The FBI, Leftist Guerrillas, and the Origins of Watergate

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Nixon's War on Terrorism: The FBI, Leftist Guerrillas, and the Nixon's War on Terrorism: The FBI, Leftist Guerrillas, and the

Origins of Watergate Origins of Watergate

Daniel S. Chard University of Massachusetts Amherst

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NIXON’SWARONTERRORISM:THEFBI,LEFTISTGUERRILLAS,ANDTHEORIGINS

OFWATERGATE

ADissertationPresented

by

DANIELS.CHARD

SubmittedtotheGraduateSchooloftheUniversityofMassachusettsAmherstinpartialfulfillment

oftherequirementsforthedegreeof

DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY

September2016

DepartmentofHistory

©CopyrightbyDanielS.Chard2016AllRightsReserved

NIXON’SWARONTERRORISM:THEFBI,LEFTISTGUERRILLAS,ANDTHEORIGINS

OFWATERGATE

ADissertationPresented

by

DANIELS.CHARD

Approvedastostyleandcontentby:

________________________________________ChristianG.Appy,Chair________________________________________JenniferFronc,Member________________________________________JohnHigginson,Member________________________________________JenniferGuglielmo,Member

____________________________________ JoyeBowman,Chair, DepartmentofHistory

DEDICATION

ForJulie,Louisa,andAyla

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

OvermyeightyearsofgraduateschoolattheUniversityofMassachusettsAmherst,

professors,colleagues,friends,andfamilymembershavehelpedmeinwaysbigand

small.Iamprofoundlygratefulforalloftheirsupport.

Iwouldfirstliketothankmydissertationcommittee.ProfessorChristianG.

AppyservedasmyprimaryadvisorfromthefirstdayIarrivedintheUMassHistory

Department’sgraduateprogram.Hispositiveencouragementandsupporthavebeen

constant,includingamidsomeofmycareer’smostchallengingmoments.Chris’s

contributionstomygrowthasahistorian,teacher,andwriterareimmeasurable.

ProfessorJenniferFroncalsoworkedcloselywithmethroughoutmytimeatUMass.

Herprofessionaladviceandguidancehavebeeninvaluable.Oneofthemanyways

Jennifersupportedmewasbyprovidingdetailedcommentsonmyearlychapterdrafts

thatprovedcriticalinhelpingmedevelopandclarifymydissertation’sarguments.

ProfessorJohnHigginsonofferedcrucialfeedbackonmyprojectaswell.His

suggestionsonhowtoframemyprojectinrelationtobroaderscholarlydiscussionsof

violence,socialmovements,andthestatewereparticularlyhelpful.ProfessorJennifer

GuglielmoworkedwithmesinceservingonmyM.A.thesiscommitteealongwithChris

AppyandJenniferFronc.Shehasbeenareliablesourceofupliftingencouragement.I

especiallyappreciatedJennifer’ssupportasInavigatedethicalandmethodological

challengesrelatedtoresearchingviolenceandradicalsocialmovements.

ImustalsothanktheotherUMassandFiveCollegefacultywhohelpedme

throughoutmygraduatecareer,supervisingmycoursework,teaching,research,

vi

writing,andprofessionaldevelopment.Inparticular,IwouldliketothankProfessors

JoyeBowman,CemEmrence,HollyHanson,BarbaraKrauthamer,MarlaMiller,Alice

Nash,BrianOgilvie,andMarthaSaxton.TheUMassHistoryDepartment’sGraduate

AssistantMaryLashwayandOfficeManagerAmyFleigalsorequireawordofthanksfor

theirhelpmanagingcountlessadministrativetasks.

GoingbacktomytimeasanundergraduateattheUniversityofSouthernMaine,

IwouldalsoliketothankmyProfessorsAdamTuchinsky,DavidCarrey,DianaLong,

andGeorgeCaffentzis,aswellasformerHistoryDepartmentOfficeManagerPatFinn,

whoservedasmyunofficialadvisor.Allofthem—especiallyAdamandPat—

encouragedmetopursueaPh.D.inhistory,anachievementIhadneverbefore

imaginedbeingwithinmycapacity.IalsothankJayJack,mymartialartscoachbackin

Portland,Maine,whohelpedmedevelopconfidenceandself-disciplinethatIfound

essentialforsucceedingingraduateschool.

TheUMassHistoryDepartment’svibrantcommunityofgraduatestudentshas

beenanimportantsourceofpersonalsupportandintellectualgrowth.BrianComfort,

DestineyLinker,LauraMiller,andMiriamWellsallprovidedcommentsonearlydrafts

ofdissertationchaptersandgrantproposals.Mymanyengagingconversationswith

ErikaArthurhelpedmedevelopmythinkingonprisonsandpolicing.Ialsothankmy

friendsMarwaAmer,MuhammadAtaie,AmyBreimaier,TomHohenstein,andMichella

Marino.

Afewpeopledeservespecialthanksforhelpingmewithmydissertation.Trevor

GriffeyprovidedmewithdigitalcopiesofnumerousdeclassifiedFBIdocumentsand

otherhard-to-findprimarysources,andlenthelpfulsuggestionsonresearchingtheFBI.

vii

DiannaSierraCarolinaofferedthoughtful,detailedcommentsonseveralchapterdrafts,

aswellasimportantconversationsonresearchingviolence,thestate,andradicalsocial

movements.RyanShapiroprovidedessentialassistanceinhelpingmenavigatethe

worldofFreedomofInformationActrequests.

Manyotherscholars,friends,andactivist-intellectualsalsohelpedwiththis

project,whetherbysharingsources,offeringadvice,providingfeedbackonconference

papers,orengagingmeinhelpfulconversationsrelatedtomyresearch.Thankyou

AvivaBen-Ur,DanBerger,MarieBreen-Smyth,MarianneBullock,DanielBurton-Rose,

CelinaCallahan-Kapoor,DougCharles,RafaelRodriguezCruz,BarbaraCurzi,Beverly

Gage,RebeccaHill,RandyInsurgence,BruceLaurie,RayLucLevasseur,Jamila

Levasseur,ToussaintLosier,ElissaUnderwoodMarek,RobertMeeropol,Jenn

Meeropol,BruceMiller,BillNewman,JacksonNichols,JessicaPliley,PatRowbottom,

JackRyan,SigridSchmalzer,MargoShea,MattSpurlock,SallyStoddard,Ekwueme

MichaelThelwell,HeatherAnnThompson,ChrisTinson,ChristopherTeret,AkinyeleO.

Umoja,JeremyVaron,ErnestoVigil,RobWeir,LeahWing,andGildaZwerman.

Severallibrariansofferedvaluablehelpwithmyresearch,particularlyJimKelly,

DanielleKovacs,andRobCoxatUMass;ClaudeMarksatFreedomArchives;andthe

librariansatMarquetteUniversityandtheRichardNixonPresidentialLibrary.My

dissertationresearchwasfundedbytheUMassHistoryDepartment’sBauer-Gordon

SummerResearchFellowshipandResearchTravelGrant,twoUMassGraduateSchool

DissertationResearchGrants,andaUMassW.E.B.DuBoisLibraryFellowship.

ItishardtoimaginehowIwouldhavesustainedmyselfoverthepasteightyears

withoutmyfriendsoutsideofacademia.ThankyouJacobFine,JulieFine,Michael

viii

Callahan-Kapoor,RoseBookbinder,MaxWeider,JeffBurnap,MargotFine,DaveHerter,

LisaPurinton,JonahFertig,KimberlyTeret,andSarahCrow.

Finally,aspecialthankstomyfamily.AlongthewaytomyPhDIbecamea

parent.MydaughtersLouisaandAylaChardbringmejoy,love,andwondereachday.

Andthankyoutomyparents:mymom,LissaMasters;mydad,WilliamA.Chard;my

stepmom,PattyChard;myfather-in-law,JerryJohnson;andmymother-in-law,Suzy

Johnson,whosecontributionstosharedchildcareworkmadeitpossibleformeto

completethisdissertationonschedule.IendwithawordofthankstomywifeJulie

Johnson.ThankyouJulie.Thisdissertationisinmanywaysareflectionofyourloving

support,friendship,andconstructivecriticism.

ix

ABSTRACT

NIXON’SWARONTERRORISM

THEFBI,LEFTISTGUERRILLAS,ANDTHEORIGINSOFWATERGATE

SEPTEMBER2016

DANIELS.CHARD,B.A.,UNIVERSITYOFSOUTHERNMAINE

M.A.UNIVERSITYOFMASSACHUSETTSAMHERST

Ph.D.,UNIVERSITYOFMASSACHUSETTSAMHERST

Directedby:ProfessorChristianG.Appy

In1969,militantfactionswithinbothStudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS)andthe

BlackPantherParty(BPP)begantoformtheUnitedStates’firstclandestine

revolutionaryurbanguerrillaorganizations:theWeatherUndergroundandtheBlack

LiberationArmy(BLA).Thesegroupscarriedoutbombings,policeambushes,andother

attacksthroughoutthecountry,promptingresponsesfromtheFederalBureauof

Investigation(FBI)andtheadministrationofPresidentRichardM.Nixon.

SeveralhistorianshaveanalyzedU.S.leftistguerrillas’motives,andmuchhas

beenwrittenonFBIoperationsagainsttheBlackPowermovementandNewLeft,

includingtheBureau’scovertcounterintelligenceprograms(COINTELPROs)designed

to“neutralize”thesemovements.Mostofthisscholarshiphasbeenone-sided,however,

framingFBIactivitiesas“staterepression”withoutanalyzinghowstateactors

understoodandrespondedtoleftistviolence.DrawingondeclassifiedFBIdocuments

andmaterialsintheRichardNixonPresidentialLibrary,“Nixon’sWaronTerrorism”

revisesthisliterature,explainingforthefirsttimehowdomesticleftistguerrilla

violencereshapedtheFBIandAmericanpoliticsduringtheNixonadministration.

x

WarwithdomesticleftistguerrillastransformedtheFBI’ssurveillancepractices,

spawnedtheUnitedStates’earliestinstitutionsexplicitlydedicatedtocombatting

“terrorism,”andtriggeredabureaucraticstrugglebetweentheNixonWhiteHouseand

theFBIthatplayedacriticalroleinfomentingtheWatergateScandalandNixon’s

August1974resignation.ThisdissertationexamineshowtheFBIcametoexpandits

surveillanceoftheU.S.Leftandrevivemail-opening,warrantlesswiretapping,and

break-ins—illegalspytechniquesthatDirectorJ.EdgarHooverhademployedwidely

againsttheCommunistPartyafterWorldWarIIbutbannedduringthemid-1960s.This

isastoryofunintendedconsequencesandconjuncture.Leftistguerrillasdidnot

achievetheirgoalofsparkingasocialistrevolution,andtheFBIwasunsuccessfulinits

aimofpreventingguerrillaviolence.TheNixonadministrationwasalsounabletohalt

guerrillaattacks.Buttogether—throughtheirconflictswithoneanother—leftist

guerrillas,FBIofficials,andtheNixonadministrationtriggeredWatergate,theChurch

Committee,antiterrorismpolitics,andacrisisofpopularlegitimacyfromwhichneither

theBureaunorthefederalgovernmenthaveeverfullyrecovered.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................................v

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................ix

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER

1. VIOLENTDIALECTIC:NIXON,THEFBI,ANDAMERICA’SGUERRILLA

INSURGENCY..............................................................................................................................40

2. INTERNALWARS:FACTIONALISMANDTHETURNTO

CLANDESTINITY....................................................................................................................100

3. COUNTERINGANEWTHREAT:THEWEATHERUNDERGROUND,

“TERRORISM,”ANDTHEHUSTONPLAN....................................................................129

4. LOSINGFACE:THEWARATHOMEANDTHEFBI’SPUBLICIMAGE..............158

5. MOUNTINGCRISES:THEBLACKLIBERATIONARMY,

THEPENTAGONPAPERS,ANDILLEGALSURVEILLANCE..................................197

6. DEEPTHROAT’SSECRETWARS:BREAK-INS,ANTI-TERRORISM,AND

THEROADTOWATERGATE.............................................................................................242

EPILOGUE................................................................................................................................................292

BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................................305

1

INTRODUCTION

RETHINKINGAMERICA’S“SECONDCIVILWAR”

DuringtheyearsofRichardNixon’spresidency,from1969and1974,BlackPowerand

NewLeftradicalsdetonatedhundredsofbombsinsidetheUnitedStates.Mostofthis

violenceoccurredduringNixon’sfirsttwoyearsinoffice.BetweenJanuary1969and

April1970,Americanleftistscarriedoutmorethanfourhundredpoliticallymotivated

bombingsandarsons,withurbanpolicestationsanduniversityReserveOfficers

TrainingCorps(ROTC)officesamongthemostfrequenttargets.1Asmallnumberof

youngradicalswentfurther,takingtheircommitmenttoarmedrevolutionarystruggle

1ThisestimatecomesfromKirkpatrickSale,SDS(NewYork:RandomHouse,1973),632,anddrawsfromseveralsourcesoutlinedbelow.Moreresearchisneededtoarriveataprecisenumber,thoughmostgovernmentreportsputthenumbersfarhigher.AJuly1970reportbytheSenateInvestigationsSubcommittee,forexample,documented1,188bombings,arsons,andattemptedbombingsduringthisperiod.AnotherreportdraftedaroundthesametimebytheAlcohol,Tobacco,andFirearmsDivisionoftheU.S.Treasurydocumented40,934bombings,attempts,andthreatsduringthisperiod,ofwhichSaleextrapolatedapproximately2,800wereleftistbombings.Inhismemoir,RichardNixon(presumablydrawingfromtheTreasuryreport)statedthattherewereover40,000bombingsduringthisperiod.AspecialJanuary1971specialissueoftheleftistmagazineScanlan’son“GuerrillaWarintheU.S.A.”documentedover1,000examplesof“guerrillaactsofsabotageandterrorismintheUnitedStates”in1969and1970.Allofthesestudies,however,includedmanyexamplesofunclaimedbombingsatschools,businesses,homes,andotherlocationsthatwerenotnecessarilypoliticallymotivated.BothradicalsfromScanlan’sandconservativeproponentsof“law-and-order,”includingNixonandpoliticianswhochairedthegovernmentinvestigatingcommittees,hadpoliticalmotivationsforoverstatingthesenumbers,theformerinordertocelebrateasupposedincipientguerrillarevolutionintheUnitedStates,andthelatterinordertoemphasizetheneedforastrongerfederalresponsetosuchactivity.SeeSenateCommitteeonGovernmentOperations,PermanentSubcommitteeonInvestigations,HearingsonRiots,Civil,andCriminalDisorders,Part25,91stCong.,2ndsess.,July31,August4,5,and61970;RichardNixon,RN:TheMemoirsofRichardNixon,2nded.(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1990),470;andScanlan’s1no.8(January1971),copyinauthor’spossessioncourtesyofTrevorGriffey.JournalistBryanBurroughwroteinhisrecentbookthattherewereover2,500bombings“duringaneighteen-monthperiodin1971and1972,”1,900ofthemin1972.BurroughcitedaninterviewwitharetiredFBIagentashissourceforthisinformation,butprovidednodocumentaryevidence.Thedatesattributedtothisfigurearealmostcertainlytheresultoftheagent’smistakenmemory,sincethepeakofleftistbombingactivityoccurredfrom1969to1971anddroppedprecipitouslyin1972.SeeBryanBurrough,DaysofRage:America’sRadicalUnderground,TheFBI,andtheForgottenAgeofRevolutionaryViolence(NewYork:PenguinPress,2015),5.Foramoreconservativequantitativestudyofpoliticalbombingsfrom1969to1975thatismissingdatafrom1969butshows1972and1973asalowpointintheperiod’sbombings,whenfewerthan60occurredoveratwoyearperiod,seeNationalAdvisoryCommitteeonCriminalJusticeStandardsandGoals,ReportoftheTaskForceonDisordersandTerrorism(Washington,1976),509.

2

beyondsporadicbombattacks.Beginningin1969,militantfactionswithinboth

StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS)andtheBlackPantherParty(BPP)—the

principleorganizationsofthepredominantlywhiteNewLeftandtheBlackPower

movement—begantoformtheUnitedStates’firstclandestinerevolutionaryurban

guerrillaorganizations:theWeatherUndergroundandtheBlackLiberationArmy

(BLA).

America’sleftistguerrillasadoptedclandestinityinhopesofevadingstate

surveillancewhilelaunchingsustainedcampaignsofrevolutionaryurbanguerrilla

warfare.2TheytookinspirationfromLatinAmericantheoristsErnesto“Ché”Guevara

andCarlosMarighella,whobelievedthatspectaculararmedactionscarriedoutbysmall

“focos”ofhighlydisciplinedguerrillascouldsparkpopularrevolutionaryuprisings,

renderingunnecessarytraditionalleftiststrategiesofgrassrootsorganizingandparty

building.ModelingthemselvesafterUruguay’sTupamarosandotherLatinAmerican

guerrillaorganizations,membersoftheWeatherUndergroundandBLAestablisheda

revolutionary“underground”fromwhichtolaunchguerrillaattacksonAmerica’s

2MythinkingonclandestinitydrawsfromDonnadellaPorta,ClandestinePoliticalViolence(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2013),2;GildaZwerman,PatriciaG.Steinhoff,andDonatelladellaPorta,“DisappearingSocialMovements:ClandestinityintheCycleofNewLeftProtestintheU.S.,Japan,Germany,andItaly,”Mobilization:AnInternationalJournal5,no.1(2000),85-104;andCarlosMarighella,“MinimanualoftheUrbanGuerrilla,”inTerrorandUrbanGuerrillas:AStudyofTacticsandDocuments,ed.JayMallin(CoralGables:UniversityofFloridaPress,1982),70-115.DellaPortadefinesclandestinepoliticalviolenceasviolencecarriedout“bysmall,undergroundgroups(orevensingleindividuals)orientedto(moreorlessclearlystated)politicalaims.”However,neitherdellaPorta,Zwerman,norSteinhoffofferacleardefinitionforclandestinity.Idefineclandestineurbanguerrillaorganizationsasgroupswhosemembersdevelopedundergroundinfrastructuresofsafehouses,fakeIDs,andsecretcommunicationnetworksforthepurposeofevadingstatesurveillancewhileconductingsustainedcampaignsofpolitically-motivatedurbanguerillawarfare,intheformofbombings,policeassassinations,andotherattacks.TimothyB.Wickham-Crowleycharacterizesguerrillawarfareascombattypicallyundertakenbynon-stateinsurgentswho“avoidmasseddirectengagementswiththeenemyandinstead…concentrateonsappingtheenemy’sstrengthandmoralethroughambushes,minorskirmishes,lightingraidsandwithdrawals,cuttingofcommunicationsandsupplylines,andsimilartechniques.”TimothyB.Wickham-Crowley,GuerrillasandRevolutioninLatinAmerica:AComparativeStudyofInsurgentsandRegimessince1956(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1992),3.

3

corporations,military,andpolice.Theytookonassumednamesandforgedfalse

identifications(IDs).Theybuiltaninfrastructureofsecret“safehouses”located

throughoutthecountry.Theytrainedthemselvesintheuseoffirearmsandthe

manufactureofexplosives.Andtheywerenotalone.Theseorganizationswerepartofa

largertrendwithintheinternationalleft—inBrazil,Italy,Japan,NorthernIreland,

SouthAfrica,WestGermany,andelsewhereduringthelate1960sandearly1970s—in

whichrevolutionariesadoptedurbanguerrillawarfareasastrategyforoverthrowing

thestateandcreatingasocialistsociety.3

Insteadofinspiringasocialistrevolution,however,America’shomegrownleftist

guerrillasprovokedbacklashfromtheNixonadministrationandU.S.policeagencies.

Thoughresponsibleforonlyafractionoftherevolutionaryviolencecarriedoutinthe

UnitedStatesduringtheNixonyears,theWeatherUndergroundandBLAattracteda

disproportionateamountofpoliceattention.Theseguerrillaorganizationshada

particularlystronginfluenceontheprimaryagencyresponsibleforsafeguarding

America’s“internalsecurity”:theFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI).

TheWeatherUnderground,whichemergedin1969,twoyearspriortotheBLA,

provokedtheFBIwiththeirclandestinity—theirabilitytoeludecapturewhilecarrying

outbombingsthroughoutthecountryandtakingcreditfortheminwidelypublicized

communiqués.TheWeatherUndergroundalsoincitedNixonandhisWhiteHousestaff,

whopersonallyandrepeatedlyimploredFBIDirectorJ.EdgarHoovertosuppress3LindseyChurchill,BecomingTupamaros:SolidarityandTransnationalRevolutionariesinUruguayandtheUnitedStates(Nashville:VanderbiltUniversityPress,2014);JeremyVaron,BringingtheWarHome:TheWeatherUnderground,theRedArmyFaction,andRevolutionaryViolenceintheSixtiesandSeventies(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004);DonatelladellaPorta,SocialMovements,PoliticalViolence,andtheState:AComparativeAnalysisofItalyandGermany(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995);Wickham-Crowley,GuerrillasandRevolutioninLatinAmerica;Zwerman,etal.,“DisappearingSocialMovements.”

