by the interlocutor. In the ecmpoü

technique, some of the letters of the text are emphasised by capitals, or 'upright' font, so

by way of writing, an affirmation of the falsity of the phase written in 'upright' font is

expressed. Consequently, the technique is presented in a self-mocking way, and the call

for a critical perception of ecmpou texts is announced. Generalising, Grinberg follows

the tradition of paradoxical writing in the style of the ancient Cretan paradox attributed

to Epimenide, "this statement is false", which makes the announced statement neither

false, nor true (Gardner 1982, 4-5). Similarly, the description of his ecmpou as a lie

makes it paradoxical as the statement proclaims its own incorrectness. That is, in this

combinatorial technique, Grinberg approaches the practices of mind game texts.

In his ecmpou, Grinberg splits one word in parts. The results are short phrases of

significantly different styles: sensual (OycTHJla: OycTHJia. OHJI ycxa ... She let him in.

He drank from [her] lips); amicable (CKOBoPO^Ka: CKOBopoj^Ka - cKopo BO^Ka!!!

Frying pan - there will be vodka soon); social (CTpaHÁ. Cxpana era pan; A country of

hundred wounds). In the last example, a single vowel 'a' (a) is repeated four times in a

short phrase in iambic rhythm with an alliteration on the consonants 'c' (c), ' t ' (t), 'p'

(r), which leads to a reading of the line in a marching rhythm. Graphically, this ecmpou

is presented by capital letters on the edges of the original word as borders within which

the word 'paHbi' (wounds) is placed. Consequently, the graphics of the text echoes its

meaning, reinforcing the impression of suffering through detention inside the

boundaries. Thus, Grinberg's interpretation of life in his native country is presented by

the formal literary technique.

Concluding, in numerous ecmpou, Grinberg further discovers the possibilities of

the language. Some of these short texts are word games only, whereas for some other

ecmpou, a deep meaning can be discovered through analysis of the text, otherwise

hidden inside a rigorously applied technique.

5.2.2.2. Boranaut as filling the form with poetic content

Eopanaym {boranaut) restriction was proposed by Russian poets of the early

twentieth century with the purpose of exercising their poetic skills. By the definition of

this restriction, an author should include the acoustic pattern dopauaym into each line of

the poem (Gasparov 1993, 64). The poems written in the early twentieth century have

been lost to the present: "HaM HC y/iajiocb HH oTbicKaxb, HH coHHHHTb HH OJXHORO

'Gopanayxa', - MO>KeT Gbixb, HHTaxejiK) noBCsex Gojibme" (We could neither find nor

create any boranaut, possibly our reader would be luckier, Gasparov 1993, 64). As

Grinberg proclaimed in the interview, for him, the existence of a formal technique

unfilled with poetic content is a challenge (B Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 5

November). Therefore, having read about dopanaym in Gasparov's book (1993), he

responded by creation of the following dopanaym distich which, as far as it is known, is

to the present time still the only poem obeying the restriction:

J I H Ô O pana yTpax, J I H 6 O B C E P A U E KHH>Kaji... Y coôopa Hayxpo OH MëpTBbiH jie>Kaji.

(Either wound of losses, or a dagger to the heart, / He lay dead by the temple

on the morrow)

The distich is written in anapaestic tetrameter which is a traditional poetic metre.

The rhymes are precise,'KHH>Kaji' - 'jie>Kaji' (dagger - lied), the vocabulary is common,

with an inclination to Romantic poetic vocabulary, and the meaning is obvious. In each

line of the poem, the demanded sets of letters appear, "J\H-6O pana j^m-pax" (Either

wound of losses), ''co-6opa naym-po'' (by the temple on the morrow) which makes this

distich a êopanaym.

In brief, Grinberg demonstrates his poetic skills by filling the announced

restriction with poetic content. The distich is read as a conventional short poem, though

a unique complex formal restriction is obeyed here. Again, the formal restriction is not

evident, so in case the reader is not familiar with it, the restriction is not recognisable.

5.2.2.3. Russian tuyug as a modification of the national poetic form

Tywa {tuyug) is a form of Turkic poetic technique which requires the identical

rhyming of the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain. It is a specific sort of

homonymie poetry, though for the latter, all lines should be rhymed by identically

sounding homonyms, whereas for mywe the third line of a four-line poem is rhymed

differently. The homonymie poetry appears in multiple Russian texts such as the poems

of Pushkin, Minaev, Blok, Bryusov, Kozlovsky and other authors (Bonch-

Osmolovskaya 2009, 65-69). The homonym restriction is rather simple to obey, and

four-line poems created on this basis are close to folk verses of nacmywKU (chastushki).

Grinberg affirms (http://grinberg-boris.livejoumal.eom/2008/03/04/) that he discovered

myjoe by reading Turkish poetry in the EuômomeKa no3ma (Poet's library) book series,

became inspired by the technique and began to write his own poems of this form. In

227

contrast to the accepted myK)^ poetic form, Grinberg rejects its rhythmic structure,

obeying only rhyme restriction in his poems that he calls pyccKuii myK)^ {Russian

tuyugs). In a number of pyccKuii myK)8 published recently in his LiveJoumal blog,

Grinberg presents lyrical, genre and landscape sketches, and also considers playfully the

topic of the essence of poetry and political, sporting and social subjects (http://grinberg-

boris.livejoumal.com/2009). Two poems, one on a lyrical and another on a political

topic analysed in this section, illustrate Grinberg's experimentation with the technique.

In the following poem, Grinberg uses the homonymic word 'onajia' in three

different meanings, 'exile ' , '[she/it] fell o f f , 'opaP (in genitive case), as the rhymes for

the first, second and fourth lines in accordance with the pyccKuii myioe poetic form

(Grinberg 2008b):

OccHb - MOH onajia. He6o TycKJiCH onajia, 3a HOHb jiHCTBa, ycTae, Bbicoxjia H onajia.

(Autumn is my exile. / Sky is dimmer than opal, / During the night, tired leaves / dried up and fell off)

The poem is a landscape sketch where a static image of late autumn is created by

constant rhythm, by vocabulary with the mention of dim sky and fallen foliage and by

alliterations on ' c ' (s) creating the sound of autumn wind. The poem is written in

identical accentual verse with accents on the first, fourth and sixth syllables in a line,

which leads to rhythmic steadiness. It is worth noting that in addition to the alliteration

on 'c ' (s) in each line of the poem, there is also the alliteration on the sounds 'T ' (t), 'B '

(v) in the third line, "jiHCXBa, ycxae" (tired leaves), as a poetic tool used by Grinberg for

the poem. The sentiments of the lyrical hero of the poem can be characterised as calm

observation while living in an exile (MOH onajia, my exile), so that the external situation

is related to the internal state of the lyrical hero. In brief, Grinberg succeeds in creating

a lyrical poem while obeying an exotic formal technique.

In the next poem, the word 'crpoii' is used in three meanings such as 'to build',

'social system' and 'rank', for apyccKuù myjoe poem on a social topic:

Ha PycH Hero He crpoH, Oeo/iajibHbiH 5y;ieT CTpoH. TaK MTO, HCM Tyj yMHblX crpoHTb, LUaroM Mapiu B E/IHHBIH CTpoii!

(In Russia, whatever you try to build, / there will be a feudal system. / So, rather

than acting smart, / Off you march to the united rank!)

The poem is written in a regular rhythm of four-feet trochee with identical male

endings in the first, second and fourth lines, and a female ending in the third line. It is

worth noting the word root of the ending of the third line is the same as in the other

endings, 'cxpoii' - 'crpoHXb' (build - to build). By this, Grinberg's tendency to further

amplify a restriction becomes apparent. By the capitalisation of the first letter of the

word ' E A H H L I H ' (United), an allusion is made to the leading political party Eduncm

Poccm (United Russia). As a result, the poem is a political satire, by which Grinberg

proclaims the uniformity of a political party as well as social organisations in Russia,

comparing them to feudalism.

To conclude, Grinberg's pyccKuu myioe are word-play texts on a wide range of

subjects relevant for the author. They are short poems of four lines, close to chastushki,

ironically reflecting the events of the global world in the life of an individual. By using

this form, Grinberg demonstrates his aspiration to investigate formal techniques and

further narrow a restriction.

5.2.2.4. Elimination of lexical classes

In the next formal restriction, Grinberg follows the technique proposed by Oulipo

member François Le Lionnais, who wrote a poem without nouns, verbs and adjectives

(Bonch-Osmolovskaya 2009, 398-399). The Lionnais' poem La rien que la toute la again

becomes a stimulus for Grinberg to surpass it, creating a poem based on the same

229

restriction in Russian. The aim of tlie author was to create a genuine lyrical poem, not just

a word-game exercise (http://grinberg-boris.livejoumal.com/354026.html):

COHET a JIA Jle JIHOHHC

KaK 6yAT0 CHoea xaivi, rjxQ Bce He xaK, NOCKOJIBKY ece Moe H TEK GO MHOH,

r^e HHKoro, jiHuib TBI, H TO Haomynb, HJIH BO MHC, TOR a B005me Ha KOH' (H xopomo xoTb, HTO He naxomaK, Bce TO, HTO BHC? H BoponeM, HE Bcepbes, HO

Kor;ia He naxomaK, KyAa KaK npome!) H BHe ce6ii. Bo3mo}kho noTOMy,

Bce HHMero, HO ecjiH e^KCHOMNO HTO MHC ne no ce6e. H H no KOMy. Ha Bce HCTbipe, H nasa^ - HHKaK, Bcer^a ne pano. HHKor;ia ne N03;iH0. VyK JiyHuie cpasy HaBSHHHb... Ho noKa Eme HEJIB3II. Bepnee XAK - ne MO>KHO!

(Sonnet a la Le Lionnais. As if again there, where everything is not right, / Where there is nobody, just you, and even so only by touch, / (And it's good at least, that not on an empty stomach, / When not on an empty stomach, it is so much easier. // It's all not bad, but if it's going every night, / On all fours, and impossible to go back, / Then better at once on your back... But so far / it's still impossible to do it... or rather you just can not! // Because all mine is with me anyway, / Or in me, then what is it all for, / All that which is beyond? I am, however, not serious, but //1 am beside myself Possibly because / I'm not feeling well myself Nor anybody. / It's always not early. It's never late)

The poem is written in four stanzas, two by four and two by three lines, in six-feet

iambus which is traditional sonnet metric, with a rhyme scheme AbAb bAAb CCb

DDb, which is one of the varieties of sonnet rhyming schemes. The vocabulary of the

poem is determined by rejection of main word classes that leads to rejection of subjects

and actions. Grinberg uses a number of pronouns: 'xaivi' (there), ' see ' (everything),

'HHKoro' (nobody), 'TLI' (you); adverbs: 'cHoea' (again), 'Haomynb' (by touch),

'xopomo' (good), 'naxomaK' (on an empty stomach), 'npome' (easier); particles: 'KaK'

(as), ' 6 Y A T O ' (if), ' r / ie ' (where), ' ne ' (no), 'xaK' (so), ' j inmb' (just), 'H XO' (and even

so), 'Ky^a KaK' (so much), 'xoxb' (at least); conjunctions: 'H ' (and), 'HXO' (that), 'Kor^a'

(when) and other words for the following stanzas. Grinberg uses these words both in

strict senses and referring to known idioms and locutions as, "na ece nexbipe" (on all

fours), "He no ce6e" (not feeling well myself), "BHC ceGa" (beside myself), "HA KOH"

(what for) and other forms of speech. Some words are used in a figurative sense as

'Haomynb' (by touch) in the sense of 'by guess', and 'HaB3HHHb' (on your back) in the

sense 'to give up \ In some cases, Grinberg correlates strict and figurative senses of the

phrases, "He no ce6e'' - "HH no KOMy" (Not feehng oneself - not feeling anybody). By

the phrase "see Moe H xaK co M H O H " (All mine is with me anyway), he refers to the

Latin proverb Omnia mea mecum porto (All that's mine I carry with me. Latin). This

broad vocabulary of words of limited lexical classes, together with references to idioms

and proverbs and the relationship of the strict senses of the phrases to the figurative,

allows Grinberg to succeed in creating an expressive poem based on this strictest

literary constraint.

The content structure of the sonnet (thesis - antithesis - synthesis) is obeyed

roughly. In the first stanza, which should provide a thesis, Grinberg expresses the

doubtful state of mind leading the lyrical hero of the poem to meditate on the future. In

the second stanza, which should be the antithesis, Grinberg, through the words of his

lyrical hero, proclaims the will to surrender and die and immediately prohibits himself

weakness: "Bepnee xaK - ne MO>KHO!'' (Or rather you just can not!). In the first tercet,

which should be the beginning of the synthesis, Grinberg still questions the purpose of

life, and only in the last tercet, he concludes the meditations with resoluteness to

continue the poetic duty.

Concluding, Grinberg uses an extremely strict constraint as a tool to meditate on a

subject of major significance. In addition to the experimental technique, Grinberg also

follows the traditional prosody of a sonnet, though mostly on a formal level of stanza,

metre and rhyme, deviating from the accepted 'thesis - antithesis - synthesis' scheme.

As a result, an expressive lyrical poem of accurate poetic structure and understandable

meaning is created.

By these combinations of restrictions found in multiple literary sources, together

with conventional poetic methods, Grinberg becomes able to express the poetic idea he

could not express in conventional prosody alone. The reason for restricting himself in

the most complex constraint is to get rid of surface thoughts and cliched expressions. In

this case, the criteria of literary qualities are changed - what would have seemed a

disadvantage in traditional literature, such as the absence of epithets or specification,

becomes an achievement in fulfilling the restricted technique when done intentionally

for significant poetic purposes.

5.2.3. Re-discovered formal restrictions

In addition to writing in rare forms found in multiple literary sources, such as

ecmpoii, dopanaym, myioe and elimination of the main lexical classes, Grinberg

proposes his own restrictions for the same purpose of finding exact expression for his

poetic thoughts. In some cases, these experimental forms already existed in literature, so

Grinberg re-discovers them independently of the previous authors, for example, writing

by the names of musical notes and in monovocalism restriction.

5.2.3.1. Phonic accordance with the names of musical notes

A musical note poem is a poem written in words that all are combined by the

names of musical notes, - 'cojib' (fa - sol): '(jDacojib' (bean). A similar restriction

was used by Georges Perec for the distich following an ascending and descending note

sequence (Oulipo 1973, 114):

Dors, hemi-face au lacis d'eau Docile a sol, femme ire et d'eau.

(Sleep! Half-face in water net / Obedient to soil, fierce woman from water)

In Russian experimental poetry, this form was used to some extent by A. Fedulov

in the poem C JIEFATO (With legato, quoted in Fateeva 2003), though in contrast to

Perec and Grinberg, Fedulov does not apply the restriction to the overall poem.

Grinberg, at the time when he re-discovered this restriction, was unfamiliar with

Oulipo's experimentation, and therefore worked independently creating, a short poem

on this formal technique (Grinberg 2008a, 101):

OAPE /^ojiji ^o MH(j)a: OaCOJlb - A0JI5IMH, CoJlb - MHJIHMH.

(TO A HEADLIGHT. Fate to myth: / beans by parts, / salt by miles)

Phonically, here a sequence of notes is reproduced: ' fa ' , 're' , 'do' , ' la' , 'do' , 'mi' ,

' fa ' , ' fa ' , 'sol ' , 'do ' , ' la ' , 'mi ' , 'sol ' , 'mi ' , ' la ' , 'mi ' . Due to extremely limited

vocabulary defined by the restriction, the meaning of this three-line poem is obscure.

The poem can be interpreted as a dedication to a creative person expressed

metaphorically as a figure spreading light around himself, '{})ape' (to a headlight). The

destiny (aojiji, fate) of this person is described metaphorically as becoming a legend (ao

MH4)a, to myth), whereas everyday life consists of limited provision (4)acojib - /lOJiiiMH,

beans by parts) and exceeding the suffering experience (cojib - mhjihmh, salt by miles).

As the poem is written in musical notes' combinations, the aural aspect is implied, so

Grinberg extends features of the poem by adding a pronounced sound component. Also,

in the publication of the poem, a visual aspect was added by Grinberg's co-author

Svetlana Suvorova presenting a poem in a musical score defined by the words (Grinberg

2008a, 101):

'''t^jj JJM I r J

Uli.

Concluding, as Grinberg proposed this technique with an intention to investigate

the possibilities of language, he indeed found the meanings hidden in habitual words

and their combinations; that is, to use the terminology of Oulipo, disclosed the

potentialities of the language. By this unique technique, Grinberg created a short poem

consisting of verbal, sound and visual components with a recognisable meaning. The

topic of the poem is elevated, as it concerns the fate of the poet, although, to understand

the meaning, the reader should work on the restriction and figurative senses of the

words of the poem.

5.2.3.2. Monovocalism as an amplification of the lipogram technique

Monovocalism is an extremely difficult restriction, consisting in the use of only

one vowel in the text (see Chapter 2). In Russian literature, it was practised by a

limited number of authors since the baroque era when it became known in Russia as

a poetic technique. In contemporary Russian poetry, monovocalisms are practised by

Grinberg only, who re-discovered the restriction and created a number of poems

with it. In his publications, Grinberg names these works ¿unepjiunozpaMMu (hyper-

lipograms), so they have became known by this name among contemporary

researchers (Chudasov 2007). The procedure of giving names for newly proposed

restrictions is popular among the authors practising experimental poetry, as was

already mentioned in Chapter 2. This leads to multiple names for the same

experimental technique. The reason for this is in the narrow knowledge of the

history of experimental techniques even among its authors. In my opinion, the term

aunepjiunoepaMMa does not define the restriction correctly as it does not specify the

number of letters used, nor their character. In contrast, the term monovocalism

precisely determines that restriction by specifying the number of vowels used in the

text, limiting them to one only. This restriction is already known by this name in the

history of European literature, and by Russification of this name, in Russian

combinatorial literature as 'Bnpiii e/tHHorjiacHtiii' (one-vowel verse, in Old

Slavonic, Velichkovsky 1972, 75).

Grinberg has written a series of monovocalisms on every vowel of the Russian

language except of 'y' (ui) and 'a ' (ya). Grinberg has also written monoconsonantisms,

poems of a similar technique, limiting the number of consonants used in text to one

only. He wrote thirteen monoconsonant poems on letters '6' (b), 'B' (V), 'A' (d), 'K' (k),

'ji' (1), 'M' (m), 'H' (n), 'p' (r), 'c ' (s), 'T' (t), 'x' (kh), 'H' (ch), 'm' (sh), 'ui' (sch).

Grinberg implements the restriction over the whole poem, including the title. Thus, a

monovocalism on the vowel 'o' (o) is named " T O J I L K O O " (Only O), a monovocalism on

the vowel 'bi' (ui) is named "BbiMbicjibi bl" (Figments Y) and similarly for the other

poems. That is, not only is the topic of the poem proposed by the title, but also a clue is

given to the formal restriction used.

Grinberg achieved significant poetic expressiveness with this form, which led me

to conducting a detailed analysis of several poems in this section. I will present these

short poems in the order of increasing poetic expressiveness, from virtuosity practice to

open declamation of the author's thoughts and inner feelings.

The following monovocalisticpoem is written with only the vowel 'HD' (yu):

TPIOK C «IO» ribK) 6pK)T, BblOCb, 3JlK)Cb.

nJlK)K) B KpiOK. \OJI\0, BbK)Cb...

I O H , JIK)T B b i o r 5JIK)3.

J1K)6JIK) lor! Cnjiio? CHiocb?

(A trick with 'yu' //1 drink brut, /1 spit on hook, /1 am young, fierce, /1 love south! //1 am struggling, I am angry. /1 am bustling, whirling about... / Blues of blizzards. / Am I sleeping? Or a subject of a dream?)

The letter 'lo' (yu) is rare in Russian language, so the eight-line poem with only

this vowel becomes an exercise in the author's poetic virtuosity. Here, Grinberg again

235

tends to observe traditional prosody. The metre of the poem is close to brachicolon as

an extremely short line of two or three syllables alternately. This short metre is not

typical for Russian poetry, though it is used in experimental poetry; for example, in

Bryusov's Sonnet ( 1 8 9 4 ) , "SnrsarH / BOJIHBI / OxBarH / nojiHbi . . ." (Zigzags / Of waves

/ Are full of / courage...). In Grinberg's short poem, all rhymes are male: 'Gpioj' -

' JIK)T' (brut - fierce), 'KPJOK' - (hook - south), 'SJIIOCB' - 'ebtocb' - ' 6 J I I 0 3 ' -

'cHKDCb' (angry - whirl - blues - sleeping) which is also rare in Russian poetry. The

rhyming is crossing in the first stanza and identical, as a monorhyme, in the second

stanza. The topic of the poem is the contraposition of a carnival to everyday life. The

attributes of a carnival are joy, youth as the time of joy and the south. By mentioning

'6pK)T' (brut) the allusion is made to a sort of champagne made in Crimea near the

Black Sea since the nineteenth century, so the south is identified as the place where

Soviet people spent their vacations. In contrast, the attributes of the everyday life of the

protagonist are anger (BJiiocb, being mad), vanity repetitions (6biocb - Bbiocb, struggle

on - whirl) and north (sbiora, blizzard). In the last line of the poem, the lyrical hero is

confused by the appearance of these sides of existence, whether he is in the first state

remembering the second, or vise versa, as the lyrical hero either sleeps dreaming of the

past, or lives dreaming of the future, with no definite answer on the present state and on

the subject of his dream. In this sense, the poem approaches a Zen riddle about a sage

Zhuangzi who saw a butterfly in his dream and could not tell upon waking if he is a

butterfly dreaming of being a sage, or a sage dreaming of being a butterfly. That is, in

the poem, Grinberg presents a whirl of changes: physically, from south to north, and

psychologically, from joy of vacation to everyday problems. The whirl is turning

constantly, making it impossible to distinguish which is the reality: ' 'CNJI IO? CHIOCB?"

(Am I sleeping? Or a subject of a dream?). In brief, in a short poem on an extremely

strict constraint, Grinberg expresses his feelings, providing emotional and intellectual

messages which reflect the realities o f common life and simultaneously alludes to the

known Zen paradox. A s a result, a double perception o f the poem is possible, such as an

interpretation o f personal experience and a mind game of endless superposition o f

meanings.

The fo l lowing poem is a monovocalism on • h ' (i):

JlHLUb «H»

CnHT HMJlHrpHM H BHUHT THXHH MHp. MHP AHKHX CHHHX OTHU H THOKHX .IHJIHH. H h JIHHKHX JIHU-JIHHHH, HH HCTHH, HH npHMHH. HH JIHUJHHX JIHHHH. KnnHT npHJlHB npHJlHOHMB H KpHKJlHB. XpHHHT. JlHUIMBlUHCb nHLUH, XJlMnKHH XHIUHHK. H >KH3Hb KHUIHT. JlHUJb nHJlHrpHM OpHTHX... CnHT HHJlHrpHM. COH, OHJlHrpHM.

(Only 'e ' // A pilgrim sleeps and dreams of a quiet world, / A world of wild blue birds and supple lilies. / No sticky faces-masks, no verities, no reasons. / No excess lines. / An adhesive and flashy tide is boiling. / A weak predator is wheezing without food, / And life is swarming, while a pilgrim is quiet... / Pilgrim is sleeping. Sleep, pilgrim.)

The poem is written in one stanza consisting o f eight lines o f regular iambic

pentameter except for the fourth line which is written in two feet iambus (Hh j ihu ihhx

j i hhhh ; N o excess lines) and the eighth line which has a spondee on the third foot ( C h h t

OHJiHrpHM. CnH, HMJiHrpHM; Pilgrim is sleeping. Sleep, pilgrim), representing the

change in the virtual picture and the concluding decline o f the poem. The rhymes are

crossing and accurate ( j ih j ihh - j ihhhh . lilies - lines), or assonant (mhp - npHHHH.

KpHKJiHB - npHTHx; pcacc - causes, blatant - besides). Altogether, this metre is similar

to conventional Russian poetry o f the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In addition to

the main assonance on ' h ' (i), Grinberg uses multiple alliterations, on ' n ' (p): 'cnHT"

(sleeps), ^nHjiHrpHM* (pilgrim), 'nTHu' (birds). MHHKHX' (sticky). 'npHHHH' (reasons).

' k h o h t ' (boiling), 'npHJiHE" (tide). 'npH.iHBHHB' (adhesive). 'xpHnHT (wheezes).

'oHmH' (food), 'XJIHOKHH- (weak). -npHTHx- (quiet). 'cnH' (sleep), altogether eighteen

237

sounds; on ' J I ' (1): 'NNJIHRPNM' (pilgrim), ' J IHJIHH' (lilies), ' J IHHKHX' (sticky), 'JIHU'

(faces), ' J IMHHH' (masks), ' JIMUIHHX' (excess), ' J IHHHM' (lines), 'NPHJIHE ' (tide),

'npHJiHBHHB' (adhesive), 'KPHKJIMB' (flashy), ' JIHUIHSIUHCB' (without), 'XJINNKHN'

(weak), ' J IHUJB' (while), altogether seventeen sounds; and on 'x ' (kh) - ' K ' (k): 'THXHH'

(quiet), 'AHKHX' (wild), 'JIHUJHMX' (excess), 'KHNNX' (boiling), 'KPMKJIHB' (flashy),

' X P H O H T ' (wheezes), 'xjinnKHii' (weak), 'XHU^HHK' (predator), 'KHUJHT' (swarming),

' n p H T H x ' (quiet), altogether fifteen sounds. By these contrasting voiced and voiceless

consonants, Grinberg creates a repetitive juxtaposition of the dream of the protagonist, a

pilgrim in search of an unnamed spiritual goal and the material world raging for

subsistence around him. As the specific goal of the pilgrim is not named, it is the

archetypical Eden with beautiful plants and animals, beyond the fight for life. The

uniqueness of this world has already been declared by the title of the poem: " J IHUIB H "

(Only 'i '). In contrast to the cause-effect continuum of the material world, the universe

of the pilgrim's dream is everlasting: "HH HPHMHH" (no reasons). The truths as human

explanations of the inexplicable are also absent in this universe: "HH HCTHH" (no

verities). The presented attributes of spiritual meditation are silence (THXHH, quiet) and

beauty (AHKHX CHHHX HTHU H PHGKHX JIHJIHH, wild blue birds and supple lilies), while

the attributes of the material world are loudness (KPHKJIHB, loud), danger (XHU;HMK,

predator) and obtrusiveness (JIHHKHX, sticky; NPHJIMB NPNJINNMHB, tide is adhesive).

On the whole, the poem is a detailed metaphor of a poetic search for external

virtues undertaken in contrast to material welfare. In the last line, Grinberg encourages

the lyrical hero as the author's alter-ego to continue the vision of an immaterial world,

then possibly following the path of the pilgrim regardless of the danger and temptations

of the material world.

The following poem is a monovocalism on 'e' (e):

...B nepeMCHe MCCT, OepeMCHe jiex, He Te6e - Kpecx, He Te6e, HCT, Tex CBeMeii, nen Hepe3 Bcex ceex... He Te6e, nepeb. He Te6e, CMep;;...

...3Aecb, TAe Her uepKBeii, r^^e MeneTeH Hex, B cepeôpe eexeeH SejieHeex ceex...

BE3/],E E (oxpbiBKH H3 n03Mbl) ...B 6e3;iHe AHeii, He^ejib, B Mepe^e CMepxen, Tex, Meii CMex - cBexeji... r^e xenepb see? Texc KeM BMecxe neji... Tex xenepb Hex. VjxQ ôjiecxeji CHer -Heneji...

...He Heôec ceHb, He Mepxeii Mecxb, Ecxb CBeneH ceivib, CeMb cBeHeH ecxb. He AepeB xeHb, He MeneH ÔJiecK, Ecxb CBeneH ceMb. CeMb CBeneH ecxb. He nepexepnexb, Mne xenepb - Heneivi. BMecxe jierne nexb. BMecxe - CMepxb Jierne,

( 'E' everywhere (fragment of the poem) // In the change of places, / Change of years, / The cross is not for you, / Not for you, no, / Those candles, whose / Light is through everything... / It is not for you, worm. / Not for you, serf... // Here, where there are no churches, / Where there are no mosques, / In the silver of branches / Light is greening... // In the abyss of days, weeks, / In the chain of deaths, / Of those, whose laugh is light, / Where are they all? / Those with whom I sang together... / They are absent now. / Where snow was bright / Now only ashes... // Not the canopy of heavens, / Not the revenge of the devils, / There are seven candles, / Seven candles are there. / Not the shadow of trees, / Not the shine of swords, / There are seven candles, / Seven candles are there. / It's impossible to overcome, / I cannot now, / It is easier to sing together. / Together, the death is easier...)

The poem consisting of thirty-two lines is written in traditional prosody - trochaic

trimeter with frequent spondees in the second foot: "He xeôe - Kpecx, / He xe5e, Hex"

(The cross is not for you, / Not for you, no), with strong endings 'MCCT' (places), 'jiex'

(years), 'Kpecx' (cross), 'nex ' (no) and cross rhyming 'MCCX' - 'Kpecx' (places - cross),

'jiex' - 'cBex' (years - light); 'neii ' - 'Mepsb' (whose - worm); 'ceex' - 'cMepA' (light -

serf). Trochaic trimeter is less used in Russian poetry than dimeter or tetrameter, but it

is customarily presented, for example, in Afanasy Fet 's verses. Continuous strong

endings are also uncommon, as usually the alternance rule is obeyed, by which strong

and weak endings are alternated, though this is not extremely unusual either. Poems

with continuous strong endings can be found among the poetry of most popular classics

of Russian poetry such as Pushkin 's VSHUK (Prisoner), Lermontov's Mijhipu (Mtsuiri),

Tsvetaeva 's Cmon (Table).