4

America’sguerrillainsurgency.Initiatedin1970,theFBI’sWeatherUnderground

investigation(codenamedWEATHFUG)wastheBureau’slargestinvestigationsincethe

CharlesLindberghkidnappingcaseof1932-34.TheFBIonlycapturedafewofthe

WeatherUnderground’sdozensofmembers,however,andwasunabletopreventthe

group’sbombings.TheWeatherUndergroundcarriedoutovertwentybombings

throughouttheUnitedStatesbeforedisbandingin1976,hittingtheCapitol,the

Pentagon,andtheStateDepartmentamongothertargets.4

TheBLAalsoattractedmassive,nationwideFBIinvestigations,manyofthem

coordinatedwiththoseoflocalpoliceagencies.Seekingtoretaliateforpoliceviolence

againstblackcommunitiesandbuildanarmedrevolutionarymovementinsidethe

UnitedStates,theBLAassassinatedpoliceofficers,brokecomradesoutofjail,and

robbedbankstofunditsundergroundactivities.From1971to1974,BLAguerrillas

killedatleasteightpoliceofficersinNewYork,SanFrancisco,Atlanta,andNewJersey,

andwoundedmorethanadozen.Sevenofthegroup’sownmembersalsoperishedin

shootoutswithlawenforcement.TheBLA’swaveofassaultsdidnotlastaslongasthe

WeatherUnderground’sbecausethegroupengagedinriskieractionsthatexposedits

memberstopolicecapture,andbecauseasAfricanAmericans,theBLA’sunderground4ThestrongestscholarlystudyoftheWeatherUndergroundisVaron,BringingtheWarHome,whichcomparestheorganizationwithWestGermany’sRedArmyFaction.DanBerger,OutlawsofAmerica:TheWeatherUndergroundandthePoliticsofSolidarity(Oakland:AKPress,2006)offersfurtherdetailsonthegroup’shistory,muchofitfromoralhistories,thoughitlackspeerreview.AlsoseeRonJacobs,TheWaytheWindBlew:AHistoryoftheWeatherUnderground(NewYork:Verso,1997).ForprimarysourcesproducedbytheWeatherUnderground,seeBernadineDohrn,BillAyers,andJeffJones,eds.,SingaBattleSong:TheRevolutionaryPoetry,Statements,andCommuniquésoftheWeatherUnderground,1970-1974(NewYork:SevenStoriesPress,2006).SeveralformerWeatherUndergroundmembershavepublishedmemoirs:DavidGilbert,LoveandStruggle:MyLifeinSDS,theWeatherUnderground,andBeyond(Oakland:PMPress,2011);MarkRudd,Underground:MyLifewithSDSadtheWeathermen(NewYork:HarperCollins,2009);CathyWilkerson,FlyingClosetotheSun:MyLifeandTimesasaWeatherman(NewYork:SevenStoriesPress,2007);BillAyers,FugitiveDays:MemoirsofaAntiwarActivist,2nded.(Boston:BeaconPress,2009);SusanStern,WiththeWeathermen:ThePersonalJournalofaRevolutionaryWoman(NewYork:Doubleday&Company,1975).

5

guerrillaswerevulnerabletoracialprofilingbylawenforcement.BythetimeNixon

resignedfromofficeonAugust9,1974,policehadsentmostBLAmemberstoprisonor

thegrave.5

Anumberofhistorianshaveexplainedrevolutionaryguerrillas’motives,citing

theU.S.warinVietnam,repressivepoliceviolence,andthepost-WorldWarIIera’s

globalwaveofarmedanticolonialrebellionassomeoftheprimefactorsdriving

Americanradicalstotakeuparms.6ScholarshavealsowrittenagreatdealonFBI

operationsagainsttheU.S.Left,includinganumberofworksonFBIsurveillanceand

theBureau’ssecretcounterintelligenceprograms(COINTELPROs)establishedin1956

tounderminetheCommunistPartyandexpandedin1967and1968to“destroy,

disrupt,orotherwiseneutralize,”America’sBlackPowerandantiwarmovements.7

5TheBLAmanagedabriefresurgencebetweenNovember2,1979,whenthegroupbrokeitsmemberAssataShakurfromprison,untilOctober20,1981,whenabotchedarmoredtruckheistinNyack,NewYorkledtothecaptureordeathofitslastmembers.HistorianshaveyettopublishafullhistoryoftheBLA.ThebestpublishedscholarlysourceisAkinyeleO.Umoja,“TheBlackLiberationArmyandtheRadicalLegacyoftheBlackPantherParty,”inBlackPowerintheBellyoftheBeast,editedbyJudsonL.Jeffries(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2006),224-251.ForadissertationontheBLA,seeGaidiFaraj,“UnearthingtheUnderground:AStudyofRadicalActivismintheBlackPantherPartyandBlackLiberationArmy”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley,2007).ForabriefoverviewoftheBLA’shistorybyoneofitsincarceratedformermembers,seeJalilMuntaqim,OntheBlackLiberationArmy(Montreal:ArmtheSpirit/Solidarity,2002).ForamemoirbyaformerBLAmember,seeJamalJoseph,PantherBaby:ALifeofRebellionandReinvention(ChapelHill:AlgonquinBooks,2012).6DanielBurton-Rose,GuerrillaUSA:TheGeorgeJacksonBrigadeandtheAnticapitalistUndergroundofthe1970s(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010);Berger,OutlawsofAmerica;Varon,BringingtheWarHome;Zwerman,etal.,“DisappearingSocialMovements.”ForasensationaltruecrimeaccountoftheWeatherUnderground,theBLA,andotherU.S.leftistguerrillagroupsduringthe1970sand80s,seeBurrough,DaysofRage.7Workscoveringlate-1960sFBIoperationsagainsttheU.S.leftincludeDavidCunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere:TheNewLeft,theKlan,andFBICounterintelligence(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004);JamesKirkpatrickDavis,SpyingonAmerica:TheFBI’sDomesticCounterintelligenceProgram(NewYork:Praeger,1992);KennethO’Reilly,“RacialMatters”:TheFBI’sFileonBlackAmerica,1960-1972(NewYork:FreePress,1989);andAthanTheoharis,SpyingonAmericans:PoliticalSurveillancefromHoovertotheHustonPlan(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1978).OntheApril1971burglaryofanFBIofficeinMedia,PennsylvaniathatfirstexposedtheFBI’smassdomesticsurveillanceandcounterintelligenceoperations,seeBettyMedsger,TheBurglary:TheDiscoveryofJ.EdgarHoover’sSecretFBI(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2014).ForasociologicalstudyofFBIreformsandinstitutionalchangesduringthe1970sand80s,seeTonyPoveda,TheFBIinTransition:LawlessnessandReform(PacificGrove,CA:Brooks/ColePublishing,1990).ScholarlyworkscoveringthesweepofFBI

6

However,despiteamountainofliteratureontheFBI,theNixonadministration,and

1960s-erasocialmovements,historianshaveyettoaddressfundamentalquestions:

HowdidmembersoftheFBIandNixonadministrationunderstandandrespondto

BlackPowerandNewLeftviolence?Howdidclandestineurbanguerrillaviolenceaffect

theFBI’ssurveillance,counterintelligence,andinvestigativepractices?Howdidthe

FBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillasinfluencetheNixonWhiteHouseand

historyfrom1908totheearlytwenty-firstcenturyincludeRhodriJeffreys-Jones,TheFBI:AHistory(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2007);AthanTheoharis,TheFBIandAmericanDemocracy:ABriefCriticalHistory(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2004);andRichardGidPowers,Broken:TheTroubledPastandUncertainFutureoftheFBI(NewYork:FreePress,2004).MuchoftheFBI’shistoryhasbeenwrittenasbiographiesofJ.EdgarHoover(1895-1972),whoservedasFBIDirectorfrom1924to1972.SeeBeverlyGage,G-Man:J.EdgarHooverandtheAmericanCentury(forthcoming,NewYork:Viking,2017);AnthonySummers,OfficialandConfidential:TheSecretLifeofJ.EdgarHoover(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1993);CurtGentry,J.EdgarHoover:TheManandtheSecrets(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1991);AthanTheoharisandJohnStuartCox,TheBoss:J.EdgarHooverandtheGreatAmericanInquisition(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1988);andRichardGidPowers,SecrecyandPower:TheLifeofJ.EdgarHoover(NewYork:FreePress,1987).ForunreliableaccountsofFBIoperations,seeWardChurchillandJimVanderWall,AgentsofRepression:TheFBI’sSecretWarsAgainsttheBlackPantherPartyandtheAmericanIndianMovement,3rded.(Cambridge,MA:SouthEndPress,2002),andTheCOINTELPROPapers:DocumentsfromtheFBI’sSecretWarsagainstDissentintheUnitedStates,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:SouthEndPress,2002).ChurchillandVanderWallbasedtheirworklargelyonpreviousscholars’research(muchofwhichtheymisrepresented)andmemoirsbyleftistactivistsandpoliceinformants.Amongotherworks,thepairuncriticallydrewuponformerBlackPantherleaderHueyP.Newton’squestionablePh.Ddissertation“WarAgainstthePanthers:AStudyofRepressioninAmerica,”(Ph.D.dissertation,UniversityofCaliforniaSantaCruz,1980).ChurchillandVanderWallwroteTheCOINTELPROPapersinresponsetoareviewofAgentsofRepressionpublishedintheWashingtonPostpreeminentFBIhistoryAthanTheoharis,whicharguedthattheauthorsdidnotprovideevidencetobacktheirclaims.SeeAthanTheoharis,“BuildingaFile:TheCaseAgainsttheFBI:AIMandtheFBI,”WashingtonPost,October30,1988.ThoughTheCOINTELPROPapersincludesexcerptsofsomeFBIdocuments,theauthorsmisrepresentmanyofthesesources,orinterpretthemoutofhistoricalcontext,justastheydidintheirpreviousbook.In2007,WardChurchill(whoneverearnedaPh.D.)wasforcedfromhisfacultypositionintheEthnicStudiesDepartmentattheUniversityofColoradoBoulderafterapanelofexpertsdeterminedthathehadmisrepresentedevidenceinseveralofhisbooksonNativeAmericanhistory(thepaneldidnotreviewhisbooksontheFBI).BecausetheUniversitylaunchedtheinvestigationinresponsetocomplaintsfromrightwingactivistsaboutanessayhewroteafterthe9/11attacksarguingthatsomeofthevictimsdeservedtheirfate,someofChurchill’ssupportersonthemilitantleftcontinuetobelievethathisdismissalwasentirelypoliticallymotivated,ratherthanmotivatedpartiallybypoliticsandpartiallybyhisspuriousscholarship.ChurchillandVanderWallremainwidelycitedinscholarlyliteratureontheNewLeftandBlackPowermovement.IndependentscholarErnestoVigiliscurrentlyfinishingrevisionsofaforthcomingbookcriticalofWardChurchillandhisscholarshipontheFBIandtheAmericanIndianMovementforUniversityofOklahomaPress.IvanGreenberg,TheDangersofDissent:TheFBIandCivilLibertiessince1965(Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2010)drawsfromresearchinlargecollectionsofdeclassifieddocumentspreviouslyunseenbyscholarsthattheauthorobtainedthroughFOIArequestsandlawsuits.Thebooklackspeerreview,however,andoffersconspiratorialargumentswithoutadequatecorroborationorconsiderationofrevolutionaryviolence.

7

Americanpoliticsbeyondtheradicalleft?8Morebroadly,howdidconflictbetween

leftistmilitantsandthestateshapethepunitive,“law-and-order”turninAmerican

politicsthatledtotheriseofcounterterrorism,militarizedpolicing,andtheracialized

systemofmassincarcerationthatscholarshavetermedthe“carceralstate”andthe

“NewJimCrow”?9

MostliteratureonthetopicexplainsFBIoperationsagainsttheBlackPower

movementandNewLeftduringthelate1960sandearly1970sinone-sidedterms,

chroniclingexamplesofBureaumisconductinexposé-stylenarratives.FramingFBI

operationsunderthebroadrubricof“politicalrepression,”scholarshaveportrayedthe

Bureau’scounterintelligenceanddomesticsurveillanceprogramsasproductsof

officials’paranoia,anticommunisthatred,racism,orhungerforpowerwithout

consideringhowstateactorsunderstoodandrespondedtorevolutionaryviolence.10

JournalistBettyMedsger,forexample,hasarguedthattheFBIcarriedoutitssecret

operationsmerelyto“silencepeoplewhosepoliticalopinionsthedirector[Hoover]

opposed.”11Similarly,sociologistDavidCunninghamasserted,withoutpresenting

evidence,“theFBIhasgonebeyondthepassivemonitoringofdissidents[andinstituted

8Anamazon.comsearchforbookson“FBIHistory”yieldsover2,000results,yettherearenoreliableworksonFBIoperationstargetingtheU.S.LeftduringthecriticalperiodoftheNixonpresidency(1969-1974).ForajournalisticoverviewofFBIhistorythatmakeslimitedreferencetoNixon-erarevolutionaryviolence,seeTimWeiner,Enemies:AHistoryoftheFBI(NewYork:RandomHouse,2012).9KellyLytleHernandez,KhalilGibranMuhammad,andHeatherAnnThompson,eds.,“HistoriansandtheCarceralState,”specialissue,JournalofAmericanHistory102,no.1(2015);MichelleAlexander,TheNewJimCrow:MassIncarcerationintheAgeofColorblindness,2nded.(NewYork:TheNewPress,2013);MichaelFlamm,LawandOrder:StreetCrime,CivilUnrest,andtheCrisisofLiberalisminthe1960s(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005).10Foranolder,butinfluentialworkexhibitingsuchtendencies,seeRobertJustinGoldstein,PoliticalRepressioninModernAmerica:From1870tothePresent(Boston:GK.Hall&Co.,1978).ChurchillandVanderWall’sbookhavealsobeeninfluentialinthisregard.O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”acknowledgesthatconcernsoverpoliticalviolencemotivatedFBIoperationsagainsttheBlackPanthers,butdoesnotfullyanalyzethis.ClayborneCarsonmakessimilarobservationsaboutSNCCinInStruggle:SNCCandtheBlackAwakeningofthe1960s,2nded.(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1995).11Medsger,TheBurglary,7.

8

disruptivecounterintelligenceprograms]wheneverthreatstothestatusquohave

intensified.”12WardChurchillandJimVanderWall,whoremainhighlyciteddespite

beingdiscreditedasreliablescholars,contendedacorelessontobelearnedfromthe

historyoftheFBIandtheU.S.leftisthat“totheextentthatyoubecomeeffectiveat

advocatingandorganizingaroundyouragenda,youwillbetargetedbytheFBIfor

systematicundermininganddiscrediting,harassment,and—ultimately—outright

eliminationbycounterintelligenceoperatives.”13

Thoughvaryinginscholarlymerit,mostliteratureonFBIoperationsagainst

Americanleftistsduringthelate1960sandearly1970sofferanalysesmirroringthose

oftheSenateSelectCommitteetoStudyGovernmentalOperationswithrespectto

IntelligenceActivities,popularlyknownasthe“ChurchCommittee”afteritschair,

SenatorFrankChurch(D,ID).InJanuary1975,intheaftermathoftheWatergate

ScandalandPresidentNixon’sresignation,theSenatechargedtheChurchCommittee

withthetaskofinvestigatingAmericanfederalintelligenceagencies’involvementin

“illegal,improper,orunethicalactivities”14BasedonunprecedentedCongressional

accesstothousandsofformerlyclassifiedintelligencedocuments,theChurch

Committee’snearly1,400pagesofreportsontheFBIrevealedforthefirsttimehowthe

Bureauusedelectronicsurveillance,informants,mail-opening,break-ins,andcovert

counterintelligenceprogramsagainstAmericancitizensinordertoundermine

dissidentsocialmovements,manipulatethemassmedia,andinfluencegovernment

12Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere,8-9.13ChurchillandVanderWall,AgentsofRepression,384.Seefootnote7forfurtherdiscussiononChurchill’sscholarship.14SenateSelectCommitteetoStudyGovernmentalOperationswithrespecttoIntelligenceActivities(hereafter,ChurchCommittee),FinalReport,IntelligenceActivitiesandtheRightsofAmericans,BookII,94thCong.,2dsess.,1976,v.

9

policyfrom1936throughtheearly1970s.15TheChurchCommitteereportsofferwhat

remainthemostdetailedstudiesofFBIoperationsagainstdissidentsocialmovements

duringthelate1960sandearly1970s,andincludeextensiveevidenceonhow

insurgentpoliticalviolenceinfluencedtheFBIduringthisperiod.However,duetotheir

post-WatergatefocusonuncoveringFBIimproprietiesasasteptowardsreformingU.S.

intelligenceagencies,andbecauseoftheirthematicratherthanchronological

framework,theChurchCommitteereportsdonotsufficientlyanalyzehowdomestic

revolutionaryviolencecontributedtochangesinFBIpracticesovertime.16

InsteadofexplainingthechangingmotivesandpoliticalconflictsunderlyingFBI

operations,theChurchCommitteereportsofferedbroad-brushpassive-voiceclaims

implyingthatFBIofficialsweredrivenprimarilybypoliticalbias.Thereportsargued,

forexample,thatthepostwarFBIwascharacterizedby“arelentlessexpansionof

domesticintelligenceactivitybeyondinvestigationofcriminalconducttowardthe

collectionofpoliticalintelligenceandthelaunchingofsecretoffensiveactionsagainst

Americans,”andthat“theunexpressedmajorpremiseofthe[counterintelligence]

programswasthatalawenforcementagencyhasthedutytodowhateverisnecessary

tocombatperceivedthreatstotheexistingsocialandpoliticalorder.”17Whilethese

statementsarenotentirelyinaccurate,theydonotexplainthemotivesbehindFBI15ChurchCommittee,BookII,andFinalReport,SupplementaryDetailedStaffReportsonIntelligenceActivitiesandtheRightsofAmericans,BookIII,94thCong.,2dsess.,1976.16InadditiontoitsmainfinalreportonIntelligenceActivitiesandtheRightsofAmericans(BookII),whichoverviewsFBIimproprietiesandofferspolicyrecommendations,theChurchCommittee’sSupplementaryDetailedStaffReportsonIntelligenceActivitiesandtheRightsofAmericans(BookIII)includesseparatereportsonbreak-ins,informants,counterintelligenceoperations,mailopening,andothertopics.ForananalysisoftheChurchCommitteeasapost-WatergateefforttorestorethepopularlegitimacyofAmerica’sintelligenceagencies,seeKathrynS.Olmstead,ChallengingtheSecretGovernment:ThePost-WatergateInvestigationsoftheCIAandFBI(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1996).AlsoseeLochK.Johnson,ASeasonofInquiryRevisited:TheChurchCommitteeConfrontsAmerica’sSpyAgencies(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2015).17ChurchCommittee,BookII,21,andBookIII,3.

10

operations,whichcannotbeunderstoodsolelyasproductsofofficials’politicalbiases.

TheChurchCommittee’sfocusondocumentingFBImisdeedswithoutfullyanalyzing

themotivesbehindthemobscuredthefactthatby1969,homegrownrevolutionary

violencehadbecomeacore,urgentconcernforboththeFBIandtheNixon

administration.Withoutanalyzingleftistviolence,however,wecannotproperly

understandtheFBI’sNixoneraoperationsagainstpoliticaldissidents,theoriginsofthe

Watergate,ortheriseofcounterterrorismandmassincarceration.

ThisstudyisthemostsignificantrevisionofscholarshiponFBIoperations

againsttheBlackPowermovementandNewLeftsincetheChurchCommitteereports.

DrawinguponmaterialsintheRichardNixonLibraryandnumerousdeclassifiedFBI

files,“Nixon’sWaronTerrorism”offersnewperspectivesonsocialmovements,

policing,andpoliticalviolenceinthepostwarUnitedStates,examiningforthefirsttime

howdomesticleftistguerrillasanddebatesoveraproblemofficialsframedas

“terrorism”reshapedtheFBIandAmericanpoliticsduringtheNixonadministration.