The topic of Grinberg's poem is a spiritual search resulting in Jewish religious self-

identification. In the first stanza, sounds of the whistling wind are reproduced by rich

alliterations on sibilant sounds, 'c' (s) and 'h' (ch): 'Tex cBeneH, nePi H Hepes Bcex

CBCT..." (Of those candles, whose / Light is through everything). This alliteration is

combined with cardinal assonance on 'e' (e). The keyword for the first stanza is 'Kpecx'

(cross), which provides Christian spiritual meaning. Other nouns are 'CBCMH' (candles),

'cBex' (light), 'nepBb' (worm), 'cMep^' (serf), that belong to the same associative set. At

the semantic level, contrasting high-spiritual and material subjects are presented: 'Kpecx'

(cross) and 'CBCX' (light) for the first aspect and 'HcpBb' (worm) and 'cMepA' (serf) for the

second. The spiritual subjects are clearly detached from the material, not destined for

human beings: "ne xe6e" (Not for you). Another interpretation is possible - a refusal of

Christian belief by the lyrical hero in the search of the truth. By the second stanza,

remoteness from religious institutions is emphasised by the absence of churches and

temples of any denomination. Light perceived in the first stanza as a divine attribute now

becomes a natural source as lunar light illuminating the emptiness of nature, devoid of the

signs of the Divine presence. In the third stanza, the whiteness of snow is changed to

blackness and greyness of ashes. On the whole, the light shining through the youth of the

protagonist of the poem becomes a fire and then fades, when the joyful days of happiness

(nepe^a AHCH, series of days; BMCCXC neji, sang together) are over, and death is

approaching. Death has already taken some of the close friends and relatives of the

protagonist (nepe/^a CMepxeii, series of deaths). At this time, the lyrical hero is at the

turning point of his life, finding only the endless abyss of the past years (6e3AHa AHCH ,

He;^ejib; abyss of days, weeks). By the fourth stanza, the lyrical hero discovers his

spiritual identity, and through it, a hope for the future. As the third stanza is finished

abruptly by the two-syllable word "neneji..." (Ashes ...), the fourth stanza begins as a

continuation of a broicen line after a pause with words "...He He6ec ceHb ..." (Not the canopy of heavens). Candles, that were totally strange for the protagonist at the beginning, became significant for him as now they exist: 'ecTb' (are). The line "ceMb CBeHeii ecTb" (There are seven candles) is repeated four times with reinforcing inversion during the fourth stanza representing Jewish religious tradition. Refuting natural beauties (AepeBbH, trees), noble deeds ( M C M H , swords) and Christian posthumous apparition (He H e 6 e c ceHb, / He HepxeH Mecxb; Not the canopy of heavens, / Not the revenge of the devils), the lyrical hero approaches death following the Jewish tradition and now pronounces (nexb, sing) not a joyful song of life but a song of death, at last accepting it.

The last monovocalism analysed here is poem on 'o' (o):

TOJlbKO "O"

CxojibKO BonpocoB, cxojibKO, Fopoa o6poc norocxoM, Hxo XOXb B OKHO rOJlOBOH. T O H H O KOpOCTOH njioxb. nOJlHOHb, XOXb BOH BOJIKOM. KopOXKO Jib, AOJIPO Jib, npOCXO Jib, nOJlHOMb, XOXb BOJIKOM BOH CjlOKHO Jib - C X060H rOCnOXlb.

X O J I O ^ H O , 3J10, npOMOSrJlG. rojioc B ropjio O C K O J I K O M ,

Fopo/l npo;ipor, npoMOK. C J I O B H O K O M O K B / I O X .

H X O Xopomo - X O N 0 3 ; I H 0 , O , CKOJlbKO C J I O B ! CKOJlbKO! Hxo njioxo - xo X O H H O B cpoK. Ho xojibKO O A H O - Bor!

K O J I O K O J I C M O J I K rp03H0, rp0M0n0;i06H0 CMOJIK. Ho CKOpO BOCXOK P030H. P030B0H p030H BOCXOK.

(Just 'o' // So many questions, so many / might as well jump in the window head forward. / Midnight, you can howl as a wol f / Midnight, as a wolf you can howl. // It is cold, vicious, dank. / City is chilled, soaked. / All the good things are late, / All the bad things are exactly on the dot. // City is overgrown by graveyard, / As flesh by scabs. / Whether it's shortly, or not for a long time, either simple, / or difficult - God is with you. // Voice in the throat as a splinter, / Breath as a lump. / Oh, how many words! How many! / But just one word for God! // A bell fell terribly silent, / Fell thunderously silent. / But soon the east will become a rose, / Pink rose will be the east)

In the twenty-line poem, Grinberg glorifies God and his might as was done in the

early combinatorial poetry of the Middle Ages. The poem of five four-line stanzas is

written in the accentual metre with three stresses in a line. Rhymes are crossing with

alterations of male and female endings (CTOJIBKO - BOJIKOM, SO many - wolf, female;

rojiOBOH - Boi i , head - howl, male). The topic of the poem is the contrast of the

multiplicity of human beings and the uniqueness of God. By repetitive rhetorical

exclamations "CKOJIBKO!" (SO many!), Grinberg points with passion to the multiplicity

of material objects and thoughts of the lyrical hero. This multiplicity seems to be a

pressure for the lyrical hero seeking uniqueness and exactness. As a result, the lyrical

hero finds it in the presence of God. The thesis of the uniqueness of God (TOJIBKO OAHO

- Bor, just one word for God) is emphasised by the title of the poem: 'TOJIBKO ' O ' "

(Just 'o ') . The vowel 'o ' (o) graphically represents a circle which in Pythagorean

tradition was a perfect shape designating divine attitude. That is, the graphic of the

poem also is connected with its message. To the end of the poem, through the

inconstancy of multiple sorrows and disasters of the world, the lyrical hero finally finds

hope, "POSOBOH P 0 3 0 H BOCTOK" (pink rose will be the east) in faith in God supporting

his people, "c TO6OH FocnoAb" (God is with you). The 'east' here represents not just the

natural cardinal point of the sunrise, but the sacral point for addressing a prayer.

Therefore, the poem is an anthem to the presence of God in humanity.

To summarise the analysis of monovocalistic poems, Grinberg follows this

restriction in numerous poems of significant expressiveness. The topics of his works are

high spiritual subjects such as self-wishes for poetic searches, meditations on the

inevitability of death and an expression of the author's faith in a unique and mighty

God. Using an extremely strict letter constraint, Grinberg uncovers profound thoughts

and feelings in the poems of distinguished prosodic qualities.

5.2.4. Discovering and development of unique formal restrictions

The strictest constraints created by Grinberg through the modification and

ampHfication of existing forms include initial-ending tautogram, tautomonovocalism and

a unique form made by unification of internal tautogram and a variation of the aeration

restriction proposed by Oulipo. When applying these restrictions, Grinberg searches for

poetic virtuosity and an exact expressiveness of his texts. Some of these practices come in

series, whereas other restrictions are fulfilled singularly due to the strictness of the

restriction. Meanings of the texts based on these restrictions can be vague, though it can

be disclosed through an in-depth literary analysis without additional assumptions. This

withdraws these texts from riddle and word-game poetry as well as sacral esoteric writing,

to the realm of pure poetry. In these poems of extreme poetic virtuosity and deep

expressiveness, Grinberg confirms Oulipo's thesis of the intensification of the

expressiveness of the text by literary restriction (Le Lionnais 1973, 23-27).

5.2.4.1. Initial-ending tautogram restriction as an amplification of tautogram

As described in Chapter 2, tautogram is a letter restriction in which all words of a

text start with the same letter. In European languages, the restriction is usually applied

only to the words of the main lexical classes, whereas in the Russian language the

restriction should be applied to all words of the text. Texts on the restriction are easy to

produce, so there are a number of lengthy texts, mostly in prose, based on this form

(Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 230-242). In order to increase the complexity of the

form of tautogram, Lukomnikov proposed the form of initial-ending tautogram (Fedin

and Lukomnikov 2002, 230) for which both initial and ending letters of all words of the

text are required to be the same. As Grinberg mentioned in the interview, the idea to

write poems based on this restriction appeared when he found Lukomnikov's poem to

be of insufficient poetic quality and only ato demonstration of the technique (B

Grinberg 2007, pers. comm., 8 November). Therefore, Grinberg wrote several initial-

ending tautograms to fulfill the restriction with poetic content.

For the epigraph of one of the poems, he took Lukomnikov's short initial^nding

tautograms, "06jiaKo oxnjibijio oahhoko" (A cloud floated away lonely, Lukomnikov,

in Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002, 230), in this way demonstrating his appreciation for the

findings of the inventor of the form:

OGpbWJio (HJIH "3MHrpauHJi") 06jiaKO OTOJibijio OAHHOKO ... Fep.MaH JlyKOMHUKoe

06ecKp0BjieH0 o6mecTBo, o6HHmajio OxeHecTBo, 06o>Krjio, oSropejio, ocxaeHJio - OTMecxBO. Ono3;iajio, o / IHAKO, OHO. OnpoMcxHHBo ...

OxnycxHjio OXOXHO . . . O K H O . O/IMHOMCCXBO . . .

(Sick and tired, or Emigration // A cloud floated away lonely (German Lukomnikov) // The society is drained of blood. Fatherland is impoverished, / Paternity has burnt, got burnt, left. / Though it was late. Thoughtlessly... / It let go will ingly. . . Window. Loneliness.. .)

Within the limits of restricted vocabulary defined by the restriction, Grinberg develops

the idea of'o/tHHonecxBo' (loneliness) already provided by Lukomnikov's phrase (oahhoko,

lonely). By meditation on the phrase "oGjiaKO oxnjibiJio oahhoko" (A cloud floated away

lonely) together with the vocabulary findings, 'oGuiecxso' (society), 'OxenecxBo'

(Fatherland), the theme of emigration emerges in the poem. The subtitle '3MMrpauH5i'

(emigration) is provided in brackets, as it does not accord with the restriction, though

Grinberg needs it to clarify the topic of the poem. The neuter gender of the words

'OreMecxBo' (Fatheriand), 'oGmecxeo' (society) leads to the demanded verbs ending on 'o'

(o) for the fulfillment of the restriction, 'oGecKpoBJieHo' (drained of blood), 'oGnHuiajio'

(impoverished), 'o6o>Krjio' (burnt), 'o6ropejio- (got burnt), 'ocxaBHJio' (left), 'oxnycxHJio'

(let go). The verb in the title of the poem is used in impersonal form, ^o5pbWJio' (sick and

tired), providing a description of the psychological status of the lyrical hero. Altogether, the

verbs are eight of seventeen words in the poem. The other words are adverbs: -onpoMeTHHBo'

(thoughtlessly), 'OXOTHO- (willingly): nouns: -OTHECTBO' (paternity), 'OKHO ' (window).

•o/LHHOHECTBO' (lowHness); pronoun: 'OHO ' (it): particle: 'ojxHaKo' (though). The only active

verb is placed in the epigraph of the poem. 'OTn.ibLno' (moved away), marking the process of

emigration. All other verbs are in passive form expressing the passive behaviour of the lyrical

hero who is a passive object of the action of the 'OreHecTBo' (Fatheriand): •o6o>Krjio' (burnt).

•ocrasHJio' (left), -oxnycTHJio' (let go). At the end of the poem, the lyrical hero is placed by

the window, 'OKHO. OIIMHONECTBO (Window. Loneliness...). In the beginning of the

poem, the lyrical hero describes his existence in the native land focusing on generalised

objects (society, native land) as presenting suffering from their pressure. In contrast at the end

of the poem, where emigration is described, the noun is specific, 'OKHO ' (window), followed

by the description of the condition of the lyrical hero. 'oiiHHOHecTBo' (loneliness). The

pessimistic tone of the poem could mark it as suicide in despair, confirmed by the title of the

poem (oôpbuuio, sick and tired), as the lyrical hero succeeded in escaping from the native

society, but is incapable of escaping from himself

Another poem on initial-ending tautogram is written on the letter ' y ' (u) (Grinberg

2008a, 107):

ycTaeuieMy YMOJiKHy. yc.ibiiuy y.iHTKV-yAaMy. ynpany ycMeuiKy. yjibiÔKy yipany. VxMbiJiKy yôoroMy yxpy yxpy ... VeasHy, ysHHy. yracHy ... VMpy.

(To the tired //1 will fall silent. I will hear the snail-luck. /1 will hide a grin, lose a smile. / I will wipe away the grin of the wretched morning... / I will get bogged down, fade away, die down... / I'll die)

Again, the topic of the poem is to a great extent defined by the limited vocabulary of

the restriction. As substantives on "y' (u) are often used grammatically in the instrumental

case in the first person, the poem is written as a self-address to 'ycraBiueMy" (tired). Here.

Grinberg arranges the words of this limited vocabulary in an emotionally increasing order,

creating an image of consecutive depression and despair at the evident fatal dénouement. In

the poem, verbs are nine of seventeen words. The verbs are in future tense, in the first

person: 'yMOJiKHy' (will fall silent), 'ycjibimy' (will hear), 'ynpany' (will hide), 'yxpany'

(will lose), 'yrpy' (will wipe away), 'ys^iSHy' (will get bogged down), 'yeany' (will fade

away), 'yracHy' (will die down), 'yivipy' (will die). The other words are nouns: 'yjiHTKy'

(snail), 'yAany' (luck), 'ycMeiiiKy' (grin), 'yjibiÔKy' (smile), 'yxMbiJiKy' (grin), 'yrpy'

(morning); and the only subjective: 'yóoroMy' (wretched). It is worth noting the multiple

synonyms for the word 'smile': 'ycMeujKa' (grin), 'yjibiÔKa' (smile), 'yxMbijiKa' (grin),

though their use in the poem is permanently negative - the lyrical hero hides his own smile

(ynpjiHy ycMeujKy, I will hide a grin; yjibiÔKy yrpany, lose a smile) and moves a smile

away from the face of nature (yxMbiJiKy yóoroMy yxpy yrpy, I will wipe away the grin of

the wretched morning). The lyrical hero is tired of waiting for a brighter life (yjiHTKa-

y^ana, snail-luck) which is still beyond reach as he merely hears it (ycjibiujy, will hear), so

he fades away in miserable circumstances (yôoroe yrpo, wretched morning). He gradually

degrades and dies at the end of the poem (yeiiHy, yracny, yivipy; fade away, die down, die).

As a result, the restriction requiring all words to end on 'y ' (u) provides the topic of the

poem, while it is Grinberg's mastery that allows him to fulfill the topic with poetic content.

To conclude, increasing the complexity of the literary restriction is a regular

method in Grinberg's poetry. He searches for amplification of the form, creating initial-

ending tautogram poems according to the example of tautogram poems and the

definition of the restriction proposed by other experimenting authors. Grinberg writes in

series, exploring the technique for poetic realisation of the form. For the method of

initial-ending tautogram, to a great extent it is the limited vocabulary following from

the technique which defines the topic and content of a poem, so that the same

exploration of the restriction leads to the creation of a text. On the whole, using the

letter restriction, Grinberg condenses the expressiveness of his poems in a way similar

to that proclaimed in Oulipo's manifesto (Le Lionnais 1973, 23-27).

5.2.4.2. Tauto-monovocalism as a combination of tautogram and monovocalism

The next restriction, called tauto-hyperlipogram by Grinberg, is extremely

complex to fulfill and has no precedents in the history of formal literary experiments.

The technique was proposed by Chudasov, Russian poet and researcher of avant-garde

poetry (Grinberg 2008a, 127). As Chudasov accepts the name hyper-lipogram for the

monovocalism restriction in Grinberg's writing, similarly, he proposes the name tauto-

hyperlipogram for its combination with the tautogram form. In my opinion, as the term

monovocalism describes the restriction by using only one vowel in the text more

adequately, the proposed restriction should be similarly called tauto-monovocalism.

Grinberg creates two poems based on this restriction, tautogram on 'c' (s) and

monovocalism on 'o' (o) and tautogram on 'n' (p) and monovocalism also on 'o' (o). I

will analyse here the first of the poems as it has a clear poetic message. The topic of this

poem is a passionate appeal to an alter ego of the author to fulfill his poetic task:

COJIO

COJIO c o p O K - c o p O K c O p O K : C n j i o m H O H c x o r o n o B O H CBOpOH

- C K O p o ! - C K O p o ! ! - C K o p o C K o p o ! C K o p o ! C K o p o ! Cojio!!! CKoporoBopKoti CKOMopoxoe C T O H H O H ,

C B 0 6 0 ^ 0 H C K J l O M H O i i , C J I O B H O C T O H K O H C O H H O H ,

C J I O B H O C T O H , C J I O B H O C O H C B G J I O M H O H - C n O p O C M O J I G T C J I O B G J I O B .

CKOpO CpOK. CXOPOHOH, CTOpOHOH CTOJIBKO CNOPOB, CTOJlbKO CJIOB!

C O p O K C O K O J I O B , C T O C O p O K C J L O K H O C C O 5 O H C J I O B G J I G B G M .

COHMOM CnOJIOXOB - CKGpO CpGK! CJLGBG COJIGBG, CJIGHGBG . . .

CTGH CnGKGHHG, CJIOBGJIGB,

CKBG3b - CTGH,

CpGKGB CGpGK CGpGKGB,

C n G H CBGH!

(SolG // Solo of magpies - forty magpies: / - Soon! - Soon!! - S G I G SGGH!!! // Like a moan like a nasty dream - / Its time is soon. In a bypass, in a bypass / Forty falcons, a hundred

magpies / by a multitude of flashes - the time is coming! I I By solid hundred-head pack / It is soon! Soon! Soon! / By sew patter of skomorokhs, / By quarrelsome freedom, as sappy shot, / Word-catcher is ground quickly. / So many discussions, so many words! / It's so difficult with yourself. Word-catcher. / The word is blearing, is ivory... // Stay still, Word-catcher, / Stay - through, / Though forty forties times, / Sing yours!)

The epigraph of the poem is also a short text by Grinberg. In this epigraph, he

follows a restriction known as K p y ^ o e e p m e H b { k r u g o v e r t e n , circle-twirling), defined in

contemporary Russian experimental literature by Fedin (Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002,

172-177). K p y e o e e p m e u h is a text which becomes a palindrome by uniting the first and

last letters together, thus making a closed circular word or phrase such as 'eaHHa' (bath)

becoming 'BaHHaB', and 'Gpaeo, noeap ' (bravo, cook) becoming 'BpaBonoeapB'.

Similarly, the proposed epigraph "Cojio copOK - copOK cOpoK: / - CKopo! - CKopo!! -

CKopo / Coj io" (Solo of magpies - forty magpies: / - Soon! - Soon!! - Solo soon!!!)

can be enclosed in circlular fashion by uniting the initial and final letters of the phrase;

so starting with the letter ' c ' (s), it is the same text in both directions of reading,

"CojiocopoKCopoKcopoKCKOpocKopocKopocojioC". In the epigraph, the t a u t o -

m o n o v o c a l i s m restriction is also fulfilled as all words start with the same letter ' c ' (s)

and all vowels used in the phrase are ' o ' (o). That is, the strict tautogram-monovocalism

constraint is obeyed for all parts of the poem - the title, the epigraph and the same text.

The poem is written in three stanzas of an unequal number of lines with accentual

metre and pair rhymes: 'CBOJIOHHOH ' - 'cTopoHon' (worthless - in a bypass), 'copoK' -

'cpoK' (magpies - t ime) and so on. The lyrical hero is called 'CJIOBOJIOB' (Slovolov,

Word-catcher) as a metaphor for a poet. Grinberg describes poetic activity as opposition

to chaos by fulf i l l ing the vital task of finding the exact words: "Cnoii CBoii!" (Sing

yours!). This task is of absolute importance for Grinberg as he proclaims it should be

fulfilled in the approaching end of time, or apocalypse: "CKopo cpoK!" (The time is

coming!). The apocalyptic characters presented in the poem are "cOpoK COKOJIOB, CTO

copOK" (forty falcons, a hundred magpies), "cxorojioBaji cBopa" (hundred-head pack),

248

and "cKOMopoxH" (skomorokhs). These personages produce meaningless noise:

"CKOPOROBOPKOH CKOMOPOXOB CTOHHOH" (Sew patter of skomorokhs), "CTOJIBKO

cnopoB, CTOJIBKO CJIOB!" ( S O many arguments, so many words!). In contrast, the

protagonist is ready for the unique creative task: "Cnoii CBOH!" (Sing yours!).

A voice addressing the lyrical hero by the phrase •'CJIO>KHO C TO5OH,

CJIOBOJIOBOM" (It's so difficult with yourself, Word-catcher), is the voice of the creator

of the character, that is the author of the poem and simultaneously, as the lyrical hero is

an alter ego of the author, this voice is of the Creator of the author. By this voice, the

words are inserted into the mind of Slovolov-poet. A complaint is raised at the inability

of Slovolov to find exact expressions, instead operating with blurry words: "CJIOBO

COJIOBO, CJIOHOBO" (The word is blearing, is ivory). In this sense, the restriction used by

Grinberg becomes a tool to find the exact words, avoiding the approximation of

arbitrary (blurry) words. Hence, the lyrical hero should select words in the abundance of

a vocabulary filtered through a strict constraint: "CKBOSB - CTOH" (Stay - through).

In the poem, Grinberg reflects on the fulfillment of his poetic task and on his

responsibility to the Creator. On the other hand, the impact on the reader is not so

important for Grinberg. In contrast to the realistic ideology proclaimed in Russian

poetry in the late nineteenth century by Nikolay Nekrasov, by which a poet should be a

'poet and citizen' (Nekrasov 2006, 86-96) - that is, to fulfill his civil duties by

influencing people (Boiko 1977) - Grinberg does not mention the reader as a subject of

his poetry. Instead, he contrasts himself to the world and his task in it as if in Romantic

tradition, where the figure of the poet is predominantly the focus of Romantic poetry,

though the spiritual meditations on the role of the poet and his Creator are more specific

for the medieval concept of the world existing around its Creator, where the task of the

poet is to praise the world and not himself Also, the accent on the great necessity of

finding the exact words is typical for cabalistic writing in which the world is understood

as a book (Eco 1995, 25-33), so every word is of great importance, reflecting in the

creatures and phenomena of the world.

To summarise, in this extremely complex restriction, Grinberg is attentive to

finding the exact words in the face of the approaching apocalypse. This is proclaimed to

be the final vital task of Grinberg's alter ego, the Slovolov. The task corresponds to

medieval and Hebraic writing rather than to Romantic and realistic writing. That is, by

this passion for word catching and the feeling of approaching apocalypse, Grinberg is

comparable to Cabbalistic sages searching for the true names of God, knowing that by

enumerating them all, the world will come to the end.

5.2.4.3. Combination of the internal tautogram and a metagram restriction

The most complex formal restriction is realised by Grinberg in the following double

poem MFJIA - MFPA (needle - game). For this poem, several restrictions can be disclosed:

internal tautogram restriction named so by Biryukov regarding one of Lomonosov's poems

(Biryukov 2003a, 318-319), anaerobie constraint proposed by Oulipo (Oulipo 1981, 159-

164) and metagram restriction described above in Chapter 4, as a method to unite these

forms in one complex restriction. Internal tautogram is a technique of obligatory use of a

defined letter in each word of the poem. Contrary to ordinary tautogram demanding all

words of the text to start with the same letter, in internal tautogram the repeating letter

appears in any position in the words. Here, Grinberg chooses as obligatory the letter 'p' (r)

for the first poem and the letter 'ji' (1) for the second poem. Anaerobie constraint is a

constraint within the corpus of homophonic transformations proposed by Oulipo. It consists

of the removal of all 'r ' sounds from the text, so the two phrases differ by presence and

absence of the letter 'r ' (Oulipo 1981, 160):

Cette rosse amorale a fait crouler le parterre. - Cet os à moelle a fait couler le pâté.

(This amoral jade made the floor collapse. - This marrowbone made the paté run, French)

By this short phrase, the restriction is specified, whereas Grinberg, unfamiliar with

the practical achievements of Oulipo, writes a lengthy poetic text on a more complicated

restriction. The poem written by Grinberg consists of two symmetrical parts which only

differ in letters 'ji' (1) and 'p ' (r). The method oi internal tautogram is applied for the

poems as the letter 'p ' (r) is in each word of the first poem and the letter 'ji' (1) is in the

second; and anaérobie restriction is used to connect two poems, as all letters 'p' (r) of

the first poem are removed and replaced by the letters 'ji' (1) in the second, changed one

to another and back in the style of a metagram form:

HFPA (pbinapKa) r o p o / i AOPor

06peTH Bexpa ropa, po3i>i 3aropHTecb... CHpbi npaBHjia. Hrpa jKapHT - noKopHTecb!

- Topo;; Harpeex! -JipaHb p>KëT, PacaMH 3peeT XpaM, Bpëx!

Cpe;iH pyua KpecToe BopnaT, FpiiHyT yxpo paa ... PyKH >KapKHe Bpana, KpoHbi BbipesaioT.

MopHTb? OôpeMb? Mepb npbiTb. BnpaBb peHb!

MFJIA (KAJITABBIH BAJIHAHT) CJICAH, Jiyua KJICCTOB,

rojiOA AOJior

OÔJiexH BCTjia rojia, Ji03bi 3arojiHTecb ... CHJibi njiaBHJia Hrjia, >KanHT - noKOJiHxecb!

Fojioil HarjieeT, /^jiaHb ji>KëT, JlacaMH 3JieeT X j i a M BjiëT.

BOJlMaX... FjiflHyx, yxjio Jiaa -JlyKH >KajiKHe Bjiana, KJlOHbl BbIJie3aK)T.

MOJlHTb?

OÔJieHb? Mejib - n j ib iTb.

BnjiaBb - jieHb.

(Game (growling) // The city of roads. Mountain, find winds, / roses, catch fire... / The rules are crippled. Game / is hot - so, resign! // - City is cheating! - / The rabble is laughing, / The church is maturing by cassocks, / It is lying! // They grumble among fleece of crosses, / Burst out the morning of heaven... / Ardent hands of a doctor, / cut out crowns. // To starve? / To condemn? / Don't rush! / Set right the speech! Ill Needle (guttural version) 11 Starvation is long. Lose all your leaves, willow, / Vines, undress yourselves... / Needle fused energy, / It stings - get pricked! // Hunger becomes insolent / Hand lies, / Rubbish on the spot / becomes angry by gossips. // Watch over, moon / of the crossbills, wolf cubs... / They will look, frailly barking - / Dragging wretched bows, / clones come out. // To beg? / To vest? / Shoal to swim. / Lie down by swimming)

In the double subtitle of the poem (PbmapKa, growling; KajixaebiH eajiHaHx,

guttural version) the restriction is not obeyed, so similar to the initial^nding tautogram

on 'o ' (o), the subtitles are needed for Grinberg to clarify the topic of the poem. Also,

by studying the subtitles, it can be concluded that in spite of the seemingly symmetrical

transformation from 'p' (r) to 'ji' (1) and vice-versa, for Grinberg the poem MFPA

(game) was original, while the poem HrJlA (needle) was secondary as a variation

(KajixaBbiH BapwaHT, guttural version) of the first. Therefore, I provide more detailed

analysis of the first poem followed by comparative analysis for the second. The poems

are written in extremely limited vocabulary defined by the strict constraint.

Consequently, it is difficult to understand the meanings of the poems as each word can

be used in multiple senses in multiple associations with other words of the poems.

Hence, a close reading of the poems is necessary to find their interpretation.

In the first poem on 'p ' (r), the principles of classical drama are obeyed, the unity

of time, place and action, as the play should take place over no more than twenty-four

hours, should cover a defined physical space and should have a specific main action. In

this concern, it is worth recallingthat Grinberg works not only in poetry, but in

dramaturgy too, so he is familiar with the rules of dramaturgy and can knowingly apply

them to his poetry. In the first stanza, actions happen at the top of the mountain near the

city in the evening and consist of conspiracy; in the second, they are in the city square at

night and consist of a riot; and in the third, in the city cemetery in the morning and

consist of sorrow; with the coda in a regent's temple, at dawn, representing subsequent

meditation. The meaning of the poem can be understood variably, beginning with the

palindrome subheading ' T O P O f l flOPOP' which can be read either as "city of roads",

or "city is expensive".

The first stanza is written in an alternation of four- and three-feet trochee which is

a common metre of traditional ballads. The static immobile 'ropo/i' (city) is opposed to

dynamic ' jxopom' (roads) from the title of the poem, though these categories are related

as roads converge on the city. The antithesis of statics and dynamics also becomes

apparent in the pair of solid and stable ' ropa ' (mountain) and light and changeable

'eeiep' (wind) that correspond to each other as the strongest wind is blowing at the top

of the mountain: "oôpexH eexpa ropa" (mountain, fmd winds). Metaphorically, it can be

read as a conspiracy against strict rules, "cHpbi npasHJia" (The rules are crippled),

conceived in a hidden place. At the same time, the mountain is the antithesis of the city

as periphery to the centre. The time of the event is evening when wind becomes

strongest in a day's weather cycle. The action is conspiracy as a planning for the

following rebellion: "po3bi BaropHxecb" (Rose, catch fire).

For the second stanza, the metre is changed to less regular accentual verse with

two accents in a line and similar rhythmic structure for even and odd lines of the stanza

connected by rhymes: "ropoA Harpeex" - "pjicaiviH speex" (City is cheating - Maturing

by cassocks), ";ipaHb p>KeT" - "xpaM, epex!" (The rabble is laughing - The church is

lying). This is a culmination stanza when revolt action occurs. The time of action is the

night when fire is brightest: "^panb p>Kex" (The rabble is laughing). A rare word '^paHb'

is used here, which means, according to Dahl's dictionary of the Russian Language,

small planks that are ideal for kindling a fire in the strict sense; and by metonymy,

represents raging beggars. The beggars are in revolt against the monks of the church

described metonymically as 'pacbi' (cassocks). Here, the church is in contrast to

beggars, as order, richness and silence are in contrast to disorder, poverty and noise.

The third stanza is a dénouement, where the poem returns to contemplative

narration. The stanza is rhythmically most uneven and semantically obscure, as it is

difficult to restore order after chaos. The first line is written in accentual verse, while

the following lines of the stanza are written in four- or three-feet trochee returning to the

original metre of the poem, thus demonstrating the return to a normal life order. After

the violent night with storm and fire, the morning comes. The place of action is changed

again to the village cemetery presented by the metonymy of 'Kpecxbi' (crosses) for

graves and 'pyHo' (fleece) for sheep. Due to the uncertainty of accents in the line, the

word 'pyHa' can also be understood as runes, inscriptions on graves, thus increasing the

multiplicity of the meanings. The acting characters are a 'span' (doctor) who operates

on people wounded in the battle, "pyKH epana <...> BupesaiOT" (Hands of a doctor ...

cut out), and a priest who promises heaven to the dead, "rpimyx yxpo paa" (Burst out

the morning of heaven). The word 'KpoHbi' in the fourth line of the stanza can be a

shortening of 'KopoHbi' (crown), so the revolt could be aimed at restoring monarchy

instead of the power of the church, or it can be the word 'krona' as metonymy for

money, as a doctor and priest charge for their services. In any case, the unsuccessful

revolt is over.

The final stanza of the poem is a code, in the new city recreated after the riot,

where the word and the law are going to prevail over instincts and passions (enpaBb

peHb, set right the speech). The fourth stanza is dynamic again, it is written in

brachicolon metre of one-foot iambus. Four of its six words are verbs of rhetorical

questions and imperatives: 'MopHTb' (starve), 'oôpenb' (condemn), 'iviepb' (moderate),

'snpasb' (set right). In the stanza, the regent of the city decides the fate of his people,

"MopHTb? OôpeHb?" (To starve? To condemn?), having chosen a restraint, "Mepb

npbiTb" (Don't rush!). This can be understood as an appeal to the people to abandon

rebellion and simultaneously as an appeal by the regent to refrain from punishing the

rebels, focusing on verbal government only: "BnpaBb penb!" (Set right the speech!).

The second poem differs from the first only by placing the letter 'ji' (1) in the

places of the letters 'p' (r). The poem is less expressive, reflecting the sound changes

from the active roaring sound 'p' (r) to the resonant sound 'ji' (1). The variety of the

poem is also diminished, which is already evident from the title - when 'wrpa' (the

game) involves multiple options for the development of the plot, 'nrjia' (the needle) is

one-dimensional and finite. From the beginning, the meaning of the epigraph is definite,

"rojiOA ;iojior" (Starvation is long), compared to the ambiguous meaning of the

epigraph to the first poem. Therefore, the fiery and rapid development in the first poem

is counterbalanced by the linear movement and fading to passive death in the second.

In the first stanza of the poem, the outer degradation of nature in autumn, ''06jieTH

BeTJia rojia, / Ji03bi 3arojiHTecb" (Lose all your leaves, willow, / vines, undress

yourselves), corresponds to the inner degradation of the lyrical hero of the poem caused

by drug usage: " C H J I B I njiasHJia Hrna, / >KajiHT - noKOJiHrecb!'' (Needle fused energy, /

It stings - get pricked!). Drug usage becomes a cycle in recurring injections determined

by multiple mentioning of connoting words: "Hrjia* (needle), •>KajiHT' (stings),

'noKOJiHxecb' (get pricked). This leads to a passive life for the lyrical hero as described

in the second stanza of the poem. Consequently, the lyrical hero is obedient to suffering

from hunger: "rojio;i Harjieer' (Hunger becomes insolent). The third stanza is devoted

to a description of multiple phantoms: visual. "Cjie^H, Jiyna KJICCTOB, BOJinaT..."

(Watch over, moon, / of the crossbills, wolf cubs), "JlyKH >KajiKHe sjiaHa, / KJIOHU

BbiJiesaiOT" (Dragging wretched bows, / clones come out), as well as aural, ''yxjio jiaji"

(Frailly barking). A fire is presented in both poems, though in the first poem it bums

brightly, "posbi saropHxecb" (Roses, catch fire), "nrpa >KapHT" (Game is hot), whereas

in the second poem it just flickers slightly, "CHJIU NJIABHJIA HRJIA" (Needle fused

energy). Instead of an active category of fire typical for the poem on 'p ' (r), a passive

category of water becomes the main element of the poem on 'n ' (1): 'njiaBHiia' (fused)

connotes a fluid, 'jiyna' (moon) influences natural water tides, and also has an influence

on the lyrical hero. The water category is expressed most strongly in the closing lines of

the poem, "Mejib - njibixb. / BnnaBb - Jienb" (Shoal to swim. / Lie down by swimming),

all related to water. The linear development of the poem leads to an inevitable end as

the lyrical hero submits himself to the water even when the flow is shallow, and dies

passively.

The inter-text accordance is formed around the notion of lies, "xpaM Bpex"

(Church lies) in the first poem and "^JiaHb ji>KeT" (Hand lies) in the second poem. The

difference is in the passiveness of the second poem compared with the activeness of the

first poem - instead of the deeds described in the first poem, only mendacious talk

(jiHcaMH 3JieeT, becomes angry by gossips) occurs in the second.

Concluding, by using only pairs of words with the letters 'p' (r) and 'n' (1), both in

precise literal or figurative meaning, Grinberg composes the grammatically correct

phrases within the overall poetic idea. This is a task seemingly impossible to fulfill,

though Grinberg overcomes it in the search for language virtuosity. By this restriction, the

double text, differing only by substitution of a growling, 'active' letter 'r' in the first

poem and an 'appeased' letter '1' in the second, is created, mostly defined by the limited

vocabulary rather than by the deliberate choice of the author. However, the author is

masterful enough to make the texts distinct in meaning and sentiments - the multi-version

game and passions of the first poem is substituted by the passive fading of the second.

On the whole, by discovering and obeying strict formal constraint, Grinberg sets

himself a poetic task of narrowing vocabulary in order to avoid banal expressions

otherwise suggested by the conventional poetic technique. Through the search for new

poetic restrictions, he searches for the tools to increase the expressiveness of his poetry

in association with the statements of Oulipo, though independently of their ideas.

5.3. Conclusion

In the analysed Grinberg's texts, I presented his poems in increasing order of

rarity of formal restrictions. Through the analysis, the meanings of the poems were

disclosed, sometimes hidden inside texts written in strict formal constraint. Also, for

these poems multiple meanings were shown to be possible, thus increasing the

potentiality of poetry in a style used by Oulipo.

I have shown that the main poetic task for Grinberg who refers to himself as

'Slovolov' (Word-catcher) is to fmd a precise expression of his thoughts and feelings

through the corpus of Russian language. Grinberg understands Russian language as

noticeably wide, so he needs strict formal constraint to avoid ambiguity, thus

condensing the richness and variety of the vocabulary. Grinberg is constantly in search

of new literary restrictions - he studies multiple letter formal techniques, that is, re-

combination and accentuation of definite letters in texts. Grinberg purposely uses one

strict constraint after another, as each form defines a certain restricted vocabulary. He

also tends to further amplify a restriction in order to achieve a more condensed meaning

in a poem. This leads to a series of poems based on unique combinatorial restrictions:

poems with a single vowel, poems based on the identity of the first letters of words, a

sonnet without main lexical classes and other texts.

As it has been demonstrated, in some poems Grinberg achieves extreme Jongleur

virtuosity under the strictest constraint. As such, he creates letter palindromes on

arbitrary sets of words and writes multiple versions of texts on the same palindrome

rhymes. The idea of the similarity of Grinberg's poetic virtuosity to jongleur virtuosity

in a style of medieval troubadour poets, is confirmed by his numerous self-definitions as

a circus artist, mime and acrobat, with the association of unusual combinatorial poetic

techniques and unusual silent expressiveness of mime.

For poems based on strong restrictions, the criteria of literary qualities are changed

- what seemed to be a disadvantage in traditional prosody, for example, phonetic

repetition on junctions of words or absence of specifications, could become an

achievement if proposed by a restricted technique and done for poetic purposes. In these

cases, the structure of restrictions becomes a poetic tool equally important as

conventional poetic techniques for the analysis of a poem. Nevertheless, obedience to

strict forms is a tool not a final aim for the creation of a poem, as Grinberg searches for

poetic expressiveness rather than combinatorial virtuosity as such.

On the whole, Grinberg understands conventional poetic techniques such as

rhythm or rhyme as only minor and too well-explored poetic possibilities, whereas in

his understanding, less studied combinatorial techniques could lead a poet to new

literary discoveries. In this sense, Grinberg only changes the type of restriction from the

more to less explored, when he rejects or amplifies syllabic-accentual methods for

combinatorial techniques. As revealed during the interview, until recently Grinberg was

unfamiliar with similar searches for literary restrictions undertaken by European

experimenting authors such as Oulipo. Nevertheless, his search is surprisingly close to

Oulipo's experimentation by the overall understanding of a restriction as a powerful

literary tool similar to conventional poetic forms used in the past. Also, Grinberg's

poetry is close to Oulipo's practices by the thoroughness of the search for new

techniques. Upon becoming familiar with some works of Oulipo, Grinberg adopts the

proposed restrictions, creating literary works on their bases.

Grinberg succeeds in achieving poetic profundityin several of his poems. In some

cases, the topics of his poems are dictated by their vocabulary being defined by strict

letter restriction. The topics are reiterated - Grinberg repeatedly reflects on the vital task

of a poet, on the essence of the human self and the universe, on the inevitability of death,

and on the presence of God in humanity. In some poems, these topics are expressed in the

style of a paradox or mind game texts, though they are not a game for the sake of the

game, neither are they a form of cipher. On the contrary, Grinberg constantly searches for

the truth, using all possible combinatorial word techniques, which makes his work similar

to Cabbalistic practices in the search for the eternal truth. Grinberg understands the task of

a poet as a dual task of bringing new knowledge from eternity and in safeguarding

knowledge in the face of the approaching apocalypse. This all-embracing poetic task is

undertaken despite the temptations of material welfare, which the author continuously

encourages himself to ignore. The inevitability of death is another topic of Grinberg's

poetry, in which he declares his following of the Jewish tradition. The understanding of

the presence of God in the universe also leads Gringerg's poetry towards Jewish medieval

and contemporary practices. On the other hand, the task of bringing the discovered truth

to the public is scarcely Grinberg's poetic task, as the public is seen as the opposite of a

poet, and the author has no intention to lecture it.

Chapter 6.

Basic combinatorial forms as a means

to express universal creative ideas in Elena Katsyuba's poetry

6.1. Introduction

Elena Katsyuba, an established Russian poet, was born in 1946 in a town in the

Rostov region and studied journalism at the Kazan State University where her interest in

experimental poetry began. Katsyuba is the author of several poetic books: Ceama

(Junkyard, 1995), Kpacuetie ecepda npaebi (Beautiful people are always right, 1999a),

3p-3jib. Cmuxu u cmwcoetie Mymaijuu (R-L. Poems and poetic mutations, 2002a), H?p

pail (Heaven of games, 2003) and Ceudemejihcmeo Jiyubi (Evidence of the moon, 2008).

Katsyuba's poems are found in multiple literary journals and anthologies, including

bilingual editions: La nouvelle poésie russe (Russian-French), Diapazon (Russian-

German), Mysbi: MocKea-UeKUH (Muses: Moscow-Beijing, in Russian and Chinese).

Her two books of palindromes, Jlepebiu najiuudpoMUbiu cjioeapb coepeMeuHoeo

pyccKoao R3biKa (First palindrome dictionary of modern Russian language, 1999b) and

Hoebiu najiundpoMHbiu cjioeapb (New palindrome dictionary, 2002b), are poetic

collections too, despite their appearance in the form of dictionaries listing palindrome

phrases in alphabetic order; as was correctly argued by Biryukov: "BCFOAy óy^ex

0 C 0 3 H a B a T b C 5 i C T H X O B a a n p n p o A a axoro x e K c x a , n o a s H e m e r o c a H3 c a M o r o a 3 b i K a " (The

poetic nature of this text that originated from the language itself reveals universally,

Biryukov 2002). Katsyuba also widely uses alternative publishing possibilities such as

the recording of the author's readings in the audio-book AsôyKa (Alphabet, 2007),

Internet publications including animation (http://flashpoetry.narod.ru/svalka/00.htm)

and video-presentations of her poems (http://video.mail.ru/mail/libel46/727?page=l 1).

Katsyuba is an active participant in literary activities, both in Russian and abroad: she

recites her poetry in multiple poetic festivals including the Sorbonne Russian poetic

reading (2002), the Leipzig book fair (2004), Seminarium hortus humanitati in Riga

(2008), Russian poetry days in Vienna (2009) and other events. Her works were

acknowledged by festivals ^py^ue (The others, 2006), BOJIOUIUHCKUU (Pecmueajib

(Voloshin's festival, 2007) and by journals ^eww Pa (Children of Ra, 2007) and OKHO

(Window, 2008, 2009). Katsyuba also contributes to the development of the

experimental literary movement by acting as an editor of a poetic journal (see Chapter

3). In other words, Katsyuba is involved in numerous aspects of experimental poetic

activity, both as a poet and as a public figure.

Katsyuba's poetry was reviewed by a number of researchers (for example, by

Dzyubenko 2003), with the most insightful analysis made by Biryukov, who attributes

Katsyuba's poetry to the avant-garde (possibly as a result of his own interest in this

movement): "na j inHApoMHHecKne TCKCTbi, b t o m mhcjic m nposa c HcnojibsoBaHHCM

naj iHHApoMHoro cioKexa <. . .> 3 t o AeHCTBHxejibHO aBaHrapAHCxcKHH x o a " (Palindrome

texts, including prose with palindrome plots <.. .> are a truly avant-garde move,

Biryukov 2002). In Biryukov's opinion, Katsyuba investigates the possibilities of word

creation in the Russian language, having found that combinatorial writing is not

random: "npw KOMGHHaropHOM nepepa3Jio>KeHHH cjiOBa bli He mo^kctc npocxo

BbiBajiHBaTb cjiOBa, o h h caMH 3acTaBJiHK)T Bac ACJiaxb HCKOxopbie ycHJiHa, nxoGbi

nepecxpoHXb rpa(j)eMbi b Hy>KHOM nopjiAKe" (For combinatorial reconstruction of words

you cannot just dump them, but the words make you apply some efforts to re-arrange

the graphemes in the desired order, Biryukov 2003b, 269). Biryukov emphasises the

order-disorder associations in Katsyuba's anagram texts: in the world full of errors and

faults, "xBopnecxBO ^aex B03M0>KH0CXb HafixH nopjiAOK b xaoce" (Creativity allows

people to discover order in chaos, Biryukov 2003b, 269). In this sense, by writing more

than 8,000 palindromes in her palindrome dictionaries (Katsyuba 1999, 2002b),

Katsyuba creates a letter code similar to a genetic code by which a body is built:

"OTKPBIBAETCH reHHoe NPOCXPAHCXBO cjiOBa, m TOH nopti 6biBiuee B CBepnyTOM BH/ie"

(A gene space o f a word unfolds itself, which has previously been folded, Biryukov

2002). By this association, Biryukov compares the anagram and palindrome re-

combinations o f letters in a text to combinations o f genes in a living creature. This

similarity was already mentioned in other analytical and fictional works (Golubovsky

2004; Eco 1990).

Katsyuba herself defines her method as jiumeucmmecKuii peaiu3M {linguistic

realism, Katsyuba 2001). For Katsyuba, letter restrictions are a way to become free

from corporeal restrictions as the modification o f letter order in a word transforms in a

way impossible for corporeal transformation: "ocBo6o>K/ieHHe ox npoöJieM, xejiecHoii

CKOBaHHOcxH, peajibHbix 3a5ox" (liberation from problems, from corporeal constraint,

from real concerns, Katsyuba 2001). The goal o f writing Uepebiu najimdpoMHhiü

cjioeapb coepe.MeHHoeo pyccKo^o nsbiKa (Katsyuba, 1999b), as Katsyuba herself

explains it, was to provide the reader with the basis o f creative material, proposing that:

"Ka>K;ibiH HHxaxejib MO>Kex CIIEJIAXB 3xo CAMOCXOHXEJIBHO, BbiJiaBjiMBan ajieivieHxapHbie

npa-(J)opMbi H3 nepB03AaHHoro xaoca" (Every reader can do it individually, identifying

the elementary pre-forms in the primordial chaos, Katsyuba 2001). Katsyuba

understands the creative process as a reproduction of the process o f primary Creation (E

Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July) and permanently raises the question: "ecjiH

BHanajie 6biJio CJIOBO H Bce C O S M H O H3 Hero, xo KaKHM oöpasoM?" (If in the beginning

there was a word, and everything was made o f this word, then how was it done?

Katsyuba 2001). Katsyuba's poetry is a response to this question. By connecting

primary Creation to literary creativity, Katsyuba raises the question o f the nature o f the

Creation, listing possible methods: by a mirror, by 'a ladder', by reverse reading, by

alphabetically ordered words (Katsyuba 2001). In her poems Katsyuba applies poetic

techniques similar to those methods as an echo of the Creation process; that is, she has

developed a metaphysical interpretation of Creation in accordance with her own poetic

techniques. In the further analysis, I will demonstrate that Katsyuba is interested in

combinatorial literary techniques so that new meanings appear by the transformations of

letter order, in a process similar to the creation of new beings by the transformation of

primary substances.

6.2. Analysis of Katsyuba poetry: overall observations on characteristic features of

Katsyuba's poetry

In this chapter, I will analyse several of Katsyuba's poems where her poetic

techniques are presented most distinctly, mostly from the recent collection Map Paü

(Katsyuba 2003) with a focus on its sub-collection of poems Ceama (213-235). Among

the experimental poetic techniques explored by Katsyuba, some basic combinatorial

letter methods become the basis for her study of the essence of words, objects and

phenomena.

Already in the title of the book Hep Paü (Katsyuba 2003), Katsyuba involves the

reader in literary games. The conjunction of identical consonants on the edges of two

words makes the reading of the title ambiguous: as the extended substantive 'wrp pan'

(heaven of games) and as the imperative for the verb 'nrpañ' (play). Consequently,

Katsyuba appeals to the reader, understanding these games as a means for perfection

(heaven of games); and strictly directing the reader to participate in these activities - to

play these games together with the author. The poems in the collection M?p Paü are

arranged in the alphabetic order of their titles: ' A S G Y K A ' (Alphabet), ' A J I X H M H K '

(Alchemist), 'AHTOJiorna ivie^a' (Anthology of honey), 'Aurum', 'BaGoHKa' (Butterfly),

'BJIHSHEUBI' (Twins), ' B J I K ) 3 ' (Blues), 'B 6ape' (In a bar), 'Bajibc UBEXOB' (Waltz of

flowers), ' B e p e c K O B b i H s e x e p ' (Heath wind) and so on. Here Katsyuba follows the

tradition of baroque poetry, including Russian, where a similar alphabetic method of

organising the structure of a poetic collection was accepted; for example, Bepmoepad

MHoeoifeerriHbiu (Multi-coloured orchard) by Polotsky (1678). Katsyuba does not create

any poem titled by letters '-b' (the hard sign), 'bi' (ui), 'b' (the soft sign) a n d ' t ' (the

hard sign), though they are listed in a separate poem: " t , bi*, b // *bl - 3HaK

YMHOJKCHHH. C M . TCKCT ' A 3 6 Y K A ' " (The hard sign, ui, the soft sign // UI -

multiplication mark. See text 'Alphabet', Katsyuba 2003, 209). This poem consists of a

title only and a reference to the poem Aidyxa (Katsyuba 2003, 13), the first poem in the

collection. This is a clear reference to a wider tradition of poems without the body of the

text, with JlosMa Kouija (Poem of the end) by Vasilisk Gnedov written in 1913 (Gnedov

1996) being the most famous one in the Russian futurist movement at the beginning of

the twentieth century.

As I will demonstrate in my research, in Katsyuba's collection of poems there are

some traits that have become known as hypertext features. The contemporary term

hypertext was initially associated with computer and computer communication

technologies (Nelson 1981), though it was also applied to literary texts. In regard to

literature, hypertext is understood as a text which can be read non-linearly, possibly in

multiple ways through a system of inner links, comments and references that are called

hyperlinks (Druk 2009). In literature, hypertext is a text read on several levels of

perception as the traits of the whole text are distinctive for separate sections of the text.

By reading a specific section of a hypertext, the reader can access therelated hyperlinks

and then return to the original text. It will be demonstrated that the collection of

Katsyuba's poems could be considered as a whole with the titles of the poems

connected together so that the lines of some poems refer to and explain the others, and

the structure of a detached poem echoes the structure of the whole book.

In the collection of poems Hep Paii (Katsyuba 2003), hypertext is realised as

separate poems that relate to the whole collection presented in alphabetic order. Several

poems are supplied with comments, thus widening their content. For example, in the

opening poem M^pa ee^epa (Game of the evening, Katsyuba 2003, 9), Katsyuba

supplements the poem with six comments in the form of palindrome phrases to the key

words of the poem: 'paMa' (frame), 'jxEepw (door), '3epKa;io' (mirror), 'KapxHHa'

(picture), 'Ty3' (ace) and 'eexep' (wind). The poem was initially published without the

comments (http://metapoetry.narod.ru/doos/doos001.htm); they were added later to

deepen the understanding of the poetic ideas, so the poem's complexity is increased

through time and the existing poem is developing. The comments to specific words of

the poem, allows Katsyuba to present close interpretations of these words and the whole

poem relating to the title of the book: 'nrpa eenepa' (game of the evening) - 'nrp paii'

(play, heaven of games). In the poem M^pa eenepa (Katsyuba 2003, 9), Katsyuba

demonstrates several basic letter techniques that are widely used later in the book. In

addition to palindrome comments, there are short anagrams, 'rpox coe'-'BOCTopr'

(grotto of owls - delight), a palindrome, 'h Hrp oprHH' (and games of orgies), and the

technique of replacement of letters, ^MHCXHKa-'MOCXHKa' (mystics - bridges), included

into the poem. These techniques are recurrent traits of Katsyuba's poetic style, and

appear in other poems in the book. In this sense, the opening poem represents a whole

collection of poems that could also be considered as a characteristic feature of

hypertext.

The alphabetic structure of the whole collection of poems Hep Pau (Katsyuba

2003) is echoed in the first poem of the collection, AsdyKa (Katsyuba 2003, 13). For one

poem, this restriction is known as an abecedary, presented in Chapter 2 and Chapter 4:

Ajiaa H Bejiaa po3bi - 3to A h B jik)6bh, Aajiee - BoHHaJ^Jias, ^ap Ebbi, }KejiaHHe, 3a6BeHHe, McKpeHHOCTH HOA, KoiuKa JlacKH, MQJX HeBeAeHHfl, OnHyM nouejiya, Pa3opeHHe Ca^a, TbMa YnpcKa, Oap(J)op XpynKocTH, UepeMOHHH MaHHa«, LUenoT h meKa. bl - 3HaK yMHO>KeHHii: po3bI - 6yKBbI. 3HaMHT, nepexoA Ha tbi He CACJiaeT tcGh oahhokhm B po3apHH a36yKH, TAC 3x0 KDthtch H B KOHue BcerAa H.

(Red and White roses are the A and B of love, / then - war of eyes, Eve's gift, desire, oblivion, / iodine of sincerity, pussy cat of kindness, honey of ignorance, / opium of a kiss, destruction of a garden, darkness of reproach, / porcelain of fragility, tea ceremony, whisper and cheek. / UI is a multiplication sign: roses -letters. / Then, changing addressing to 'thou' / won't make you lonely / in the rosary of alphabet, / where echo takes shelter / and in the end it is always I)

Here, the alphabetic restriction together with the relict syllabic rhyme becomes a

method of organising the text by a relatively weak combinatorial structure different

from conventional rhyme-rhythm poetic structure. Words starting with letters in the

alphabetic order are included in the poem, emphasised by capitalisation: 'Ajiaa' (red),

'Bejiaa' (white), 'BoiiHa' (war), Tjias ' (eye), 'f lap' (gift), 'Ebbi' (of Eve) and so on for

other letters. Consequently, Katsyuba openly demonstrates her poetic techniques in

accordance with the guidelines of the Russian formalists for baring of the device

(o6Ha>KeHne npHCMa, Shklovsky 1919, 101-114). The lines of the poem are grouped in

pairs by rhymes: 'aaGseHHe' - 'HeseAeHHe' (oblivion - ignorance), 'ynpeKa' - 'meKa'

(reproach - cheek), '6yKBbi' - 'tbi' (letters - you), 'oahhokhm' - 'a35yKH' (lonely -

alphabet), 'iothtch ' - (takes shelter - 1). These pairs would not be considered

rhymes in contemporary prosody, though in the era of Russian syllabic poetry similar

consonances were used as rhymes; for example, by Simeon Polotsky in 1678 (Polotsky

1990). Therefore, Katsyuba reproduces the poetic techniques widely practised in the era

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of Russian baroque poetry, modifying them to contemporary poetry. Unlike in the

alphabetic poems by Bryusov (Bryusov 1974, III, 503) and Avaliani (Avaliani 2000,

124), Katsyuba uses the technique freely, with restriction being an initial impulse rather

than a demonstration on literary virtuosity or an obligation to obey the alphabetic order

through the overall poem.

The similarity of the whole to the parts with the higher importance of the whole is

also apparent in other Katsyuba poems. In her interview with ffemu Pa (Baikov et al.

2009), Katsyuba emphasises that she does not pretend to be the discoverer of certain

palindromes in the sense of poetic creative words. Similar to Fedin (S Fedin 2007, pers.

comm., 17 October), Katsyuba argues that palindrome phrases already exist in the

language itself. Instead, Katsyuba insists on the integrity of a palindrome poem

consisting of several palindrome phrases: "najiHH/IPOMHBIH CTHX - 3TO HCHTO EAWHOE

uejioe. CKa)KeM, KaK poajib. OXAEJIBHO MO>KHO HcnojibsoBaxb AOuteHKH - KanecTBeHHoe

Aepeeo, HO>KKM TO>Ke MO>KHO NPHCNOCO6NTB e XOSHHCTBC, ^a M cxpyHbi B Gbixy

npHroAHTCH. Ho p05iJi5i-T0 He Gy/iex. C NAJIHHAPOMOM TOT >Ke cjiyHaii" (Palindrome

poem is a whole object. Say, as a grand piano. It is possible to use individual planks,

because they are good wood, legs also can be used around the house, and even strings

could come in handy. But then it won't be a grand piano. For a palindrome, it is the

same, Baikov et al. 2009). In this understanding, Katsyuba argues that the poetic aspect

of a palindrome poem is created by the combination and unification of palindrome

phrases rather than by separate phrases themselves. Consequently, Katsyuba's

palindromes should be regarded as a whole text, so that images would be created as

combinations of the images of separate lines. Also, in Katsyuba's understanding, the

palindrome is a particular case of anagram which allows her "pacmnp5iTb BO3MO>KHOCTH

cjiOBOTBopHecTBa" (to widen the possibilities of word creation, Baikov et al. 2009) and

apply modifications of the palindrome technique in her poetry.

Katsyuba's poetic goal is to present the world in its diversity, which is similar to

the goals of medieval poets representing the greatness of the world in its multiple

appearances. To achieve this goal, Katsyuba uses unusual poetic techniques that she

finds more effective than conventional poetic techniques. In the following poem, this

concept of Katsyuba's poetic is expressed (Katsyuba 2003, 121):

Mapm -HCTHHHWH MysbiKdHT npeHe6peraeT HHCTpyMeHxaiviH, npe^HasHaHeHHbiMH jxna H3B;ieHeHHii MysbiKH H3 3ByKa. <...> Oh 6beT KaMHHMH no ryccHHuaM xaHKoe, (})OTOHaMH no ccTHaTKC rjiasa, yjiaejiHBaeT no;i3eMHbie tojimkh CKB03b KHM6epJlHT0Bbie 3paHKH anMa3H0H PoAe3HH. Oh H3o5peTaeT 3HaKH aji« 3anHCH cojineHHoro y^apa Ha HOTHO-npoKaTHOM cxane, y^iapa nxHUbi o ctckjio, MOTbiJibKa o Jiaiviny, 60KcepCK0H nepMaxKM o MCJiiocTb.

(March // A true musician disregards [musical] instruments, / destined for making music out of sound. / < . . . > He beats stones on the tracks of tanks, / and photons on eye's retina, / he picks up underground tremors through kimberlite pupils of eyes / of diamond Rodezia. / He invents signs for recording sunstroke on a note-rolling mill, / a stroke of a bird against glass, / that of a moth against a lamp, / that of a boxer's gloves against a jaw)

Here, Katsyuba declares her preference for natural process as the analogy to poetic

techniques to express a wide range of phenomena most expressively. These preferences

are in accordance with futuristic proclamations of the ideas of new poetic techniques

(Mayakovsky, IJpuKas Nq 2 no apmuu ucKyccme, Order number 2 to the army of arts),

though, in contrast to Mayakovsky, Katsyuba is not interested in achieving social goals

by her poetry.

In the majority of her poems, Katsyuba uses a combination of basic letter

restrictions such as anagram and palindrome, rather than only a single technique. For

example, the poem Mopcme mejiu (Sea bees, Katsyuba 2003, 127-128) is printed with

268

graphic elements on the page. Several letter techniques are included in the poem:

anagrams such as 'yivia' - 'ayivi' (of mind - aum), 'nnena' - 'njiena' - 'njiane' -

'ncHajib' (bee - shoulder - cry - sorrow); logogriph as a set of words with a decreasing

number of letters in each word, as in Katsyuba's poem: "Bnepa / F IHE J IA / c My>Koro /

M E J I A / E J I A / JIAKOMBIH MQJX / AM!" (yesterday / a bee / from somebody else's / face /

ate / tasty honey / Yum!, Katsyuba 2003, 127). For the sequence 'nnejia' - 'nejia' -

'ejia' - 'jia' - 'a' (bee, face, ate, la, a), Katsyuba dilutes a restriction, adding interpretive

remarks and capitalising the letters 'JIA' (la) in the word 'jiaKOMbm' (tasty), and the

letter 'A ' (a) in the exclamation 'AM!' (yum!). On the other hand, the restriction is

amplified as logogriph is combined with an anagram of the word 'nnena' (bee), 'nnejia'

- 'njiena' - 'njiane' - 'nenajib' (bee - shoulder - cry - sorrow), and an acrostic as the

first letters of the lines combined together makes the same word 'oHCJia' (bee). The

initial letters of the lines are emphasised by a bold type so that the reader easily

discovers the acrostic, also according with the baring of the device (o6Ha>KeHHe

npHCMa, Shklovsky 1919, 101-114) recommendation.

The collection of poems Ceama which is the focus of my research was published

several times with variations and on various data carriers since 1985: it was published in

a journal (http://metapoetry.narod.ru/poetry/poet02.htm), books (Katsyuba 1995;

Katsyuba 2003, 213-235), on the Internet in the form of text

(http://www.rvb.ru/np/publication/01text/40/02katsyuba.htm) and in the form of an

animation presentation (http://flashpoetry.narod.ru/svalka/00.htm). The versions differ

in the number of verses and slightly in the contents of the poems, though it is impossible

to define the final version of this collection of poems. Instead, all versions exist together

as hypertext consisting of variable texts. Katsyuba defines the concept of Ceama as

follows: "[OHa] cymecTeyex / BO MHO^KCCTBC eapHaHTOs, / Ka>KAbiH H3 Koxopbix

5iBji5ieTC5i HCTHHHbiM" ([It] cxists / in many versions / each of which is genuine,

Katsyuba 2003, 213). In this sense, the appearance of this collection of poems is close

in formal concept to Ulysses by James Joyce that was also published in numerous

editions with variations. Thus, in contrast to a completed version of a poem collection,

Katsyuba continues experimentation with the completeness of the text in parallel with

Joyce's idea.

The concept of Ceama can be identified at different levels: as a realistic concept

of thrown away objects, as a metaphor for the world and as the metaphor of already

known and trite words. The contemporary nature of Ceama was emphasised by Kedrov

(Kedrov 2003, 7) due to the association with modem computer writing. Nevertheless, as

the vocabulary and grammar of the poems are conventional, and constraint techniques

used in the poems are basic letter recombinations, the poems can be attributed to a broad

time period in the existence of Russian literature. Actually, it is in the postmodern

concept of the world already discovered, used and embodied in a 'junkyard', that the

poem differs from those of the past. Previously, a garden could be chosen for the model

of the variable world; for example, in Bepmospad MHoeoijeemnbiu by Simeon Polotsky

(1678), the world was presented as a collection of various beauties, and the role of the

poet was similar to Adam's role of naming these objects for the reader. In contrast, as 1

will demonstrate through further analysis, in Katsyuba's poems the world is presented

as a collection of junk, where Katsyuba finds the beauties or creates them with a

recombination of already used words. Consequently, her goal as a poet is to create an

order in the seeming chaos of a 'junkyard'. By this role, she also differs from the poets

of the past, as the collection of garden flowers was seen as already created in order and

with purpose by the Gardener.