WarwithhomegrownrevolutionaryguerrillastransformedtheFBI’s

surveillancepractices,spawnedtheUnitedStates’earliestinstitutionsexplicitly

dedicatedtocombatting“terrorism,”andtriggeredabureaucraticstrugglebetweenthe

NixonWhiteHouseandtheFBIthatplayedacriticalroleinfomentingtheWatergate

Scandal.ThisstorycentersonhowtheFBIcametoexpanditssurveillanceofAmerica’s

BlackPowerandantiwarmovementsbyincreasingitsuseofpaidinformantsinside

leftistgroupsandrevivingmail-opening,warrantlesswiretapping,andbreak-ins,illegal

spytechniquesthatHooverhademployedwidelyagainsttheCommunistPartyUSA

afterWorldWarIIbutbannedduringthemid-1960s.Itisastoryofunintended

11

consequencesandconjuncture.Leftistguerrillasdidnotachievetheirgoalofkick-

startingasocialistrevolution.Anddespiteoverhaulingitssurveillanceoperations,the

FBIwasunsuccessfulinitsaimofpreventingguerrillaviolence.TheNixon

administrationwasalsolargelyineffectiveinhaltingguerrillaattacks,inspiteofthe

immensepressureitputupontheFBItoaccomplishthistask.Buttogether—through

theirconflictswithoneanother—leftistguerrillas,FBIofficials,andtheNixon

administrationtriggeredWatergate,theChurchCommittee,antiterrorismpolitics,and

acrisisofpopularlegitimacyfromwhichneithertheBureaunorthefederal

governmenthaveeverfullyrecovered.

W.MarkFelt,whooversawFBIinvestigationsoftheWeatherUndergroundandother

leftistguerrillasduringtheNixonyearslaterrecalled,“InthelateSixtiesandearly

Seventies,thecountrywasatwar—civilwar—thoughveryfewknewit.”18Thisworldof

violentcivilwarwouldhavebeenunthinkableattheoutsetofthe1960s.InPresident

JohnF.Kennedy’sAmerica,thecivilrightsandstudentmovementsdevotedthemselves

tononviolentdirectactionandparticipatorydemocracy.Thegroupmostresponsible

fordomesticbombingswastheracistKuKluxKlan.Inearly-1960sBirmingham,

Alabama,theKlan’suseofexplosivestoterrorizeAfricanAmericanswassoprolificthat

thecitygainedthenickname“Bombingham.”19Beforelong,however,theUnitedStates

governmentbecametheworld’sleadingbomber.AfterKennedy’sNovember22,1963

18W.MarkFelt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside(NewYork:Putnam,1979),11.19DavidMarkChalmers,Backfire:HowtheKuKluxKlanHelpedtheCivilRightsMovement(Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,2005),15-20.

12

assassination,PresidentLyndonB.Johnsonescalatedhispredecessor’screeping

militaryinterventioninVietnamintoafull-blowninvasion,andoversawthemost

extensiveaerialbombardmentinhumanhistory.BytheendofthewartheU.S.had

droppedovereightmilliontonsofexplosivesandnapalmonVietnam,Laos,and

Cambodia,fourtimestheamountofallU.S.aerialbombsemployedduringWorldWar

II.20Inresponse,thestudentmovement—radicalizedbystateviolenceandtheir

inabilitytostopitthroughnormalpoliticalchannels—rosetotheforefrontofthe

antiwarmovementandescalateditsstrategyfromoneofprotesttophysicalresistance.

Amilitantsubseteventuallyturnedtoarmedrevolution.Thestudentantiwar

movements’trajectorymirroredthatoftheAfricanAmericanfreedomstruggle,whose

participantsincreasinglyquestionedtheefficacyofnonviolenceaftertheCivilRights

Actof1964andtheVotingRightsActof1965leftuntouchedthelongstandingproblem

ofpolicebrutalityinNorthernandWestCoastcities.Themassivewaveofmorethan

250urbanriotsduringtheJohnsonyearsreflectedthisreality,asdidtheriseofthe

BlackPantherParty,whichmushroomedduringthebriefperiodof1967to1969from

anobscurelocalgroupinOakland,Californiaintoanationwideorganizationwhose

leaderscalleduponmemberstoprepareforarmedrevolutionagainstpoliceandthe

Americangovernment.21

20MarilynB.Young,“BombingCivilians:AnAmericanTradition,”HistoryNewsNetwork,April11,2009,http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/67717.21ElizabethHinton,“‘AWarwithinOurOwnBoundaries’:LyndonJohnson’sGreatSocietyandtheRiseoftheCarceralState,”JournalofAmericanHistory102,no.1(2015),100-112;AmandaI.Seligman,“ButBurn—No”:TheRestoftheCrowdinThreeCivilDisordersin1960sChicago,”JournalofUrbanHistoryvol.37,no.2(2011),230-255.Scholarsdisagreeonwhatterminologytousefordescribingthecivildisordersofthe1960s.Emphasizingthepoliticalgrievancesunderlyingtheevents,somehaveinsistedonusingtheterms“uprising”or“rebellion”over“riot,”whichmanycontemporarycriticsusedtoemphasizetheunlawfulanddestructivenatureoftheincidents.Othersinsistonmore“neutral”termssuchas“disorder,”“disturbance,”and“upheaval.”Forfurtheroverviewofthisdebateandcurrentscholarshipon

13

Severalhistorianshaveinvokedthenotionofcivilwartodiscussthesocial

conflictsthatshookAmericansocietyduringthe1960sandearly1970sandleftintheir

wakealegacyofheightenedpoliticalpartisanshipandshatteredfaithinAmerican

exceptionalism.AsMauriceIssermanandMichaelKazinputit,“Inthecourseofthe

1960s,manyAmericanscametoregardgroupsoffellowcountrymen[sic]asenemies

withwhomtheywereengagedinastruggleforthenation’sverysoul.Whitesversus

blacks,liberalsversusconservatives(aswellasliberalsversusradicals),youngversus

old,menversuswomen,hawksversusdoves,richversuspoor,taxpayersversus

welfarerecipients,thereligiousversusthesecular,thehipversusthestraight,thegay

versusthestraight—everywhereonelooked,newbattalionstooktothefield,inaspirit

thatrangedfromthatofredemptivesacrificetovengefuldefiance.”22Similarly,Rick

Perlsteinargued,“between1965and1972,Americaexperiencednolessthanasecond

civilwar.Outofitthepoliticalworldweknownowwasborn.”23Buttheconflict

PerlsteinreferredtoasAmerica’s“secondcivilwar”wasfoughtnotonlybetween

contestingsocialgroupsandpoliticalideologies.This“war”alsoincludedaviolent

informalmilitaryconflictbetweenleftistguerrillas,whosoughttotoppleU.S.

imperialism,andtheFBI,whichendeavoredtodefendAmerica’snationalsecurityfrom

revolutionaryviolence.Incontrasttothe“highintensity”combatbetweenformalcivildisturbances,seeSeligman,“ButBurn—No,”247-248.Iusethesetermsinterchangeably,sincetheriotswerecomplex,andfeaturedoverlappingincidentsofinsurgent,criminal,andstateviolence.22MauriceIssermanandMichaelKazin,AmericaDivided:TheCivilWarofthe1960s,4thed.(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2012),3-4.Foranothersyntheticoverviewof1960s-eraAmericathatinvokesthethemeofcivilwar,seeMarkHamilton,America’sUncivilWars:TheSixtiesErafromElvistoRichardNixon(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005).ForanexplanationofhowtheU.S.“warathome”duringthewarinVietnamshatteredfaithinAmericanexceptionalism,seeChristianG.Appy,“TheWaratHome,”Chapter7inAmericanReckoning:TheVietnamWarandOurNationalIdentity(NewYork:Viking,2015).AlsoseeStanleyKutler,TheWarsofWatergate:TheLastCrisisofRichardNixon(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1990).23RickPerlstein,Nixonland:TheRiseofaPresidentandtheFracturingofAmerica(NewYork:Scribner,2008),frontjacketflap.

14

militaryforcesthatcharacterizedtheAmericanCivilWar,however,theFBI’scovertwar

withdomesticguerrillasmoreresembledthe“lowintensityconflicts”theU.S.pursued

tocrushrevolutionaryregimesandmovementsinLatinAmericaandSoutheastAsia

duringtheReaganadministration.24

TocharacterizetheFBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillasaspartofasecond

Americancivilwarisdramatic,buthistoricallyinaccurate.Forone,theU.S.homefront

ofthe1960sandearly1970swasnotexceptionallyviolent.Thoughpublishedin1969,

justbeforetherateofleftistbombingsreacheditspeak,areportcompiledforthe

NationalCommissionontheCausesandPreventionofViolencedeterminedthatthe

periodfrom1939to1968wasactuallyoneoftheleastviolentinU.S.history.25There

werealsoantecedentsfortheFBI’s1970swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillas.During

WorldWarIandtheyearsimmediatelyafter,theBureauofInvestigation,theJustice

Department,andCongressrespondedtoasurgeofanarchistbombingsbybroadly

targetingtheU.S.laborandantiwarmovementswithpoliticalsurveillance,arrests,

deportations,andlegislativecriminalizationofspeech,mostsignificantlyinwhatcame

tobeknownasthe“PalmerRaids”of1919-1920.26

24IvanMalloy,RollingBackRevolution:TheEmergenceofLowIntensityConflict(Sterling,VA:PlutoPress,2001).25SheldonG.Levy,“A150-YearStudyofPoliticalViolenceintheUnitedStates,”inViolenceinAmerica:HistoricalandComparativePerspectives:AReporttotheNationalCommissionontheCausesandPreventionofViolence,editedbyHughDavisGrahamandTedRobertGurr(NewYork:NewAmericanLibrary,1969).26ThemostthoroughstudyofthePalmerRaids(namedafterAttorneyGeneralA.MitchellPalmer)isReginSchmidt,RedScare:FBIandtheOriginsofAnticommunismintheUnitedStates(Copenhagen:MuseumTusculanumPress,2000).Forananalysisofhowfederalgovernmentsurveillancepartnershipswithprivatesocialactivistorganizationsforgedinresponsetoantiwarandanarchistbombingsfrom1914to1919laidafoundationfortheBureauofInvestigation’sinvolvementinredscareof1919-1920,seeJenniferFronc,NewYorkUndercover:PrivateSurveillanceintheProgressiveEra(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2009),177-188.AlsoseeBeverlyGage,TheDayWallStreetExploded:AStoryofAmericainitsFirstAgeofTerror(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009).Fordiscussiononhowstateandvigilanterepressionshapedtheanarchistmovement,particularlyitsItalianwomen,seeJennifer

15

Thenotionofasecondcivilwaralsooverstatesleftistguerrillas’power.The

UnitedStatesunderwenttremendouschangeduringthe1960s,aspowerfulsocial

movementstoppledtheSouth’sracistJimCrowregime,overhauledtraditionalgender

norms,andreconfiguredtheDemocraticandRepublicanparties.UnlikeduringtheCivil

War,however,atnopointduringthe1960sor1970swastheUnitedStatesina

“revolutionarysituation,”whichRodAyadefinesaswhen“twoormoregroupsof

powerholdersvieforsovereigntyofoneterritoryformerlygovernedbyonepower.”27

Americanworkersnevercarriedoutenoughstrikesduringthe1960stohaltindustrial

production.ThoughmassiveGIrebellionin1971playedanimportantrolein

compellingNixontopullU.S.militaryforcesoutofSoutheastAsia,therewasnomutiny

amongAmerica’sdomesticpoliceagencies.28Andalthoughmassstreetprotestsand

leftistguerrillabombingsgaverisetoaninstitutionalconflictbetweentheFBIand

Nixonadministration,radicalsneversucceededinpreventingstateofficialsfrom

carryingouttheirdailyexecutivedecisionsormaintaininganysignificantlevelof

popularlegitimacy.29Inotherwords,notonlywasthisconflict“asymmetrical”—

America’sleftistguerrillasneverstoodachanceofoverthrowingthestate.Thoughtheir

violencewas“revolutionary”inintention,itwasneverrevolutionaryinpractice.By

embracingclandestineurbanguerrillawarfare,theWeatherUndergroundandBLA

vastlyunderestimatedU.S.statepowerandoverestimatedtheirown.Theirdecisionto

Guglielmo,LivingtheRevolution:ItalianWomen’sResistanceandRadicalisminNewYorkCity,1880-1945(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010),199-209.27RodAya,RethinkingRevolutionsandCollectiveViolence:StudiesonConcept,Theory,andMethod(Amsterdam:HetSpinhuis,1990),71.28Appy,AmericanReckoning,212-216.29IthankJohnHigginsonforpushingmetothinkthroughthesepoints,andforintroducingmetoRodAya’sbook.SeeJohnHigginson’sworkonpoliticalviolence,CollectiveViolenceandtheAgrarianOriginsofSouthAfricanApartheid,1900-1948(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015).

16

forgothedifficulttaskoforganizingleftistsocialmovementswasagravestrategic

error.

AlthoughthenotionofasecondCivilWarisinappropriate,warisauseful

frameworkforrethinkingFBIoperationsagainsttheBlackPowermovementandNew

LeftduringtheNixonadministration.UnderstandingtheFBIandleftistguerrillasas

combatantsinaninformalwar—inwhichbothstateforcesandleftistguerrillas

inflictedandsufferedviolence—canhelpusmovebeyondinaccuratenarrativesthat

explainBureauoperationsaspartofacentralizedgovernmentconspiracytoquash

dissent,orarguethatAmerica’sleftistguerrillaviolencehadlittleimpactonthestate.

Inrecentyears,historianshavepublishedagreatdealofliteratureongroups

associatedwithAmerica’slate1960sand1970smilitantleft,particularlytheBlack

PantherParty.30Thisscholarshiphasbeendrivenbyanewgenerationofsocial

movementhistoriansseekingtoamendearlierparticipant-observeraccountsthat

dismissedsuchgroupsasrecklessorblamedthemfortheleft’sdecline.31Whilethis

newworkhasgreatlyenrichedourunderstandingoftheera’ssocialmovements,ithas

30RecentmonographsontheBlackPantherPartyincludeJoshuaBloomandWaldoE.MartinJr.,BlackAgainstEmpire:TheHistoryandPoliticsoftheBlackPantherParty(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2013);DonnaJeanMurch,LivingfortheCity:Migration,Education,andtheRiseoftheBlackPantherPartyinOakland,California(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010);JaneRhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers:TheSpectacularRiseofaBlackPowerIcon(NewYork:NewPress,2007);PaulAlkebulan,SurvivalPendingRevolution:TheHistoryoftheBlackPantherParty(Tuscaloosa:UniversityofAlabamaPress,2007);andCurtisAustin,UpAgainsttheWall:ViolenceandtheMakingandUnmakingoftheBlackPantherParty(Fayetteville:UniversityofArkansasPress,2006).ForananalyticaloverviewofBlackPantherhistoriographyupto2009,seeJoeStreet,“TheHistoriographyoftheBlackPantherParty,”JournalofAmericanStudiesvol.44no.2(2010),351-375.Seefootnotes4-6foroverviewsofliteratureontheWeatherUndergroundandotherAmericanleftistguerrillagroups.AlsoseeDanBerger,CaptiveNation:PrisonOrganizingintheCivilRightsEra(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2014);anded.,TheHidden1970s:HistoriesofRadicalism(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,2010).31See,forexample,PeterCollierandDavidHorowitz,TheDestructiveGeneration:SecondThoughtsAbouttheSixties(NewYork:FreePress,1996);HughPearson,ShadowofthePanther:HueyNewtonandthePriceofBlackPowerinAmerica(Cambridge:Perseus,1995);EricCummins,TheRiseandFallofCalifornia’sPrisoners’RightsMovement(PaloAlto:StanfordUniversityPress,1994);andToddGitlin,TheSixties:DaysofHopeandRage,2nded.(NewYork:BanthamBooks,1993).

17

notincludedsignificantnewprimarysourceresearchontheFBI.Indeed,thisliterature

hastendedtoreproduceone-sidedinterpretationsofFBIoperationswhileneglectingto

examinehowmilitantleftists’violentrhetoricandactionsinfluencedU.S.police

agencies,policies,andpoliticalculture.Moreover,theliteraturehastendedtoblurkey

distinctionsinpoliceactivity:betweenFBIactivitiesandthoseofotherpoliceand

intelligenceagencies;betweencounterintelligenceandsurveillance;betweenofficially-

sanctionedandinformalFBIactions;andbetweenpaidinformantsandundercover

agents.32Asaresult,FBIoperationsagainsttheBlackPanthersandSDS,whichwere

centraltothelargerconflictsthatrockedAmericansocietyduringtheNixonyears,

remainwidelymisunderstood.

One-sidedinterpretationsofFBIoperationsareespeciallypronouncedinthe

recenthistoriographyoftheBlackPantherParty.Earlyjournalisticandparticipant-

observeraccountsoftheBPPchronicledstoriesofPantherviolenceagainstpolice,

neighbors,andtheirownmembersandallies,assertingthattheorganizationinmany

waysresembledagang.33Overthepasttenyears,scholarlystudiesoftheorganization

havedownplayedPanthers’fratricidalandcriminalviolence,insteadexploringhow

experiencesofstateviolenceintheformracialinequality,policebrutality,and

incarcerationshapedtheorganization’schangingpoliticalideology,programs,and

32BloomandMartinacknowledged,“ItisnotclearwhetherthewaveofraidsofPantherofficesthatfollowed[Nixon’selection]wastheindependentresponseoflocalpolicetothevictoryofNixon’sLawandOrdercampaigninthepollsorwhethertheFBIsystematicallyencouragedthechangeinpolicynationwide.”Nonetheless,theauthorslumpedtheactionsofvariouspoliceandotherstateagenciestogetheraspartofasingular“staterepression”withoutanalyzingconflictwithinandamongstateagenciesortheroleofPantherviolenceandviolentrhetoricininfluencingstateactors’decisions.33DavidHilliard,ThisSideofGlory:TheAutobiographyofDavidHilliardandtheStoryoftheBlackPantherParty(Boston:Little,Brown,1993),314;andCollierandHorowitz,DestructiveGeneration,141-165.AlsoseeStreet,“TheHistoriographyoftheBlackPantherParty,”359,360-362,372,374.

18

strategies.34InregardstotheFBI,however,mostrecentbooksonBlackPantherhistory

offeronlyslightlymodifiedversionsofHueyP.Newton’sconspiratorialthesisfromhis

1980Ph.D.dissertation“WarAgainstthePanthers”—thattheFBIandother“agencies

andofficersofthefederalgovernment”endeavoredtodestroytheBPPbecauseofthe

organization’s“politicalideologyandpotentialfororganizingasizeablegroupofthe

country’spopulationthathasbeenhistoricallydeniedequalopportunity.”35Byand

large,historiansoftheBlackPanthershavenotengagedwiththestrongestpost-Church

CommitteestudyofFBIoperationsagainsttheParty,KennethO’Reilly’s1989book,

“RacialMatters,”whicharguesthatviolentPantherrhetoric“invited”muchofthe“FBI

repression”oftheParty.36

ThescholarlymonographsonBlackPantherhistorypublishedsince2006base

theirinterpretationsofFBIoperationsagainstthePartyprimarilyuponthreekey

declassifiedFBIdocumentsoriginallyexcerptedintheChurchCommitteereports,

highlightedinNewton’sdissertation,andreprintedinWardChurchillandJimVander

Wall’sunreliable1990bookTheCOINTELPROPapers.37TheseFBIdocumentsareas

follows:aAugust25,1967memoauthorizingtheBureau’scounterintelligenceprogram

againstso-called“BlackNationalist-HateGroups”(COINTELPRO-BHNG)withitsaimto

“expose,disrupt,misdirect,discredit,orotherwiseneutralize”theblackfreedom

movementanditsleaders;aMarch4,1968memoexpandingCOINTELPRO-BNHG

operationstoforty-onefieldofficesinordertopreventtheriseofablack“messiah”34Seefootnote30.35Newton,“WarAgainstthePanthers.”36O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”295.BloomandMartin,Rhodes,andAustincitedO’Reillybutdidnotengagewithhisargument.MurchandAlkebulandidnotciteO’Reilly.37ForcommentaryonthedubiousscholarlymeritsofNewton’sdissertationandtheworksofChurchillandVanderWall,seefootnote7andStreet,“TheHistoriographyoftheBlackPantherParty,”355,357-358.