The characteristic features of Katsyuba's Ceama are eternity, infinity,

stochasticity and contradictoriness. As a junkyard is constantly replenished by used and

thrown away objects, similarly the poetic collection CeajiKa is understood as eternal and

infinite: "HC HMCCT / H a n a j i a , KOHUA, HCTKHX rpaHHu BO BPCMCHH H npocTpaHcxee, / a

xaiOKe / ojxHoro NOCTOHHHORO COCTOHHHH" (There is no / beginning, end, clear

boundaries in time and space, Katsyuba 2003, 213). Stochasticity becomes apparent

through the random combination of unique objects presented in a 'junkyard'. Katsyuba

declares this by an allusion to a known Leo Tolstoy maxim on the uniqueness of

unhappy families: "J1K)6OH CXAHAAPTHBIH NPCAMEX na ceajiKe npHoGpexaex

HH /^HBHAyaJIbHOCTb. / B c C HOBbie G a i l l M a K H HOBbI OAHHaKOBO - / Ka>K;iblH p B a H b l i i

GaiiiMaK pBaH no-CBoeiviy!" (Every standard object becomes individual in a junkyard. /

All new shoes are new equally - / Each broken shoe is broken in its own way, Katsyuba

2003, 221). That is, even objects created by mass production become unique after

personal usage. In this concept, Katsyuba finds positive aspects in decreasing the

transformation of used objects as finding their individuality, contrasting to the identity

of mass-product new objects. In regard to words, this statement means that a word

pronounced by multiple people is not erased by this usage as it was understood by poets

of the Lianozovo group (Kulakov 2007), but to the contrary, becomes individual.

Katsyuba states the absolute distinguishability of words which becomes apparent

through their careful examination. To a social aspect, Katsyuba proclaims, "Ha CBajiKe

3 a M e H H M b i x Her! (There are no replaceable objects in a junkyard! Katsyuba 2003, 221),

making an allusion to the famous Stalin declaration about the functionality and

replaceability of people. In Katsyuba's 'junkyard', every object is unique and cannot be

replaced by another, in contrast to Stalin's personnel policy. This contradictoriness

appears already as a statement belonging to CeajiKa and prohibiting it: "sanpemeHHaH /

(Ha Ka)KAOH CBajiKe ecTb TaGjiHHKa: 'CeajiKa sanpemeHa!' " (Prohibited / (on every

junkyard there is a sign: 'Prohibited to litter', Katsyuba 2003, 213). The statement is

placed at the entrance to Ceama, both in reality as a described prohibition sign in front

of the gate and in the poem as the epigraph to Ceama. That is, the existence of CeanKa

as a system is prohibited by its own rules, leading to inner contradiction.

Katsyuba's poetry is close to cento poetry (from the Latin word for a cloak made

of patches) which is a method of creating a poem by a combination of quotations of

existing literary lines in various orders. Its presence in Katsyuba's poetry was already

shown by her quotations of Tolstoy's and Stalin's famous statements. Katsyuba made

non-strict quotations, but modifies the original phrases in a way similar to the entropic

modification of an object during its usage; for example, "KaKaa ceajiKa 6e3 iviaxpaca -

KaKaii CBa;ib6a 6e3 Maxpoca" (What is a junkyard without a mattress - what is a

wedding without a sailor, Katsyuba 2003, 216), "FlyTb k cepAuy My>KHHHbi j iokht

Hepe3 CMepxb KopoBbi" (The path to the heart of a man lies through a death of a cow,

Katsyuba 2003, 147), and "Ha CBajiKe b s^opoBOM TEJIE / EJIE 3;i0p0BbiH Ayx" (In a

junkyard, a scarcely healthy mind is in a healthy body, Katsyuba 2003, 232). These

modifications, as well as related text elements combined in a pseudo-cento style, are a

means to create new meanings from the existing phrases.

I will present Katsyuba's poems in the following order of applied combinatorial

techniques. First, I will analyse her texts based on anagrammatic transformations of the

order of letters in a word as the simplest formal letter technique. These transformations

include the creation of meaningful words out of the letters of an original word;

anagrammatic transformations of words to both meaningful words and non-meaningful

sets of letters; and a technique named by Katsyuba cnoumaHHrn MymamH {spontaneous

mutation). Then, I will analyse the texts based on palindrome techniques, as a special

case of anagram technique and the most developed method in Katsyuba's poetry. I will

analyse letter palindrome transformations which lead to both meaningful and

nonsensical texts; and word palindrome transformations developed uniquely by

Katsyuba. Finally, I will analyse rare letter techniques used by Katsyuba: combinations

of words in a prolonged word of double meaning; phonetic transformations of voiced

consonants to voiceless; and extraction of vowels from words. Also, I will analyse the

combination of these techniques with other methods in one poem: interpretive remarks

written in conventional style, graphic and video representation of poems. I will use

mostly close reading literary analysis methods, though some traditional phylological

analysis (Magomedova 2004; Tyupa 2008) is also applied for some texts. I will present

interpretations for texts of vague meanings written by Katsyuba in combinatorial letter

techniques, when I find these interpretations significant for the poems' findings, and in

other cases I will present the technique itself and the overall concept of the particular

poem. I will demonstrate how, by using these formal techniques, Katsyuba achieves her

poetic goal: to find new language for the contemporary world.

6.2.1. Anagram as a technique of creation of substances out of the existing substance

The simplest technique used by Katsyuba in her poems is a search for meaningful

words composed from the letters of a given word. This is a known method among other

word-games techniques (Fedin 2001, 12-25), though Katsyuba only partly relates to the

word-game poetry; more exactly, she is restoring techniques that could be associated

with cabbalistic practice in the search for the inner essence of the object represented by

a word. In some of her poems, Katsyuba just lists these inner words, leaving the task of

associating them to the reader, while in other poems she adds interpretive remarks to

these inner words, thus uniting them in the whole poem. Some poems, for example,

MaHU(Pecm (Manifesto) and Memo (Menu) analysed below, are closer to word-game

practice, whereas other poems present a definite poetic message. Also, graphic elements

are used in some poems by placing the inner words in certain positions, as in the

following poem MaHu^ecm (Katsyuba 2003, 215) in which Katsyuba's poetic

manifesto is presented:

M A H H O i E C T

! ^ f A . / . ' i > i. I; ^ / • < • /' • / •

/ / •

j ' aHCT MHHa'

/ i (

c e f H

TCMil

(Manifesto, mine, myth, stork, no, nets, forfeit, fiesta, topic, trick, wall)

In this poem, Katsyuba demonstrates the common traits of her poetry: letter

recombination and correlation of the whole and its parts as the poetic method, and riddle

word-game as the poetic style. By combining the words out of the letters of the word

'MaHH4)ecT' (manifesto), Katsyuba presents her understanding of the essence of the

original word. The word 'MaHH(})ecT' (manifesto) is chosen for the application of this

technique for its association with the multiple poetic manifestos of the twentieth century

created by artists and writers to present their styles, goals and methods. Katsyuba

presents a manifesto of her poetics with the unity of content and concept as the inner

words graphically connected create a coherent interpretation of the creative concept.

This is the reason why Biryukov found this poem effective in expressing a poetic

message: HE 3HAIO 6ojiee TOHHOFO BBIPA>KEHHH caMoro OOHHTHH «MAHN4)ecT», HCM

3T0. < . . .> llocTaBJieHHbie TaKHM 06pa30M, KaK B «MaHH4)ecTe», cB5i3aHHbie CHCTCMOH

JIHHHH, Te >Ke cjioBa 3aAaK)T uejiocTHyio KapxHHy no3THHecKoro MHpa KauK)6bi" (I

don't know a more precise expression of the ver> notion of "manifesto- than this one.

<...> Placed in this way as in MamifPecm, connected by a system of lines, the words

provide a total picture of Katsyuba's poetic world. Bir\ukov 2003b. 269). The words

found in the word •MaHH(t)ecT" (manifesto) could be interptreted as the sides of artistic

creativity and program: -MMHa" (mine) for the surprising character of the manifesto.

•Hex' (no) for its denial of preceding cultural paradigms, 'mh^ ' (m\th) for the intention

to create a legend out of a cultural movement. •(})HecTa' (fiesta) for the representation of

a feast, 'aHCT* (stork) as a symbol of the new-bom representing new cultural discover\.

It is the reader who should interpret the words in combination with the title of the poem.

Altogether, the poem is created by these components with logical links provided for the

overall meaning. Katsyuba does not decipher her combinatorial poem, leaving this task

to her reader. The poem can be read differently: for example, in three lines: "'MHCJ).

(})aHT, (t)HHr" (myth, forfeit, trick) / "MHHa. aHcx. Hex. 4)HecTa. cxeHa" (mine, stock, no.

fiesta, wall) / "CCTH. xeMa" (nets, topic): or by the group of words closest to each other:

"MHHa, MH4). anc r ' (mine. mvth. stock). "4)aHT. HCT. (j)HecTa" (forfeit, no. fiesta).

"(t)HecTa. TCMa. cTena" (fiesta, topic, wall). In my opinion, despite certain associations

between the words, any meaning discovered in the poem would only be the personal

interpretation of the reader as active participants in the reading process. Similarly, there

are no profound sound associations, though some alliterations definitely exist, which is

obvious for combinatorial poetry : •(j)HECTA' - 'AHCX' (fiesta - stork), '^am' - •(J)HHT'

(forfeit - trick). On the whole, the poem is closer to a literary game rather than a

conventional lyrical poem. Katsyuba sees the text as a dialogue, both in the process of

creation, with the language (E Katsyuba 2009. pers. comm.. 12 July), and in the process

of reading, with the reader devoted to the same word-game activity.

The following poem AuKema MaHeKena (Mannequin's questionnaire, Katsyuba

2003, 220-221) made on the same technique, is considered to be one of Katsyuba's

most representative poems and is reproduced in a number of her publications:

AHKexa MaHCKeHa HaHMCHOBaHHe M A H E K E H noJi ~ M A H HauHOHajibHocTb H E M K A POAHOH H3blK HEM 06pa30BaHHe ^HEMA HcTopHHecKaji po^iHHa H A M E K (?) MecTO npo>KHBaHHa _HA K A M H E BepoHcnoee/iaHHe A M E H OcHOBHoe 3aHiiTHe_ EM JlK)6HMoe 5 J IK)^O MAHKA )KH3HeHHoe Kpe/^o M H E ! KaKOH cyxpe cjie/iyeTe? KaMe JlK)6HMbIH UBCTOK^ M A K JlK)6HMbiH nHcaTCjib M A H H JlK)6HMbIH XyilO>KHHK M A H E n03THHeCKHH CHMBOJL A K M E KaKOH no3Tecce OT^aexe npezinoHTCHHe A H H E KCM MO>KHO 3aMeHHTb B cjiynae OTcyTCTBHH? H E K E M

(Mannequin's questionnaire / / Name - Mannequin / Gender - man / Nationality -German (woman) / Mother tongue - dumb / Education - none / Native land - a hint (?) / Place of residence - on a stone / Denomination - amen / Occupation - eat / Favourite dish - semolina / Credo - for me! / What is your sutra? - Kama / Favourite flower - poppy / Favourite writer - Mann / Favourite artist - Manet / Poetic symbol - acme / Who is your favourite poetess? - Anna / Whom can you be replaced by in case of absence? - N o one)

In the poem AuKema MaHeKena, Katsyuba relates to creator-creature relations

presented in the alchemist or cabbalistic sense. She expresses how the object can be

described by the words created out of the letters of its name. The poem is an example of

both profound and playful combinatorial poetry with an aspect of irony included. The

interpretation of the poem is ambiguous due to restricted information on its multiple

aspects. In the poem, Katsyuba presents 'mannequin' as a mechanical creature

simulating a human being. In this way, Katsyuba makes an allusion to artificial human

creatures such as in the legend of the Golem made of clay by a Prague rabbi (Ripellino

1994) or to Mary Shelley's Frankenstein's monster (1818). The Golem becomes

animated when a magic word is put into its head. Similarly, Katsyuba's mannequin

imitates human psychology, combining the letters of his own name 'MAHEKEH'

(mannequin) into words, so the word indeed defines the essence of the object. Katsyuba

provides the mannequin with a list of passwords to answer any possible formal question

which could be asked by officials when applying for a passport, for a job, or for study:

name, gender, nationality, education, religion and other questions. By these answers, the

mannequin is indistinguishable from a member of society. In addition, there are a

number of personal questions such as favourite food, favourite writer and poetic

symbol, that a mannequin can be asked on social occasions. The association of inner

combinatorial words with the nature of the person is a procedure similar to the

anagrammatic interpretation of the fate of a person by their name (Bombaugh 1961, 49 -

57). Katsyuba is partly proud, demonstrating the almost human capacities of a

mannequin, and partly critical, demonstrating the limits of this creature: " O C H O B H O C

3aH5iTHe - EM" (Occupation - eat), "}KH3HeHHoe Kpe^o - MHE!" (Credo - for me!). By

these answers, a spiritually deprived person is displayed, who only imitates cultural

activity by memorising certain formulae: "JlK)6HMbiH nMcaxejib - MAHH" (Favourite

writer - Mann), "JlioGHMbiH xyjxoyKHHK - MAHE" (Favourite artist - Manet), "KaKoii

noaxecce OTAaexe npe^noHxeHHe - AHHE" (Who is your favourite poetess? - Anna

(Akhmatova)). This interpretation is again only one of other possible interpretations of

the poem, as Katsyuba does not provide the reader with her own interpretive remarks on

these contradictory descriptions of the mannequin. Consequently, it is problematic to

consider whether Katsyuba presents her creature as another Frankenstein monster, or

supposes it to be an equal member of human society. The unique individuality of the

mannequin is expressed by the answer to the last question: " K C M MO>KHO SAMCHHXB B

cjiynae oxcyxcxBHH? - HEKEM" (Whom can you be replaced by in case of absence? -

No one). Katsyuba presents a concept of irreplaceability already manifested in the

epigraph to the collection of poems CeaiiKa: "Ha ceajiKe 3AMEHHMBIX HCT!" (There is no

replaceable object in the junkyard! Katsyuba 2003, 221). To conclude, the poetic

message of the poem is ambiguous: it develops from a pseudo-creationistic act in the

beginning of the poem, into a social critique in the middle of the poem and to the

declaration of uniqueness of each creature by the end of the poem. The technique of

combining the letters of words can be considered as a simple word-game technique, and

by allusion to the Golem, as an act of secondary creativity.

In the following poem (Katsyuba 2003, 215), inner words disclosed by

combinations of the letters of the title word 'ceajiKa' (junkyard) together with an

interpretive remark provide a 'junkyard' concept:

He Bbixo^fl 3a npe/ieiibi cjioea CBAJIKA, B HCM HañziyT jxpyr Apyra:

AC H CJIABA CKAJIA H JIABA KBAC H JIABKA JIAB H JIACKA

BJIAC H KJIABA

(Within the boundaries of the word 'junkyard'/ [the words] will find each other /

ace and glory / rock and lava / kvass and bench / 'luv' and caress / Vías and Klava)

In the poem created on the basis of the words of the letters of the single word

'cBajiKa' (junkyard), Katsyuba presents a microcosm of persons and their emotions.

Katsyuba studies the word 'ceajiKa' (junkyard), finding surprisingly numerous inner

words in this six-letter word. The words are grouped by associative pairs: 'ac' (airman,

pilot, ace) is associated with 'cjiaea' (glory) as a reward for his bravery; 'cKajia' (rock)

is associated with 'jiaea' (lava) as a product of volcanic eruption, and by the

associations to the further lines could also represent a sexual act; 'KBac' (kvass) and

'jiaBKa' (bench) are connected as attributes of traditional rural life; 'jiae' ( 'luv') as a

loanword for 'love' is connoted to the slang of sexual revolution, thus leading to 'jiacKa'

(caress) as a physical manifestation o f love. Finally, 'Bj iac ' (Vlas) and 'Kjiaea' (Klava)

are presented as a couple in which all these subjects o f rural life, masculine behaviour

and love are united. B y the expression "He BUXOJXÍI 3a npeAejibi" (within the boundaries

of), Katsyuba emphasises the metaphorical meaning of the poem, so that the characters

and their actions are placed on the outskirts o f the world, though everything, including

happy love, can be found there. Hence, ' junkyard' is presented as a microcosm for its

inhabitants. This universe seems to be scanty, thus raising the question about the

suff iciency o f any personal universe. Here, the relation of the creator and the characters

are shown. Katsyuba regards her characters with attention and understanding: there are

no derogatory words in combinatorial or interpretive sections o f the poem, instead only

positive feelings are presented: love (JIAB H J I A C K A , ' luv ' and caress), pride ( A C H

C J I A B A , ace and glory) and simple joys ( K B A C H J I A B K A , kvass and bench). A s such,

it is the relation o f the creator to minor creatures, whose weakness and narrow-

mindedness is excusable.

Summing up, Katsyuba uses the method of re-combination of letters in a word for

writing poems of ambiguous meanings, both relating to the concept of creativity and

playful word-game activities. The presented poems are minimalistic by the provided

information on associated objects, thus the interpretive role is entrusted to the reader.

The cabbalistic concept o f specification of persons and ideas by their naming, as well as

the concept o f the Creation o f the world by pronouncing the Word, is demonstrated by

this simple technique.

6.2.2 Anagram transformations as a method of creation of substances out of chaos

and chaos out of substances

Katsyuba uses basic anagram technique in a number of her poems. Mostly, the

poems do not totally consist of meaningful anagrammatic words pairs. Instead Katsyuba

writes poems consisting of anagrammatic nonsensical sets of letters in the style of zaum,

or includes some anagrammatic words into her poems written in a conventional manner

and in combination with other techniques. Hence, the anagram technique is considered

by Katsyuba as a poetic method applied arbitrarily for certain poetic purposes rather

than a formal constraint which should be obeyed strictly through the poem as Avaliani

and Grinberg understand it. I will analyse here three poems in which these features

became apparent.

The concept of 'junkyard' where all objects are broken and deformed is significant

for the interpretation of Katsyuba's anagrammatic poems. For Katsyuba, words are

objects to be transformed, so she applies an anagram transformation to the existing

poem, presenting seemingly nonsensical combinations of letters (Katsyuba 2003, 216):

«>KeH6jia kot cenoTHJi Kec pHM B ore HHTyMbi KOBopbie. Eor pnHB3ajiH 6jiacBerHe KaK 6eccoeAHHKa aH pHn.»

/ op(|)e Tctbiom

This is the first poem of the Ceama collection of poems. In some editions,

(http:/ /www.rvb .rU /np/publication/01text/40/02katsyuba.htm#superpoem), Katsyuba

presents it with the remark, "nepeeoA c 5i3biKa ceajiKn" (translation from the language of

junkyard) and the quotation from the original poem by Fyodor Tyutchev: "Bjia>KeH, KTO

noceTHJi ceil MHp" (Blessed is he who visited this world). If the reverse transformation

is known, Katsyuba's poem can be read in the same rhythm of iambic tetrameter as the

original poem, thus Katsyuba's poem is perceived as a regular rhythm poem written in

an unknown language. It is even possible to guess an interpretation for Katsyuba's

280

poem, providing the possible meanings to these words as Biryukov does (Biryukov

2002, 270), though in my opinion there isn't enough evidence to support a preference

for one interpretation only; for example, the preference for the German transliteration of

the words of the poem. Similar to other examples of poetical transformations, such as

cento poetry or Lewis Carroll's parody on Victorian moral verses, the original and

transformed lines are linked, providing a comic poetic impression. The reverse

translation of Katsyuba's transformation is restoring order from chaos, which is

impossible for real systems following the entropy principle, but possible for mechanical

systems of the simple re-combination of elements. In Katsyuba's model, the universe

can be easily changed in both directions of entropic growth due to the presence of the

Creator possessing information on all states of the system, ordered and disordered.

Consequently, Katsyuba considers words as material objects for which mechanical

transformation is possible in the disorder- and order-creating directions. Nevertheless, it

is a state of deformed and corrupted words which in her opinion corresponds to the

contemporary paradigm.

In the poem Kpacuehie (Beautiful), Katsyuba combines phrases of common

language with phrases made by their anagrammatic transformation into nonsensical sets

of letters (Katsyuba 2003, 99):

T C H MCHHRO HPEBCKAC ^ e n a p r a

HCT HHMero KpacHsee renapjia 5Iryap - rayp, reHHii yrpo3bi KpacHBbie Bcer/ia rpo3Hbi H H O TBCCAII -

OHM BcerAa.

(Ten chenigo irevekas deparga / There is nothing more beautiful than cheetah / Jaguar - giaour, a genius of jeopardy / Those who are beautiful are always menacing / Nio gvesad - / they always)

The first and the fifth lines of the poem are seemingly nonsensical phrases made

out of the letters of the second and the sixth lines respectively, though the order of the

phrases indicates reverse consequence: from disordered phrases to ordered conventional

phrases. There are other transformations close to anagrammatic: ' a ryap ' - ' r ayp ' (jaguar

- giaour), 'yrpo3bi' - 'rposHbi' (jeopardy - menacing). By nonsensical zaum words, an

impression of speaking in an unknown language is created. With the following

translation to the common language, the meaning oi zaum phrases is supposed to exist,

though it is hidden in disordered combinations of letters similar to a dangerous animal

hidden in a jungle. Hence, the unknown language presented in the poem is possibly a

language of nature which seems meaningless compared to human languages, expressing

sensual rather than rational statements. Reflecting in each other by combinatorial letter

transformation, these languages enrich one another, thus a balance between chaos and

order is established. The nonsensical phrases of the poem can be regarded as a literary

analogue of a magical picture which becomes apparent under a certain angle or certain

transformation, such as visual works presented by Mannoni and others (Mannoni et al.

2004), so the poem again is seen as a word-game with a presented clue. To conclude, by

this anagrammatic transformation Katsyuba demonstrates the internal possibility, or,

using Oulipo's terminology, potentiality of the language, leading to a wider

understanding of its semantics. The disorder is presented as powerful, dangerous and

beautiful nature in comparison with the human structures, though each time the order is

established from disorder.

To conclude the anagrammatic transformations section, Katsyuba does not intend

to obey the anagram restriction strictly in her poems. For her, the formal method is a

poetic tool which is considered to be more adequate to the overall metaphysical concept

of the world and more expressive than conventional poetic methods. Anagrammatic

transformations in Katsyuba's poems reflect transformations of an object to chaotic

condition and back to order. Such an operation is possible for a mechanical system ruled

by an omnipotent Creator, and it can also be performed by a child creating and

destroying objects from a construction set blocks. This conclusion is in accordance with

Katsyuba's analogy of her writing to a children's word-game provided in the interview

and an allusion to the co-creation of a new world by Demon and Tamara (E Katsyuba

2009, pers. comm., 12 July). In her poems, Katsyuba is such a creator, omnipotent in a

sense of the Creator and playful in the sense of a child.

6.2.3. Spontaneous mutation as a modification of anagram technique and a means

to link sequences of phenomena

Spontaneous mutation is a method of consecutive replacement of certain letters of

a word with some other letters in order to make another word. As a result, two words of

opposite or related meanings become logically connected; for example, day and night,

elephant and fly and other pairs. This technique is popular as a word-game in Russian

(Fedin 2001, 32-38) and English languages (Gardner 1996, 83-101). The naming of the

technique as spontaneous mutation was proposed by Katsyuba. She uses this technique

as another combinatorial basis for her poetry, creating a poem by finding a set of

transforming words and adding interpretive remarks to it.

The following poem on the subject of'junkyard' is presented in multiple media: as

a hardcopy (Katsyuba 2003, 218-219) and as a web publication

(http://www.liveinternet.ru/users/l 951050/post68718642), slightly differing by

spellings and meanings. In this poem, Katsyuba demonstrates the potentiality for the

total variability of the words:

nVTb HA CBAJIKY HEMMHYEM!

CTOriKA npHBO/iHT npjiMO Ha ceajiKy:

CTonKa - CTOHKa - CTaiiKa - CBaiiKa - CBAJIKA. YTAMKA eme 6jiH5Ke: yxaHKa - CTawKa - ceaHKa - CBAJIKA. CTblMKA H eT TCM >Ke nyxevi:

CTbiHKa - CTaHKa - CKaHKa - CKajiKa - CBAJIKA. CJiy)KBA npoxoAHT 5ojiee ajimmhwh nyTb: cjiy>K6a - cjiy>KKa - cjioKKa - Ojie>KKa - OjienKa -OBCHKa - CBCMKa - ceepKa - csapKa - CBAJIKA. CriHHKA HeMHHyeMo BbiBe^eT Tyjxa y^e: cnflMKa - cnHMKa - cnHHKa - CBHHKa - cBaHKa - CBAJIKA.

nPAB/^A Ha CBajiKy He npHBo^HT! y Hee CBOH nyxb. n V T b nPABJibI

1) n P A B M - npaBKa - njiaBKa - njiaBKH - flJlEBKH 2) nPAB/^A - npaBKa - xpaBKa - TPABMA 3) n P A B M - npaBKa - njiaBKa - njiaHKa - nncHKa - njiexKa - KJIETKA

(The path to junkyard is inevitable! // A shot leads straight to junkyard: / shot -counter - flock - pile - junkyard. / Concealment is even closer: / concealment -flock - pile - junkyard. / Skirmish goes the same way: / skirmish - strike - gallop - rolling pin - junkyard. / Service takes a longer route: / duty - lay brother -spying - Olezhka - Olechka - / lamb - candle - verification - welding -junkyard. / Hibernation inevitably leads there: / hibernation - match - back - pig - swan - junkyard. // Truth does not lead to junkyard! / It has its own way. / The way of truth. 11 1) Truth - correcting - melting - bathing suit - spits / 2) Truth -correcting - grass - injury / 3) Truth - correcting - melting - level - film - lash -cage)

The poem is presented in a different order of reading, as its parts are repeated,

connected by meanings and logical links between words. The poem is divided into two

parts: in the first part, the common finale for all sets of words is the word 'cBajiKa'

(junkyard), and the message is " n V T b HA CBAJIKY HEMHHYEM" (The path to

junkyard is inevitable), whereas in the second part it is the word 'npaBKa' (truth), and

the message is contradictory to the first message: 'TIPAB/iA na cBajiKy He npHBo^Hr'

(Truth does not lead to junkyard). The poem mostly consists of these combinatorial sets

of words: 'cxonKa' - 'CTOHKa' - 'craHKa' - 'cBaHKa' - 'CBAJIKA' (shot - counter -

flock - pile - junkyard), 'yTaiiKa' - 'cxaiiKa' - 'ceaHKa' - 'CBAJIKA' (concealment -

flock - pile - junkyard) and other sets. The interpretive remarks are similar, "CTOHKA

n p u B o m r npHMO Ha ceajiKy" (A shot leads straight to junkyard), "CTblMKA H^ex xeM

>Ke nyxeM" (Skirmish goes the same way), establishing the concept of total entropic

degradation of objects. These statements are close to a known proverb "All roads lead to

Rome", though in Katsyuba's poem the paths are temporal rather than spatial, and the

centre of attraction is the 'junicyard' rather than the capital of the empire. The words are

allied with vocabulary virtuosity using a multiplicity of meanings: 'cTonKa' (shot, pile),

'cTOHKa' (counter, position), 'cBHHKa' (pig, mumps) and other words. In a metaphorical

sense, Katsyuba presents not only the way of material things, but of all beings as well.

That is, instead of the inevitability of luxury and power represented by Rome, this is the

statement of inevitability of destruction equivalent to the Biblical 'vanity of vanities'.

The interpretation of the connection between the words in the sets is not provided,

though it is possible to make some assumptions. The following interpretations are made

under the assumption of negative connotations to ' junkyard', though as it was

demonstrated in the previous analysis that the word 'junkyard' can also have positive

connotations for Katsyuba, which even further increases the variability of the meaning

of the poem. In the first sequence, 'cTonKa' - 'ceajiKa' (shot - junkyard), an allusion is

made to alcohol addiction. The second line, 'yxaiiKa' - 'ceajiKa' (concealment -

junkyard), can be interpreted as the inevitability of discovering a lie and its punishment.

The words 'cxawKa' (flock) and 'ceaiiKa' (pile) are common for the first and second

line, thus demonstrating the variability of transformations. By the third line, 'cxbiMKa' -

'ceajiKa' (skirmish - junkyard), Katsyuba announces the inevitability of destruction by

violence, and for the last sets, 'cjiy>K6a' - 'ceajiKa' (service - junkyard) and 'cn^iMKa' -

'cBajiKa' (hibernation - junkyard), the same result of professional activity and idleness

is proclaimed. Therefore, Katsyuba presents a wide range of human activities, positive,

negative and neutral, asserting them all to be meaningless and leading inevitably to total

destruction.

In the version published in the book Hep Paii (Katsyuba 2003, 218-219), the first

part of the poem, where all words are connected to the word 'ceajiKa' (junkyard), is

presented in a way different from the Internet version (dated 1985) quoted above:

nyrb ha cbajiky hemmhyem!

CBA/1KA - cBal iKa - cHaPiKa

I cTanKa - aO^Ka - aOnKa - (JJionKa - lUToPKa

CBA/1KA - cKajiKa - cKa3Ka - VKasKa I CKaHKa - cTasKa - crblMKa

/ \ aaBKa a a P K a - a U p K a

I VTupKa

/ \ y UupKa y lYpKa

CBAJIKA - cBaHKa - CBMHKa - csnlKa

i

crinHKa - cnMHKa - cnflHKa

CBA/IKA - ceaPKa - csEpKa - fleepKa I CBeHKa OseHKa OJIeMKa 0/ieXKa OiGXKa aiVxKa aiyxBa

(The path to junkyard is inevitable! // Junkyard - fid - joint / flock - pile - shot -darn - blind / Junkyard - rolling pin - tale - pointer / galloping - strike - skirmish / stake - Starka [a brand of vodka] - laundering / wiping / near a circus / Turk's / junkyard - Swan-woman - pig - shirt / back - match -hibernation / junkyard -welding - check - door / candle / lamb / Olechka / Olezhka / shadowing / lay brother / service)

The main difference here is the placement of the word 'ceajiKa' (junkyard) at the

beginning rather than at the end of the sets of words. In this case, 'junkyard' becomes a

starting point for creation, and the development of the objects should be interpreted as a

recombination of the universe from available details. Also, some of the final words of

the sets differ from the starting words shown above: they are now, 'cnaiiKa' (joint),

'lUTopKa' (blind, or shutter), 'yKasKa' (pointer, or order), 'cTHpKa' (laundering),

'cBHTKa' (shirt), '^eepKa' (diminutive for: door); though some words are the same:

'cnHHKa' (hibernation), 'cjiy>K6a' (service). Again, some of the words are polysemantic,

thus increasing the number of possible interpretations of the poem.

The poem is presented in a graphical way with bifurcations of the divergent sets of

words: 'cBaiiKa' - 'cnaiiKa' - 'cxaiiKa' (marlinespike, or diminutive for: pile; joint;

diminutive for: flock), 'cBHHKa' - 'cnHHKa' - 'cBHXKa' (diminutive for: pig, or mumps;

spine; feminine for: scroll, or Ukrainian for shirt) and other sets. As the words are

transformed from the word 'junkyard', the presented objects and categories are

supposed to be transformed from broken and spoilt objects of the junkyard. Hence,

Katsyuba again denies entropic development toward chaos, instead indicating the

potential for restoring order from chaos. In this sense, time reversal is possible in this

model, presented in two versions of the poem as forward and backward transformation

of the world in time.

The second part of the poem begins with an explicit statement that it is impossible

to derive the word ' junkyard' from the word 'truth': "nPAB/l,A na ceajiKy He

npHBOAHT!" (Truth does not lead to junkyard!), stating the impossibility of destruction

of the truth:

nPAB/^A Ha ceajiKy He npHBOAHj! y Hee CBOH nyTb.

n y i b nPABAbi 1) n P A B M - npaBKa - njiaeKa - njiasKH - njlEBKH 2) n P A B M - npaBKa - xpaBKa - TPABMA 3) nPAB^A - npaBKa - njiaBKa - njiaHKa - njicHKa - njiexKa - KJIETKA

(Truth does not lead to junkyard! / It has its own way. / The way of truth // 1) Truth - correcting - melting - bathing suit - spits / 2) Truth - correcting - grass -injury / 3) Truth - correcting - melting - bar - film - lash - cage)

Instead, Katsyuba demonstrates three other possibilities of the development of

'truth', all with negative connotations: 'OJIEBKM' (spittle, abuse), 'TPABMA' (trauma,

injury) and 'KJIETKA' (cage, cell, prison). By the rhetorical methods of catachresis,

these words represent abuse and prison. The intermediate words of the sets can also be 287

interpreted in this sense. For example, 'npaBKa' (correcting) can be understood as an

attempt to change a person who dares to tell the truth, with an allusion to 'editing,

censoring of a text' or 'correctional facility', 'corrective labour camp'. It can also

correspond to 'censorship' forcing a person to change his/her writing. The word

'ojiaBKa' (melting) represents the process of 'correcting', with an allusion to the 1934

novel KQK saKajiHJiach cmajib (How the Steel Was Tempered) by Nikolay Ostrovsky,

one of the most influential works of the official Soviet literature. Using the word

'xpaBKa' (grass, pot), an allusion to narcotic escapism is made. Using the word 'njiaHKa'

(standard, level), the allusion is made to restrictions of professional development for

discordants in Russia. Using the word 'njiexKa' (lash), Katsyuba points to physical

punishment against those who tell the truth and who in the end are placed in 'KjiexKa'

(prison cell). Consequently, in this short poem consisting of basic combinatorial words

with little interpretive remarks, Katsyuba presents multiple ideas: a philosophical idea

of total degradation with time, of the reversing of time, of absolute truth and a social

idea of repression for telling the truth.

In the next poem, the spontaneous mutation technique is used to change the word

'jiHUo' (face) into the word 'po>Ka' (ugly mug), again presenting the 'junkyard' concept

of inevitability of destruction (Katsyuba 2003, 224):

Box JIHUO BOT JIMUA jiio^eH

uejia« J inrA JiHU o6mojiotht hx PHFA >kh3hh

noKpoex PH3A CMep™ H rjxQ 6biJia P03A jik)6bh

6yaeT PO}KA cxpaxa

(Here is a face / here are faces of people / a whole league of faces / the bam of life will thrash them / chasuble of death will cover them / and in the place of a rose of love / there will be an ugly mug of fear)

The set of words transforming from 'jihuo' (face) to 'po>Ka' (ugly mug): 'jihuo' -

'jiHua' - 'jiHra' - 'pura ' - 'pH3a' - 'po3a' - 'po>Ka' (face - faces - league - bam -

288

chasuble - rose - ugly mug), is supplemented by interpretive phrases. In the first line of

the poem, the title image is presented, 'JIHUO' (face). In the following four lines,

Katsyuba describes the deformation of the image by the passage of time culminating in

death: "PM3A CMepxH" (a chasuble of death), and in the two fmal lines the moral of the

poem is presented: "r^e Gbijia P03A JIK)5BH / dyjxer PO'KA cxpaxa" (In the place of a

rose of love / there will be an ugly mug of fear). The vocabulary is conventional, though

some words are rare (pH3a, chasuble) or polysemantic (pnra, Riga, bam), in which case

the meaning is vague or ambiguous. In contrast to some poems cited above such as

MaHU(pecm and Menio, consisting only of the words defined by combinatorial

techniques, here the transformed set of words is only the primary basis of the poem,

while the remarks by Katsyuba provides an interpretation of their connections and

development. In this sense, Katsyuba as the author plays the role of a fortune-teller

disclosing a vague prophecy of the basic words that, placed in the middle of the lines,

graphically represent the basis or the spine of the body of the poem. Concluding, a

word-game technique is used as the basis for the poetic message of total degradation

from beauty to ugliness and from love to fear appearing in the world of the junkyard.

Simultaneously, the set of words connected by the word-game literary restriction is

considered to exist primarily in the language. So, its discovering confirms the total

concept, whereas the role of the author of the poem is to provide interpretational words

in order to clarify the meanings and connections between the words.

In the following poem, the spontaneous mutation method is used more freely as

even the number of letters of the transformed word is changed (Katsyuba 2003, 224):

y ceajiKH HET CTEH,

HO ecTb CUEHA, r^e BceMy U E H A ecxb H Bce BECUEHHO.

(In the junkyard there are / no walls / but there is a stage / where everything has a price / and everything is priceless)

In addition to the spontaneous mutation technique, a semi-anagrammatic

transformation is used in the opening pair: ' H C T ' - 'CTCH ' (no - walls). The basic set

of words ' H E X ' - 'CTCH' - 'CUEHA' - 'uena' - ' 6ecueHHo' (no - walls - stage - price

- priceless) is supplemented by phrases that connect these words into a sentence.

The poem is opened by the statement, "Y ceajiKH HET / CTEH" (In the junkyard

there are / no walls), which can be understood both in the literal and metaphorical

senses. By this statement, Katsyuba indicates the 'junkyard' as an open system. In

thermodynamics, closed and open system models differ in their potentiality to

maintain order or to degrade to chaos: only in an open system, by the indraught of

energy or information, can order be maintained. Hence, Katsyuba intuitively

describes the necessary conditions for a system to obey the transformation from

chaos to order which she presents in her other poems. In the next line of the poem,

the 'junkyard' appears as a scene corresponding to Shakespeare's: "All the world's a

stage, / And all the men and women merely players" (Shakespeare, As you like it,

Act II, Scene VII). This relationship confirms the interpretation of junkyard as a

representation of the world in Katsyuba's poems. In the last two lines, Katsyuba

proclaims the material and eternal value of all existing things. Consequently, in the

short poem, Katsyuba expresses her philosophical understanding of a disordered

Gunkyard) universe consisting of a multiplicity of meaningful objects that in some

cases can be restored to order.

In the last poem based on the spontaneous mutation technique analysed here,

multiple sets of connected words and interpretive remarks are presented in a description

of the posthumous transformation of the object departing from the same word 'ceajiKa'

(junkyard) (Katsyuba 2003, 227-228):

HA CBAJIKE ECTb BH^EOCAJIOH Oh noKa3biBaeT MHCTHK0-3K0Ji0rHHecKHH TpHjiJiep cepnaji "CJIOH" (Oo 3aKa3y OKpyjKaiomeH Cpe;ibi h apymx ^hch He^ejiH).

CepHa 1.

BejibiH CJIOH CTOH H3;iaji B rpji3HbiH CTOK ynaji B HCM KaK YTOK CHOBaJl HO >KH3HH yPOK KOHHCH CMaCTbH yPIOK C-bQJlQH

rOTOBHT KPIOK C KpHKOM KAIOK CMepTb - 0AH0rjia3biH KAK)P CjieziyioiUHH KAJl? -

HepHbiH KAOP CH;IHT B KAOE nepe;i hhm KAPE Kapr Bbinajia KAPA >KH3Hb - KOPA rHHjiaii Jlonnyjia KO}KA cjiona pacKpbijiacb J10}KA Hyxpa H xaM r^e Jiy)KA /ipo>KHT KaK JIYSA MYSA CBajiKH MYXA

CepHH 202 Cjioh, ynaBuiHH b ctok, npeBpamaexca b uiJiaK: CTOK - CTblK - UJJlblK - UIJiaK ***

CepHH 303 Cjioh, HaHHHaii c ko>kh, npeBpamacTCii b TOp(|): KO}Ka - Kopa - Topa - Top ) ***

CepHH 404 Cjioh, nojiyMHB >KecTOKHH ypoK, Bna/iaex b MHCXHKy nepecejieHHH /lyuj, cxanoBHxcfl rpa4)0M, cjiyuiaex fpHra, nbcx rpor h nona^iaex b rpo6: ypoK - ypoH - ypan - Kpan - Kpaii - rpaii - rpa(|) - rpHcJ) - TpHr -rpor - rpo6 ***

CepH« 505 Cjioh, /locxHriuHH Kpaa, cxanoBHXcji KpoxoM, a noxoM kjiohom: KpaH - KpoH - Kpox; Kpaii - KpaH - KJiaH - kjihh - 6jihh - 6jihk - 6jiok - kjiok - KJion.

(There is a video-salon in the junkyard / It screens a mystical-ecological thriller series ELEPHANT / (Ordered by the environment / Wednesday and other days of the week // Episode 1 // White ELEPHANT / uttered a GROAN / fell into a

dirty DRAIN / where he shuttle cocked as a WEFT / but the LESSON of Hfe is over / dried APRICOTS of happiness are eaten / he prepares a HOOK / with a cry 'the END' / death is one-eyed REINDEER-TEAM DRIVER / The next SHOT - / a black KAFFIR / is in a CAFÉ / there is a SQUARE of cards in front of him / PUNISHMENT is open / life is a rotten BARK / the SKIN of the elephant has burst / inside LODGE was opened / and there on the PUDDLE / trembling as a billiard POCKET / there is a MUSE of the junkyard / a FLY // Episode 202 // the Elephant who fell into the drain becomes waste: / drain -joint - cap - waste // Episode 303 / the Elephant, beginning with skin, becomes peat: / skin - crust - Torah - peat // Episode 404 / the Elephant, having learned a cruel lesson, falls into mysticism of transmigration of souls, becomes an earl, listens to Grieg, drinks grog and gets into a coffin: / lesson - losses - uranium -tap - edge - cry - earl - fingerboard - Grieg - grog - coffin // Episode 505 / the Elephant, having reached the edge, becomes a mole, and then a bedbug: / edge - style - mole; // edge - tap - clan - wedge - pancake - speck - block -flock - bedbug)

The multiplicity of versions begins with the title of the poem: in the Internet

publication (http://vAvw.Iiveinternet.ru/users/1951050/post68718642), the title is "HA

CBAJIKE ECTb TEJIEBM30P" (There is a television set in the junkyard), whereas in

the book publication, Katsyuba names a poem BH/JEOCAJIOH (video-salon). In the

latter, the traits of everyday life of the 1980s-I990s are marked, when video-salons

where audiences could watch movies were so extremely popular, that it is natural to

imagine a video-salon in a junkyard.

At first sight, the topic of the poem seems deliberately humorous, and it is the word-

game transformation of distinguished objects, though by the analysis philosophical meaning

can also be disclosed. The topic of the poem is the transformation of'elephant' as a word and

a creature represented by this word in conjunction with the cabbalistic concept. The word

'CJIOH' (elephant) is the most common subject for this type of letter transformation: the most

popular word game based on this technique is "to make a fly out of an elephant", which is

known to be solved in seventeen transformations: 'iviyxa' - 'Mypa' - 'xypa' - 'rapa' - 'Kapa'

- 'Kape' - 'Ka(})e' - 'ko^q' - 'Ka4)p' - 'Kaiop' - 'KawK' - 'KpwK' - 'KpioK' - 'ypoK' - 'cpoK'

- 'CTOK' - 'CTOH' - 'CJIOH' (fly - nonsense - rook - package - punishment - square - café -

coffee - trunk - reindeer driver - end - hook - lesson - term - drain - groan - elephant). As

can be seen, Katsyuba uses some of these letter transformations in her sequence.

For Katsyuba, transformations of words are transformations of the objects defined

by these words, so in her poem an 'elephant' becomes a 'fly' through death and

decomposition, followed by posthumous transformations. Katsyuba creates a story of an

elephant who has fallen into a drain and died, so that its body is decomposed and filled

with flies. Katsyuba marks the sections of the poem as 'episodes' referring to television

series. The episodes are not numbered naturally with 1, 2, 3, 4, but it is more complex:

1, 202, 303, 404, 505, as numbers of an unknown numeration with flowing basis: 101

for binary, 202 for ternary, 303 for quaternary, 404 for quinary and 505 for senary

systems of numeration.

By this sequence, Katsyuba demonstrates the extent of post-mortem transformations

as in the second (202) series 'CJIOH' (elephant) is simply transformed into 'mjiaK' (waste),

then in the third (303), it is transformed into 'Top4)' (peat) becoming a part of the eternal

cycle of nature. This transformation starts not with 'elephant' itself, but more naturally,

with its skin. The transformation goes through the sacral book of Torah so that a religious

concept is included into the natural process. By the mention of Torah, the concept of

cabbala appears in which an object and its name are strongly associated. By the fourth

transformation (404), a concept of transmigration of souls is declared, so another

embodiment becomes possible for 'elephant', appointed by multiple attributes: he

becomes 'rpa(J)' (eari) with 'grog' and string music by Grieg, dies again and follows into

' rpo6' (coffin). By the last episode (505), the 'elephant' that has already lost its initial

essence, then starts on 'Kpaii' (edge) and develops as part of nature in two directions,

either to 'Kpox' (mole) or to 'KJion' (bedbug). Consequently, the final transformation is

made from a large object into a small, though now it is seen not as humiliation of the large

'elephant', but as his happy restoration of life through the natural cycle.

To conclude the section on spontaneous mutation, in using this letter technique,

Katsyuba proclaims the concept of overall transformation to disorder and then to a

different order. In her understanding, objects are bound with their names, so similarly to

the decomposition and re-composition of names made by letter re-combinations, objects

are easily changed through the post-mortem transformation. This combinatorial

technique is mutual for word-game poetry and ancient cabbalistic writing, providing a

profound philosophical foundation for the understanding of the world.

6.2.4. Letter palindrome as the most developed technique in Katsyuba's poetry:

symmetrical transformation of the words

Katsyuba often works with palindromes as she is the author of Uepebiù

nojiuHÒpoMHhiù cjioeapb coepeMeHHO^o pyccKoeo nsbiKa (1999b) and Hoebiu

najiUHÒpoMHbiù cjioeapb (2002b) consisting of several thousands of palindromes.

Palindromes are also collected in special chapters of her books such as

nojiUHÒpoHaemuKa (Palindronautics, Katsyuba 2003, 237-268). For this section,

Katsyuba creates palindrome poems consisting of several lines, with each of the lines

being letter palindromes themselves. Katsyuba strictly follows the spelling of words

without changing letters to close letters such as 'm' (sh) to 'm' (stch), 'b' (the soft sign)

to ' t ' (the hard sign) and other pairs of letters. On the other hand, she includes

nonsensical sets of letters in her poetry instead of meaningful words, as, for Katsyuba, a

meaningful word is only one of permissible combinations of all possible versions. In

palindrome, as well as in other forms, Katsyuba understands zaum as pure language in

which meaning is possibly lost or damaged throughout everyday usage, though this

meaning can be restored by combinatorial techniques. In this sense, she is close to Khlebnikov's understanding oizaum (Markov 1994, 180) and, together with Katsyuba's notions of association between the objects and their names, to vague cabbalistic writing in search of hidden meanings.

In palindrome writing, Katsyuba discovers multiple palindrome phrases for the same palindrome rhymes elaborating her poetic ideas and demonstrating her language virtuosity. In the collection CeaiiKa, the number of palindromes is insignificant, so in order to present this aspect of Katsyuba's works, I will analyse her palindrome poems from the section IJajirndpoHaemuKa (Palindronautics) of her book M^p Pau (Katsyuba 2003). The following palindromes are presented here to demonstrate Katsyuba's poetic ideas that differ from the post-apocalyptic 'junkyard' concept demonstrated in the poems analysed above. Among these palindromes (Katsyuba 2003, 252) there are many short one- and two-line palindromes with non-palindrome titles providing a clue to the understanding of the lines: "flee pycajiKH. 0 6 e na Aejie - Taneu HJIO, cojiHue na rejie jxa. He6o" (Two mermaids. Both indeed are a dance of UFO, sun on body and sky); "MeHTaxejib. 'Ox, 3TH BOJIHU CHoea, Maivia!' - BOH CBIH JIOBHT 3XO" (Dreamer. "Oh, these waves again, mother!" - son catches the echo there); "My^peu. Y M ero - 5 H H O M , OH H

6or eMy" (Sage. His brain is binomial, he is the god of it); "Acxpojior. A^a Kopa -Soi HaK, a TaM axaKa H A03a poKa? - fla!" (Astrologer. Zodiac is a cortex of hell, and is there an attack and dose of fate? - Yes!); "UBIRAHKA. MM Asa jirajia RJIASAMW" (Gypsy girl. Aza lied to them with her eyes). The topics of these poems are mostly instant observations, so the poems can be understood as sketches in the writing pad of an artist practising the technique at any opportunity: on a beach (Cojinue na xejie ^a neôo; sun on body and sky; Ox, 3TH BOJIHBI cHOBa, MAMA; oh, these waves again, mother), in seeing a passer-by (UtiranKa; Gypsy girl), and in reading a newspaper with astrological prediction

(Acxpojior; Astrologer). Supplied by titles and united in a collection of line palindromes,

these sketches form a facet image of the everyday life depicted by Katsyuba.

The topic of the multiple-line palindrome poem SepKaio Eebi (Eve 's mirror,

Katsyuba 2003, 241) is popular among palindrome writers Adam-Eve theme, referring

to the beginning of Creation:

3 e p K a j i o EBBI

Aee, Eea! Yivia aaPi A;iaMy. "Pa^ a, CM 3Me5i ^ap". Ho Me/i-;ieMOH, H e 6 y - 6 y 6 e H , HOHH 6HM OH.

JiyHa Hyjifl, a^a K paK) apKa^a!" y3op aHrejia Jier Ha posy, HOKCH

jiexeji, JIAA EBBI BCAAJI.

B a^y 3J10 noji3 y;iaB. (Mirror of Eve // Ave, Eve! / Give some reason to Adam. / ' i am glad, I am eating a serpent's gift'\ / But honey is a demon, / a tambourine to the sky, / it is a lash of the night. / "I am a moon of naught, / an arcade of hell to heaven!'' / An angel's pattern lay on a rose, / it was tender, / it flew, / it knew a concord of Eve. / In hell a boa grovelled maliciously)

The Adam-Eve theme can be found in palindromes created by various poets; for

example, French author Paul Foumel (Foumel 1972, 132-134). In this palindrome, the

images of the first people, in accordance with Judaic and Christian religions, are linked to the

concept of reflection, as Adam was created in God's image and likeness, and Eve was created

from Adam as his partial and inexact copy. In Katsyuba's understanding, the Creation was a

process of symmetrical transformation of the primary substance into the world: "Tor;ia

coTBopHJi Bor sepKajio H oxpasHJica B HCM - / xaK Aaaivi cos^aH 6bin" (Then God created a

mirror and reflected in it / thus Adam was created, Katsyuba 2003,25). This concept is related

to the Greek myth of Dionysus reflected in mirrors and animated all living beings (Prokl

1989, 58), thus being an archetypical European concept. The word 'sepKajio' (mirror) as a

tool of reflection appears in the title of Katsyuba's poem with a connection to the name of Eve

{SepKono EebiX thus palindrome's doubling of images is attributed to women's creativity. TTie

lines of the poem are short, to the extent of a single palindrome word: 'He>KeH' (tender),

'jiereji' (flew), presenting Katsyuba's poetic interpretation of the Fall. Similar to the above-

analysed poem A36yKa (Katsyuba 2003, 13) where Eve was mentioned in regard to 'flap

E B B I ' (Eve's gift), the interpretation of Eve's role is favourable.

The poem begins with the glorifying of Eve: "Aee, EBa!" (Ave, Eve!), followed by

an appeal to bring Adam to reason: "Yivia Aafi A^aiviy" (Give a reason to Adam). By the

next line, the expression of Adam's joy with the serpent's gift is stated: "PaA a, eM 3Me5i

Aap" (I am glad, I am eating a serpent's gift). In the following lines, Katsyuba manifests

Eve as a junction from hell to heaven: JIYHA HYJIA, / am K paio apKa^a!" (I am a moon

of naught, / an arcade of hell to heaven!). The female essence of Eve is emphasised by

mentioning the moon, which is traditionally associated in astrology with womankind. At

the end of the poem, the denouement is presented as Eve associated with a rose and an

angel, whereas the demonic serpent presented metonymically by 'y^ae' (boa) takes its

place in hell: "Ysop aHrejia Jier na po3y, / He>KeH / jiexeji, / najx EBBI Be^aji. / B a^y 3Jio

noji3 y^aB" (An angel's pattern lay on a rose, / it was tender, / it flew, / it knew a concord

of Eve. / In hell a boa grovelled maliciously). It is worth noting the line "PaA H, CM 3Me5i

jxap'' (I am glad, I am eating a serpent's gift) as an expansion of one of the simplest and

most known palindromes "a CM 3Meii" (I eat a serpent) by an unknown author. Similarly,

in the line "y3op anrejia Jier na po3y" (An angel's pattern lay on a rose), Katsyuba makes

allusions to two well-known palindromes: the classical "A po3a ynajia na Jiany A3opa"

(And a rose fell down on a paw of Azor) attributed to Afanasy Fet, and "Ho HCBMAHM

apxanreji, Mopo3 y3opoM Jier na xpaM, H /IMBCH OH" (But an archangel is invisible, and

frost lay down on a temple, and it is wonderful) by Avaliani. In the poem Co6op

(Cathedral, Katsyuba 2003, 245), Katsyuba reproduces the latter palindrome almost

strictly: "Jler Ha xpaMbi jxbm. ApxaHreji / HESH/ IHM H ^ H B E H " (Smoke lay down on the

temples. Archangel / is invisible and wonderful), following her belief in the pre-existence

of short palindromes in the language, so they are discovered by multiple authors rather

than created uniquely. Consequently, the priority of the whole text over its parts,

including the re-composition of existing combinatorial texts, is demonstrated in

accordance with Katsyuba's concept expressed in the interview (Baïkov et al. 2009). In

this opinion, Katsyuba's poetic concept differs from the postmodernist concept of the

composition of unrelated fragments. On the other hand, this concept of authorship differs

from the presently accepted one, and is closer to the understanding of the authorship in

the prepress and early press era. For example, as I have already mentioned, combinatorial

authors such as Dovgalevsky cited and translated Latin examples without indicating the

names of the original writers.

Another topic explored by Katsyuba (2003. 239) is the meditations on the 'A H TBI'

(I and you) theme presented as a proclamation of love as the essence of the universe:

H TBI -

H TBI - 6 o r . 3 r o OBITH«.

H HTbi- Bax 3xa OBITHS.

HUTU- ÔYTOH HOT y OBITHH.

51 H TBI - ÔaJlCT TCjia OBITHFL.

H TBI - 6ypH MHpy OBITHH.

51 H TBI - 6hH y TyHH OBITHfl.

H H TBI - 6ejxa B A;IE ÔBITHÎI.

a H TBI - 6eH3HH H3 HeÔBITHS.

^ H TBI OBIJIH CHJIBI ÔBITHfl.

H H TBI OBIJIH >KHJ1BI ÔBITH».

>Î H TBI - 6a3a. 4)a3a OBITH«.

^ H TBI OY/IEM MeA y OBITH«.

(I and you -111 and you are god. the ego of being. /1 and you are Bach of the echo of being /1 and you are a bud of notes of being. /1 and you are a ballet of a body of being // 1 and you are storms to the world of being. / I and you are a lash near a cloud of being /1 and you are misfortune in the hell of being. /1 and you are petrol from non-being. //1 and you were forces of being. /1 and you were sinews of being. / I and you are a base, a phase of being. /1 and you will be the honey of being)

In this poem, Katsyuba celebrates a love union by enumerating the values of a

loving couple in the universal existence. The poem is written in a conventional poetic

structure, as it is a high metrical by accentual verse close to trochee due to the short

two-syllable words. It is also a mono-rhyme poem as all the endings are the same:

'6BITH5I' (being), defined by the identical beginnings o f lines: "a H TBI 6 < . . . > " (I and

you ' b < . . . > ' ) . That is, the combinatorial structure of the poem dictates the rhetorical

figures o f speech, anaphora and epiphora presented in each line, are meant to emphasise

the poetic message. The structure of the poem is traditional: three sections of the thesis,

antithesis and synthesis. Katsyuba starts with proclaiming a couple to be ''6or, aro

GbiTHJi" (God, ego o f being), referring to the absolute self-sufficiency of lovers. By the

next lines o f the first stanza, the themes of music and harmony through the mention of

Bach and echo, notes and ballet: "Bax 3xa 6BITH5I" (Bach of echo of being), " 6 Y T 0 H HOT"

(bud o f notes), ''Gajiex xejia" (ballet of a body). Here, Bach is mentioned as a metonymy

for harmony. B y the second stanza, a disturbance of being is brought into consideration:

"6ypH M H P Y " (storms to the world), "6HH y XYHH" (lash near a cloud), ''Ge^a B a^e"

(misfortune in the hell) finishing in the total negation of the being and the appearance of

the non-being: ''6eH3HH H3 He6biTH5i" (petrol from the non-being). In the final stanza,

the development is provided by the change of tenses: '6h\j\H (were) for the past, 'Gasa*

(basis) for the present and '6yjxQM' (will be) for the future. The poem concludes with a

catharsis after the disturbance as a couple is proclaimed to be "MCA y 6biTHJi'' (honey of

being). That is, the poetic message of the poem is a proclamation of love as a kernel of

the universe. With this point of view, Katsyuba is close to the metaphysic poets such as

John Donne w h o was concerned similar ideas with his poetry.

Concluding the simple palindrome section, in these poems Katsyuba presents her

positive understanding o f the world filled with harmony and love as multiple symmetrical

transformations of the absolute substance. Palindrome technique is understood as a

similar creative transformation, and as such Katsyuba uses it in her poetry. Numerous

palindromes are united producing the total picture of a combinatorial universe, where a

poet is a secondary creator. For Katsyuba, the concept of authorship is related mostly to

the integral poem, so the interconnection of the parts of the poem is more important than

these parts themselves. This is the reason for the frequent usage of already known

palindromes in her poems. Katsyuba uses motifs common in palindrome poetry; for

example, Adam and Eve, the rose and others. For palindrome poems, writing in variations

of the same palindrome rhyme is similar to the poetic methods of anaphora and epiphora,

in which sense combinatorial writing is drawn closer to conventional poetry.

6.2.5. Unusual palindrome technique in Katsyuba's poetry: dissymmetry

transformations of the words

As I will demonstrate, Katsyuba uses a wide range of palindrome techniques: the

above analysed poems are letter palindromes - that is, they are read letter by letter the

same forward and backwards as defined in Chapter 2, whereas the poems analysed

below are different: one poem is read letter by letter forward and backwards with a

different meaning. This restriction had existed in ancient Latin and medieval poetry and

was used intuitively by Katsyuba through the search for expressive combinatorial poetic

methods. Another poem analysed here is a word palindrome which is read word by

word forward and backwards, also defined in Chapter 2. By presenting these poems, a

range of Katsyuba's techniques will be demonstrated.

A palindrome poem of non-identical forwards and backwards reading is called

oôopomeHb (oboroten, turn-over) in Russian combinatorial poetry (Fedin and

Lukomnikov 2002, 168-172). For this kind of palindrome, each line can be read

backwards, but the meaning of the phrase is not identical to the meaning of the initial

phrase. This kind of palindrome was mentioned in Chapter 2 concerning the

Dovgalevsky and Velichkovky palindromes. Katsyuba divides forward and backwards

lines into different poems with corresponding meanings in her poem BOCXOff B

3EPKAJIE 3AKATA (Sunrise in a mirror of sunset, Katsyuba 2003, 268):

3AKAT

BOCXOA B 3 E P K A J 1 E 3 A K A T A

(Apjyp H ATOM)

BOCXOJX

- Hra MHpa 3aM0K. Ax, 3 T 0 HMH He xaM, occHH KY6 - 3aK0H, EBBI TOH

aji03, UCHA XEHH OH,

X O A B B O p O X a/ lOHHCa.

O T

Apxypa lujia TeMHoxa, KOpojiH HeM Men H Tyn -jieB jiyHbi B na/iy y ^ypMana.

cjiHwy JIA;IOB 3OB:

ce6e HH pa3y, eMy - BOJifl H ca^. ^ - p o M 6OJIH,

a He nojiex. A My3a pa3yMa - MpaKa KOT, coea.

(Sunrise in a mirror of sunset Sunset / /1 am a lock of the yore of the world. / Ah, this name is not there, a cube of autumn is a law, / A tone of Eve - / aloe, it is the price of a shadow, / a path to a pile of Adonis, / From / Arthur, darkness went, / the sword of a king is dumb / and blunt - / a lion of the moon in fumes of a haze. /1 will compare a call of concords: / not once to myself, / to him - a will and a garden. /1 am a rum of a pain, / not a flight. / And a muse of reason is a cat of shadow, an owl)

(o6paTHbiH TCKCT)

KoMa 3apH - MarHJi. Ho TBI - BCHOK a36yKH, necoMa TCHaMH ox 3xa, HO H He xaneu 3o;ia, a CHHO a xopoB BJIOX.

To Axon Mexaji map yxpa, HCM Menaji, o poK, nyxH, a HaM py/iy y^an ebinyji. Beji B03 BOil, a JiyHHJlCH y 3apH He6ec. «JJ,a» CH«jio B yMe H Jlo6 MOp«, xejio - neHa.

A BocxoKa KapMa - My3a pa3yMa!

(Arthur and Aton) Sunrise / (a reverse text) // Magic is a coma of a dawn. / But you are a wreath of an alphabet, carried by shadows of echoes, / not either a dance of Aeolus, / but a breath of choruses of synod. / That / Aton threw the ball of a morning, / by which he used to change, oh fate, / the ways, / and for us he extracted the ore of luck. He lead / a cart of waters, and shone / by a dawn of the skies. / "Yes" shone in mind / and a forehead of a sea, / body is foam. / And the karma of the East is a muse of mind!)