19

capableofunifyingthe“militantblacknationalistmovement”;andaSeptember1968

memonamingtheBlackPanthersasthenewprimarytargetofCOINTELPRO-BNHG.38

ThesebooksalsociteCOINTELPROmemosonoperationsdesignedtoexacerbate

violenttensionsbetweenthePanthersandgroupssuchastheculturalnationalistUS

organization,aswellasdocumentsinwhichHoovercallsforcounterintelligence

programstounderminethePanthers’freebreakfastprogramsforchildren.39In

addition,theBlackPantherhistoriesciteHoover’sJuly1969statement(oftenmisdated

ashavingbeensaidinSeptemberorNovember1968)thattheBlackPanthersposedthe

“greatestthreattotheinternalsecurityofthecountry,”andtheChurchCommittee’s

findingthat233oftheFBI’s295COINTELPRO-BNHGoperations(79percent)targeted

theBlackPantherParty.40Furthermore,theBlackPanthermonographschronicle

federalandstateindictmentsofindividualPanthers,InternalRevenueService(IRS)

surveillanceoftheParty,andlocalpoliceraidsonBPPoffices.41

Citingthisinformation,BlackPantherhistorianshavearguedthattheFBIand

otheragenciestargetedtheBlackPantherPartywitha“virulent”and“systematic”

campaignof“staterepression”motivatedbyofficials’desirestocombatthesupposed

38BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,201-203,211;Murch,LivingfortheCity,160-161,184;Alkebulan,SurvivalPendingRevolution,84;Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,184-185;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,191-193;ChurchillandVanderWall,TheCOINTELPROPapers,92-93,108-111,124-125;ChurchCommittee,BookIII,20-22,187-188.39BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,211,218;Murch,LivingfortheCity,184;Alkebulan,SurvivalPendingRevolution,84-85;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,230-240;ChurchillandVanderWall,TheCOINTELPROPapers,130-133;ChurchCommittee,BookIII,189-195.40BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,210(foradiscussionofsourcesonHoover’sstatementsee444fn45);Murch,LivingfortheCity,184;Alkebulan,SurvivalPendingRevolution,84;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,xxvi-xxvii;Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,293;ChurchillandVanderWall,TheCOINTELPROPapers,123.41BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,199-215.

20

threatthatthePartyposedtoAmerica’spoliticalorder.42InhisbookontheBPPand

violence,forexample,CurtisAustincontendedthat“itwasnotPantherviolencebutthe

violenceofthestatethatultimatelydeterminedthetacticsoftheparty”andthatthe

BPP“immediatelyincurredthedecidedlyviolentanddeadlywrathofalllevelsof

governmentaftertheytookfullresponsibilityfortheirownsurvivalandadvancement

andaftertheyopenlychallengedthewhitemonopolyonviolenceinblack

communities.”43Similarly,inBlackAgainstEmpire,describedbyreviewersasthe

“definitive”“comprehensivehistory”oftheBlackPantherParty,JoshuaBloomand

WaldoE.MartinJr.arguedthattheFBItargetedthePartywithcounterintelligence

programsbecauseofthegroup’s“influence,growingnationalscope,andthepolitical

challengeit…posedtothestatusquo.”44Theauthorsalsoreiteratedtheassertionthat

“noaspectoftheBlackPantherprogramwasofgreaterconcerntotheFBIthantheFree

BreakfastforChildrenProgram.”45BloomandMartinprovidednoevidencethatthe

BPPeverseriouslythreatenedAmerica’spoliticalorder,however,andattributedthe

organization’sdeclinetostaterepressionanddecreasedsupportfrommoremoderate

alliesintheBlackfreedomandantiwarmovementswithoutconsideringhowviolent

Pantherrhetoricandactionscontributedtosuchdevelopments.46DonnaJeanMurch

incorporatedmorePantheragencyintoherassessmentofhowFBIoperations

contributedtotheParty’sdownfall,assertingthatthe“seeds”oftheBPP’sdestruction

“weresewnnotonlybystaterepressionbutalsobytheleadership’srelianceonan

42Ibid,200;Murch,LivingfortheCity,148.AlsoseeAlkebulan,SurvivalPendingRevolution,83-86;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,191-193,246-247;43Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,xxii.44BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,203.45Ibid,211.46Ibid,393-394.

21

armedwing,”“thefailuretoestablishdemocraticprocedureswithintheorganization,”

andleaders’“pronouncementsendorsingurbanguerrillawarfare.”47Murchdidnot

fullydevelopthisargumentorconductsubstantialnewresearchinFBIsources,

however,andheroverallaccountofFBIoperationsmirrorsthoseofotherPanther

historians.48

AfullreevaluationofFBIsurveillanceandcounterintelligenceoperationsagainst

theBlackPantherPartyisbeyondthescopeofthisdissertation.However,byfreshly

examiningdeclassifiedFBIsourcesandshiftingtheframeworkfromoneofgovernment

conspiracytooneofmutuallyconstitutivewar,thisdissertationillustrateshowconflict

betweentheFBIandthemilitantleftgaverisetotheWeatherUndergroundandBlack

LiberationArmyaswellasfurtherconflictbetweenleftistguerrillasandthestate.In

doingso,itcontributestorecentscholarshiponthehistoricaloriginsoftoday’scrisisof

massincarceration,whichhasrightlyexplainedtheriseoflaw-and-orderpolitics

duringthe1960sand1970sasastatebacklash(or“frontlash”)againsttheBlack

freedommovement,butwithoutsufficientlyanalyzinghowleftistviolenceinformed

stateactors’policydecisions.49Nixon’sWaronTerrorismunderscorestheimportanceof

47Murch,LivingfortheCity,189.48Murch’saccountofFBIandpoliceoperationsagainstthePanthersdrewprimarilyfromunpublisheddissertationsandtheworksofNewton,ChurchillandVanderWall,andAustin.RhodesalsoaddedatwisttothestoryofstaterepressionofthePanthers,arguingthat“constantmediaattention”wasa“catalystforthegovernment’sscrutinyofthePanthers.”RhodesbasedthisstatementonaninterpretationofOctober1969HouseInternalSecurityCommitteehearings,butshedidnotengageinnewresearchinFBIprimarysources.SeeRhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,294-295.49ElizabethHinton’srecentworkisanimportantexception,analyzinghowurbanriotsinformedPresidentJohnson’sWaronCrime.SeeElizabethHinton,FromtheWaronPovertytotheWaronCrime:TheMakingofMassIncarcerationinAmerica(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2016);and“‘AWarwithinOurOwnBoundaries.’”AnalysisoftheFBI,however,isalmostentirelyabsentfromthisliterature.Formoreonmassincarceration,seeHeatherAnnThompson,“WhyMassIncarcerationMatters:RethinkingCrisis,Decline,andTransformationinPostwarAmericanHistory,”JournalofAmericanHistory97,no.3(2010),703-734;Alexander,TheNewJimCrow;andVeslaWeaver,“Frontlash:Raceandthe

22

socialmovement’sstrategiesinaffectingtheoutcomeoftheirstruggles,explainingfor

thefirsttimehowmilitantleftists’choicestopursueurbanguerrillawarfareshapedthe

FBIandthelargerconflictsthatgaverisetothepunitiveturninAmericanpolitics.

Adomesticwarframeworkalsochallengesthepopularpost-9/11beliefthat

thosewhoengageinviolencelabeledas“terrorism”aresomehowmotivatedby

psychosisorirrational“extremist”ideologiesratherthanbyunderstandablepolitical

grievances.Politically,thisviewtendstolegitimizestateviolenceandsurveillance

carriedoutinthenameof“counterterrorism.”50Historianshavewrittenagreatdealon

thecircumstancesthatradicalizedBlackPowerandNewLeftactivists,andnotionsofa

psychologicallyabnormal“terroristmindset”asthesourceofnon-statepolitical

violencehavebeenthoroughlyinterrogatedincriticalscholarlyliteratureas

deterministicandpoliticallybiased.51Nonetheless,aseparatebodyofworkonthe

historyof“terrorism”tendstoreinforcethisviewbyapplyingtoday’sdominantstate-

centricdefinitionof“terrorism”—atacticofpoliticalviolencecarriedoutbynon-state

actorswiththeaimtospreadingfearbeyondtheimmediatetarget—toavastarrayof

examplesacrosstimeandspacewithoutsufficientlycontextualizingtheminrelationto

stateviolenceandpoliticalconflict.52Moreover,terroristexperts,oftenwithtiesto

DevelopmentofAmericanPunitiveCrimePolicy,”StudiesinAmericanPoliticalDevelopment21(2007),230-265.50SamRafael,“IntheServiceofPower:TerrorismStudiesandU.S.InterventionintheGlobalSouth”;RichardJackson,“Knowledge,PowerandPoliticsintheStudyofPoliticalTerrorism”;andRichardJackson,MarieBreenSmyth,andJeroenGunning,“CriticalTerrorismStudies:FramingaNewResearchAgenda,”inCriticalTerrorismStudies:ANewResearchAgenda,editedbyRichardJackson,MarieBreenSmyth,andJeroenGunning(NewYork:Routledge,2009),34-48,49-65,216-236.51Jackson,“Knowledge,PowerandPolitics,”72,76.52ThefirsthistoriantopopularizethisapproachwasWalterLacquer,aninfluentialearlyterroristexpert,andoneofthefield’sfewhistorians,withalongcareerasapolicyanalystfortheGeorgetownCenterforStrategicandInternationalStudiesandothercorporatefundedpolicyinstituteswithclosetiestoU.S.andIsraeliintelligenceagencies.WalterLaqueur,AHistoryofTerrorism,6thed.(NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionPress,2008).AlsoseeRandallD.Law,ed.,TheRoutledgeHistoryofTerrorism(NewYork:

23

statesecurityforces,continuetoframetheWeatherUnderground,BLA,andother

1970sU.S.leftistguerrillagroupsas“terrorists.”53

Myapproachtakesagreatdealofinspirationfromscholarsinthesubfieldof

CriticalTerrorismStudies(CTS),whohavecalleduponTerrorismStudiesscholarsto

analyze“terrorist”violencewithinbroaderhistoricalandpoliticalcontexts.Mikkel

Thorup,forinstance,hasarguedthatinsteadofuncriticallyadoptingstatedefinitions

fortheterm“terrorism,”“onehastowritethehistoryofterrorismasadialecticsor

‘dialogue’betweenthestateanditsviolentchallengers.”54SociologistLisaStampnitzky

hasdemonstratedthatthehistoryoftheterm“terrorism”isitselfcriticalto

understandingconflictsbetweeninsurgentsandthestate.55Thoughlatenineteenthand

earlytwentiethcenturystateofficialssometimesreferredtoanarchistbombingsas

“terrorism,”forexample,theymoretypicallyframedsuchviolenceas“anarchism,”a

termthatthencarriedheavierovertonesofillegitimacyandexistentialthreatto

Routledge,2015),andTerrorism:AHistory(Malden,MA:PolityPress,2009);RichardBachJensen,TheBattleAgainstAnarchistTerrorism:AnInternationalHistory,1878-1934(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2014);TimothyMesser-Kruse,TheTrialoftheHaymarketAnarchists:TerrorismandJusticeintheGildedAge(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2011);BeverlyGage,“TerrorismandtheAmericanExperience:AStateoftheField,”JournalofAmericanHistory98,no.1(2011),73-94,andTheDayWallStreetExploded;andDavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism,”inAttackingTerrorism:ElementsofaGrandStrategy,editedbyAudreyKurthCroninandJamesM.Ludes(Washington:GeorgetownUniversityPress,2004):46-73.ForcriticalresponsestoGage’sJAHarticle,seeAnnLarabee,“WhyHistoriansShouldUseCautionWhenUsingtheWord‘Terrorism,’”D.J.Mulloy,“IsTherea‘Field’?AndifThereIsn’t,ShouldwebeWorriedaboutIt?,”andJeremyVaron,“AHistoryofViolenceandtheMythofAmericanExceptionalism,”JournalofAmericanHistory98,no.1(2011):106-110,111-114,and121-124.53WilliamRosenau,“‘OurBacksAreAgainsttheWall’:TheBlackLiberationArmyandDomesticTerrorismin1970sAmerica,”StudiesinConflict&Terrorism36,no.2(2013),176-192;Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism.”54MikkelThorup,AnIntellectualHistoryofTerror:War,Violence,andtheState(NewYork:Routledge,2010),2.55LisaStampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror:HowtheExpertsInvented“Terrorism”(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2013).

24

Westerncivilization.56Duringthe1930sandafterWorldWarII,“Communism”would

becomeAmerica’snewbogeyman.Notuntilthe1970sdid“terrorism”become,as

Stampnitzkyputit,“thedominantframeworkforunderstandingillegitimatepolitical

violence,”asAmericanscametoassociatethetermalmostexclusivelywithpolitical

violencecarriedoutbynon-stateactors.57

StampnitzkyhaslocatedtheoriginsofthistrendinthePalestiniannationalist

BlackSeptemberOrganization’sattackontheIsraeliOlympicteamduringthe

September1972MunichGames,afterwhichanewcommunityofterrorismexperts,

supportedinpartbyNixon’snewlyformedCabinetCommitteetoCombatTerrorism,

inventedthemodernconceptof“terrorism”andgainedinfluenceamongstateofficials

intheU.S.andelsewhere.58Thisstudy,however,demonstratesthatU.S.officialsbegan

toframe“terrorism”asa“governableproblem”twoyearsearlier,inordertodevise

policeresponsestoAmericanguerrillas’bombingsandpoliceassassinations.59Hoover

andhismenviewed1970sleftistguerrilla“terrorism”asdistinctfromtheanarchist

bombersoftheearlytwentiethcentury.Writingininternaldocumentsthattheynever

imaginedwouldonedaybedeclassifiedforpublicviewing,HooverandotherFBI

officialsdiscussedtheWeatherUnderground,withitsclandestineinfrastructure

resistanttosurveillanceandinfiltration,asanunprecedentednationalsecuritythreat

thattheywereunpreparedtoconfront.DuringthefinalyearsofHoover’slife,before

56Thorup,AnIntellectualHistoryofTerror,103;JamesGreen,DeathintheHaymarket:AStoryofChicago,theFirstLaborMovement,andtheBombingthatDividedGildedAgeAmerica(NewYork:RandomHouse,2006).57Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,4.AlsoseeThorup,AnIntellectualHistoryofTerror,103.58Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,21-23.TheleadingscholarlyworkonthehistoryofU.S.counterterrorismalsoidentifiedtheMunichGamesasthemomentwhenU.S.officialsbegantodevelopexplicit“counterterrorism”policiesandtechniques.SeeTimothyNaftali,BlindSpot:TheSecretHistoryofAmericanCounterterrorism(NewYork:BasicBooks,2005),52-53.59Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,106.

25

U.S.officialsdeveloped“counterterrorism”strategiesformanagingPalestinian

nationalistmilitants’internationalhijackings,kidnappings,andhostagesituations,

America’scovertwarwithdomesticleftistguerrillaspromptedtheFBIandNixon

administrationtodeveloptheUnitedStates’firstpolicingtactics,surveillance

measures,andpoliciesdedicatedtocombattingaproblemstateofficialsexplicitly

framedas“terrorism.”

Finally,theFBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillasplayedacritical—and

heretoforeoverlooked—roleinthechainofeventsthatculminatedintheWatergate

ScandalandNixon’sAugust1974resignation.Historianshavelongacknowledgedthe

FBI’sroleinexposingtheWhiteHousecrimesthatledtotheWatergateScandal.Stanley

Kutler’sbookTheWarsofWatergate(1992),themostcomprehensivestudyonthe

topic,arguedthatabureaucratic“WarofFBISuccession”followingJ.EdgarHoover’s

deathonMay2,1972motivatedtheleaksthatledtoWatergate.60Scholarshavefurther

examinedtheFBI’sroleinWatergatesince2005,whenW.MarkFelt,theBureau’s

AssociateDirectorfromMay1972toJune1973,cameforwardas“DeepThroat,”the

confidentialsourcewhosedisclosuresenabledWashingtonPostjournalistBob

WoodwardtoexposeNixonCabinetmembers’involvementintheJune17,1972break-

inattheDemocraticNationalCommitteeheadquartersinWashington’sWatergate

officecomplexandthePresident’seffortstocover-uphisstaffers’crimes.61Inher2013

article“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”BeverlyGage

demonstratedthatboththecrimesofWatergateandtheexposureofthosecrimeswere

productsnotonlyofapowerstrugglewithintheFBIhierarchy,butofanearlysix-year-60Kutler,TheWarsofWatergate,120.61MaxHolland,Leak:WhyMarkFeltBecameDeepThroat(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2012).

26

longinstitutionalconflictbetweenHoover’sFBIandtheNixonWhiteHouse.Gage

explainedHoover-loyalistMarkFelt’sdecisiontodiscloseinformationontheNixon

administration’smisdeedsnotasmerelyamatterofpersonalvendettaorjockeyingfor

promotion,butasanefforttosafeguardtheFBI’sautonomyfromWhiteHouseefforts

tocontroltheBureau.62WhileGagerightfullyacknowledgedthat“concernovertherise

indomesticbombingsstemmingfromaradicalizedantiwarleft”playedanimportant

roleinfomentingthisbureaucraticstruggle,herarticledidnotfullyexplorehowleftist

guerrillaattacksinformedtheconflict.63BuildinguponGage’sanalysis,thisdissertation

demonstratesthatleftistguerrillaviolencewasthecentralcatalystfortheFBI’s

institutionalconflictwiththeNixonWhiteHouseandakeysourceoftheWatergate

Scandal.

Someresearchershaveimpliedthatadearthofdeclassifiedsourceshasseverely

limitedpossibilitiesforsubstantialrevisionofscholarshiponFBIoperationsagainstthe

BlackPowerandantiwarmovements.DonnaJeanMurch,forexample,hasstatedthat

becauseof“thetremendouslydifficult,intricate,andexpensiveprotocolsofFreedomof

InformationAct(FOIA)requests,combinedwiththenearimpossibilityofaccessing

state,local,andfederallaw-enforcementrecords,”“wesimplydonotknowthefull

extentandscaleofstatesurveillanceandrepression…ofradicalsocialmovementsof

the1960s.”64JournalistBryanBurroughhasasserted,“FBIfiles,thosetheBureauhas

62BeverlyGage,“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”JournalofPolicyHistory24,no.2(2012),176.BobWoodwardmadeasimilarargumentinhis2005bookonhisrelationshipwithFelt,whichhereleasedafterFelt’sattorneyJohnO’ConnorpubliclyidentifiedhisclientasDeepThroat.BobWoodward,TheSecretMan:TheStoryofWatergate’sDeepThroat(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2005),104-105.63Gage,“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”157,170.64DonnaJeanMurch,“CounteringSubversion:BlackPantherScholarship,PopularHistory,andtheRichardAokiControversy,”PerspectivesonHistoryonlineedition,October2012,

27

madepubliclyavailable,arealmostuselesstoahistorian.Onlyafractionofthe

paperworktheseinvestigationsgeneratedhasbeenissued,andalmostallofitisdreck,

eitherhighlyredactedheadquarterssummariesorpageafterpageofhighlyredacted,

andhighlyrepetitive,‘airtels’andtelegrams.”65

Thesestatementsaremisleading.ThoughmanyoftheFBI’sfilesonAmerican

leftistguerrillasremainclassified,hundredsofthousands—perhapsmillions—ofpages

ofpublicanddeclassifiedsourcesrelatedtoBureauinvestigationsof1960serasocial

movementsandguerrillaviolencearehiddeninplainsight.Mydissertationdrawsupon

thereportsandpublishedhearingsofChurchCommitteeandothergovernment

entities,aswellasfromthousandsofpagesofdeclassifiedFBIfilesavailableon

microfilm,online,inphysicalarchives,orthroughFreedomofInformationActrequests.

TheseincludetheWeatherUndergroundfile(publishedonmicrofilm);theBlack

LiberationArmyfile(publishedintheGaleCengageArchivesUnbounddigital

database);digitizedfilesontheFBI’sonlinedatabase(includingCOINTELPROfilesand

theBlackSeptemberfile);filesintheKennethO’ReillyPapersatMarquetteUniversity

inMilwaukee,Wisconsin;andL.PatrickGray’s6,510-pageDirector’sFile,whichI

obtainedthroughaFreedomofInformationAct(FOIA)request.66IalsoutilizedFBIand

WhiteHousedocumentshousedintheRichardNixonLibrary,includingsourcesfromhttps://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/october-2012/countering-subversion.65Burrough,DaysofRage,xi.66IvanGreenbergfirstobtainedthisfilein2008throughaFOIAlawsuit.SeeGreenberg,TheDangersofDissent,9.TheL.PatrickGrayFilewasparticularlycriticaltomyresearch.Thisfilecontainsdocumentsreleasedthroughthepretrialdiscoveryprocessin1978whenGrayfacedfederalfelonychargesinconnectionwithFBI’sbreak-instargetingsuspectedWeatherUndergroundassociatescarriedoutduringhistermasActingDirector.SourcesinthisfileofferthemostdetailedsurvivingevidenceoftheFBI’suseofbreak-insandotherillegalsurveillancetacticsduringthelate1960sandearly1970s.AreferencebookthathelpedmetodecipherFBIdocumentswasGeraldK.HainesandDavidA.Langbart,UnlockingtheFilesoftheFBI:AGuidetoItsRecordsandClassificationSystem(Wilmington,DE:ScholarlyResourcesInc.,1993).