The poem 3AKAT(sunset) is read from left to right, as in the European tradition of

reading, and concerns the decline of the West, whereas the reversal poem BOCXO/J

(sunrise) is read the same as the first, if read from right to left, as in some Eastern

traditions of reading, and concerns the ascent of the East. Again, the transformation of

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symmetry is presented here in accord with the literary text as if by reflection in a mirror

where sunset is t ransformed into sunrise: " B O C X O f l B 3EPKAJ1E 3AKATA" (Sunrise

in the mirror of sunset), though in this case it is a distorted transformation of non-

identical objects. The concept of the 'decline of the West ' was proclaimed by Spengler,

who stated the present era to be a decline of the Faustian (Western) culture (Spengler

1926). Since that publication, the concept became popular and was developed by

mult iple authors. It can be assumed by the obvious contradiction that the future

civilisation would be the Eastern civilisation. Katsyuba follows this assumption,

contrasting the East to the West, sunrise to sunset, and decline to ascent. Declining West

and ascending East are presented by the personifications of "Apxyp H ATOM" (Arthur

and Aton) as a legendary King Arthur, who is believed to be sleeping inside a cave, and

an Egyptian Pharaoh Aton who is known for the reform of a system of faith in Egypt

f rom polytheism to monotheism. In Katsyuba 's poem, the West is associated with

darkness: "Ox / Apxypa mna xeMHOxa" (From / Arthur, darkness went), whereas the

East is associated with light: "jiyHHJica / y 3apn neGec" (shone / by a dawn of the skies).

Katsyuba expresses this concept in the form of a palindrome where a formal

t ransformation of letter order corresponds to the reverse of civilisation: what is a sunrise

for one culture is a sunset for another; when the first culture is "B mjxy y AypMaua" (in a

haze fumes ) as Arthur is charmed by Merlin in a cave in accordance with the legend, the

other culture is prospering: "py^y yAan Bbmyji" (the ore of luck is extracted) as a

consequence of Aton ' s deeds. This contradiction is mostly arbitrary, as Aton ' s religious

reforms were unsuccessful and had no significant influence for Egyptian civilisation,

and happened long before the legendary Arthurian kingdom, so they doubtfully could be

contrasted to each other. Nevertheless, Katsyuba presents her opinion on the

development of the cultures, supporting it by the formal structure of the poem.

Another modification of the palindrome-based formal structure used by Katsyuba

is a word palindrome, which is extremely rare in Russian combinatorial poetry. This

type of combinatorial restriction, defmed in Chapter 2 as a text in which words instead

of letters are read forward and backwards, is the developed form of Latin followed by

European combinatorial poetry (Bombaugh 1961, 59-63). In the poem Jlyna u MpaK

(Moon and darkness), Katsyuba presents a word palindrome as a non-identical

reflection of differing substances (Katsyuba 2003, 110):

Jlywa H MpaK

3 A K A T 3 A X B A T H J 1 n e e - J l E C 3 A X B A T H J 1 saKax

C T B O J l b l 3 A C J 1 0 H H J 1 H OMYTBI TbMbi - T b M b I O M Y T b l SACJIOHHJIH CTBOJIBI

O n o B o CTajio 3 0 J I 0 T 0 - 30JIOTO cxa j io O J I O B O

B a j i y H 6biJi O H J I O C O O C K H H K A M E H b - KaMCHb (})HJIOCO(})CKHH 6biji B A J I Y H

T O P ) K E C T B O A J I X H M H H n o ô e A H J i o HeeepHe - H E B E P M E noôe^iHJio anxHMHH T0p>KecTB0

n e j i a c b He C B A / ] , b b A - C B a ^ b ô a H E n c j i a c b :

B E H H O E He e iMHCHHe Mojmamero w cBeTíHueñ - cBCTJimeH h Mojinamero e^HHenbe H E B E H H O E

EH n J l b l T b He ocxpoñ SBesAOH - njianeTOH - njianeToñ, SBes^oñ ocxpOH HE n U b l T b eñ ElViy b b l T b He BH/lHMblM - OmyTHMblM - OlHyXHMblM, BHAHMbIM HE bblTb eiviy

JIET5IT, He TepHfl Apyr Apyra - ^pyr Apyra Tcpaa, H E J1ET5ÎT

J I Y H A H M P A K

(Moon and darkness // Sunset captured the wood - a wood captured the sunset / trunks shielded the sloughs of darkness - sloughs of darkness shielded the trunks / tin became gold - gold became tin / A boulder was the philosopher's stone - the philosopher's stone was a boulder / the triumph of alchemy defeated disbelief -unbelief defeated the triumph of alchemy / it was not a wedding singing - a wedding did not sing: / the eternal [is] not unification of the silent and the shining -unification of the shining and the silent is not eternal / for her, to float not as a sharp star, but a planet - neither as a planet, nor as a sharp star for her to float / for him, to be not visible, but perceptible - neither perceptible, nor visible for him to be / they fly not losing each other - losing each other they do not fly / moon and darkness)

The interaction of the moon and darkness is described as a unity of opposites:

reflection and absorption, light and shadow, decline and rise. The text could be read in

multiple directions: from left to right as well as from right to left and from top to bottom

as well as from bottom to top. That is, multiple symmetries and dissymmetries as non-

identical resemblance, similar to a chess-board pattern, are presented here, including the

double reverse of the time arrow. The meaning of the lines is modified by the reflection

in the central vertical mirror: "3AKAT 3AXBATHJ1 jiec" (Sunset captured the wood) is

transformed to "JIEC 3AXBATHJ1 saKax" (A wood captured the sunset) and vise versa.

In the left part of the poem describing moonlight, positive transformations are presented

as the light appears: "OJIOBO cxajio 3 0 J 1 0 T 0 " (Tin became gold), "Bajiyn 6biJi

OHJIOCOOCKMÍÍ KAMEHb" (A boulder was the philosopher's stone); whereas for

the right side of the poem representing darkness, the transformations are negative as the

darkness spreads: "SOJIOTO cxajio OJIOBO" (Gold became tin), "KaivieHb 4)HJIOCO4)CKHH

6BIJI BAJIYH" (The philosopher's stone was a boulder). In other lines, the mirror

transformation is equally unproductive: "BEHHOE ne eAHHCHHe" (The eternal [is] not

unification), or "eAHHCHbe HE BEHHOE" (Unification is not eternal). In the final lines,

the moon and the darkness are described through mutual negations in the adjacent lines:

"EH n j I b l T b He ocxpoH BBesAOH-njianeTOH - njiaHexoH, sbcsaoh ocrpoH HE HJIblTb

en" (For her, to float not as a sharp star, but a planet - neither as a planet, nor as a sharp

star for her to float), and "Eiviy bb lTb ne BHAHMbiM-omyxHMbiM - ou;yTHMbiM,

BHAHMbiM HE bb lTb eiviy" (For him, to be not visible, but perceptible - neither

perceptible, nor visible for him to be); concluding with unification in the last line of the

poem: "JlETilT, ne xepiia Apyr Apyra - Apyr Apyra Tepaa, HE JIET^T" (They fly not

losing each other, losing each other they do not fly / moon and darkness). Altogether,

complex interactions of darkness and light are presented by word-palindrome phrases of

reverse meanings.

Concluding the palindrome section of Katsyuba's poems, she wrote letter

palindromes of different types in both conventional and zaum vocabulary using these

techniques as a means to express her poetic ideas. By poetic findings, Katsyuba follows

Khlebnikov's poetic discoveries of the palindrome poem Razin (Khlebnikov 2002, 125-

129), though she has not made a breakthrough to new poetic achievements, as Avaliani did

with the same technique. Instead, Katsyuba's role was to return palindromes to being a

poetic tool, as she wrote and published a significant number of palindromes in late Soviet

and post-Soviet samizdat editions. For Katsyuba, palindrome writing is a transformation of

symmetry: strict symmetry for traditional palindromes, disturbed symmetry for

modification to zaum and dissymmetry for non-identical turn-over palindromes.

6.2.6. In search of creative possibilities through rare literary techniques

In addition to developed letter restrictions such as the anagram and its

modifications and palindrome and its variations analysed above, Katsyuba also uses rare

letter techniques she has proposed in parallel with the history of combinatorial

literature. Several techniques, such as word conglutination, phonetic transformation and

the extraction of vowels, will be analysed below. In the poems based on these letter

techniques, Katsyuba presents the same concepts of eternal transformation of life and

supremacy of love over all universal forces that she developed in her poems analysed

above, as the common features of her poetry.

6.2.6.1. Word conglutination

The technique of word conglutination consists of two or more words being joined at

their boundaries with the final and initial letters of the adjacent words overlapping,

leading to the identification of new words within them, for example: 'yxpocTOJi - yxpo,

pocT, CTOJi' (utrostol - morning, growth, table). This technique is similar to a method

proposed by Lewis Carroll by the name syzygy (Gardner 1996, 144). Carroll defined

syzygy as a pair of words that contain the same subset of consecutive letters; for example,

'war in 'walrus' and 'swallow'. Then, a word game is proposed consisting in connecting

two words by associative links and syzygy pairs; for example, Carroll's 'walrus' -

'carpenter' can be connected by a syzygy word chain of minimum length: 'walrus' and

'peruse' (the common letters 'rus'), 'peruse' and 'harper' (the common letters 'per'),

'harper' and 'carpenter' (the common letters 'arp'). For Carroll, the locations of

connecting sets of letters in the words are of no importance. In contrast to Carroll's

methods, the technique accepted in Russian combinatorial literature demands the common

sets of letters to be on the boundaries of words all together connected in an ambiguous

phrase: "yBHAHMneTbKaHapbi" - "ybhahm, FleTbKa, Hapw" ( W e will be in prison, Pet'ka)

or "yBHAHM, n e x b , KaHapbi" (Pet', we will see Canary Islands, Olga Fedina, in: Fedin and

Lukomnikov 2 0 0 2 , 202) , and "TbieeAbMaAOHHapoaa" - "xbi BeAbMa, Aonna Po3a" (You

are a witch, donna Rosa) or "xbi seAb Ma OHHa, Po3a" (Certainly, Rosa, you are

Madonna, Sergey Fedin, in: Fedin and Lukomnikov 2002 , 203) .

In Katsyuba's poems (Katsyuba 2003, 230) the word conglutination is used as a

poetic technique applied to a text to create renewed words from deformed habitual words:

Ha CBajiKC ece CMemHeaeTca CMemaexca cuenjiJieTCH o6pa3yH -

uenH yHMTASBYKASHb

(yHHTa3 - a36yKa - yKas - KasHb)

K0M0AE>lJ10/iKACTPI0Jl>iryiIIKAcDEH (komo;i - o^ejijio - jioAKa - Kacxpiojiji - jiaryiuKa - lUKaiJ) - Ka(l)e - (l)eH)

CnHUAnJI>IMKAJ10IUAAHETAByPET (cnHua - uanjiji - jiJiMKa - Kanouia - jioma^iH - j^Hexa - Ta6ypeT)

KOJibua KOPblTOCKAOAHAPATBAHHAJlblKO

(KopbiTO - TOCKa - cKa(l)aHAp - Apaxea - eaHHa - aHHanbi - jibiko - Kopbixo ...)

CKEJlETAJIJIE>IMHrHyJl>IMHHOMyTyMAHABTOCKEJIET (cKejiex jiexaji anneHMH, MHrHyji HyjiHMH HMHH HHOMy OMyxy xyMana, aexo B XOCKC, CKCJiex ...)

a Aanbme AMJlbUIEnOTBETPABECHAHAJlAA

(a Aanbuie m e n o x - OXBCX Bexpa xpaee - secHa, CHaMana Jia , a iianbiue ...)

(In the junkyard everything is mixed / shifted / coupled / mailing - / chains / UNITAZBUKAZN / toilet bowl - alphabet - edict - execution) // KOMODEYALODKASTRYULYAGUSHKAFEN / chest of drawers - blanket - boat -stew pan - frog - cupboard - café - hairdryer) // SPITSAPLYAMKALOSHADIETABURET / (knitting needle - heron - strap - galosh -horses - diet - stool) // rings / KORYTOSKAFANDRATVANNALYKO / (washing tub - spleen - environmental suit - waxed thread - bathtub - annals - bast - washing tub ) // SKELETALLEYAMIGNULYAMINOMUTUMANAVTOCKELET / (skeleton flew by lanes, blinked by noughts of holes to the other whirlpool of fog, auto in spleen, skeleton...) // and then / ADALSHEPOTVTRAVESNACHALAD / (and then a whisper - a reply of wind to grass - spring, in the beginning a concord, and then...)

Katsyuba includes an interpretive remark in the beginning of the poem: "Ha ceajiKe

Bce CMeiuHBaeTca / cMeiuaeTCii / cuenjiaeTca / oGpasyji" (In the junkyard everything is

mixed / shifted / coupled / making...). That is, by transforming words to the point when

they become indistinguishable from the original ones, Katsyuba presents the destruction of

the objects. According to the method, the fmal-initial sets of letters are identical:

"yHMTASBYKASHb / (yHHxas - a36yKa - yKas - Ka3Hb)" (UNITAZBUKAZN / toilet

bowl - alphabet - edict - execution). In some lines of the poem, the sets of words are closed

in a ring marked by three dots so that the word sequences can be read infinitely:

"KOPblTOCKAOAHflPATBAHHAJlblKO / (KopbiTo - xocKa - cKa^mjxp - Apaxsa -

BaHHa - aHHajibi - jibiko - Kopbixo ...)" (KORYTOSKAFANDRATVANNALYKO /

washing tub - spleen - environmental suit - waxed thread - bathtub - annals - bast -

washing tub...). Katsyuba lists only one possible division of conglutinated words into

separate words, though other readings are also possible, for example: "yHHTASBYKASHb

- yHHxaB - Ta3 - 6yKa - K a 3 H b " (UNITAZBUKAZN - toilet sink - basin - bogyman -

execution). Hence, instead of all combinatorial versions provided to the reader, Katsyuba

presents her own interpretation of a conglutinated word. Nevertheless, the meanings of the

lines are obscure, and only a speculative interpretation of the sets of words can be provided.

In the first line, the word 'KasHb' (execution) is near to the word 'aaGyKa' (alphabet),

thus creating a relationship between education and death. In the next line, domestic objects

(KOMOii, OACHJIO, KacTpFOii., iuKa(l); chest of drawers, blanket, cooking pot, cupboard) are

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listed in the same chain with 'jio^Ka' (boat) and 'ji iryiijKa' (frog), reminding one of either a

princess-frog of Russian folk-tales, or Thumbelina of Hans Christian Andersen's story.

Thereupon, a newly appeared princess of the 'junkyard' begins to spruce up using '4)eH'

(hairdryer) and settles herself in the place going to 'Ka4)e' (café) mentioned in the same chain

of words. In the following line, "KOPblTOCKAOAHflPATBAHHAJTbIKO / (KopuTO -

TOCKa - cm^amp - ApaTBa - Bmm - aHHanu - JIUKO - KopuTo . . . ) "

(KORYTOSKAFANDRATVANNALYKO / washing tub - spleen - environmental suit -

waxed thread - bath - annals - bast - washing tub...), presented as an infinite ring, a similar

folk tale transfomiation is shown. By the transformation of the word 'KopuTo' (washing tub)

to 'eaHHa' (bath) and back, together with the words 'xocKa' (spleen) and 'JIBIKO' (bast), this

line can be interpreted as a Russian tale of the Golden Fish. The words '^paxBa' (waxed

thread) and 'JIBIKO' (bast) here represent a semi-archaic language associated with fairy tales,

and the word 'aHHanbi' (annals) represents the documentation of the story. The tale is retold

with the inclusion of a contemporary space technology motif: 'cKa(J)aHHp' (environmental, or

space suit), though the eternal modification of 'washing tub' into 'bath' in a chase for a better

life is just as unsuccessful as in the old tale, and the 'bath' is transformed back into a 'washing

tub', again accompanied by 'spleen'. In the next line, the words are already grouped in the

author's phrase: "CKEJIETAJIJTE^IMMrHyjl^MMHOMyTyMAHABTOCKEJlET /

(CKejier jieran ajiJie^MN, MHmyji nyji^MH HMHH HHOMy oMyry xyMana, aexo B TOCKC, CKCJICT

. . . )" (SKELETALLEYAMIGNULYAMINOMUTUMANAVTOCKELET / skeleton flew

by lanes, blinked by noughts of holes to the other whirlpool of fog, auto in spleen,

skeleton...). A possible interpretation of the phrase is a ghost story of a phantom scaring a

driver, then causing a deadly accident, causing the unrestful soul of the driver to become a

ghost himself, so that the story repeats infinitely. This topic is close to gothic/romantic

'graveyard' stories, and in this way, a 'junkyard' poem approaches gothic literature. By the

last line of the poem, " A M J l b L U E n O T B T P A B E C H A H A J l A / l / (a ^anbuie menoT - o r ee r

Berpa xpase - eecHa, CHanana najx, a ^anbuie . . . ) "

( A D A L S H E P O T V T R A V E S N A C H A L A D / and then whisper - a reply of wind to grass -

spring, in the beginning a concord, and then. . . ) , Katsyuba again presents a posthumous

transformation o f a substance similar to the one that appeared in the poem about an elephant,

which w a s analysed above. The line can be interpreted as follows: when all life events are

finished, n e w spring begins to develop into a new life, which also in time comes to the end

and begins again, thus closing an eternal vital cycle.

C o n c l u d i n g , by modi f i ca t ions of letters of words in disclosed chains, Katsyuba

presen ts the idea o f a pe rmuta t ion of all substances to indist inguishable mixture and the

s ame idea of inevi table degradat ion of all substances, and by modif ica t ions of letters of

w o r d s in inf in i te cycles she presents an infinite t ransformat ion of objects f rom living to

dead and then to rebir th of n e w ghost- l ike or living objects .

6.2.6.2. Phonetic transformations as a representation of entropie destruction

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m voiced to voiceless consonants is another technique used by

K a t s y u b a in s o m e of her p o e m s as a manifes ta t ion of the decomposi t ion of words

th rough t i m e (Ka t syuba 2003, 231):

CBAJIKA BCEX nPHMHP5IET, BCE CM^IEHAET

Y Hee Bce SBCHKHC (KOTopbie corjiacHbie) CTaHOBHTCH rjiyxHMH r^e paHbiue 6biJia Jlyiua - ocTanacb onHa Tyma

BbiJia ra^ajiKa - cxajia KaTanna Tabana, HEpana

noTOM KaTana h Kpana HOCHJia iiJjiiinKy C FpwB, a Tenepb KOJiecHKH - CKpHO - C K P H O

3aT0 Bopy Jianu Oopy paHbuie KpHManH "BOH", a Tenepb eejiHHaioT "OGH"

5biJ]a ujJiHna Be^poM, oÔTiiHyjiacb OeTpoM A KTO Ha ceanKe Be3 flejia,

Toro o^ioJieeT f leC Tejia

(Junkyard reconciles everybody, softens everything // In it, all voiced (that are consonant) become voiceless / Where [there] was a SOUL - only a CARCASS is left // Who was a FORTUNE-TELLER, has become a WHEELCHAIR / She told fortunes and played, / Then wheeled and stole / She wore a hat the size of a mushroom, and now the wheels [go] - squeak - squeak // At the same time, a THIEF was given the ODDS / Previously they cried "GET OUT!" and now they call him "VON" / His was a hat like a BUCKET, then it was covered by FELT / And those who have no business in the junkyard / Those will be overcome by a DOG of BODY)

By changing a voiced consonant to voiceless, that is a version of metagram

transformation presented in Chapters 4 and 5, Katsyuba demonstrates how the objects fade

though time: for example, 'flyuia' (soul) becomes Tyma ' (carcase). The transformation

occurs from high style to low: 'soul' is transformed not just into a 'body', but to a 'carcass';

'raflajiKa' (fortune-teller) becomes an invalid on wheels: 'KaTajiKa' (wheelchair). The figure

of a 'fortune-teller' described by such attributes as Taflaj ia ' (told fortune), as telling stories or

creativity, 'HFpajia' (played) as joyful creativity and 'uiJi^inKa C FpHB' (a hat the size of a

mushroom) as a creative appearance, is associated with the author of the poem. The changes

are again diminishing: from joy and creativity to illness and old age represented

metonymically by 'KaTajiKa' (wheelchair). On the other hand, the transformation of 'eop' (a

thief) is increasing as this figure becomes respectable, acquiring a title of nobility (eejiHHaioT

'OOH ' ; call him 'von'), and changing a miserable appearance into a decent one: "6biJia mjiiina

BeflpoM, oGxHHyjiacb OeTpoM" (His was a hat like a BUCKET, then it was covered by

FELT), though this transformation of a negative character can be considered as destmction as

well. Katsyuba does not clearly express her feelings, accepting the inevitability of these

transformations as a natural process, though the preference is obvious for a creative figure of

'fortune-teller' against ' thief . In the last lines of the poem, Katsyuba proclaims the necessity

o f a b u s i n e s s occupat ion: " A KTO Ha CBajiKe B e 3 flejia, / x o r o OAOJieex O e C T e n a " ( A n d those

who have no business in the junkyard / Those will be overcome by a DOG of BODY), where

a 'dog of body' could represent the triumph of material over spiritual subjects, or the

inevitability of ageing. As for Katsyuba a junkyard is a metaphor of life; the phrase should be

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understood as a manifestation of the necessity of a permanent creative process throughout the

lifetime. By recording transformed letters in capitals, Katsyuba emphasises the technique for

the reader, thus again following the concept oi baring the device (Shklovsky 1919, 101-114)

proposed by Russian formalists of the early twentieth century.

On the whole, through the technique of phonetic transformation, Katsyuba expresses

the same idea of the inevitable destruction of subjects in time, leading them to the

'junkyard', and the idea of the vital necessity of a creative occupation. The strict similarity

of ideas in her different works makes Katsyuba's poetry a single whole, not just in a sense

of a collection of the poems, but rather a hypertext where the ideas pronounced in some

parts of her work/oeuvre are developed and confirmed in the others.

6.2.6.3. Reducing words to vowels

Another technique used by Katsyuba consists in reducing words to vowels in the

poems. The method is similar to that used by Kruchyonuikh in the poem Bbicombi

(Heights) from the literary COWQCXXOW JJoxjian Jiyna (Dead Moon, Kruchyonuikh 1913):

e y K) o e H a o

o a o a e e H e H

o a e y H e H

H H bi H e H H bl

In Kruchyonuikh's poem, the beginning of the prayer "BepyK) BO e/iHHaro Bora Orua,

Bce^ep>KHTeji;i, Teopua He6y h 3eMjin, sHAHMbiM h HeBtmnMbiM" (I believe in one God, the

Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible), is

recorded by the vowels only. Kruchyonuikh does not forewarn the reader about the technique,

so to an uninformed reader the poem is apprehended as zaum, whereas with a clue provided

by a researcher (Markov 1994, 334), the inner structure of the poem becomes available. As

this simple method is not widespread among the authors and Katsyuba emphasises

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independence of her writing (E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July), it can be concluded

that she proposed it independently of Kruchyonuikh, as did other poets; for example. Pit

Anikin in a video poem Ceudmue (Date, Anikin 2008, Internet publication) created on the

basis of Pasternak's poem Smmm nonh (Winter Night). In contrast to Kruchyonuikh,

Katsyuba openly presents the words that are the basis for the vowel-extracting transformation:

OopMyjia }KH3HH -

B e c b M H p - O E A O y E M -OKEAH OiaYmEHMH B HCM ecTb O;IHH 3ajiHB - Y O - MYBCTBO B HCM JiHuib oziHa BOJiHa - K) O - JiI060Bb Ho BOJiHa - 3T0 KanjiH - KanjiM KanjiH pasHOCJiT TeneHba M Becb oKeaH omymeHHii npoHH3biBaeT - l O O - I O O - I O O

(Formula of life // The whole world i s O E A O U E I - / Ocean of feelings / There is a bay in it - U O - a feeling / There is just one wave in it - YU O - love / But a wave is drops - drops / Currents spread drops / And the whole ocean of senses / is penetrated - YU O - YU O - YU O)

Each combination of vowels: "O E A O Y E H" (O E A O U E I), "Y O" (U O), 'TO

O" (YU O) is supplemented by their original words, emphasising the vowels in capital

letters: "OKEAH OmYutEHHii" (ocean of feelings), "MYBCTBO" (a feeling), "JIIOGOBB"

(love), so that the reader can easily decipher the last set of vowels 'TO O - K) O - K) O"

(YU O - YU O - YU O ) as "JIPOGOBB - JIK)6OBB - NK)6OBB" (love love love). The extraction

of consonants from the words is presented as an analogue of flesh being washed out by

prolonged exposure of a body to the water of the ocean, metaphorically representing time,

and simultaneously, extracting subjects of minor importance from life. The development of

the poem happens from the general multiplicity of "oKean omymeHHii" (ocean of feelings)

to the particular feeling which is considered by Katsyuba as the most important essence of

the universe represented by the ocean: "JIFOGOBB - JIK)6oBb - JIKD6OBB" (love love love). The

repetitions of sound represent the recurrence of natural phenomena such as waves or tides,

and is intended to increase the emotional expressiveness of the poetic message.

To conclude, the message of the poem realised by this particular letter technique

could be read as "love is everywhere and love is the essence of everything". A simple letter

combinatorial technique openly demonstrated by Katsyuba is for her a means to convince

the reader to acceptance of her metaphysical concept of the essence of the universe.

6.2.7. Graphic represenations of poems

In some o f her texts, Katsyuba uses graphic elements to emphasise the formal

structure o f the poem and its poetic message. A recognised visual poet, she has her

graphic poems published in a number o f editions and received awards for them from the

literary journal OKHO (http://oknopoetry.webs.com/). I will demonstrate how Katsyuba

accentuates her poetic ideas in graphic form by the analysis of two palindrome poems

made with graphic elements and a poem remade to a media form.

In the following poem (Katsyuba 2003, 248), Katsyuba searches for the creation

o f an object by investigating its name:

Kea^paxypa p03bi

^ o V» ^ V« p ^ ® ^

•a O N ^ Ci " ^^ ^ p

s

I

\ CP • <

o

(Quadrature of a rose I I inspector of roses and faiths / a rosary and a ravage / days of roses - Windsor / oversight on the contributions of roses // Zorro - a thief of roses / make an alert eye, sword of roses / by dawn - the name of roses / fate of roses is sharp-sighted // to a rose - a gap / pattern of roses / a rose - a ravage / look of roses // dawns of roses / dawns of roses / dawns of roses / dawns of roses // and by roses of dawn of Rome // he placed a rose in the patterned mind // spent a dawn to the glory of roses / dispensed a buried treasure of roses)

The poem is important for the understanding of Katsyuba's poetics, as the image

o f ' r o se ' is repeated in the opening poem of the Msp Pau poetic collection: "Posbi caMH

He pacTyx / HX co3AaeT caAOBHHK - KOHcxpyKTop po3bi" (Roses don't grow by

themselves / a gardener creates them - a constructor of roses, Katsyuba 2003, 13),

where a rose is a metonymy for the beauty and perfection of creation. Again,

Katsyuba's poems are united in a hypertext style, so that the clues for one poem could

be found in another poem of the collection.

Katsyuba's poem is devoted to a rose and is represented in the graphics as a rose.

In addition, the word 'po3a' (rose) is included into each line of the poem. Possibly, in

the line "sopaiviM - HMJI po3" (by dawn - the name of the roses), Katsyuba makes an

allusion to Eco's novel The name of the rose (1980), referring to the same interpretation

of a rose in the multiple philosophical and metaphysical senses mentioned in the novel.

Describing a rose, Katsyuba cites the well-known Russian palindrome: "A posa ynajia

Ha Jiany Asopa" (And the rose fell onto a paw of Azor). By using the well-known

palindrome in a style of cento poetry, Katsyuba emphasises the significance of a whole

poem rather than separate palindrome lines, and reveals her understanding of the

primordial existence of palindromes in the language, as expressed in her interview

(Baikov et al. 2009).

The lines of the poem are visualised as four sides of squares representing an

artificial flower created by the combinatorial technique, and in a forking curve

representing a stalk and a leaf Each line on the sides of the squares and each curve of

'stalk' is a short letter palindrome. The letters on the corners of the sides of the squares 314

belong to the words of both sides, alternating by the consonants of the word 'posa'

(rose): 'p ' (r) and '3 ' (z), so the consonants again are considered to be a part of the basic

essence of the word. B y creating a square rose "KeaApaxypa po3bi" (quadrature of rose),

Katsyuba makes an allusion to a known mathematical problem of a quadrature of the

circle, which cannot be solved by elementary geometrical tools. Consequently,

Katsyuba states the possibility of solving an impossible task by creating a living object,

'rose', using a combination of basic details in an alchemy style.

The poem does not have a defined order of reading, so the reader can start from

multiple points and read in several directions: from 'stalk' to 'head' or vice versa, from

inner 'petals' to outer or backwards, from any of the four comers of each 'petal', as well

as from left to right and from right to left in accordance with the palindrome structure of

the poem. From the centre, the figure of the rose develops with variations as the number

of letters in a line increases. In the inner square, all four sides of the square are identical:

"sopH po3" (dawns of roses). In the next square, "po3a - 3a3op / po3 y3op / po3a - pasop

/ po3 B3op" (to a rose - a gap / pattern of roses / a rose - a ravage / look of roses), the

variations are minimal: '3a30p' - 'pasop' (gap - ravage), 'y3op' - 'B3op' (pattern -

look). The next lines are more variable, though some words are repeated ('dawns',

'ravage'), and some lines differ by one or two letters only: "po3 AHM - BnHA3op / p03a

jxauH HaA30p" (days of roses - Windsor / oversight on the contributions of roses). In this

way, the described object is developing, potentially, to infinity. In contrast, the lines of

the 'stalk' are all limited, and all different, though they are not strict palindromes:

"po3/iaji KjiaA po3" (dispensed a buried treasure of roses). In this line, a combination of

a palindrome Cuan KJia/i" (gave a buried treasure)) and alliteration repetitions ('po3' -

'po3' (rose - rose)) is used. This disturbance of the palindrome structure is possibly

made to demonstrate the further variability of the re-combinations of letters, and

consequently, more possibilities for the creation of a living object 'po3a' (rose) by these

combinations as genetic material. On the whole, Katsyuba presents a concept of the

artificial creation of a living object in accordance with letter combinations of the word

representing this object.

In the following poem, the graphic is represented by dispersing rays (Katsyuba

2003, 254):

nyMM3M

• . » •

^^^ I \

/ s^V ' œ a > * 1 ^

f I I %

(Rayonism H ... and I draw a ray of speech to a meadow / But in Lethe, a ray flew away I . . . and I draw to Lethe a ray of speech / Or else a ray belongs to Lot I . . . and I draw a ray of speech / In a wasp, a ray belongs to woods I . . . and I draw a moon - a ray of speech / Well, a ray belongs to moons / But a ray belongs to bosoms I . . . and I draw a bosom - a ray of speech)

In this poem, allusions could be found to two phenomena: first, the known

Guillaume Apollinaire poem from the Caligrammes collection, and second, to Rayonism,

a Russian art movement of the early twentieth century represented by artists Le Dantu,

Goncharova and Larionov. Written in 1916 and published in 1918, soon after the poet's

death, Apollinaire's caligramme poems are some of the best-known graphic poems of the

twentieth century. In the poem IIpleut, Apollinaire describes rain by words as well as by

a graphic representation of the lines of the poem in the form of rain with drops streaming,

close to the graphic representation of Katsyuba's poem. On the other hand, Rayonism was

an art movement developed by Le Dantu who was also killed during WWI, in 1917. The

concept of this art movement consists in the transmission of the light spectrum into colour

316

figurative painting. Rayonism's concept is close to Katsyuba's poem not only by the title

of her poem, 'jiyHH3M' (rayonism), which is a Russification of the term Rayonism, but by

the message of the poem. Whereas in his poem, Apollinaire grieves about the

unachievable happy past and comes to an understanding of the rupture of bonds with life,

Katsyuba's attitude is positive: she investigates possible manifestations of 'jiyn' (ray).

The phenomenon of 'ray' is investigated as a physical object by the decomposition of a

sunray into a continuous spectrum of coloured lights: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,

indigo and violet. Rayonist artists used this method of dividing a colour into its primary

components for their works, in a way similar to Katsyuba's presentation of a visual poem

as a set of dispersing lines. One can presume that Katsyuba is familiar with Rayonist

experiments and the art discoveries of Russian futurists, though she didn't mention them

in her interview as her predecessors, stating the independence of her poetic ideas (E

Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July). The concept of the poem is reflected in the text on

multiple levels: the poem is about rays, it is made in the form of diverging rays, and it

contains the word 'jiyn' (ray) many times. Consequently, in this poem, Katsyuba is closer

to a study of light by Rayonism artists, rather than to an aspiration to death as proclaimed

by Apollinaire.

In the Internet representation of the poem (http://slovart.narod.ru/pall3.htm), the

word 'jiyHH3M' (rayonism) is printed in red, whereas other words are in black. The

different way of writing different words of a poem is in the tradition of graphic poetry

(Parmiggiani 2002), though it is used infrequently in contemporary experimental

literature. By this emphasis on colour, Katsyuba expresses the difference between the

title and the body of the poem, as well as between an initial compound light of the sun

and rays of the decomposed spectrum. This decomposition of separate elements is

similar to Katsyuba's technique of decomposing words to separate letters in order to

recompose them by basic combinatorial methods.

Each line of Katsyuba's poem is a palindrome with a word 'jiyn' (ray) included in

the text. The palindrome rhymes of five lines are the same, "H nepHy ... jiyn pewH"

(And I draw ... a ray of speech), so for these lines the same method of anaphora-

epiphora writing is used as in the poem H u mti analysed above. The poem JJyuusM is

written in an accentual verse close to anapaest with numerous alliterations on 'ji' (1), 'h'

(ch), 'p ' (r), 'H' (n) and other consonants: 'Mepny' ([I] draw), ^jiyn' (ray), 'penn'

(speech), 'HO' (but), 'ny' (well), 'BOH' ([flew] away). These alliterations together with

the rhythm of the poem make it similar to shamanic invocation songs whereby a

secondary reality is believed to be created - the recombination of sounds in Katsyuba's

poetry is a tool to create it. Katsyuba uses the first person narrative voice in some lines,

enumerating several objects: 'nepny jiyn pewH' ([I] draw a ray of speech), both real and

metaphysical: 'jiyry' ([to the] meadow), 'Jlexe' ([to the] Lethe) and the objects

themselves related to a ray: 'jiyna' (moon), 'JIOHO' (bosom). In other lines, Katsyuba

uses the third person voice, mostly describing a ray by attributing "jiyn yjiereji BOH" (a

ray flew away), "jiyn y Jloxa" (a ray belongs to Lot/a ray is with Lot/Lot [now] has the

ray), "jiyn y JTCCOB" (a ray belongs to woods), "jiyn y Jiyn" (a ray belongs to moons),

"jiyn y J IOH" (a ray belongs to bosoms). Formally, the short phrases differ

insignificantly, by one or two letters, though the result of this transformation is a new

phrase with different meaning, all together creating an image of an iridescent ray.

A ray described in the poem is, metaphorically, poetry itself, as it is "jiyn peMH" (a

ray of speech). Katsyuba attributes it to eternal, external and internal objects, 'JlyHa"

(moon), 'Jiyr' (meadow), 'Jiec' (forest), 'JIOHO' (bosom), thus arguing the poetry is

everywhere and prevails over everything. The poem again, as well as Jlyua u MpaK

presented above, could be read in different directions: from left to right and from right

to left. So, the word 'JIOHO' (bosom) is on the margin of the poem, though it is

impossible to recognise if it is the beginning or the final line. By this line, the peak of

the spectrum, and metaphorically the origin of life, are accentuated. As a result,

Katsyuba comes to the association of the origin of life from speech and the origin of life

via solar rays, and graphic representation in Katsyuba's poems becomes a tool to further

clarify poetic ideas to the reader.

In some cases, in order to achieve a better representation, Katsyuba changes the

design of the poem from simple writing recorded on paper to a developed visual poem.

For example, the poem UoedunoK (Duel, Katsyuba 2003, 153), initially written in a

conventional way, was re-written into the form of a video poem:

MPAK B b i x o i i H T H a 6 H T B y B 6 e j i b i x oaeyK jxax

M e p H b i H 6 e 3 ; ; o H H b i H 4 ) P A K H a ^ e B a c T CBCT

B T O H e C y p O B b l X O P A B 30J10Tbie H C K p b l

B c e p e 6 p H H 0 M rojioce >Ky>K>KaHHe S B e s ^ H b i x OPe3 naTHa MpaHHbix FPES Ha CHC^KHOM njiame MpaKa 6jieiiHbiH Mecflua cPE3 CjiE3 MacKOH c JiHua MPAK CJlEn OT Y^APOB C B C x a

KaK T b l C H H a CTO HOHCH y C T p O H B U I H X MCpHblH C J I E T

a C B E T - NOTOM H a n H m y x -

« B O T b M e C B C T H T , H T b M a C r O HC o G t H C T »

(DARKNESS comes to battle wearing white clothes / light puts on a black fathomless TAILCOAT / [there are] golden sparkles in the tone of stern PHRASES / [there is a] buzz of starry MILLING CUTTERS in the silver voice / stains of sombre DREAMS on the snowy cape of darkness / CUT of the pale crescent CAME DOWN from the face like a mask / darkness was BLINDED by the strokes of light / as a thousand and hundred nights which arranged a black SABBATH / and the LIGHT, as they will write later, 'shines in darkness, and darkness cannot overcome it')

The video representation of the poem consists of Katsyuba's reading with vocal

emphasis on the key words with a slide-show of a starlit sky in the background and with a

scrolling text of the same transforming word-set

(http://video.yandex.ru/users/lenkalibel/view/68/.

http://oknopoetry.webs.eom/no4//video.htm), so the poem is developed by the author using

contemporary computer techniques, rather than existing in a fixed state:

E n e H a v

n-OeAHHOK

In this poem, Katsyuba again uses the spontaneous mutation technique to connect

two words with the opposite meaning: 'ivipaK' (darkness) and 'CBCT' (light). The word

sequence 'MpaK' - '(j)paK' - '(J)pa3' - '(})pe3' - ' rpes ' - 'cpes' - 'cjies' - 'cjien' - 'cjiex'

- 'CBCT' (darkness - tailcoat - phrases - milling cutters - dreams - cut - came down -

blind - Sabbath - light) is supplemented with interpretations of these words and their

connections, ending with the Biblical quotation: " C B E T <. . .> eo TLMC CBCTHT, H TBMA

ero He OGT^JICT" (The LIGHT <.. .> 'shines in darkness, and darkness can't overcome

it'). Hence, the confrontation of darkness and light is presented as the primary

transformation of the first to the second, later confirmed by the Biblical phrase. Media

representation of the poem makes this image visually evident.

Concluding the graphic section, in some poems, several poetic aspects are used for

the development of the poetic idea, including the semantic, graphic and vocabulary. As

a result, Katsyuba presents concepts similar to those disclosed in her poetry of other

techniques: the association of objects to their names, the artificial creation of an object

in accordance with letter combinations of the word representing this object, the

multiplicity of readings of the poem and confidence in total good nature of the world.

To some extent, the poems are connected in the whole hypertext with the variations of

the poems and opening poem of a collection. By using visual presentation and

contemporary computer technology, Katsyuba rejects the fixed presentation of the

poem, instead developing the poems further in order to make them more expressive and

comprehensible for the reader.

6.3. Conclusion

In this chapter I have demonstrated that Katsyuba's poems are rich in basic formal

restrictions such as variations of the anagram and palindrome and some modifications

of these techniques. In contrast to Avaliani and Grinberg, she applies these techniques

freely, without attempting to create virtuoso combinatorial poetry, but using them as

illustrations of and arguments for metaphysical concepts. Her overall idea is the

similarity of the primary Creation of objects and phenomena by words to a secondary

poetic creation. The objects and phenomena are understood as strictly correlated, even

identical to the words that signify them, so that their essence can be restored by the

study of their names using combinatory literary techniques. Katsyuba's concept is partly

playful in a word-game manner and partly serious in a cabbalistic sense: a

transformation of letters of a word results in modification of the subject itself and

clarification of its nature. Another distinguishing concept of Katsyuba's poetry is the

understanding of love as the essence of the universe which is close to the concepts of

metaphysical poetry. Katsyuba is more interested in the metaphysical than social

subjects, as she refers to social topics in an insignificant number of her poems.

In order to introduce these concepts, Katsyuba wrote a significant number of

poems based on the listed formal structures. By the formal combinatorial methods,

Katsyuba develops baroque literary methods such as syllabic rhymes and ordering

poems in alphabetic order, as well as futuristic literary methods such as the zaum

language in a search for new expressiveness for the new era, rather than conventional

poetic methods descended from the Romantic poetic movement. Though, as Katsyuba

mentioned in her interview (E Katsyuba 2009, pers. comm., 12 July), she does not relate

to a particular literary movement, but finds creative ideas in many.

The inter-connectedness between parts of Katsyuba's poems is sometimes more

important for the understanding of her ideas than the individual poems. As her metaphysical

ideas are presented in some way in all of her poems, her poetry can be considered to be a

hypertext with separate poems representing different aspects of the whole, where the ideas

proclaimed in some poems are developed and deciphered in others.

Katsyuba herself considers combinatorial literary techniques as a joyful game and

welcomes the reader to share this understanding and participate in the word-game

activity when reading her poems. Following the formalist's proposition to bare the

device, Katsyuba comments on the techniques used in her poems and emphasises

graphically the details of writing. She also uses contemporary technical methods to

present her poetry, such as visual presentation and publications on the Internet. As

Katsyuba edits and publishes the same poems several times in different media,

providing them with comments and references, where graphics and semantics of the

poems are strictly correlated, she makes her poetic ideas apparent for the reader.

Despite the similarity to the baroque authors in her desire to create an encyclopedia

of poetic phenomena, the model of the world according to Katsyuba differs from the

world described by medieval authors: if the preceding authors saw the universe as a

harmonic and perfect miracle, for Katsyuba the world is all known, used and stained.

Here the metaphor of a junkyard appears as an irregular collection of discarded objects.

Nevertheless, Katsyuba considers this collection favorably, as a set for further re-

combinations. Consequently, for the 'junkyard' concept of the world. Katsyuba uses

several simple combinatorial techniques in order to create the world anew from the letters

of the existing words. For this aim. Katsyuba uses nonsensical words in her poems as for

her, meaningful words are only a minor part of permissible combinations of letters. This

concept is in accordance with the language potentiality concept proposed by Oulipo.

A change of time arrow is possible in Katsyuba's poetic concepts as the

rearrangement of letters of a word is possible in any order, to create disorder and order

again. Intuitively, Katsyuba has discovered the principles of reverse transformation

from chaos to order in the open systems of mechanical objects. Here is the foundation

of Katsyuba's optimism regarding the corrupted world, as the stained world could be

restored to the new world again. This is why in several of Katsyuba's poems,

posthumous transformation is presented where she describes a transformation to new

life after death, as expressed by letter transformation. On the whole, Katsyuba's poetic

program is a demonstration of the possibility of the secondary creativity out of the

words of the existing creation. By achieving this goal in her combinatorial poetry,

Katsyuba appears optimistic, regarding the world, in accordance with the medieval

concepts, as full of light and love.

Chapter 7. Conclusion.

The heights and breadths of contemporary Russian poetry of formal

restrictions as a part of historical literature techne

In my thesis, I have examined the contemporary Russian poetry of formal

restrictions for the period from the 1990s till the present. The analysis of this poetry was

held within the context of the world-wide literature techne, beginning from antiquity to

the twentieth century, in order to examine contemporary Russian works and present

them in a historical, cultural and literary perspective. The main focus of my research

included a description of the contemporary Russian literature of restricted forms as a

literary trend; the identification and analysis of the restrictions the authors use in their

poetry; and these authors' intentions in applying these forms in their texts. To my

knowledge, this is the first attempt to examine contemporary Russian poetry of formal

restrictions in a systematic way and in association with historical literary forms.

Through my analysis, characteristic features of this poetry were identified and

illustrated. I have shown that writing in formal restrictions is, on the one hand, a

complication aimed to condense vocabulary in order to exempt the poetic language from

clichés and banalities, and on the other hand, it is a liberation, providing the author with

original expressions and sharpened poetic messages defined by the 'restricted' language.

The examined literary phenomenon represents a distinct and recognisable

movement, though to date it has neither an agreed name nor a single manifesto. This

movement is usually associated with a number of literary trends such as the avant-

garde, experimental poetry and combinatorial poetry. In this case, its poetic purposes

and the attribution of some poets to this movement are questionable and were

specifically examined in this study. Among the reasons for this lack of exact attribution

is the limited dissemination of information about formal literary techniques and texts

written on the base of these techniques through the European literary history during the

Soviet era, when all unofficial literature was suppressed, especially that of formal

experimentation. Nevertheless, to the present time, a number of Russian authors

actively participate in this literary movement, and there are a number of literary journals

such as WepHoeuK, Mypnai n03moe, OKHO, /Jpyeoe no.iyuiapue and some others,

where this poetry is published, and literary events such as the JIana Asopa Festival of

Combinatorial Poetry, where the authors present their works. Some recent monographs

(Biryukov 2003a; Bonch-Osmolovskaya 2009) on both Russian and Western literature

of formal restrictions help the authors, especially novice poets, to become familiar with

this concept and specific literary techniques. As most of the listed editions are produced

by the enthusiasts who prefer the Internet as an economic publishing resource, this

movement, together with other unofficial literary movements, can be considered as part

of the contemporary samizdat literature. In contrast to the Soviet era, when publishing

unofficial editions was dangerous for the authors and editors, they are no longer

persecuted, though no support from official literary organizations for propagation and

dissemination of this movement is provided either. On the whole, with abolition of the

prohibition of formal literature in post-Soviet Russia and increasing information about

the tradition and contemporary writing, the development of the experimental literature

can be considered as positive and promising. The interest in experimental poetic forms

grows among practising poets, editors, critics and researchers.

For my research, I selected three authors as leading representatives of the

contemporary Russian literature of formal restrictions. The choice was made both from

the study of overall publications in contemporary literary editions and from analysis of

the interviews held throughout my preliminary research. The authors whose poems,

both published and unpublished, were analysed in my thesis are Dmitry Avaliani, Boris

Grinberg and Elena Katsyuba. The authors' backgrounds were disclosed in the

introductory section of the analysis, and their beliefs were revealed through analysis of

their poetry. As such, it is clear that neither gender, age, residence, nor religious

denomination (Christian for Avaliani, Judaic for Grinberg and overall creationist for

Katsyuba) are typical for the authors writing in formal restrictions. Nevertheless, a

'faith' could be named as the characteristic feature for the authors writing in formal

restrictions, as it implies the search for universal connections and harmony. Belonging

to a religious denomination is not ultimate, as Avaliani prefers private meditation to the

church service, Grinberg relates to Judaism intuitively and culturally rather than in the

detailed study, and Katsyuba explores the overall concept of Creation as a primary

creative act compared to creativity as the second creative process.

I have applied several methods of literary analysis to this (sometimes obscure)

poetry, placing emphases on the formal structures of the texts as the individual keys to

their reading and interpretation, even deciphering. The references to the long history of

literature techne made it possible to disclose these structures, whereas the interviews

with the authors provided me with an understanding of their intentions in writing as

well as their acquaintance with the tradition of formal experimentation. Through such

analysis the semantic, phonic and visual aspects of the texts, including their

polysemantic appearances, were seen as a whole, determined by the formal structure of

the poems. As a result, the characteristic features of these texts, their possible meanings

and the authors' intentions for their writing were disclosed in resemblances and

differences to those of the historical literature techne. To my knowledge, such analysis

of the contemporary Russian poetry of formal restrictions was not undertaken until now.

My findings reveal formal restrictions as playing a central role in the works of the

presented authors. In many cases, these restrictions have replaced or helped accomplish

traditional poetic techniques, allowing the authors' ideas to be better expressed, or even

for new ideas, otherwise inaccessible to the authors, to appear through exploration of

the formal technique. Primarily, I have discovered that the authors use a different range

of specific formal restrictions: Katsyuba explores the simplest letter restrictions such as

variations of anagram, palindrome and some modifications of these techniques such as

spontaneous mutations, thus searching for the inner meaning and extensions of the

words; Avaliani explores the same palindrome and anagram techniques and proposes

numerous new forms, including graphic listoverten, all as a means to present inner

connections between two objects or phenomena; and Grinberg, who started formal

experimentation with writing palindrome poems of extreme virtuosity, then moved to

the search for new literary restrictions, finding them in various literary sources and

amplifying the existing restrictions as the poetic tools to exclude clichés and present his

ideas in the most expressive way. The accuracy of following the restriction can vary:

Avaliani and Grinberg strictly obey the literary restrictions, writing poems with accurate

grammar and sentence structure, whereas Katsyuba uses letter combinatorial techniques

arbitrarily and only in some parts of the poem, while other parts are written in

conventional literary techniques or, in their absence, as a vers libre poem. In this sense,

Avaliani and Grinberg are closer to the traditional historical concept of literature techne,

whereas Katsyuba follows the traditions of contemporary experimental writing.

My other finding is that the characteristic feature of this poetry, especially for

Avaliani and Grinberg, is applying a strict formal restriction as a means to exclude

obvious vocabulary, in order to find fresh relationships between objects. For the two

parts of combinatorial poem (direct and reverse reading of palindrome, original and

final reading of anagram, direct and rotated reading of Avaliani's listoverten and so on),

the related meanings appear as the open and hidden (sacral) component of the whole,

though in many poems these parts are interchangeable, suggesting two sides of the same

coin, thus, together with virtuosity of the writing, providing an impression of the

wonders of language and the world.

Due to the applied formal restriction, the vocabulary of Avaliani's and Grinberg's

poems is broad, from elevated Old Slavonic and spiritual language to jargon and vulgar

terms. The majority of words that Avaliani and Grinberg use in their writing are of

exact meanings, excluding neologisms and occasionalisms, whereas Katsyuba uses

some words and expressions in the zaum style in the search for connections to the

contemporary era. Katsyuba's understanding of zaum as a pure language of lost

meaning is close to Khlebnikov's original concept and, together with her understanding

of the correspondence between the object and its name, can be interpreted as an amateur

cabbalistic exercise in the search for the inner meanings of objects.

The used restrictions are openly demonstrated in some writing, as Katsyuba does,

following the Russian formalists' idea of baring the device, thus visualising the used

technique by graphic representation or by explanatory remarks for the poems.

Alternatively, the restriction can be hidden, as Grinberg does, using the restriction as an

inner poetic tool not apparent to the reader. For Avaliani, the practised literary

techniques are not emphasised as there is no distinguished border between 'formal' and

'conventional' poetry, so he uses various literary techniques, both conventional and

experimental, for overall poetic goals.

The effect of these techniques leads to a dynamic rather than static state for some

of the works on combinatorial restriction. The dynamic (or in Joyce's term, 'work in

progress'), when the text has no unique privileged appearance, is presented in various

Avaliani works consisting of two parts, rotating to or mirroring in each other; in

Katsyuba's poems rewritten or transformed to other (visual and video) forms; in a series

of poems on the same formal basis or poetic idea written by all authors. These features

represent the possibilities of the language and versatile concepts of the authors. Writing

in series is more specific for Grinberg and Avaliani, as they both created poems based

on the same combinatorial restriction and explored similar topics, though varying in

intonations and poetic findings. This allows the poets to deepen their search for various

possible poetic messages in a sense of a gold digger panning out gold. On the other

hand, Katsyuba explores an idea rather than a particular literary technique; for example,

the idea of 'junkyard' was developed through various formal constraints used in a

collection of poems.

One of my important findings is that for all three authors, writing with formal

restricfions is embracing the highest poetic topics and poetic aims, with the practising of

literary virtuosity to the extreme, in a style of literary games. The poetic virtuosity

achieved by all three analysed poets makes their works similar to those of medieval

jongleur poets. By his brevity, language virtuosity and multiplicity in meaning, Avaliani

achieves the high expressiveness of aphorisms in his one-line poems based on

combinatorial letter restrictions. The playful character of the writing is even more

typical for Katsyuba, who openly proclaims the word-game features of her poetry, and

for Grinberg, who in some poems indulges in literary virtuosity for the sake of

virtuosity. Katsyuba successfully explores such methods as syllabic rhymes, and

presents poems for publication in alphabetic order that refer to medieval and baroque

literary methods, though she does this intuitively, not aware of the preceding works. She

constantly demonstrates the playful character of her writing, inviting the readers to join

the game and practise combinatorial techniques themselves. Grinberg writes poems on

lyrical messages, obeying the most restricted vocabulary: poems with a single vowel.

letter palindromes on arbitrary sets of words, texts based on the identity of the first

letters of words, a sonnet without words of the main lexical classes and other works.

However, obedience to strict form is merely a poetic tool, while achieving poetic

depth is the ultimate goal for the writing. For Grinberg, formal restriction is a tool to

express anew the ideas that would not be expressed by the vocabulary provided by

conventional poetic techniques; for Katsyuba, formal restrictions are widely used as

creative tools to disclose language possibilities; and for Avaliani, the main poetic task

can be described as demonstrating wonders in nature and in human essence through the

poems of apparent poetic virtuosity - he creates unusual combinations and comparisons

of two subjects in a poem written on the basis of various formal techniques. The overall

literary tool used by Avaliani is to produce a relationship between the objects of the

poem by the generalised metonymy method, similar to the appearance in the distorted

mirror - the meaning of one part of the text is shifted to a close meaning in the other

part of the text, semantically in anagram, graphically in listoverten, temporally in

historhyme. The presented similarity, together with the brevity of the texts and

importance of the topics, persuades the reader to agree with Avaliani"s understanding of

the wonders of the world.

The analysis of techniques has allowed me to identify and examine the topics of

the poems, often obscure and virtually incomprehensible to the uninitiated reader. The

topics of the poems written with the strict formal restrictions by all three poets include a

number of philosophical and spiritual themes of the highest poetry, such as meditations

on spiritual subjects and the essence of poetry; the task of a poet; on the spiritual life

and inevitability of death; the essence of human self and the universe: and divine

presence in everyday life. On the other hand, in some poems the social, personal and

playful topics appear as the authors' reaction to everyday life. All the authors emphasise

their preference for spiritual search instead of material welfare, encouraging themselves

and the readers to continue the fulfillment of the creative task while ignoring material

prosperity or destitution. The most active in social topics is Avaliani, who in his poems

explores such themes as the rejection of, and protest against, totalitarianism and

references to life during the late Soviet era. It should be mentioned that in some poems

the topics are expressed in the style of a paradox or a mind game when the subject of the

poem contradicts the used literary style or formal technique.

In addition to my analysis of the poems, the interviews allowed me to confirm

some observations. Thus, both the interviews and the analysis of the poems revealed

that all three authors, as well as other Russian experimental poets, are mostly not

familiar with the long history of literature techne, which means that they have

independently reinvented its methods, for their own poetic aims and achievements. This

led to the independent re-development of the simplest letter formal restrictions such as

palindrome and anagrams and to the re-invention anew of restrictions already practised

in the history of the literature techne, including medieval and baroque forms, as well as

the recent restrictions presented by Oulipo, though unknown to Russian authors. In

addition to their own findings, the presented authors rely on the findings of the avant-

garde of the early twentieth century, especially Khlebnikov's writings, and partly on

modem Western poetry, in this way becoming familiar indirectly with some traditional

formal methods. However, as I have demonstrated, the main range of formal techniques

used by the authors relate to the long history of literature techne, rather than to avant-

garde formal findings.

One of my findings for writing with formal restrictions relates to the interaction

between poet and reader, and the poet and the texts, especially, for combinatorial

transformations. Through the analysis of the poems, as well as the answers to the interview

questions, a specific relationship between these texts and their authors was revealed. The

texts of formal restrictions are considered to appear partly as their own 'writers' through the

dialogue with the authors, as Katsyuba states, or even to exist primarily in the language,

while poets find these poems and present them to the readers, rather than write them on

their own. Therefore, the role of the poet approaches that of an anonymous archaic writer or

the author of folk sayings, creating, as do Avaliani and Grinberg, a series of texts of related

or contradictory meanings. Also, the role of the reader is changed compared to the reader of

conventional poetry, as on the one hand, more intellectual effort is needed to comprehend

and even decipher the text, while on the other hand, more creativity is credited to the reader

inclined to make the poem as such by specific combinatorial elements, as in Katsyuba's

spontaneous mutations and in Avaliani's listovertens. In addition, for the reader, as well as

for the writer of the text of formal restriction, the playing aspect is increased compared to

the texts of conventional poetry.

The analysis of the poems also reveals that the authors vary in their approach to

the publication from the traditional to the modern, as in some cases they use the manual

methods of printing (Avaliani's listoverten printed on cloth and tableware), and in some

cases they rely on advanced contemporary media technologies and the Internet

(Katsyuba's video poems presented on the Internet, Grinberg's Internet self-

publication). Relying on the Internet for learning new poetic techniques, becoming

familiar with recent poetry and disseminating their works is typical for contemporary

poetry of formal restrictions, though not specific to them, as it is also typical for various

types of contemporary literature, especially experimental types.

My analysis also reveals multiple similarities in the works of the presented authors

and those of the members of Oulipo, which allows me to include the Russian literature

of formal restrictions in the world-wide literature techne up to its most developed

contemporary state. Similarities with the practices of Oulipo - a movement until

recently unknown to these three authors - lies in overall concepts and in practised

literary techniques. As such, Avaliani searches for maximum poetic freedom through

maximum self-restriction, thus approaching Oulipo's main concept of liberating the

author by applying the strict constraint. In his poems of vague and double meanings,

Grinberg demonstrates the potentiality of language in poetic practice in accordance to

the Oulipo's ideas. Also, Grinberg's poetry is close to Oulipo's practices by the

thoroughness of the search for new techniques.

All of the above findings make it possible to conclude that contemporary Russian

poetry of formal restrictions can be considered to be a part of the long history of the

literature techne, so one of the answers to the question on its aims can be the same as for

the overall literature techne - it exists for the game itself, or "conçu pour le seul plaisir, et

seul frisson, du faire-semblant" (created only for pleasure and the awe of the illusory,

Perec 1979, 120). On the one hand, the game factor can be considered as unnecessary, in

accordance with the Latin proverb Stultum est diffici habere nugas (It is silly to be

occupied with difficult nonsense), and such exercises would be called trifies or

'technopedia' (jokes of the craft), which, in the words of John of Harland, only "those

who have nothing to do, are happy to practise their wif (quoted by Gasparov 1986, 157).

Or on the other hand, these techniques become a basis for creativity, as in Oulipo's case,

openly proclaiming them an artistic tool and an achievement. In this literature the

extremes, or the concepts that are considered to be extremes, meet: that is, combinatorial

mathematics and poetry, tradition and avant-garde, serious study and amusing game. For

this literature specifically, detailed versification, thorough craft-making and mind games

are manifestations of the authors' mastery rather than péjoratives.

On the whole, my thesis is the first attempt to present a systematic analysis of

contemporary Russian poetry of formal restrictions. Through the analysis, I have

demonstrated that this poetry typically contains high poetic messages, together with a

playful character and poetical virtuosity, which makes it a distinguished part of

contemporary Russian poetry. The relationship of this poetry to the literature techne was

disclosed; though, as I have demonstrated, the authors discovered some findings

indirectly, via the formal experimentations of Russian poets of the early twentieth

century. The lack of information on the history of literature techne during the periods of

literary formation of the authors led them to limiting themselves to a number of simple

restrictions or re-proposing the existing techniques. To the present time, as modem

publications disclose the history of formal literary experimentation, some authors (like

Grinberg) discover and practise various complex techniques in their writing, thus

contributing to the world-wide literature techne. The presented authors constantly

search for better expression of their thoughts through a number of poetic formal

restrictions, working both in traditional and modem experimental techniques,

confirming the Oulipo thesis of the increase of the expressiveness of the text via the

application of literary constraint. The results achieved in my thesis can be used in

further analysis of the texts of other authors of this literary movement as well as for the

analysis of the texts of more complicated poetic structures, comparing to the

combinatorial restrictions presented here.

Appendices

Appendix I. Some Russian poems with combinatorial elements

BajiepHH Bpiocoe

ToMHbie rpe3bi. BapHauHH

T O M H O cnajiH rpesbi;

iiaJlH TCMHbl 6bijin;

CKa3KH TCHH, p03bi;

B jiacKe jieHH CTbijiH.

CKa3KH jicHH cnajiH;

P03bl 6bIJlH TCMHbi;

CxbijiH rpesbi AajiH,

B JiacKe jieHH, TOMHW.

CxbiJiH AajiH cKasKH;

BblJlH p03bI-TeHH

ToMHbi, xeMHbi . . . B jiacKC

CnajiH rpe3bi JICHH.

B jiacKe CTbiJiH po3bi;

TeHH, xeMHbi, cnajiH ...

BblJIH TOMHbl ^aJlH, -

CKa3KH JieHH, rpe3bi!

TeHH p03bl, TOMHbl,

CnajiH ... CKa3KH 6biJiH,

B jiacKe, - rpe3bi! CxbiJiH

Jlam JieHH, TeMHbi.

Cnaj iH rpe3bi JICHH . . .

CxblJlH ^ajiH, TeHH . . .

TeMHbi, TOMHbl, B JiaCKe,

BblJlH p03bl CKa3KH!