28

theCabinetCommitteetoCombatTerrorism(CCCT).Inadditiontoresearching

governmentandFBIsources,Iexaminednewspaperarticles;archivalsourcesonleftist

movementshousedatAmherstCollegeinAmherst,MassachusettsandtheFreedom

ArchivesinSanFrancisco,California;andpublishedmemoirsandoralhistoriesof

formerFBIpersonnel,NixonWhiteHouseofficials,andleftistguerrillas.67Mymain

researchchallengewasnotalackofdeclassifiedsources,butnavigatingandtranslating

anoverabundanceofpubliclyavailableprimarydocumentsandamassivebodyof

secondaryliterature.

AmericanstodaytendtoassociateJ.EdgarHooverwithahostofnefariouscovert

operationsagainsthisperceivedpoliticalenemies.68Duringthelate1960s,however,

HooverwashighlyreluctanttoexpandsurveillanceofAmericandissidentmovements.

Throughouthisfour-decadecareerasDirector,HooverhadcarefullycraftedtheFBI’s

publicimageastrustedcrime-fightersanddefendersofnationalsecurity,knowingthat

thisimageplayedakeyroleinenablingtheBureautomaintainpowerfulinstitutional

67Digitaltechnologywascentraltomyresearch.NearlyalloftheFBIdocumentsIusedformyresearchweredigitized.Ieitheraccessedthesesourcesfromonlinedigitaldatabases;receivedthemasdigitalfilesfromtheFBIinresponsetoFOIArequests;receivedemailedscannedcopiesofFBIfilesfromlibrariansatphysicalarchives;ordigitizedfilesonmyown,usingadigitalcameraatphysicalarchivesorscanningfilespublishedonmicrofilmusingtheScanPro2000microformscanneravailableattheUniversityofMassachusettsAmherst’sW.E.B.DuBoisLibrary.IalsousedAdobeAcrobatProDCsoftwaretoconvertscannedFBIdocumentsintotext-readablePDFfiles,allowingmetosearchthousandsofpagesofFBIdocumentsforkeywords(“terror,”“bomb,”etc.).ThissoftwarealsoallowedmetotypenotesdirectlyontothedigitizedFBIdocuments.Inotherwords,digitaltechnologyandonlineaccesstoFBIfilesenabledmetowriteadissertationthatwouldhavebeenimpossibletenyearsago.68Hooverisalsoknownforrumorsthathecross-dressedandkeptasecrethomosexualrelationshipwithhisclosefriend,FBIAssociateDirectorClydeTolson.ForapopularfictionalizedfilmportrayalwithactorLeonardoDiCaprioplayingtheroleofJ.EdgarHoover,seeJ.Edgar,directedbyClintEastwood,ImagineEntertainment,2011.ForanhistoricaldiscussionofHoover’sallegedhomosexuality,seeDougCharles,Hoover’sWaronGays:ExposingtheFBI’s‘SexDeviates’Program(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2015).

29

autonomyfromCongressandtheWhiteHouse.69Butinthemid-1960sdissident

activistsandpoliticiansbegantochallengetheFBI’sauthority,andasHooveragedinto

hisseventies,PresidentLyndonB.JohnsonstartedtoquestiontheDirector’scontinued

abilitytolead.InanefforttosafeguardtheFBI’sinstitutionalautonomyduringthe

periodofgrowingpoliticaldissentfrom1965to1967,HooverrestrictedtheBureau’s

useofteenagedinformants,mail-opening,warrantlesswiretapping,andbreak-ins.70

ThestoryofhowtheFBIcametorevivethesetacticsbeginsonJanuary20,1969,

thedayofPresidentRichardNixon’sinauguration,aneventmarredbymilitant,

disruptiveprotestsinWashingtonD.C.andleftistradicals’bombingofatransmission

towerservicingaColoradomunitionsplant.Nixon’sinaugurationwasacriticalturning

pointinwhatIrefertoasa“violentdialectic”ofstateandinsurgentviolencethathad

escalatedoverthepreviousfiveyearsofPresidentLyndonB.Johnson’sadministration,

amidpolicebrutality,urbanriots,thewarinVietnam,andthelargestantiwar

demonstrationsinU.S.history.Stateviolenceandinsurgentviolenceprofoundly

influencedoneanotherduringNixon’stimeinoffice,kindlinginternalcleavageswithin

boththestateandtheleft,whilepushingasmallnumberofradicalstoembrace

violenceasameanstoachievesocialchange.Guerrillabombingsandpolice

assassinations,inturn,profoundlyreshapedFBIsurveillancepracticesandtheBureau’s

relationshipwiththeNixonWhiteHouse.

69MatthewCecil,BrandingHoover’sFBI:HowtheBoss’sPRMenSoldtheBureautoAmerica(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2016);andHoover’sFBIandtheFifthEstate:TheCampaigntoControlthePressandtheBureau’sImage(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2014).70AthanTheoharis,SpyingonAmericans:PoliticalSurveillancefromHoovertotheHustonPlan(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1978).

30

AsIexplaininChapterOne,Nixoncametoofficedeterminedtoclampdownon

rioters,bombers,andotherlaw-breakingpoliticaldissidentsbyfulfillinghiscampaign

promisetorestore“lawandorder”toAmericansociety,buthiseffortslargely

backfired.TheNixonadministrationstrainedrelationswithFBIDirectorJ.Edgar

Hoover,whoresistedWhiteHouserequestsforillegalpoliticalsurveillancemeasures

thatriskedjeopardizingtheBureau’spublicimageandinstitutionalautonomy.

Meanwhile,federalandstateindictments,violentpoliceraids,andcovertFBI

counterintelligenceoperationstargetingtheBlackPantherPartyandSDSfurther

radicalizedmembersofthemilitantleft,whoincreasinglyembracedThirdWorld-

importedstrategiesofrevolutionaryguerrillawarfare.ChapterTwoillustrateshowby

theendof1969,militantSDSmembershadcommittedthemselvestoformingthe

WeatherUnderground,theUnitedStates’firstclandestinerevolutionaryurbanguerrilla

organization,andmembersoftheBlackPantherPartyweremakingsimilarplansfor

armedresistance.Atthesametime,WilliamC.Sullivan,theFBI’sAssistantDirectorfor

DomesticSecurity,hadbegunmeetingwithyoungNixonaideTomHustoninJune1969

todiscussstrategiesforcombatingleftistviolence.Overthenextyear,theywould

becomekeyfiguresinHoover’sbureaucraticstrugglewiththeNixonWhiteHouse.

In1970,leftistbombingsandtheemergenceoftheWeatherUnderground

precipitatedafull-blowninstitutionalconflictbetweenHoover’sFBIandtheNixon

administration,adevelopmentIanalyzeinChapterThree.OnMarch6,1970,three

WeatherUndergroundmembersdiedfromanaccidentalexplosioninaGreenwich

Villagetownhousetheywereusingasabomb-makinglaboratory.Hopingtopreventthe

WeatherUndergroundfromcarryingoutdeadlybombattacks,Nixoncalledon

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intelligenceofficialstodevelopaplantocombatwhathecalled“revolutionary

terrorism.”TheresultwaswhatwouldbecomeknownduringtheSenateWatergate

hearingsasthe“HustonPlan,”aproposalforthegreatestconsolidationoffederal

intelligenceagenciesinU.S.history.DraftedbehindDirectorHoover’sbackbyWilliam

SullivanandTomHuston,theHustonPlancoordinatedtheFBI,theCentralIntelligence

Agency(CIA),theNationalSecurityAgency(NSA),andtheArmyDefenseIntelligence

Agency(DIA)underthedirectcommandoftheWhiteHouse,whileliftingHoover’s

restrictionsondomesticwarrantlesswiretapping,underageinformants,mail-opening,

andbreak-ins.ThePlan’scoreobjectivewastoexpandintelligenceagencies’capacityto

obtain“preventative,”advancewarningof“terrorist”attacks.

NixonapprovedtheHustonPlanonJuly14,1970,butcancelledittwoweeks

laterunderpressurefromHoover.Hooverhadnomoralqualmswithillegal

surveillancetechniques;ratherhesoughttopreservetheFBI’sautonomy,publicimage,

andjurisdictionoverdomesticsurveillance.HooverinformedthePresidentand

AttorneyGeneralJohnMitchellthathewouldnotauthorizeFBIinvolvementinanyof

theillegalsurveillancemeasuresoutlinedintheHustonPlanwithoutwrittenapproval

fromtheWhiteHouseortheJusticeDepartment.NixonbackedoutoftheHustonPlan

because,likeHoover,hesoughttoavoidliabilityfortheoutragethatwouldlikelyensue

ifdetailsofitsexistenceeverleakedtothepublic.

AfterHooversabotagedtheHustonPlan,relationsbetweentheFBIandNixon

WhiteHousedeterioratedwhileleftistguerrillaviolencesurged.OnAugust7,1970,

seventeen-year-oldblackmilitantJonathanJacksonlaunchedanarmedraidona

courtroominMarinCounty,Californiathatlefthimandtwoothersdead.Laterthat

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month,onAugust24,thebombingofaUniversityofWisconsinresearchfacilitybya

groupofyoungwhiteradicalsresultedintheaccidentaldeathofpostdoctoral

researcher.IexplaininChapterFourhowinresponse,underincreasedpressurefrom

Nixon,HooverdramaticallyexpandeddomesticsurveillanceoftheAmericanBlack

Powerandantiwarmovements,initiatingaplantocultivateinformantsineveryAfrican

AmericanandNewLeftuniversitystudentgroupinthecountry.Themeasurewasa

clearviolationoflaw-abidingcitizens’privacy,butHooverwasdesperatetocombatthe

problemofguerrillaviolence.FBIofficialscalleduponagentsto“identifypotentialand

actualextremists,revolutionariesandterroristsandtoassesstheirthreattothe

internalsecurityoftheGovernment,”whileHooverassertedthatradicalcampusgroups

collectivelyconstituteda“abreedinggroundforrevolutionaries,extremists,and

terrorists.”71Between1969and1972,theFBIexpandeddomesticsurveillance

investigationsofpoliticalradicalsbyoverfiftypercent,openingthousandsofnew

investigationsinresponsetobombingsandotheractsofdomesticinsurgentviolence.72

TheFBIalsobegantoreintroduceillegalsurveillancetacticsoutlinedinthe

HustonPlan.Duringthefallof1970,HooverloweredtheFBI’sminimumagefor

universitycampusinformantsfromtwenty-onetoeighteen.Furthermore,through

euphemisticthreatsandsuggestions,Hooverpressuredlocalfieldofficestoinformally

reinstitutewarrantlesswiretapping,mail-opening,andbreak-insindomestic

71FBImemo,ExecutivesConferencetoTolson,“ProposedIntensificationofCertainInvestigationsintheSecurityField,”October29,1970;andFBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,“SecurityInvestigationsofIndividualswhoareMembersoftheStudentsforaDemocraticSocietyandMilitantNewLeftCampusOrganizations,”November5,1970,inFederalBureauofInvestigation,FBIFileonStudentsforaDemocraticSocietyandtheWeatherUndergroundOrganization,(Wilmington,DE:ScholarlyResourcesInc.,1991),Microfilm(hereafterFBIWUO),Roll6,Section66.72U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice,FBIDomesticIntelligenceOperations—TheirPurposeandScope:IssuesThatNeedToBeResolved:ReporttotheHouseJudiciaryCommitteebytheComptrollerGeneraloftheUnitedStates,February24,1976(hereafterGAO,FBIDomesticIntelligenceOperations),133-134.

33

“terrorism”investigations,amovethatremovedFBIHeadquartersfromliabilityforits

agents’involvementinillegalsurveillancepractices.

Insteadofpreventingviolence,however,Hoover’szealouseffortstocombat

leftistguerrillasbackfired.OnNovember27,1970,amidawaveofleftistbombings

throughoutthecountry,HooverpublicallyaccusedeightEastCoastpeaceactivistsofa

far-fetchedplottosetoffbombsinWashingtonD.C.andkidnapSecretaryofState

HenryKissinger.OneoftheindividualsHooverfalselyaccusedwasphysicsprofessor

WilliamDavidon,whointerpretedthechargesaspartofacovertFBIconspiracyto

destroytheAmericanleft.Seekingevidenceofsuchaconspiracy,Davidonledagroupof

peaceactivistsinburglarizingasmallFBIofficeinMedia,Pennsylvaniaandreleasing

stolenclassifiedsurveillancedocumentstothepress.Inthespringof1971,newspaper

articlesonthestolendocumentsunleashedatidalwaveofcontroversyoverrevelations

ofFBIspyingaswellasunprecedentedcallsforHoover’sresignation.Inresponse,

HooverquietlycancelledalloftheFBI’scounterintelligenceprograms.Overthenext

fouryears,controversyoverFBIsurveillancewouldcontinuetogrow,culminatingin

theextensiveChurchCommitteehearingsof1975.Fewrealized,however,thatthe

BureauhadinitiatedmuchofthesurveillanceuncoveredthroughtheMediaburglaryin

adesperateattempttothwartleftistguerrillaviolence.

WhiletheMediaburglarybroughtaboutincreasedpublicscrutinyofFBI

operations,theongoingproblemofguerrillaviolencekindledamountingcrisisinside

theBureau,atopicIexploreinChapterFive.TheBlackLiberationArmybeganits

campaignofassassinatingcopsonMay1971withapairofbloodypoliceambushesin

NewYorkCity.TheattackpromptedreneweddemandsfromNixonthattheFBIprevent

34

guerrillaviolence,andanotherroundofHooverordersforhisagentsto“intensify”their

leftistguerrillainvestigations.JustasthearrestoftwoBLAmembersbegantoease

tensionsbetweenHooverandNixon,however,theNewYorkTimes’publicationof

excerptsfromthetop-secret“PentagonPapers”onJune13,1971enflamedinstitutional

conflictbetweentheFBIandtheWhiteHouse.Theleakeddocumentsrevealeda

patternofU.S.presidentslyingaboutthewarinVietnamovertwodecades,andNixon

fearedthatfurtherleakscoulddamagehiswareffortsinSoutheastAsia.WhenHoover

refusedthePresident’srequestthattheBureauaggressivelyinvestigatewhistleblower

DanielEllsberg,Nixonwentthroughtheroof.HeeventriedtofiretheagingFBI

Director,butthoughttwiceafterHooversubtlyremindedhimthatdoingsowould

alienatemanyofhisconservativesupportersaheadofthe1972election.

InresponsetoHoover’sinactioninthe“PentagonPapers”case,Nixon’sstaff

establishedasecretteamofoperativesknownas“thePlumbers,”whobrokeintothe

LosAngelesofficeofEllsberg’spsychiatristinSeptember1971,searchingfor

informationtheycouldusetodiscredithim.Ayearlater,thePlumberswouldsetoffthe

WatergateScandalaftergettingcaughtburglarizingtheDemocraticPartyheadquarters

inWashington’sWatergateofficecomplex.Meanwhile,FBIagentscarriedouttheirown

break-insinsearchofWeatherUndergroundfugitives.Theydidsoanxiously,however,

growingincreasinglyworriedaboutwhetherornotofficialsatFBIHeadquarterswould

supportthemiftheygotcaught.Thesimmeringcrisisguerrillaviolence,illegal

surveillance,andinstitutionalconflictgeneratedwithintheFBIduringthelastyearof

Hoover’slifewouldboiloverafterhisdeathonMay2,1972.

35

ThemanNixonchoseasHoover’ssuccessorwasL.PatrickGray,aBureau

outsiderandlongtimesupporterofthePresident.Nixon’schoicedidnotgooverwell

withW.MarkFelt,aHoover-loyalistandlongtimebureaucratwhohadworkedhisway

uptotheFBI’snumberthreepositionduringthelastyearofthelateDirector’slife,

surpassingtherankofWilliamSullivan,whomHooverpushedoutoftheBureauafter

discoveringhisdisloyalty.FeltresentedNixon’sappointmentofGraytothepositionof

theFBI’sActingDirectornotonlybecauseheviewedhimselfasamoresuitable

candidatefortheposition,butalsobecausehesawthemoveaspartofaNixoneffortto

exertapowerovertheBureauthattheWhiteHousehadbeenunabletoobtainwhile

Hooverwasalive.Twoyearsafterleftistguerrillaviolencepromptedabureaucratic

strugglebetweentheFBIandtheNixonWhiteHouse,Feltbecameacentralfigurein

thisinstitutionalconflict.InChapterSixIanalyzehowduringtheyearafterHoover’s

death,FeltusedhisnewpositionastheFBI’ssecondrankingAssociateDirectorto

conducttwosecretwars:oneagainstleftistguerrillas,andtheotheragainstthe

PresidentandtheActingDirectoroftheFBI.

FeltsoughttodiscreditNixonandGrayinanefforttodefendtheFBI’sautonomy

fromtheWhiteHouse,andtoofficiallyreinstitutetheFBI’suseofbreak-insinleftist

guerrillainvestigations,amovehehopedwouldeasetheanxietiesoffieldagents

engagedinthepracticeonaninformalbasis.Toachievethesegoals,Feltexploitedtwo

critical,unexpectedevents.ThefirstwastheJune17,1972Watergatebreak-in.Inthe

daysandmonthsfollowingtheincident,FeltleakedinformationfromtheFBI’s

Watergateinvestigationtoseveralreporters,includingWashingtonPostjournalistBob

Woodard,whograduallyexposedtotheworldhowPresidentNixonandhisstaff

36

attemptedtocover-uptheirroleintheburglary.Notuntil2005,however,wouldFelt

comeforwardasthemysterious“DeepThroat,”thepseudonymWoodwardhadcoined

forhistop-secretsource.

WhileleakinginformationonWatergatetothepress,FeltseizedonBlack

September’sdeadly,internationallytelevisedSeptember5,1972raidattheMunich

OlympicsasanopportunitytoofficiallyreinstitutetheBureau’suseofillegalbreak-ins,

aninitiativetheFBI’sAssistantDirectorEdwardMillerhadbeenunsuccessfully

requestingfromGraysincehetookoffice.TwodaysaftertheMunichattack,without

Gray’sknowledge,FeltandMillerauthorizedarequestfromtheBureau’sDallasfield

officeforabreak-inattheofficeoftheArabInformationCenter,apublicrelationsoutfit

affiliatedwiththeArabLeague.FearingabloodyMunich-styleattackintheUnited

States,theFBIsoughtinformationonPalestinianmilitantsdwellinginsidethecountry.

Twoweekslater,NixonformedtheCabinetCommitteetoCombatTerrorism(CCCT),

comprisedofSecretaryofStateKissinger,theFBI’sActingDirectorGray,andtheother

topintelligenceandmilitaryofficials.AftertheabortedHustonPlan,theCCCTwas

America’sfirstfederalinstitutionexplicitlydedicatedtocombating“terrorism.”Inthe

midstofhisstaffers’involvementintheWatergatecover-up,however,Nixondidnot

attemptanotherconsolidationofU.S.intelligenceagencies.Instead,hegavetheFBIsole

jurisdictionoverterroristattacksinsidetheUnitedStates.

AftertheMunichattacks,Grayfacedtremendouspressuretopreventan

internationalterroristattackintheU.S.AfterNixonformedtheCCCT,andFeltand

MillerinformedhimthattheyhadapprovedtheDallasbreak-in,Graygavethelatter

officialsverbalapprovalforauthorizingfurtherbreak-ins.Duringthenextseven

37

months,FeltandMillerapprovedatleasttwelvemoreFBIbreak-ins,twoofthem

targetingArabs,sevenofthemfocusedonsuspectedassociatesoftheWeather

Underground,andthreerelatedtoforeignespionageinvestigations.Inthemidstof

growingpublicconcernoverFBIsurveillanceandAmericans’civilliberties,Grayalso

initiatedanoverhauloftheBureau’sdomesticsurveillanceoperations.Forthefirst

timeintheFBI’shistory,GrayauthorizedFBIagentstoconductundercoveroperations,

atacticHooverhadalwaysforbiddenoutofconcernforhismen’ssafety.InLosAngeles,

asmallunitofFBIagentshadalreadygoneundercoveronanunofficialbasis,growing

beardsandlonghairinordertoinfiltratetheleftwingVietnamVeteransAgainstthe

War.UnderGray’stop-secretorders,undercoveragents,knownas“beards,”wentdeep

undercoverwithFBIHeadquartersapproval,smokingpot,infiltratinghippycommunes,

andhavingsexwithleftistwomeninattemptstotrackdownWeatherUnderground

fugitives.Beginninginearly1973,amidadeclineinbombingsandmassstreetprotest,

GrayalsobegantocutbackontheFBI’sdomesticsurveillanceoperations,closing

hundredsofinvestigativefilesthatofficialsdeterminedwerenotrelatedtothe

preventionofespionageorterrorism.

JustasHoover’seffortstocombatguerrillaviolencebackfired,Felt’ssecretwars

accomplishedtheexactoppositeofwhattheyintended.Felt’sleaksenflamedthe

WatergateScandalandhelpedbringdownNixonandGray,buttheyendedhisown

careeraswell.Moreover,theybadlydamagedtheFBI’sreputation.OnApril27,1973,

afterbrutalSenateconfirmationhearingsinwhichlawmakersgrilledhimover

authorizingpoliticalsurveillanceandobstructingtheWatergateinvestigationonbehalf

oftheWhiteHouse,GraydroppedhisbidtobecomethepermanentDirectoroftheFBI.

38

Twoweekslater,atNixon’sinsistence,theFBI’snewActingDirectorWilliamD.

RuckelshausfiredFelt,whomthePresidentsecretlysuspectedofbeingDeepThroat.It

wouldbeanotheryearbeforeNixon’sresignation,butbythispointWatergate

conspiratorsinthePresident’sCabinethadalreadybeguntoconfessorresignfrom

theirpositions.InstitutionalconflictbetweentheFBIandNixonWhiteHouse—sparked

threeyearsearlierbyleftistguerrillaviolence—hadalreadysetthePresidentonthe

roadtohisdownfall.Furthermore,In1978,whenPresidentJimmyCarter’sJustice

DepartmentindictedFelt,Miller,andGrayforauthorizingtheWeatherUnderground

break-ins.Graymanagedtobeatthecharges,butFeltandMillergainedfelony

convictionsinNovember1980,thoughPresidentRonaldReaganpardonedFeltand

MillerinApril1981,shortlyaftertakingoffice.Meanwhile,mostmembersofthe

WeatherUnderground,theprimaryorganizationresponsibleforsparkingtheHoover-

Nixonfeud,cameoutofhidingduringthelate1970swithoutfacingseriouscriminal

charges.

TheFBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillaswasnottheonlycauseof

Watergate.GivenNixon’sferviddesiretocrushhisperceivedpoliticalenemies,a

similarscandalcouldhavetakenplaceevenifHooverhadfaithfullycompliedwiththe

President’srequestsforillegalpoliticalsurveillance.IntellingthehistoryofWatergate

asithappened,however,therecanbenodenyingthatclandestineurbanguerrilla

violenceplayedacriticalroleinprovokingtheinstitutionalconflictthatprecipitated

boththecrimesofWatergateandtheexposureofthosecrimes.Inotherwords,without

theWeatherUndergroundandotherleftistinsurgents,therewouldhavebeenno

HustonPlan,nomassexpansionofFBIsurveillanceagainsttheBlackPowermovement

39

andNewLeft,norevivingofillegalFBIsurveillancepractices,noMediaburglary,no

COINTELPROcontroversy,andnomotivationforMarkFelttobecomeDeepThroat.

Thoughtheyseverelydamagedeachotherandthemselves,theFBIandthe

NixonWhiteHousefailedtopreventguerrillaviolence.Indeed,throughtheirpunitive

responsestotheBlackPowermovementandNewLeft,andthroughtheir

encouragementofpoliceviolence,HooverandNixonhelpedinspirethosewho

embracedrevolutionaryguerrillaresistance.Thecorereasonofficialsfailedtopreempt

America’sguerrillainsurgencyisbecauseofficialsneveraskedwhatChalmersJohnson

calledthe“forensicquestion”:“whatweretheirmotives?”73FBIandWhiteHouse

officialsrarelygaveseriouslythoughttowhyasmallnumberofyoungAmericanleftists

madethedifficultdecisiontotransformthemselvesintourbanguerrilla

revolutionaries,andtheycertainlydidnotseekabidingremediestotheracial

inequalityandstateviolencethatledmanytoseeviolenceasanecessarymeansfor

socialchange.Instead,drawinguponearlierinaccurateunderstandingofCommunists,

FBIandNixonofficialscharacterizedleftistguerrilla“terrorists”asinnatelyirrational

andderanged,andasanationalsecurityproblemtobemanagedthroughmass

“preventative”surveillance,covertoperations,policeraids,andincarceration.AsI

discussintheEpilogue,thisisthegreatestlegacyoftheFBI’swarwithAmerica’sleftist

guerrillas,onethatcontinuestoshapeourworldtoday.

73JohnsonquotedinWhyWeFight,directedbyEugeneJarecki,SonyPicturesClassics,2006.SeealsoChalmersJohnson,Blowback:TheCostsandConsequencesofAmericanEmpire,3rded.(NewYork:OwlBooks,2004).

40

CHAPTER1

VIOLENTDIALECTIC:NIXON,THEFBI,ANDAMERICA’SGUERRILLAINSURGENCY

PresidentRichardMilhousNixonspokeofpeace.Inhisfirstinauguraladdress,on

January20,1969,Nixonconveyedhisdesiretomovethecountrybeyondtheprevious

fouryearsofdomesticturmoil.UndertheadministrationofPresidentLyndonB.

Johnson,urbanrebellions,rowdyuniversityprotests,andmassivedemonstrations

againsttheU.S.warinVietnamhadbecomeregularfeaturesofAmericanlife.Thenew

presidentsoughtunityandcalm.“Thepeaceweseektowin,”Nixonproclaimed,“isnot

victoryoveranyotherpeople,butthepeacethatcomes‘withhealinginitswings’;with

compassionforthosewhohavesuffered;withunderstandingforthosewhohave

opposedus;withtheopportunityforallthepeoplesofthisearthtochoosetheirown

destiny.”1

OnthesamedayinColorado,agroupofleftistradicalsusedstolendynamiteto

blowupatransmissiontoweroutsideofDenver.Theexplosiontemporarilydisrupted

powerataCoorsPorcelainplantthatmanufacturedmissileandhelicoptercomponents

fortheU.S.military’suseinVietnam,whereover30,000Americansandtwomillion

Vietnamesehaddiedsince1964asaresultofthewar.2BackinWashingtonD.C.,Nixon

facedadirectassaultfromantiwarmilitants.BeforehecouldevenmoveintotheWhite

House,citypolice,NationalGuardsmen,andmembersoftheArmy’s82ndAirborne

DivisionlinedPennsylvaniaAvenuetoprotectthearmoredpresidentiallimousinefrom

1RichardNixon,inauguraladdress,January20,1969,JointCongressionalCommitteeonInauguralCeremonieswebsite,http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/swearing-in/address/address-by-richard-m-nixon-1969(accessedJune1,2015).2UPI,“GrandJuryIndictsManforBombing,”LodiNews-Sentinel,February15,1969,3.

41

severalhundredangryyoungprotesters.Thedemonstrators,ledbyamilitantfactionof

thepredominantlywhiteNewLeftorganizationStudentsforaDemocraticSociety

(SDS),brokeawayfromthethousandsofothernonviolentprotesterswhohad

descendedonWashingtonfortheday’s“counterinaugural”events.Themilitantshurled

stones,bottles,smokebombs,firecrackers,andpaint-filledlightbulbsatNixon’s

procession.Oneprotester,SDSleaderMarkRudd,tooksatisfactioninflippingNixonthe

fingerasthePresidenthappenedtoglanceathimfromlessthantwentyfeetawaywhile

speedingbyinhislimo.3Afterwards,themilitantsrampagingthroughanearby

businessdistrict,blockingtrafficwhilesmashingbankwindowsandpolicewindshields.

CheeringonVietnam’sCommunistguerrillaresistancetoAmerica’smilitaryonslaught,

thecrowdchanted“Ho,Ho,HoChiMinh,theNLFisgoingtowin!”4Policeclubbed

protesterswiththeirbatonsandmadeonehundredandnineteenarrests.TheNewYork

Timesnotedthatthedisruptionswere“thefirstataninauguralceremonyinthe180

yearsofthePresidency.”5Aweeklater,onJanuary28,Denver-areabombersblewup

twomoretransmissiontowers.6

Nixonnarrowlywonthe1968electiononacampaigntoendthewarinVietnam

andrestore“lawandorder”toAmericansociety.Thelatterpledgeappealedtoalarge

constituencyofworkingandmiddleclasswhiteAmericans—agroupNixonsoon

referredtoasthe“SilentMajority”—whofeltthreatenedbyincreasingBlackradicalism,

3Rudd,Underground,131.4ThechantreferredtoNorthVietnamesepresidentHoChiMinhandtheSouthVietnameseNationalLiberationFront(NLF).BenA.Franklin,“YoungDemonstratorsatParadeThrowSmokeBombsandStonesatNixon’sCar,”NewYorkTimes,January21,1969.5Franklin,“YoungDemonstratorsatParadeThrowSmokeBombs.”Forfurtheraccountsofthe1969counterinauguralprotests,seeGloriaEmerson,Winners&Losers:Battles,Retreats,Gains,LossesandRuinsfromtheVietnamWar,5thed.(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1976),314-317;andPerlstein,Nixonland,357-359.6UPI,“GrandJuryIndictsManforBombing.”

42

whiteyouthcounterculture,andviolentcivildisorderonAmerica’scollegecampuses

andcitystreets.Despitecallingfor“healing,”“peace,”and“compassion”inhisinaugural

address,Nixonhadnointentionsofeliminatingtherootcausesofviolentsocialconflict,

problemsthatsocialscientistsofthedayandpeaceactivistssuchasthelateDr.Martin

LutherKingJr.hadidentifiedasracism,economicinequality,andmilitarism.Onthe

contrary,Nixoncametopowerdeterminedtoclampdownonrioters,protesters,

bombers,andotherpoliticaldissidentsthroughpunitivelaw-and-orderpolicing.

Nixon’sinaugurationmarkedanewphaseinacycleofstateandinsurgent

violencethathadescalatedoverthepreviousfiveyearsoftheJohnsonadministration.

1969wasaparticularlytumultuousyearfortheFBI,theBlackPantherParty(BPP),and

SDS.DuringNixon’sfirstyearinoffice,federalandstateofficialsindicteddozensof

BlackPanthersandNewLeftradicalsonvariousfelonycharges.Nixon’sDepartmentof

Justice,forexample,indictedSDSorganizerCameronDavidBishoponchargesrelated

totheDenvertransmissiontowerbombings.WhenBishopwentunderground,Director

J.EdgarHooverplacedtheyoungmanontheFBI’slistofTenMostWantedFugitives,

makinghimthefirstleftistradicaltoeverearnsuchadistinction.Severalgroupsof

otherindictedradicalsbecamewellknowninleftistshorthandassymbolsofstate

repression:the“ChicagoEight,”theNewYork“PantherTwenty-One,”the“NewHaven

Nine.”AstheNixonadministrationimploredDirectorHoovertointensifyoperations

againstpoliticalradicals,theFBIexpandeditssecretsurveillanceofAmericanleftists

andescalateditscovertcounterintelligenceprograms(COINTELPROs)designedto

destroytheBlackPowermovementandNewLeft,withtheBPPandSDSbeingits

primarytargets.BothBPPandSDSmembersalsoenduredregularharassmentfrom

43

localpolice,thoughthePanthersborethebruntofdirectpoliceviolence.Inthefirsthalf

of1969,whileimprisonedPantherco-founderHueyP.Newtonawaitedtrialonmurder

chargesforthe1967deathofanOaklandcopandfellowPantherleaderEldridge

Cleaveradjustedtoalifeofforeignexile,localpolicestagedatleasttenarmedraidson

BPPofficesandhomesthroughoutthecountry,andarrestedhundredsofthegroup’s

members.7

Despiteheightenedlaw-and-orderpolicing,domesticupheavalremainedonthe

riseduringNixon’sfirstyearinoffice.TheBlackPantherParty,forexample,remained

visibleadvocatesofrevolutionthroughout1969,buoyedbyinternationaltelevision

coverageofitsblack-leather-cladmaleleadersandtheircallsforarmedresistance,as

wellaswidedistributionoftheBlackPanthernewspaper.Amidheightenedpolice

attacks,thePartyshifteditspoliticalorganizingeffortstowardsdevelopinglocal

“survivalprograms,”suchasthepopularFreeBreakfastforChildrenProgram,though

leaderscontinuedtopromotearmedviolenceagainstthestateofficials.8Black

Panthers’advocacyofarmedrevolutionwasnotjusttalk.Inseveralinstances,Panthers

respondedtopoliceviolencewithviolenceoftheirown,injuringofficersintheprocess.

LookinguptothePanthersasthe“vanguard”ofAmerica’scomingrevolution,members

ofSDSalsosteppeduptheirconfrontationaltactics.AftertheJanuary1969

7ScholarshaveestimatedthenumberofPantherskilledbypoliceoverthecourseoftheParty’sexistenceatbetweentwenty-fourandtwenty-eight.SeeMurch,LivingfortheCity,162,262fn209.Onpoliceraids,seeBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,212-215;andFrankJ.Donner,ProtectorsofPrivilege:RedSquadsandPoliceRepressioninUrbanAmerica(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990),180.8BloomandMartinarguedthattheBlackPantherPartygrewsignificantlyoverthecourseof1969,expandingitschaptersfromapproximatelytwentycities,tosixty-eight.Theevidencecastsdoubtonthisassertion,however,sinceasBloomandMartinacknowledge,andasIfurtheranalyzelaterinthischapter,BobbySealefrozetheParty’smembershipinJanuary1969,atwhichtimeheclaimedthatthePartyalreadyhadoverfortychapters.Itappearsthatthefallof1968wasactuallytheParty’sgreatestperiodofnationalgrowth,thoughitwasalsoatimeofincreasingfactionalismamidincreasingviolentconfrontationswithpolice.BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,2,179-198,344-345.

44

“counterinaugural”melee,SDSmilitantsclashedviolentlywithpoliceonseveralother

occassions.Bombings,moreover,becameanincreasinglypopularexpressionofpolitical

dissentafterNixontookoffice.Asmallnumberofyoungradicalsfirstadoptedbombing

asapoliticaltacticin1968.Byyear’send,theyhadlaunchedoverfiftysuchattacks,

mostlytargetingcampusReserveOfficers’TrainingCorps(ROTC)officesandurban

policestations.Overthecourseof1969,asNixonescalatedtheU.S.airwaronVietnam

andpoliceamplifiedattacksonradicals,incidentsofrevolutionaryviolencesurged.

BetweenJanuary1969andApril1970,leftistmilitantscarriedoutoverfourhundred

bombingsandarsonsintheUnitedStates.9

WhilehistorianshavedoneafinejobexamininghowNixoneraFBIandpolice

operationsinfluencedtheBlackPanthersandSDS,theyhavenotadequatelyexplained

howleftistviolenceandviolentrhetoricinfluencedtheFBIandtheNixon

administration.Indeed,muchoftheliteratureseemstoimplythatwhilepoliceviolence

radicalizedtheBlackPanthersandtheirsupporters,leftistviolencehadlittleinfluence

uponpoliceagenciesandAmericanpolitics.10ConflictbetweenAmerica’smilitantleft

andthevariousagenciesofthestateflowedbothways,however,andmustbe

understoodasinter-relational.

OverthecourseofNixon’sfirstfivemonthsinoffice,theFBIandthemilitantleft

reshapedoneanotherthroughamutuallyconstitutive“violentdialectic”ofinsurgent

andstateviolence.11Insurgentviolenceincludedrioting,streetfighting,gun-battles

9Sale,SDS,632.Foradiscussiononbombingstatistics,seefootnote1inmyintroduction.10RecentprominentexamplesincludeBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire;andBerger,CaptiveNation.11IbasethisconceptfromMikkelThorup’snotionthat“onehastowritethehistoryofterrorismasadialecticsor‘dialogue’betweenthestateanditsviolentchallengers.”Thorup,AnIntellectualHistoryofTerrorism,2.

45

withpolice,armedambushesofpoliceofficers,bombings,andviolentrhetoriccalling

for“revolutionary”urbanguerrillawarfare.Stateviolenceincludednormalizedviolence

commonlyunderstoodaslegitimate“force,”namelyarrests,incarceration,andanysort

ofphysicalviolencecarriedoutinordertoovercomeresistancetopoliceapprehension,

aswellasillegalactivity,likeharassment,beatings,andkillings.12Thesedistinctions

oftenblurred,however,asinthecasesofwarrantlesspoliceraids,unauthorized

surveillance,policebrutality,policeshootingsinthenameof“self-defense,”andarrests

ontrumped-upcharges.Stateviolencewasnotaconspiracy.Localpolicecarriedout

theiroperationsautonomouslyorinresponsetolocalrebellion,thoughtheFBIoften

providedlocalpoliceagencieswithintelligencethatemphasizedorexaggerated

radicals’violentrhetoricandactions.Moreover,throughtheirpromotionof“lawand

order”anddismissalofAfricanAmericans’andleftists’complaintsofpolicebrutality,

theNixonWhiteHouse,AttorneyGeneralJohnMitchell’sDepartmentofJustice,and

Hoover’sFBIgavelocalpoliceforcesagreenlighttosuppressleftistmilitantswith

impunitythroughheavy-handedtactics.

Duringthefirsthalfof1969,conflictbetweenstateauthoritiesandAmerican

politicaldissidentswroughtimportantchangesintheNixonadministration,theFBI,

andthemilitantleft.LeftistviolencecontributedtotensionsbetweenNixon,who

soughttheFBI’sassistanceinimplementingapunitiveresponsetolaw-breaking

politicaldissidents,andHoover,whoresistedWhiteHouserequestsforFBI

surveillancemeasuresthathebelievedriskedmakingtheBureauvulnerabletopublic

criticism.UnawareoffrictionbetweenNixonandHoover,membersoftheBPPandSDS

12CharlesTilley,ThePoliticsofCollectiveViolence(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003),27.

46

mistakenlyviewedfederalandstate-levelindictments,localpoliceattacks,andFBI

operationsasfacetsofacreepingfascism,partofacentralizedconspiracytocrushthe

U.S.left.Theyrespondedwithincreasedmilitancy,incitingfurtherpoliceattention,

whilealsoheighteningfactionalismandparanoiawithintheirownorganizations.The

FBI,inturn,endeavoredtofurtherdestabilizetheleftthoughitscovert

counterintelligenceprograms.Ironically,thoughtheFBItargetedtheBPPandSDSin

orderto“neutralize”thegroups’capacitiestoengageinviolentdisorder,theBureau’s

covertoperationsandencouragementofpoliceattacksontheorganizationsprompted

asignificantnumberofmilitantleftiststoembraceurbanguerrillawarfareasa

revolutionarystrategyforcombatingstateviolence.

“StateofEmergency”

Nixon’s“law-and-order”policingwasnottheonlyavailablestateresponsetoAmerica’s

violentdomesticsocialconflict.Inmid-1968,theNationalAdvisoryCommissiononCivil

Disorders(betterknownastheKernerCommission)issueda511-pagereportoncivil

disorderscommissionedbytheJohnsonadministrationfollowingthemassive1967

riotsinNewark,Detroit,anddozensofothercities.TheKernerReportexplained

America’surbanuprisingsasbyproductsoflongstandingpoverty,segregation,lackof

opportunity,andpolicebrutalityinAfricanAmericanghettos.“Oursocietyismoving

towardtwosocieties,”it’sauthorswarned,“oneblack,onewhite—separateand

unequal.”“Thealternative,”thereportconcluded,

…isnotblindrepressionorcapitulationtolawlessness.Itistherealizationofcommonopportunitiesforallwithinasinglesociety. Thisalternativewillrequireacommitmenttonationalaction—compassionate,massiveandsustained,backedbytheresourcesofthemost

47

powerfulandtherichestnationonthisearth.FromeveryAmericanitwillrequirenewattitudes,newunderstanding,and,aboveall,newwill.13

Inotherwords,theKernerReportcalledformassivefederalspendingonprogramsto

eliminatetheconditionsofeconomicandracialinequalitythatgaverisetoviolent

unrest.InitscallforalargescaletransformationofAmericansociety,thereport’s

recommendationsechoedMartinLutherKingJr.’sappealthepreviousyearfora

nonviolent“radicalrevolutionofvalues”toeliminatefromtheUnitedStatesthe“triple

evilsofracism,economicexploitation,andmilitarism.”14

PresidentRichardNixonneverintendedtoaddresstherootcausesofviolent

socialconflict.Indeed,by1968,evenPresidentJohnsonhadgivenupontheambitious

plantoeliminatepovertyinAmericathathehadannouncedupontakingofficefour

yearsearlier.Amidrepeated“longhotsummers”ofurbanriotingandtheescalating

warinVietnam,theJohnsonadministrationandCongressincreasinglydirectedfederal

fundsawayfromthe“WaronPoverty”towardsurbanpolicingandoverseasmilitary

expenditures.15PublishedtwomonthsafterMartinLutherKing’sApril4,1968

assassinationtriggereduprisingsinoveronehundredandfiftyAmericancities,the

KernerReporthadzeroimpactonfederalpolicy.