BajiepHÌi EpiocoB

BHACHHH öbijioro

^ecTOKo - pasAyMbe. HOHHOC MOjmaHbe

Kanaer Bn/^eHba 6biJioro,

MepuaHbe BcxpenaeT yjibiÖKH cypoBo.

Cxpa^aHbe -

fjiyôoKO - rjiyöoKo!

Cxpa^aHbe cypoBO yjibiÖKH Bcrpenaer...

MepuaHbe öbijioro - BH^ eHbe Kanaex...

MojinaHbe, HOHHoe pa3/iyMbe, - >KecxoKo!

BajiepHH EpiocoB

O npH6jlH>KeHHH BeCHbl

(NEPCBO;! CTHXOTBOPCHHH neHxa^iH«)

fla, yôeraex 3HMa! O>KHBJI5IK)T seiviJiK) a^ÌHPBI.

3BP corpcBaiOT fla, yôeraex 3MMa.

Bcio^iy HpeBaxbi nojiji; >Kapbi npe^nyBcxByex noHBa.

Bcxommh HOBbix ceM5iH BCío/iy HpeBaxbi nojiii.

Becejio nyxHyx jiyra, JIMCXBOH o^ejiHCb ^lepeBbH.

Ho o6Ha>KeHHbiM /lOJiaM Becejio nyxHyx Jiyra.

Ojian OHJiOMeHbi 3ByHHx - npecxynHOH MaxepH neHH,

CbiHa OX^ABUJEÑ BO CHE;ib, njian OHÍIOMCHU 3BYHHX.

ByHCXBO noxoKa B ropax cxpeMHxcii no BbiMbixbiM KaMH^M.

H Ha lajieKO RY iHX ÓYÑCXBO noxoKa B ropax.

Tbicana xbicaH UBexoB xBopnx ;ibixaHbe Aßpopbi.

/íbiiiJHX BO rjiyÓH ;iojiHH xbicana xbicaH UBEXOB.

CxoHex B ymejibHX nycxbix OBeMbHM ÖJieiiHbeM 3xo.

3ByK, oxpa>KeHHbiH CKAJIOÑ, CXOHCX B ymejibax nycxbix.

Bbexca MJia^OH BHHorpa;i, MOK ASYX noca^KCHHbiH BH30B.

BBepx no xponnHKaM ji030H BbexcH MJiaj oH BHHorpa;i.

KJICHX noA KpbiiiieH onaxb roBopjiHBaii JiacxoHKa yxpoM,

Cxpoa nojx KpbiiueH rHe3;io, KjieHx noA KpbiiueH onjixb.

VjxQ 3ejieHeex njiaxan, B XCHH, ycjia>KAaex ApeMOxa;

TaM HSijxQBaioT BCHKH, r^e 3ejieHeex njiaxan.

Cjia^KO xenepb yiviepexb! HHXH >KH3HH, copBUxecn c npHJiKw!

B MHJibix oótíixHflx JIK)6BH cjiaAKO xenepb yiviepexb!

BajiepHH EpiocoB

OTTOHCHHbiH öyjiax

OTTOHCHHWH öyjiax -

TBO5I HrpyiuKa, T O K , -

H o HHORAA B KJIHHOK

CY;IB6A SJIHEAET ÍÍJX:

Jiyn p;í5iHoro saKaxa!

npospaHHbiH cepn JlyHbi!

H3 c e p e ö p a h sjiaxa

njieHMTCJibHbie CHbi!

HY;IECEH ^KCHCKHH BSFÌIHA -

Korjxa noKOH rjiyôoK.

H o OH nOpOH >KeCTOK -

3 a HHM TaHTC5I ^ß, -

B Mac rpes H apoiviara,

HyjlQCQH COH BeCHbl!

H Mbi HM njieHCHbi:

HaBCKH, 6e3 BOBBpaxa.

HpeKpaceH He>KHbiH 30B - n o ^ ponoT HOKHUX crpyii ,

EcTb B coneraHbH CJIOB - KaK óy^TO n o u e j i y ñ ,

3 a j i o r npe^BCHHbix HHCJI - BJieneT TBopHXb noaxa!

H o H NEBYHHH CTHX -

HopOH B CJlOBaX CBOHX -

TBOH pa6 BcerAaiuHHH, C x p a c x b ,

ncBeu Haxo;iHx Bjiacxb:

CKpbiBaex xaHHbiH CMbicji - B noj iycxHxax coHexa.

B a j i e p H H E p i o c o B

M O H MaflK

(Ma^^pnra j i )

M o h MHJibiH Mar, Moa MapHH ,

MeHTaM Mepuaioi i^HH Ma5iK,

M5ITe>KHbl MapeBa MOpCKHC,

M o h MHjibiH Mar, moh M a p n a ,

MoJlHaHbCM MaHHT MyXHblH MpaK. . .

M n e MCTHT MejiH MnpoBbie

M o h MHJibiH Mar, Moa M a p n a ,

M e n r a M MepuaioLUHH MaiiK!

BajiepHÍí BpiocoB CJIOBO

( C T H X H C C03ByHH5IMH)

CJIOBO - COÓLITHH CKpH>Kajib, CKHnxp cepeópíiHbiñ C03/iaHH0H cjiaBbi, Cjiynaii cnyxHHK cjienoñ, cxporHÍí CBH/iexejib cyex,

CBCXJioro cojiHua COÍOBHHK, cBHxaa CBwpejib cepa^iHMOB, C(T)ep co3epuaioiMHH C4)HHKC, - cxeHbi cy^bôbi cxepe>Kex!

Cjiesbi cB5i3y5i co cxpacxbK), cnacxbe cnjiexaíi co CKopöbK), Cjia^locxbK) CBa;ie6Hbix CHOB, cKa3K0H cBepKaa cep/iuaivi, -

CJIOBO - cypoBaa cnjia, cxapoe CCMÍI COMHCHHH!

Cjibima co cxoHaMH CMCX, CBCPCXHHK ce;íOH CaxaHbi, CMyxbi cxpoHxejib, CHaó^HBiuHH cpa>KeHHJi cKpe>KexoM, CJIOBO

CxajiH, ccKHpbi, cxpejibi, cyivipaHHOH CMepxH cxpauiHeñ!

Hropb CeeepnHHH

KßA/^PAT KBA^PAXOB

HHKOR^a HM o HCM HC xony roBopHTb...

O noBepb! - a ycran, a COBCCM HSHCMOR.

Bbiji RO^a najiaHOM, - najiany HC uapHXb...

TOHHO 3Bepb, Banjiyxaji MOK NO3M H xpeBor..

H H O HCM HHKOR;IA ROBOPHXB HC xony ...

^ ycxaji ... O noBcpb! MSHCMOR JI COBCCM...

OAJIAHOM 6biji RO^A - HC UAPHXB najiany...

3anjiyxaji, XOMHO SBcpb, MC>K xpcBor H no3M.

He xoMy roBopnxb HHKOR^a HH O HCM...

^ COBCCM H3HeMor... O, noBCpb! ycxaji...

riajiany HC uapnxb!.. öbiji ro^a najianoM...

Me>K no3M H xpcBor, XOHHO 3BCpb, sanjiyxaji.

FOBOPHXB HC xony H O HCM HHKOR^IA!..

HSHCMOR H COBCCM, R ycxan, o, noBcpb!

Hc uapHXb najiany!.. najianoM 6biJi ro^a!..

Me>K xpcBor H NO3M 3anjiyxaji, XOHHO SBCpb!,

Hropb CeeepflHHH

«CMepTb Hdijx MnpoM uapHT, a Ha^ cMepxbio - jiioôoBb!»

OH B jiyuiQ y MCHÎI, TBOH JiasopeBbiH CTHX!

^ CKJI0H5IK)Cb OHHTb, OnCHaJlCH H THX,

y MOFHjibi TBoeñ, Hy>KAOH AyuiaM paÔOB.

y MorHJibi TBoeñ, Hy}K;íOH AyiuaM pa5oB,

R CKJ10H5IK)Cb OnHTb, OnCMaJlCH H THX.

«CiviepTb Ha^ MHpoM uapHT, a na/i cMepxbK) - jiK)5oBb!»

OH B jxyuiQ y MCHÎI, TBOH HBIJIAIOIUHH CTHX!

OH B jxyuiQ y MCHÎI, TBOH CKPH>KAJIEBBIH CTHX!

«CMepTb HSiJX MHpOM UapHT, a HaA CMepTbK) - JlIOÖOBb!»

y MOrHJlbl TBOCH, Hy>K;;OH AyUiaM paÖOB,

ñ CKJiOHHïocb OHHTb, onenajieH H THX.

ñ CKJlOHJIKDCb OHJITb, OHCHaJieH H THX,

y MorHJibi TBoeH, Hy>KAOH /tymaivi paöoB,

H B Ayuie y MCHH, TBOH HA^COJIHEHHBIH CTHX:

«CMepTb Ha^i MHpoM uapHT, a na^ cMepTbK) - jiK)6oBb!»

Appendix II. List of names

Aizenberg, Mikhail (MnxaHji AH3eH6epr, b.l948) contemporary Russian poet,

essayist, 11-13, 15

Akhmatova, Anna (AHHa AxMaxoBa, 1889-1966) Russian poet, 72,107,152, 277

Alekseeva, Lyudmila (Jlio/iMHjia AjieKceeea, b.l927) Russian historian, human rights

activist, 17,106

Alchuk, Anna (AHHa AjibnyK, 1955-2008) contemporary Russian poet, 15

Andreev, Daniil (/iaHHHJi Anapeee, 1905-1959) Russian writer, poet. Christian mystic, 217

Anikin, Pit (FIHT AHHKHH) contemporary Russian poet, musician, 312

Arabov, Yury (iOpHH Apa6oB, b.l954) contemporary Russian poet, writer, playwright, 13

Aristov, Vladimir (Bjia^HMMp ApHcxoB, b.l950) contemporary Russian poet, writer,

essayist, 13-14

Avaliani, Dmitry (/iMHTpHH AfiajiHaHH, 1938-2003) contemporary Russian poet, 7, 21,

61-62, 69, 78-81, 88-89, 104-105, 119, 121-200, 206, 208, 212, 217, 222,

224-225, 267, 280, 297, 304, 321, 325-333

Aygi, Gennady (FeHnaAHH AHFH, 1934-2006) contemporary Russian poet, 15,18

Baitov, Nikolay (HHKonaH BaiiTOB, b. 1951) contemporary Russian poet, writer, 13, 63

Balmont, Konstantin (KoHcxaHTHH BajibMOHx, 1867-1942) Russian poet, 175

Batyushkov, Konstantin (KoHCxanTHH BaxiomKOB, 1787-1855) Russian poet, 171-172

Belashkin, Andrey (BejiamKHH AHApeii, b.l964) contemporary Russian poet, curator,

publisher, 61

Beregovskaya, Eda (3Aa BeperoBCKaa, b.l929) philologist, 154

Berezovchuk, Larisa (JlapMca BepesoBnyK, b.l948) contemporary Russian poet, 15

Bely, Andrey (AujxpQpi Bejibiii, 1880-1934) Russian poet, critic, 9, 75

Biryukov, Sergey (Cepreii B H P K ) K O B , b.l950) contemporary Russian poet, philologist,

curator, 4, 15, 21, 52, 60-116, 123, 126-127,133, 147, 250, 260-262, 274-275,

281, 325

Blok, Aleksandr (AjieKcaH^p BJIOK, 1880-1921) Russian poet, 171-172, 22 7

Bryusov, Valéry (BajiepHH BpiocoB, 1873-1924) Russian poet, writer, translator, critic,

7, 9, 36, 39-40, 46, 51, 55, 58, 81,126, 208, 227, 236, 267

Bubnov, Alexandr (AjieKcaH^p ByGHOB, b.l959) contemporary Russian poet,

philologist, 21, 123, 214

Bukovsky, Vladimir (BjiaAHMHp ByKOBCKHH, b.l942) Russian writer, political activist,

dissident, 16

Bulatov, Dmitry (/1,MHTPHH ByjiaxoB, b.l968) contemporary Russian poet, 79

Bunimovich, Evgeny (EBreHHÌi ByHHMOBHH, b.l954) contemporary Russian poet,

curator, 13

Burlyuk, David (flaBHA BypjiiOK, 1882-1967) Ukrainian-Russian avant-garde poet,

artist, 79

Chernuishevsky, Nikolay (HHKOJiaii MepHbimeBCKHH, 1828-1889) Russian writer,

critic, 177,179

Chudasov, Ivan (MBaH HyAacoB) contemporary Russian poet, philologist, 4, 135, 202,

234, 247

Davuidov, Danila (flaHHJia flaBbiAOB) contemporary Russian poet, philologist, critic,

124-125,129-130

Derzhavin, Gavriil (FaBpHHJi ;iep>KaBHH, 1743-1816) Russian poet, 7, 9, 34, 51, 81, 208

Dostoevsky, Fedor (Oe^op AOCTOCBCKHH, 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 8 1 ) Russian writer, 178-179

Dovgalevsky, Mitrofan (MnTpo(J)aH /],0BrajieBCKHH, 18 ^ century) Ukrainian-Russian

poet, playwright, 29, 33, 298, 301

Druk, Vladimir (Bjia iHMHp flpyK) contemporary Russian poet, essayist, 13-14, 264

Dzyubenko, Mikhail (MHxaHJi /],3K)6eHKO, b.l966) philologist, 261

Epstein, Mikhail (MHxawji 3niuTeHH, b.l950) philologist, essayist, 7 7 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 1 7

Eremenko, Alexandr (AjieKcaH/ p EpeMeHKO, b.l950) contemporary Russian poet, 13, 52

Eremin, Mikhail (EpeMHH MHxanji, b.l937) contemporary Russian poet, 9

Erl, Vladimir (Bjia HMMp 3pjib, b.l947) contemporary Russian poet, writer,

philologist, 75, 77

Fateeva, Natalya (Haxajibji Oaxeeea) contemporary Russian poet, philologist, 4, 21, 232

Fedin, Sergey (Cepreii OCAHH) contemporary Russian writer, mathematician, 21, 46,

60-119, 122-124, 128-129, 142, 148, 154, 165, 167, 183-184, 201, 203, 206,

217-219, 222, 224-225, 243-244, 248, 267, 273, 283, 300, 306

Fet, Afanasy (A(})aHacHH Oex, 1820-1892) Russian poet, 34, 43, 239, 297

Gandlevsky, Sergey (Cepreii FaH/iJieBCKHH, b.l952) contemporary Russian poet,

writer, 15

Gasparov, Mihail (MHxaHJi facnapoB, 1 9 3 5 - 2 0 0 5 ) philologist, translator, 77, 23-25,

36, 43, 49, 75-76, 122, 129,132, 203-204, 216, 224, 226, 333

Gershenzon, Mikhail (MHxaHJi TepmeHSOH, 1 8 6 9 - 1 9 2 5 ) philologist, 25

Gershuni, Vladimir (Bjia^HMHp TepmyHH, 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 9 4 ) Russian poet, dissident, 10,

34, 133

Gertsuik, Adelaida (Ajxenamsi fepubiK, 1874-1925) Russian poet, 75

Glazkov, Nikolay (UMKonaPi fjiasKOB, 1919-1979) Russian poet, 52

Gints, Savvaty (CaBsaxaH THHU, 1903-1974) journalist, researcher, 78

Gnedov, Vasilisk (BACHJIHCK THC^OB, 1890-1978) Russian avant-garde poet, 264

Gogol, Nikolay (HnKOJiaH Torojib, 1821-1852) Russian writer, 171-172

Golubovsky, Mikhail (MHxaHJi FojiyGoBCKHH) contemporary Russian palindrome poet,

essayist, biologist, 262

Gornon, Alexandr (AjieKcaH^p TopHOH, b.l946) contemporary Russian poet, 75, 77

Gorodetsky, Sergey (Cepreii Topo/ieuKHH, 1884-1967) Russian poet, 58

Grauz, Tatiana (TaxbaHa Tpays) contemporary Russian poet, 27,124

Grinberg, Boris (BopHc TpHHGepr, b.l962) contemporary Russian poet, 7, 48, 60-120,

201-259, 280, 321, 326-334

Groys, Boris (BopHc Tpoiic, b.l947) philologist, 13,15

Gumilyov, Nikolay (HHKOJiaH ryMHJiee, 1886-1921) Russian poet, 171-172

Guro, Elena (EjieHa Typo, 1877-1913) Russian avant-garde poet, artist, 79

Iskrenko, Nina (HHHa HcKpeHKO, 1951-1995) contemporary Russian poet, 13-14

Istomin, Karion (KapHOH Hctomhh, 1650-1717) Russian poet, translator, priest, 8, 46,174

Ivanov, Georgy (FeoprHH HeaHOB, 1894-1958) Russian poet, writer, translator, 57

Kamensky, Vasily (BacHJiHH KaivieHCKHH, 1884-1961) Russian avant-garde poet, 78-79

Katsyuba, Elena (Ejiena Kamo6a, b.l946) contemporary Russian poet, editor, 7, 75,

60-120, 260-323, 326-332

Kedrov, Konstantin (KoHCxaHTHH Ke^poB, b.l942) contemporary Russian poet, critic,

14-15, 60-114,270

Kenzheev, Bakhuit (Baxbix KeH}KeeB, b.l950) contemporary Russian poet, writer, 75

Kharitonov, Evgeny (EBreHHH XapHxoHOB, b.l969) contemporary Russian poet,

musician, 60-117

Kharms, Daniil (flaHHHJi XapMC, 1905-1942) Russian poet, writer, playwright, 161-162

Khlebnikov, Velimir (BejiHMHp XjicGhhkob, 1885-1922) Russian avant-garde poet, 9-

10, 15, 34, 75-76, 78-79, 81, 94, 96, 101, 123, 125-127, 133-136, 142-144,

146-147, 160-161,165,177-178,190, 194,196, 203, 295, 304, 328, 331

Kholin, Igor (Hropb XOJIHH, 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 9 9 ) contemporary Russian poet, P, 74, 77,107 Khromov, Valentin (BajieHXHH XpoMOB, b . L 9 3 3 ) contemporary Russian poet, 34,133 Kondratov, Aleksandr (AjieKcaH^p KoH^^paxoB, 1 9 3 7 - 1 9 9 3 ) Russian poet, linguist,

biologist, 9

Konstrictor, Boris (BopHC KoHcxpHKTop, b . L 9 5 0 ) contemporary Russian poet, artist, 77

Korkiya, Viktor (BHKTOP KOPKHH, b.l948) contemporary Russian poet, playwright, 13 Kovaldzhi, Kirill (KHPHJIJI KoBajib^>KH, b . L 9 3 0 ) contemporary Russian poet, writer,

curator, 13-14

Kozlovsky, Yakov (>IKOB KOSJIOBCKHH, 1 9 2 1 - 2 0 0 1 ) Russian poet, translator, 227 Kirsanov, Semyon (CCMCH KHpcaHOB, 1 9 0 6 - 1 9 7 2 ) Russian poet, translator, 74, 81 Kropivnitsky, Evgeny (EBrcHHH KPOUHEHHUKHH, 1 8 9 3 - 1 9 7 9 ) Russian poet, 77

Kruchyonuikh, Alexey (AjieKceH KpyneHbix, 1 8 8 6 - 1 9 6 8 ) Russian avant-garde poet, P,

74, 78-79, 165, 311-312 Kvyatkovsky, Aleksandr (AJIEKCAH^p KBJITKOBCKHH, 1 8 8 8 - 1 9 6 8 ) Russian poet,

philologist, 51-52

Kudryakov, Boris (BopHC Ky^paKOB, 1946-2005) contemporary Russian poet, 77

Kudryavitsky, Anatoly (AHarojiMH Ky/ipjiBHUKHH, b.l954) contemporary Russian

poet, writer, editor, translator, 110

Kukulin, Ilya (HJIBH KyKyjiHH, b.l969) contemporary Russian poet, philologist, critic,

123,125-126,128-130,165 Kulakov, Vladislav (BjiaAHCJiaB KyjiaKOB, b.l959) philologist, critic, 271 Kuzmin, Dmitry (/JMHTPHH Ky3bMHH, b.l968) contemporary Russian poet, philologist,

curator, 15,18,106, 123, 125,127 Kuzmin, Mikhail (MHxami KysMHH, 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 3 6 ) Russian poet, 51, 58,175 Laduigin, Nikolay (HHKonaii Jla;xbirHH, 1 9 0 3 - 1 9 7 5 ) Russian palindrome poet, 10,133

Le Dantu, Michail (MHxaHJi Jle aHTK) 1891-1917) Russian artist, 316

Levin, Aleksandr (AjieKcaHAp JICBHH, b.l957) contemporary Russian poet, 13-14

Livschitz, Benedict (BeHe^HKT JIHBUIHU, 1887-1938) Russian poet, 51

Litvak, Sveta (Cfiexa JlHXBaK, b.l959) contemporary Russian poet, 13,15, 60-120

Loschilov, Igor (Hropb JlomHJioe, b.l965) contemporary Russian poet, philologist, 21,

123, 202

Lotman, Yury (lOpHH JloTMaH, 1922-1993) philologist, 23- 24, 32,122,125-126

Lukomnikov, German (FepMaH JlyKOMHHKoe, b.L962) contemporary Russian poet, 46,

60-120, 124, 126, 129, 133, 139, 142, 154, 165, 183-184, 188, 201, 203, 217-

218, 222, 224, 243-244, 248, 300, 306

Magomedova, Dina (flHHa MaroMe iosa) philologist, 23,132, 204, 273

Mandelstam, Osip (OCHO MaHAejibrnxaivi, 1891-1938) Russian poet, 11, 125,171-172

Markov, Vladimir (Bjia HMHp MapKos, b.L920) philologist, translator, 25, 94, 295, 311

Mayakovsky, Vladimir (Bjia HMMp MaaKOscKHH, 1893-1930) Russian poet, 74, 77-

79, 83, 217, 268

Medvedev, Silvestr (CHJibeecxp MeABeAee, 1641-1691) Russian poet, priest, 8

Men, Aleksandr (AjieKcaHAP MCHS, 1935-1990) theologian, priest, 145

Mesyats, Vadim (Ba HM Mecau, b.l964) contemporary Russian poet, 18

Mikhaylovskaya Tatiana (TaxbiiHa MHxaHJioBCKaii, b.l943) contemporary Russian

poet, researcher, editor, 21,124-125,128,167,186,189,194

Minaev, Dmitry (fl,MHxpnH MHHacB, 1835-1889) Russian poet, translator, 43, 227

Minsky, Dmitry (/],MHxpHH MHHCKHH) editor, 201

Mirzaev, Arsen (ApceH MnpsaeB, b.l960) contemporary Russian poet, editor, 15

Mityushev, Pavel (OaBeji MHXiomeB, b.l957) contemporary Russian poet, 13

Mnatsakanova, Elizaveta (EiiHaasera MHauaKaHoea, b.l922) contemporary Russian

poet, 15

Nekrasov, Nikolay (HHKOjiafi HeKpacoB, 1821-1878) Russian poet, editor, 110,171, 249

Nekrasov, Vsevolod (Bcesojio/i HeKpacoB, 1934-2009) contemporary Russian poet, 9,

12,15, 18, 68, 74, 77, 78

Nikonova, Rea (Pbi HwKOHOBa, b.l942) contemporary Russian poet, 15, 77,111

Orlitsky, Yury (lOpHÎi OpjiHUKHH, b.l952) contemporary Russian poet, philologist,

curator, 18-19, 21, 43

Ostrovsky, Nikolay (HHKOJiaii OcxpoBCKHH, 1904-1936) Soviet Russian writer, 288

Pankin, Boris (Bopwc OaHKHH, b.l966) contemporary Russian poet, 53

Parschikov, Alexey (AjieKceii OapmHKOB, 1954-2009) contemporary Russian poet, 13-14

Pasternak, Boris (BopHC OacxepHaK, 1890-1960) Russian poet, translator, 12, 125,

172, 312

Platonov, Andrey (An^ipeH OjiaTOHOB, 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 5 1 ) Russian writer, 144-146, 171-172

Pletnyov, Piotr (FlëTp FIjieTHëB, 1 7 9 2 - 1 8 6 6 ) critic, editor, 109

Polevoy, Nikolay (HHKOJiaH flojieBOH, 1 7 9 6 - 1 8 4 6 ) Russian writer, playwright, critic, 43

Polevoy, Ksenophont (KceHO(})OHT OojieBOH, 1 8 0 1 - 1 8 6 7 ) Russian writer, critic, 43

Polotsky, Simeon (CHMCOH IIOJIOUKHH, 1 6 2 9 - 1 6 8 0 ) Russian poet, theologian,

playwright, translator, 8,126, 264, 266, 270

Pukhov, Mikhail (MHxaHJi flyxoB, 1944-1995) Russian science-fiction writer,

translator, 40

Pushkin, Aleksandr (AjieKcaHAp OyiuKHH, 1799-1837) Russian poet, 43-45, 109,

170-173,176-177, 22 7, 239

Rodchenko, Aleksandr (AjieKcaH^ip Pojxhqhko, 1891-1956) Russian artist, graphic

designer, 128

Ruibinsky, Vladimir (Bjiaj^HMHP PBIGHHCKHH, 1952-2004) Russian palindrome poet,

editor, 201

Rzhevsky, Aleksey (AjieKceH P>KeBCKHH, 1737-1804) Russian poet, 55

Sapgir, Genrikh (FeHpHx Canmp, 1928-1999) contemporary Russian poet, 9,18, 77

Satunovsky, Yan {^h CaxyHOBCKHH, 1913-1982) Russian poet, critic, 9, 72, 77,107

Scherba, Lev (JleB ll^epóa, 1880-1944) linguist, 25, 752, 204

Sedakova, Olga (Ojitra Ce/ aKOBa, b.l949) contemporary Russian poet, 13

Severyanin, Igor (Mropb CeBep^HHH, 1887-1941) Russian poet, 36, 41

Shengeli, Georgy (reoprHH UJeHrejiH, 1894-1956) Russian poet, philologist, critic, 25

Sherstyanoy, Valéry (BajiepHH UJepcTiiHOH, b.l950) contemporary Russian poet, 15

Shklovsky, Viktor (BuKTop LUKJIOBCKHH, 1893-1984) Russian writer, philologist,

critic, 58, 266, 269, 311

Shvarts, Elena (Ejiena UlBapu, 1948-2010) contemporary Russian poet, 175

Sigey, Sergey (Cepreii CwreH, b.l947) contemporary Russian poet, philologist, 75, 77

Silivanov, Valéry (BajiepHH CnjiHBaHOB) Russian palindrome poet, 214

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (AneKcaH/ip Coji>KeHHUbiH, 1918-2008) Russian writer,

historian, 144-145,150

Sosnora, Viktor (BHKTOP CocHopa, b.l936) contemporary Russian poet, writer, 75

Steblin-Kamensky, Mikhail (MHxaHji CxeGjiHH-KaMeHCKHH, 1903-1981) philologist, 45

Stepanov, Evgeny (EBreHHH CxenaHOB, b.l964) contemporary Russian poet, publisher,

107-108,110

Strugatsky, Arkady (ApKajxHvi CxpyrauKHH, 1925-1991) Russian science-fiction

writer, 72

Strugatsky, Boris (Bopnc CrpyrauKHH, b.l933) Russian science-fiction writer, 72

Sukhovey, Darya (flapbii CyxoBeii, b.l977) contemporary Russian poet, philologist,

curator, 21

Sumarokov, Aleksandr (AjiCKcaH/ip CyiviapoKOB, 1717-1777) Russian poet,

playwright, 29

Taranovsky, Kirill (TapaHOBCKHii KnpHJiji, 1911-1993) philologist, 24

Tarkovsky, Arseny (ApceHHÌi TapKoecKHH, 1907-1989) Russian poet, translator, 72,107

Tatlin, Vladimir (Bjia;inMHp TaxjiHH, 1885-1953) Russian artist, architect, 128

Tavrov, Andrey (AnxtpeH Taepos, b. 1948) contemporary Russian poet, writer, editor, 18

Tolstoy, Aleksey (AjieKceH TOJICTOH, 1883-1945) Russian writer, 132

Tolstoy, Leo (JleB TOJICTOH, 1828-1910) Russian writer, 777, 773, 271-272

Tomashevsky, Boris (BopHC ToMamescKHH, 1890-1957) philologist, 25

Trediakovsky, Vasily (BacHJiHÌi Tpe/ib^KOBCKHH, 1703-1769) Russian poet,

playwright, 9

Tsvetaeva, Marina (MapHHa UBexaeBa, 1892-1941) Russian poet, 777-772, 184, 239

Tsvetkov, Aleksey (AjieKceii UBCTKOB, b.l947) contemporary Russian poet, 15

Tuchkov, Vladimir (Bjia^HMHp lynKOB, b.l949) contemporary Russian poet, critic, 13

Tynyanov, Yury (lOpMH TBIH^HOB, 1894-1943) Russian writer, critic, philologist, 58

Tupikin, Vlad (Bjia/i TyoHKHH, b.l965) Russian journalist, political activist, musician, 106

Tyupa, Valéry (BajiepHÌi Tiona) philologist, 23, 132, 273

Tyutchev, Fyodor {<Ì>'éjxop TIOTHCB, 1803-1873) Russian poet, 280

Velichkovsky, loann (MoaHH BCJIHHKOBCKHH, circa 1650-1701) Ukrainian-Russian

poet, 7-5, 33- 35, 38-39, 48, 51,126,158,183, 235

Voloshin, Maksimilian (MAKCHMHJIHAH BOJIOUIHH, 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 3 2 ) Russian poet, artist,

critic, 261

Voznesensky, Andrey (AH;ipeH Bo3HeceHCKHH, 1933-2010) contemporary Russian

poet, artist, 75, 133

Vyazmitinova, Lyudniila (JlK);iMHJia BiiBMHTHHoea, b.l950) contemporary Russian

poet, critic, 125-126,130

Uflyand, Vladimir (Bjia/iHMHp y(})ji5iHii, 1937-2007) contemporary Russian poet, 9

Ulanov, Aleksandr (AjieKcaH ip VjiaHOB, b.l963) contemporary Russian poet,

translator, critic, 18

Uritsky, Andrey (Afiapeii VpHUKHH, b. 1961) Russian writer, critic, 723,126,128,130,165

Yerofeyev, Venedict (BeHe xHKT Epo4)eeB, 1938-1990) Russian writer, 138

Zabolotsky, Nikolay (HHKOJiafi 3a6ojiouKHH, 1903-1958) Russian poet, 125

Zdanevich, Ilya (MjibH 3;iaHeBHH (HjibH3A) 1894 - 1975) Russian-Georgian avant-

garde poet, artist, publisher, 9

Zubova Lyumila (Jlio/iMHJia SyGoea, b.l946) philologist, 27, 123, 125, 127, 130-131,

154, 165, 167-168

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