Nixoncameintoofficedeterminedtodeliveronhispromisetoestablish“law

andorder”inAmericansocietythroughaggressivepolicingandpunishmentoflaw-

breakingpoliticaldissidents.Duringitsfirstfivemonthsinoffice,hisadministration

13NationalAdvisoryCommissiononCivilDisorders,TheKernerReport:The1968ReportoftheNationalCommissiononCivilDisorders,2nded.(NewYork:Pantheon,1988),1-2.14MartinLutherKingJr.,“WhyIamOpposedtotheWarinVietnam,”sermonattheEbeneezerBaptistChurch,Atlanta,Georgia,April30,1967,RealNewsNetwork,http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=4731(accessedJune1,2016).15Hinton,“‘AWarwithinOurOwnBoundaries.’”

48

respondedtodomesticsocialconflictwithfederalindictmentsofleftistradicalsand

demandsthatJ.EdgarHoover’sFBIaccelerateitseffortstopreventrevolutionary

bombings,civildisturbances,andleaksofclassifiedstatesecrets.Nixondidnot

comprehendthescopeorscaleoftheFBI’sdomesticsurveillanceand

counterintelligenceoperations,however.Furthermore,Hooverwasunwillingtoobey

allofthenewPresident’sorders—theDirectorwouldcomplyonlywithdirectivesthat

hedidnotperceiveaspotentiallydamagingtotheFBI’spublicimageandinstitutional

autonomy.DisagreementsovertheFBI’soperationsagainstAmericandissidentsledto

growingtensionsbetweenHooverandtheNixonadministration.

ThefirsttargetoftheNixonWhiteHouse’seffortswastheleaderofDenver’s

transmissiontowerbombers.OnFebruary14,1969,withinamonthofNixon’s

inauguration,thenewAttorneyGeneralJohnMitchellindictedtwenty-six-year-oldSDS

organizerCameronDavidBishopforhisallegedroleintheDenverbombings.Mitchell

chargedBishopunderanamendmenttotheFederalSabotageActof1918thatmadeita

federalcrimetosabotage“warutilities…whentheUnitedStatesisatwar,orintimesof

nationalemergencyasdeclaredbythePresident.”16Itwasonlythesecondsuch

indictmentsinceWorldWarII.Twomonthsearlier,PresidentJohnson’soutgoing

AttorneyGeneralRamseyClarklaunchedthefirstoneagainstMichaelSiskind,a

twenty-one-year-oldSDSmemberwhofirebombedanROTCbuildingontheSt.Louis

campusofWashingtonUniversityinDecember1968.Siskindpledguiltyfourdaysprior

totheBishopindictment.17

16UnitedStatesv.Bishop,555F.2d771-CourtofAppeals,10thCircuit1977,773.17UPI,“GrandJuryIndictsManforBombing”;DepartmentofJustice,UnitedStatesAttorneysBulletin17,no.9.,February28,1969,210.

49

Itisunclearwhatlegalbasisdeterminedthe“stateofemergency”citedinthe

Bishopindictment.WasMitchell’sJusticeDepartmentreferringtoPresidentFranklin

Roosevelt’s1933“stateofemergency”declaredasameanstoassertexecutive

interventionintheAmericaneconomyamidsttheGreatDepression?OrPresident

HarryTruman’s1950“stateofemergency”declaredduringtheKoreanWar?18Orhad

Nixondeclaredhisownstateofemergency?19Eightyearslater,in1977,asthenation

continuedtoreelfromtheWatergateScandalandNixon’sresignation,afederaljudge

dismissedthechargesagainstBishopafterdeterminingthattherewasnolegalbasisfor

the“stateofemergency”declaredintheindictment.20Inthemeantime,however,the

BishopindictmentconveyedtheNixonadministration’sviewondomesticrevolutionary

bombings:AmericawasatwarnotonlyinVietnam,butalsoathome.

TheJusticeDepartment’sindictmentofCameronBishopalsoputpressureon

Hoover’sFBI.Denver-basedFBIagentshaddetainedBishopafterdiscoveringstolen

dynamiteandblastingcapssimilartothoseusedinthetransmissiontowerbombings

hiddeninamineshaftnearamountaincabininIdahoSpringswheretheyoungradical

livedwiththreeofhisallegedaccomplices.TheagentsquestionedBishopforfive-and-

18In1973,aspecialSenatecommitteeledbyFrankChurch(D,ID)andCharlesMathias(R,MD)determinedthataseriesofvaguelydefined“statesofemergency”declaredsincetheRooseveltadministrationremainedineffectduringtheNixonpresidency.SeeJamesN.Naughton,“WartimePowersStudiedbyPanel,”NewYorkTimes,January14,1973,8;andNewYorkTimes,“NationalEmergency,”April19,1973,42.19AFebruary1969JusticeDepartmentmemonotedthatthesectionoftheFederalWarSabotageActof1918usedtoindictBishophadbeen“extendedtocoveraperiodofnationalemergencydeclaredbythePresident.”Itisunclear,however,ifthisstatementreferstoEisenhower,whoseadministrationamendedtheAct,orNixon.DepartmentofJustice,UnitedStatesAttorneysBulletin17,no.9.,February28,1969,210.20UnitedStatesv.Bishop,555F.2d771-CourtofAppeals,10thCircuit1977,774.

50

a-halfhours,butreleasedhimafterdeterminingtheylackedenoughevidencetopress

charges.AlmostimmediatelyafterleavingFBIcustody,Bishopwentintohiding.21

BecauseBishop’sFBIfileremainsclassifiedtoday,itisimpossibletodetermine

exactlyhowFBIandWhiteHouseofficialsfeltabouttheDenverbombingsuspect’s

flightfromfederalauthorities.ButBishop’sescapemusthavebeenembarrassingto

Hoover,whoplacedahighpremiumontheFBI’sreputationasaforcethatalways

captureditssuspects.Suchembarrassmentmusthavebeenparticularlyacuteduring

thefirstmonthsofNixon’spresidency,asMitchell’sdecisiontoindictBishopunderthe

FederalSabotageActunderscoredtheWhiteHouse’sdeterminationtoclampdownon

domesticbombings.SoonaftertheJusticeDepartment’sindictment,Hooverpublicly

signaledthattheFBItoowascommittedtothwartingrevolutionarybombings.OnApril

15,1969,theDirectoraddedBishoptotheFBI’slistofTenMostWantedFugitives.

Nearlythreehundredothershadappearedonthelistsince1950,whentheFBI

establisheditinordertoattractpublicassistanceincapturingAmerica’smostviolent

andelusivecriminals.TheTenMostWantedtypicallyincludedgangsters,bankrobbers,

andotherssoughtonmurderorkidnappingcharges.Bishop,however,wasthefirst

leftistrevolutionarytoappearonthelist.22

ShortlyafterpressingchargesagainstCameronBishop,Nixon’sJustice

Departmentlaunchedconspiracyindictmentsagainstotherleftwingradicals.OnMarch

21Ibid,773;CameronBishopinterview,June5,1975,audiorecording,FreedomArchives,SanFrancisco,CA,CallnumberPM197A.22FederalBureauofInvestigation,“FBI’sTenMostWantedFugitives,1950-2010,”FBIwebsite,http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/ten-most-wanted-fugitives-60th-anniversary-1950-2010/ten-most-wanted-fugitives-60th-anniversary-1950-2010-pdf(accessedJune1,2016);UPI,“RadicalLeftistsDotMostWantedList,”HartfordCourant,October21,1971,35.Bishop’sthreeallegedco-conspiratorswereStevenKnowles,SusanParker,andLindaGoebel.ParkerandGoebeltestifiedagainstBishopinexchangeforimmunity.Knowlesalsowentunderground.TheFBItargetedBishopontheirMostWantedlistbecausetheyconsideredhimtobethegroup’sleader.

51

20,1969AttorneyGeneralMitchellchargedthe“ChicagoEight”—peaceactivistDavid

Dellinger,SDSleadersTomHaydenandRennieDavies,YippieleadersJerryRubinand

AbbieHoffman,antiwaractivistprofessorsLeeWeinerandJohnFroines,andBlack

PantherchairmanBobbySeale—onanumberofcharges,includingconspiracytocross

statelineswithintenttoinciteariot.23Withflimsyevidence,Nixon’sJustice

DepartmentchargedtheChicagoEightfortheirallegedroleinthemassiveantiwar

protestsatthe1968DemocraticNationalConvention,whichgeneratedlivetelevision

coverageofChicagopoliceteargasingandbrutallybeatingyoungantiwaractivists.24

PresidentJohnson’sAttorneyGeneralRamseyClarkhadrefusedtoprosecute

demonstratorsaftertheConvention,sidingwithafederallyfundedreportthat

determinedChicagopolicehadbeenthemainperpetratorsoftheviolence.25In

contrast,Mitchell’sdecisiontochargetheChicagoEightreflectedtheNixon

administration’sviewthattheprotesterswereprimarilyresponsiblefortheviolence,

andthatstatepunishment,ratherthanfederalprogramingtoaddresstherootcausesof

violentconflict,wastheappropriateresponsetodisruptivepoliticalprotest.Mitchell

23TheChicagoEightalsofacedchargesofconspiringtocrossstatelinestoteachthemakingofincendiarydevicesandcommitactstoimpedepoliceofficersfromtheirlawfulduties.Dellinger,Davis,Hayden,Hoffman,Rubin,andSealealsofacedchargesofcrossingstatelinestoinciteariot,andFroinesandWeinerfacedchargesofinstructingotherpersonshowtomakeincendiarydevices.Theindictmentnamedsixteenunindictedconspiratorsfromvarioussegmentsoftheantiwarmovement.“IndictmentintheChicagoSevenConspiracyTrial,”inFamousTrialsonlineexhibitanddatabase,DouglasO.Linder,ed.,UniversityofMissouri-KansasCitySchoolofLaw,http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/indictment.html(accessedJune1,2016);GeoffreyR.Stone,PerilousTimes:FreeSpeechinWartimefromtheSeditionActof1798totheWaronTerrorism(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,2004),484.24TheJusticeDepartmentchargedtheChicagoEightunderprovisionsoftheCivilRightsActof1968thatCongresshadpassedinresponsetomilitantSNCCleadersStokelyCarmichaelandH.RapBrown,whomtheFBIinaccuratelyaccusedofincitingthehundredsofurbanriotsthatdisruptedAmericancitiesin1967and1968.SeeDavidFarber,Chicago’68(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997),147.25Ibid,205;Stone,PerilousTimes,484.

52

conveyedthisviewinregardstotheChicagoEightwhenhequippedtoreporters,“The

JusticeDepartmentisaninstitutionforlawenforcement,notsocialimprovement.”26

AnotherwayNixonrespondedtopoliticaldissentwasbypressuringJ.Edgar

Hoover’sFBItoexpanditssurveillanceofradicalactivistsandotheropponentsofhis

policies.Hooverwasreluctanttocomply,however.Understandingwhyrequiresan

examinationoftheBureau’schangingrelationshiptodomesticsocialconflictand

politicalviolenceduringtheprevioustwodecades.

SinceWorldWarII,theFBIhadmaintainedextensivesurveillancefileson

AfricanAmericanactivistsandotherleftists,especiallythoseassociatedwiththe

CommunistParty(CPUSA).CarriedoutduringtheheightofColdWaranticommunist

paranoia,theostensiblepurposeofthissurveillancewastopreventradicalsfrom

“subverting”theUnitedStatesbyinfiltratingthelaborandcivilrightsmovementsand

organizingaCommunistrevolutionbackedbytheSovietUnion.TheFBIbegan

employingwidespread“preventative”intelligencemeasuresin1939,whenPresident

RooseveltissuedawartimedirectivegrantingtheBureauexclusivejurisdictionover

domestic“espionage,counterespionage,andsabotagematters.”27Hooverused

Roosevelt’sdirectiveasalicensetoestablishtheFBIasanautonomouspolice

institutionwithminimalgovernmentoversight,andtocarryoutarangeofsecret

26MiltonViorst,“AttorneyGeneralMitchell’sPhilosophyis‘TheJusticeDepartmentisanInstitutionforLawEnforcement,notSocialImprovement,’”NewYorkTimesMagazine10(August10,1969).27ChurchCommittee,BookIII,403.In1924,afterthePalmerRaidsof1919-1920andtheTeapotDomeScandalof1921-1922—abriberyscandalinvolvingtheDepartmentofJusticethatruinedthereputationofPresidentWarrenHardingandwaswidelyconsideredthegreatestpoliticalscandalinU.S.historypriortoWatergate—AttorneyGeneralHarlanFiskeStonebannedtheBureauofInvestigationfromengaginginpoliticalsurveillanceasPresidentCalvinCoolidgeappointedtheyoungJ.EdgarHoovertoserveastheBureau’sActingDirector(hewaspromotedtopermanentDirectorthefollowingyear).SeeSchmidt,RedScare,324-326.

53

operationsunknowntopresidents,lawmakers,ortheAmericanpublic.28Tothisend,

DirectorJ.EdgarHooveroversawtheFBI’screationofits“SecurityIndex,”asecretlist

containingnamesofthousandsofAmericanswithsuspectedCommunistsympathiesto

beroundedupanddetainedina“timeofwarornationalemergency.”29TheFBI

gatheredintelligenceonsuspectedCommunistswiththehelpofthousandsofpaid

informantsand“confidentialsources,”includingbankers,landlords,andtelephone

operators.30TheFBIalsotargetedCPUSAwitharangeofillegalsurveillancetactics,

includingbreak-ins(knowninBureauparlanceas“surreptitiousentries”or“blackbag

jobs”),safe-breaking,“mailcovers”(surveillanceofaddressesontheenvelopesofa

target’smail),mail-opening,“trashcovers”(surveillanceofatarget’scurbsidegarbage

bins),warrantlesselectronictelephonewiretaps,andhiddenmicrophones(alsoknown

as“bugs”).31

Duringtheearly1950s,Hoover’sFBIplayedacriticalroleinthepostwarRed

ScaretypicallyassociatedwithanticommunistcrusaderSenatorJoeMcCarthy(R,WI).

Indeed,historianEllenSchreckerargued,“hadobserversknowninthe1950swhatthey

havelearnedsincethe1970s,whentheFreedomofInformationActedopenthe

Bureau’sfiles,‘McCarthyism’wouldprobablybecalled‘Hooverism.’”32Hoover’sFBI

providedintelligenceonAmericanleftiststotheanticommunistHouseUn-American

ActivitiesCommittee(HUAC)andSenateInternalSecurityCommittee,andgathered

28ChurchCommittee,BookIII,403.29Ibid,412-413.30ChurchCommitteeBookII,60-65,andBookIII,228-229.31FBIpersonnelofficiallyreferredtobreak-insas“surreptitiousentries”whilecolloquiallyusingtheterm“blackbagjobs”inreferencetotheblackbagscontaininglock-pickingtoolsagentswouldbringwiththemonsuchoperations.ForanoverviewoftheFBI’sextralegalsurveillancetechniquesdirectedattheCPUSA,seeSenateSelectCommittee,BookII,60-65,andBookIII,228-229.32EllenSchrecker,ManyAretheCrimes:McCarthyisminAmerica(NewYork:Little,BrownandCompany,1998),203.

54

evidenceusedtoconvictEugeneDennis,GusHall,HenryWinston,andotherCPUSA

leadersonshakyconspiracycharges.33Hoover’sFBIalsogatheredevidenceusedtotry,

convict,andexecuteCPUSAmembersJuliusandEthelRosenberg.34In1956,afterthe

SupremeCourtcurtailedthegovernment’sabilitytoprosecutesuspectedCommunists,

Hooverlaunchedasecretcounterintelligenceprogram(COINTELPRO),designedto

covertlydestroytheCPUSA,whosemembershiphadalreadydiminishedfromanall-

timehighofover75,000atthecloseofWorldWarIItoonlyafewthousand,manyof

themFBIinformants.35Tacticsincludedmailinganonymous,inflammatorymaterials

33Ibid,192.34JuliusRosenbergledaspyringthattransferredinformationabouttheU.S.militaryandweaponstechnologytotheSovietUnion,buthewasnot,asthegovernmentclaimed,responsibleforpassingthesecretsofAmerica’snuclearbombtotheUSSRorforstartingtheKoreanWar.The2015declassificationofthe1950grandjurytestimonyofDavidGreenglass,Ellen’sbrotherandamemberofJulius’sspyringwhoworkedinLosAlamoslabs,confirmsthelong-heldsuspicionofRosenbergsupportersthatGreenglassfabricatedastoryofEthel’sinvolvementintheespionagethatthegovernmentusedinanefforttocompelJuliustoconfess.Schrecker,ManyAretheCrimes,176-178;MichaelMeeropolandRobertMeeropol,“TheMeeropolBrothers:ExonerateOurMother,EthelRosenberg,”NewYorkTimes,August10,2015.35Schrecker,ManyAretheCrimes,19-20,227.TheFBIfirstdevelopedcounterintelligencetacticsduringWorldWarIIasameanstoundermineGerman,Japanese,andSovietspiesoperatinginsidetheUnitedStates.HooverlaunchedCOINTELPROinresponsetoaSupremeCourtrulingontheSmithActof1940thatlimitedthestate’spowertoinvestigateandprosecuteindividualsdeemed“subversives.”WhiletheSmithActmadeitacrimetoadvocate“theoverthrowofanygovernmentintheUnitedStatesbyforceofviolence,”theCourt’snewinterpretationpronouncedthatpromotionofideasalonewasnotpunishable.TheDirectorcontinuedtoemphasizetheCPUSA’ssupposedthreattoU.S.internalsecuritytoAmericanofficialsaftertheruling,despitetheParty’sgreatlydiminishedstatureandhisknowledgethattheSovietUnionhadceasedusingtheorganizationforespionagesinceNikitaKhrushevreplacedJosephStalinasthecountry’sleaderin1953,inpart,asanefforttosecureCongressionalappropriations.HoovergainedPresidentDwightEisenhower’sapprovalforacovertefforttodefeattheCPUSAduringaMarch8,1956NationalSecurityCouncilmeeting.Duringtheearly1960s,theFBIinitiatedtwomoreCOINTELPROstargetingleftistmovementsdeemed“subversive”threatstoU.S.nationalsecurity:theSocialistWorkersPartyandthePuertoRicanindependencemovement.FormoreonCOINTELPRO-CPUSA,seeJamesDavis,SpyingonAmerica,31-32.OntheFBI’sdevelopmentofCOINTELPROoperationsagainstAxisandSovietspies,seeRaymondJ.Batvinis,Hoover’sSecretWaragainstAxisSpies:FBICounterespionageduringWorldWarII(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2014),andTheOriginsofFBICounterintelligence(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2007).OntheFBI’scounterintelligenceprogramagainsttheSocialistWorkersParty(SWP),seeNelsonBlackstock,COINTELPRO:TheFBI’sSecretWaronPoliticalFreedom,2nded.(NewYork:PathfinderPress,1988).MoreresearchisneededontheFBI’s1960sCOINTELPROagainst“GroupsSeekingIndependenceforPuertoRico,”whichwasnotcoveredintheChurchCommitteereportsbecausetheFBIdidnotmaketheprogram’sexistenceknowntothepublicuntilaftertheCommittee’shearings.DeclassifieddocumentsfromthisoperationavailableintheFBI’sonlinearchivesuggestthattheprogram’spurportedmissionshiftedoverthecourseofthe1960sfrom

55

intendedtosowdistrustanddiscordwithintheParty;providingtrueorfalsified

derogatoryinformationabouttheorganizationtothenewsmedia;informinglocal

policeaboutmembers’criminalorcivilviolations;andnotifyingemployersof

individuals’membershipinthegroup.36By1971,theFBIhadcarriedout1,388

separateCOINTELPROoperationsagainsttheCPUSA.37

DuringtheJohnsonyears,twochangesintheFBI’soperationsagainsttheU.S.

leftsetthestagefortheBureau’sNixon-erawarwithleftistguerrillas.First,amidthe

declineoftheCPUSAandthegrowingproblemofurbanriots,theFBI’sDomestic

SecurityDivisionincreasinglyshifteditsinvestigativeprioritiesfrompreventing

Communist“subversion”topreventingviolent“civildisorder.”Between1964and1967,

urbanriotspromptedaseverecrisisforthePresidentJohnson,whorepeatedly

imploredHoovertoinvestigateandcontainviolentcivildisturbances.Inresponse,the

FBIexpandeditssurveillanceofAfricanAmericancommunitiesinhopesofdetecting

urbanriotsinadvance.TheBureauinitiallyfocuseditseffortsonblackactivists,tapping

thephonesofprominentBlackNationalistleadersMalcolmX,ElijahMuhammad,and

MaxwellStanfordbetween1964and1966,andmaintainingsurveillancenoteson

thousandsofcivilrightsdemonstrations.38AftertheNewarkandDetroitriotsof1967,

however,theFBIwidenedsurveillancebeyondblackradicalstoentireAfrican

Americancommunities.Throughthe“GhettoInformantProgram,”thousandsof

informantsprovidedFBIagentswithinformationusedtogaugethepotentialforviolentoneofcountering“subversion”topreventingrevolutionaryanticolonialviolence.SeeFBIVaultonlinearchive,COINTELPROPuertoRicanGroupsFiles,https://vault.fbi.gov/cointel-pro/puerto-rican-groups(accessedJune1,2016).36Davis,SpyingonAmerica,33-34.37JamesKirkpatrickDavis,AssaultontheLeft:TheFBIandtheSixtiesAntiwarMovement(Westport,CT:Praeger,1997),6.38ChurchCommittee,BookIII,319and476.

56

civildisturbance.39Undertherubricofviolenceprevention,theFBIalsoexpanded

surveillanceoftheantiwarmovement.In1966,hopingtogainforeknowledgeof

“potentialitiesforviolenceoutbreaks,”Hooverorderedhisagentstodevelop

“awarenessandalertness”ofantiwardemonstrations,thoughheprovidednospecific

evidenceofimpendingviolence.40“Iwanttostresstoyou,”hewrote,“thattheemphasis

inthesemattersmustbeonadvancedetection…Weareanintelligenceagencyandas

suchareexpectedtoknowwhatisgoingtoorislikelytohappen.National,state,and

localauthoritiesrelyuponustoobtainthisinformationsotheycantakeappropriate

actiontoavertdisastrousoutbreaks.”41Forthemostpart,however,theFBI’s

surveillanceoperationswereunsuccessfulinpreventingtheriots,streetprotests,and

otherdisruptivesocialconflictthatrattledAmericansocietyduringthe1960s.

WhileHooverexpandedtheFBI’ssurveillanceofAfricanAmericansandantiwar

protestersduringtheJohnsonyears,theDirectoralsoreignedintheBureau’suseof

illegalsurveillancetechniques.Throughouthisfour-decadecareerasDirector,Hoover

hadcarefullycraftedtheFBI’spublicimageastrustedcrime-fightersanddefendersof

nationalsecurity,knowingthatthisperceptionplayedakeyroleinenablingtheBureau

tomaintainpowerfulinstitutionalautonomyfromCongressandtheWhiteHouse.But

duringthemid-1960s,dissidentactivistsandpoliticiansbegantochallengeU.S.

intelligenceagencies’authority.ThismadeHoovernervous.ASenatesubcommittee’s

investigationofIRSsurveillancein1965and1966,forexample,causedHooverto

worrythatlegislatorswouldlaunchasimilarinvestigationofFBIpractices,andfrom

39Ibid,253-255;O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”267-268.40ChurchCommittee,BookIII,49041Ibid,491.Emphasisinoriginal.

57

1965to1967AttorneysGeneralNicholasKatzenbachandRamseyClarkimplemented

formalrestrictionsontheBureau’swiretappingandmicrophonesurveillancepowers.42

Hooveralsoturnedseventyin1965,theFBI’smandatoryretirementage,butPresident

JohnsonpassedanexecutiveorderallowinghimtostayonasDirector.43Inaneffortto

safeguardtheFBI’sinstitutionalautonomygrowingpoliticaldissentandpublicscrutiny

ofhisage,between1965and1967HooverrestrictedtheBureau’suseofbreak-ins,

mail-opening,warrantlesswiretapping,andteenagedinformants.44After1965,theFBI

alsocutbackitssurveillanceandcounterintelligenceoperationsagainstMartinLuther

Kingandothercivilrightsleaders,whomtheBureauhadtargetedinconjunctionwith

itswaronCommunists.45

HooverdidnotrestrictalloftheFBI’sillegaloperationsduringtheJohnson

administration,however.IneffortstomeettheJohnsonadministration’srepeated

demandsthattheFBIpreventviolence,theDirectorestablishednewtop-secret

counterintelligenceprograms.Thefirstone,code-namedCOINTELPRO-WhiteHate

Groups,targetedviolentrightwingorganizations,particularlytheKuKluxKlan.For

decadesHooverhadtacitlysupportedKlanviolence.Aconservativesupporterof“states

rights”whohadcomeofageasawhitemaninsegregatedWashingtonD.C.,Hoover

consideringtheKlanaproblemtobesolvedbylocalauthorities—theverysame

SouthernwhiteleaderswhomaintainedtheracistJimCrowregimewiththeaidofthe

vigilanteorganization’sviolence.WhentheJune1964disappearanceofthreeyoung

42Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,17.43AccordingtooneofHoover’sbiographers,JohnsondidthisbecauseHooverhadingratiatedhimselftothepresidentafterJohnF.Kennedy’sdeath,andLBJsoughttheFBIDirector’sallianceinapowerstrugglewithAttorneyGeneralRobertF.Kennedy.SeePowers,SecrecyandPower,392.44Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,18.45ChurchCommittee,BookIII,180.

58

civilrightsworkersinNeshobaCounty,Mississippipromptedinternationaloutcry,

however,JohnsondemandedthatHoovertakeswiftactiontotakedowntheKlan.

Floodingtheorganizationwithpaidinformants,andutilizingcoverttacticssimilarto

thoseemployedagainsttheCommunistParty,theFBIsucceededwithinfiveyearsin

destroyingtheKuKluxKlanasafunctionalnationalorganization.46

TowardstheendofJohnson’sterm,Hooverestablishedcounterintelligence

programstargetingtheBlackPowerandstudentantiwarmovements.Thoughmore

researchontheseprogramsisneeded,criticalreviewofkeydocumentsrevealsthatthe

DirectorestablishedbothoftheseCOINTELPROsinresponsetoviolentcivildisorder,a

problemJohnsonimploredHoovertocrackdownonthroughouthispresidency.After

theNewarkandDetroitriotsof1967,theFBIestablishedCOINTELPRO-Black

Nationalist-HateGroups,designedto“toexpose,disrupt,misdirect,discredit,or

otherwiseneutralize”BlackfreedomorganizationswhoallegedlythreatenedAmerica’s

“internalsecurity”duetotheir“propensityforviolenceandcivildisorder.”47The

foundingmemoforCOINTELPRO-BNHGinaccuratelycharacterizedawidespectrumof

AfricanAmericangroupsas“blacknationalist,hate-typeorganizations,”including

MartinLutherKingJr.’snonviolentSouthernChristianLeadershipConference(SCLC),

ElijahMuhammad’sseparatistNationofIslam(NOI),andanumberofgroups

advocatingphilosophiesofBlackPowerandarmedself-defense:theStudentNonviolent

CoordinatingCommittee(SNCC),CongressforRacialEquality(CORE),Revolutionary

ActionMovement(RAM),andDeaconsforDefenseandJustice.PriortoNixon’selection,

46O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”199,225-226.47FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,“CounterintelligenceProgram,BlackNationalist–HateGroups,InternalSecurity,”August25,1967,1-2,FBIVaultonlinearchive,COINTELPRO-BlackExtremistFiles(hereafterCOINTELPRO-BlackExtremist),Section1.

59

however,theprogramfocusedprimarilyonSNCC,whoseleadersStokelyCarmichael

andH.RapBrownhadbecometheBlackPowermovement’smostvisiblespokesmen

andcriticsofnonviolence.48ViolencepreventionalsoinformedtheFBI’sCOINTELPRO

againstSDSandthestudentantiwarmovement.HooverauthorizedCOINTELPRO-New

LeftinApril1968,afteradisruptiveweeklongstudentstrikeatColumbiaUniversity

gainedinternationalmediacoverage,includingimagesofuniversityadministrators’

officesransackedbystudentprotesters.OfficialsintheFBI’sDomesticSecurityDivision

explainedthattheobjectiveofthenewCOINTELPROwasto“expose,disrupt,or

otherwiseneutralize”thevaguelydefined“NewLeft.”TheprogramfocusedonSDS,

seekingtopreventitsmembersfromengagingin“violentandillegalactivities,”though

agentswereconcernedaboutthegroup’s“subversive”potentialaswell.49Inthecases

ofbothCOINTELPRO-BNHGandCOINTELPRO-NewLeft,theFBIsoughttoprevent

disruptivecivildisturbancesby“neutralizing”leftistradicalsandorganizationswhose

memberspromotedmilitantprotesttacticsandviolentrevolution.

Thoughofficials’biasesalonedonotexplaintheFBI’sdomesticsecurity

operationsduringtheNixonadministration,theBureau’swarontheBlackPower

movementandstudentNewLeftwascertainlypolitical.TheFBItargetedinsurgent

violencewhileoverlookingorevenencouragingstateviolence.Inboththe1967riots

andthe1968ColumbiaUniversitystudentstrike,forexample,policeengagedinfar

moreviolencethandidprotesters;duringtheDetroitriots,policeandNational

48FormoreontheFBI’sCOINTELPROoperationsagainstSNCC,seeClayborneCarson,“WhiteRepression,”Chapter16inInStruggle.49FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,“CounterintelligenceProgram,InternalSecurity,DisruptionoftheNewLeft,”May9,1968;FBImemo,DirectortoSACAlbany,“CounterintelligenceProgram,InternalSecurity,DisruptionoftheNewLeft,”May10,1968,FBICOINTELPRO-NewLeftFiles,Headquartersfile,Number1,FBIVaultonlinearchive.

60

Guardsmenwereresponsibleforthedeathsofatleasttwenty-sevenpeople(mostof

themAfricanAmerican),andinNewYorkpolicebrutallybeatstudentoccupierswhile

clearingoutColumbia’sadministrativebuildings.50Yetthroughoutthe1960s,indeed,

throughouthisforty-eight-yearcareerasFBIDirector,Hooverdisregardedtheproblem

ofpoliceviolence,dismissingAfricanAmericans’andstudentprotesters’complaintsof

policebrutalityas“wildcharges”or“falseallegations”lodgedtojustifyviolentcriminal

activity.51AfricanAmericanChicagopolicemanHowardSaffoldobservedthatHoover’s

stancecommunicatedtolocalpolicethat“itwasopenseason”;officerswouldnot“have

toworryaboutthelaw”wheninflictingviolenceuponblacksandpoliticalradicals.52

And,ofcourse,theFBIdidnothingtoprosecuteAmericanleaderswhoviolated

internationallawbywagingawarofaggressioninVietnam.Onthecontrary,FBI

officialssawSDS’sattemptstodisrupttheU.S.wareffortasoneofthereasonsthe

organizationneededtobe“neutralized.”53TheFBIhelpedupholdaconsensusamong

America’spoliticalleadershipandmuchofitspopulation,whointhewordsofwar

correspondentGloriaEmerson,perceivedU.S.stateviolenceinVietnamas“normal—

warnormal.”54

Nixon,meanwhile,didnotunderstandthescopeoftheFBI’ssecretdomestic

securityoperations.ThenewpresidentknewofHoover’slongstandingcommitmentto

fightingCommunist“subversion.”Indeed,Nixonhadfirstrisentonationalprominence

50OntheDetroitviolence,seeKernerReport,107.OnthepoliceattacksonColumbia’sstudentsprotesters,seeDavis,AssaultontheLeft,41.51NewYorkTimes,“TextofF.B.I.ReporttoPresidentonSummerRiotsin9CitiesOverCountry,”September27,1964,82;ChurchCommittee,BookIII,25.52HowardSaffoldquotedinANationofLaw?1968-1971:EyesonthePrize,America’sCivilRightsMovement1954-1985,directedbyHenryHampton,FilmsMediaGroup,1994.53FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,May9,1968.54Emerson,Winners&Losers,314.

61

in1948,withtheFBIDirector’sassistance,byleadingtheHouseUn-AmericanActivities

Committee’sinvestigationofaccusedSovietspyAlgerHiss.Nixonwasalsowellaware

oftheincrediblepowerHooverwieldedasgatekeeperoftheFBI’svastcatalogof

informationonthousandsofAmericans,includingthepersonalsecretsofU.S.political

leaders.ShortlybeforeNixontookoffice,outgoingPresidentJohnsonadvisedhimthat

Hooverwas“apillarofstrengthinacityofweakmen.”“Youwillrelyonhimtimeand

timeagaintomaintainsecurity,”Johnsonsaid;“He’stheonlyoneyoucanputyour

completetrustin.”55ButNixonwasnotprivytothechangesHooverhadimplemented

duringtheJohnsonadministration,changesthatevenLBJdidnotcompletely

comprehend—theexpansionofdomesticsecurityprioritiestoincludeviolence

preventioninadditiontocountersubversion,therestrictionsonillegalsurveillance

practices,andthesecretcounterintelligenceprogramsagainsttheBlackPower

movementandNewLeft.Upontakingoffice,PresidentNixonexpectedhisoldfriend

Hoovertofaithfullyexecutehisadministration’sdomesticsecurityagenda.The

Director,however,wasdeterminedtodothingshisownway,balancingthePresident’s

demandswithhispersonaleffortstosafeguardtheFBI’simage,autonomy,and

historicallegacy.

OneofNixon’sconcerns,informedbyhisanticommunistparanoia,wasthat

foreignCommunistregimesliketheUSSR,China,andCubaweresecretlycallingthe

shotsbehindthescenesoftheUnitedStates’BlackPowerandantiwarmovements.He

inheritedseveralsurveillance-reportingprogramsdesignedtoinformhimofsuch

activity.TheFBI,forexample,issuedregularreportstotheWhiteHouseonthe

55JohnsonquotedinNixon,RN,358.

62

activitiesofdissidentpoliticalorganizationsandleaders,andonCongressmembers’

andcongressionalstaffers’contactswithforeignembassies.TheInternalRevenue

Service(IRS)alsoprovidedreportsontaxinvestigationsofselectAmericanactivists,

whiletheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)reportedonantiwarandcivilrights

activists’foreigncontacts,andtheNationalSecurityAgencyprovidedinformation

gleanedfromdomesticdissidents’internationaltelecommunications.56ThePresident

andhisstaffwerenotsatisfiedwiththequalityofthissurveillance,however.Nixon’s

counselJohnEhrlichmanwasespeciallydissatisfiedwiththeFBI’ssurveillancereports.

“IngeneraltheFBIinvestigativeworkIsawwasofpoorquality,”hecomplained.57

Indeed,whileNixonwasalongtimefriendofHooverfromtheirtimeworkingtogether

ontheHisscase,andfeltcompelledtokeephimemployedasFBIDirector,Ehrlichman

andotherCabinetmembersresentedtheagingbureaucrat’spowerandpolitical

autonomy,andwishedtoseehimreplaced.58Nonetheless,inApril1969,atNixon’s

request,EhrlichmanorderedtheFBIandotherU.S.intelligenceagenciestoproduce

evidencetyingdomesticdissidentstoforeignCommunistgovernments.59

Nixon’sJusticeDepartment,likeJohnson’s,alsopressuredHoover’sFBIto

thwartinsurgentviolencethroughtheuseofpreventativeintelligence.Immediately

upontakingoffice,AttorneyGeneralMitchellstrengthenedtheDepartment’s

InterdivisionalInformationUnit(IDIU),whichAttorneyGeneralClarkhadestablished

inordertocoordinateintelligencefromtheFBIandotheragencieswiththeaimof

56Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,15.57JohnEhrlichman,WitnesstoPower:TheNixonYears(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1982),159.58Powers,SecrecyandPower,443.59Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,16.

63

obtainingadvancewarningofurbanriots.60Mitchellexpandedtheunit’smissionto

encompassforecastingcampusantiwardemonstrations.WritingonbehalfoftheIDIU,

AssistantAttorneyGeneralJ.WalterYeagleyinstructedHooveronFebruary18,1969

“todeterminewhetherthereisanyunderlyingsubversivegroupgivingillegal

directionsandguidancetothenumerouscampusdisordersthroughoutthecountry.”A

fewweekslater,onMarch3,YeagleyaskedtheFBItofurnish“thenamesofany

individualswhoappearatmorethanonecampuseitherbefore,during,orafterany

activedisorderorriotandtheidentitiesofthosepersonsfromoutsidethecampuswho

mightbeinstigatorsoftheseincidents.”61

Inaddition,NixonenlistedtheFBI’sassistanceininvestigatingaseriesofleaks

thatexposedhisadministration’ssecretwareffortsinIndochina.OnMay9,1969,the

NewYorkTimespublishedafront-pagestoryannouncingthattheUnitedStateshad

secretlyexpandeditsaerialbombingeffortsfromVietnamtoCambodia,amovethat

directlycontradictedNixon’scampaignpromisetoendthewarinIndochina.Thearticle

claimeditsinformationcamefromanonymous“NixonAdministrationsources.”62This

wasthemostseriousofthemorethanadozenleaksNixonfacedduringhisfirstyearin

office.63AttherequestsofSecretaryofStateHenryKissinger,AttorneyGeneralMitchell,

andWhiteHouseChiefofStaffH.R.Haldeman,theFBIsubsequentlyestablished

seventeenwarrantlesswiretapsinhopesoffindingtheleakers,targetingthephonesof

60ChurchCommitteeReport,BookIII,495-500.61Ibid,508.62WilliamBeecher,“RaidsinCambodiabyU.S.Unprotested,”NewYorkTimes,May9,1969.SecretaryofStateHenryKissingerwasthemainNixonofficialtodemandHoovertakeactiontofindtheleaker.SeeGentry,J.EdgarHoover,632-637.63Nixonclaimedinhismemoirsthathisadministrationfacedtwenty-oneseriousleaksduringhisfirstfivemonthsinoffice,andatotalofforty-fiveduringhisfirstterm.Nixon,RN,386.FormoreonNixon’sresponsetoleaksseeGentry,J.EdgarHoover,632-638;Powers,SecrecyandPower,444-448;andTheoharis,SpyingonAmericans,191-194.

64

NationalSecurityCouncilstaffers,newsjournalists,andpersonnelintheWhiteHouse,

DepartmentofDefense,StateDepartment,andJusticeDepartment.64Theseillegal

wiretapswouldlaterbecomeknownasthe“Kissingerwiretaps”aftertheirexistence

becameknownduringtheWatergatehearings.

Hoover,however,didnotpassivelycomplywiththeNixonadministration’s

requestsforexpandeddomesticsurveillance.AlthoughheagreedwithNixonthat

revolutionarybombings,disruptiveprotests,andleaksofclassifiedstatesecretsposed

seriousthreatstotheUnitedStates’nationalsecurity,Hooverremainedreluctantto

authorizeillegalFBIoperations.Theseventy-four-year-oldlongtimeFBIDirector

continuedtoworrythatamidtheUnitedStates’tumultuouspoliticalclimate,public

discoveryofFBIinvolvementinsuchtacticswouldunderminetheBureau’supstanding

reputationandleadtocallsforgovernmentoversightandreform.

Accordingly,HooverresistedtheNixonadministration’sdemands,andcomplied

withsurveillancerequestsonlywhenhecouldensurethatinthecaseofpublic

exposure,theWhiteHouse,ratherthantheFBI,wouldbeheldresponsiblefor

authorizingthemeasures.Forinstance,HooverrejectedAssistantAttorneyGeneral

Yeagley’sMarch1969requestforexpandedFBIsurveillanceofAmericanuniversity

campusradicals.Thoughheinstructedhisfieldofficestomaintain“studentinformant

coverage,”Hooverinsistedthat“additionalstudentinformantscannotbedeveloped.”65

HooveralsosoughttoprotecttheFBIbyacquiringWhiteHouseapprovalforthe

seventeenKissingerwiretaps.ThoughNixonwantednowrittenrecordofthewiretaps,

Hoovermaintainedlogsofthesecretrecordings,andobtainedAttorneyGeneral64Gentry,J.EdgarHoover,637.65ChurchCommittee,BookIII,508-509.

65

Mitchell’swrittenauthorizationfortheoperations.TheDirectorkepttheserecords

hiddenoutsideoftheFBI’snormalfilingsystem,storingthemwithinthetop-secret

“OfficialandConfidential”fileshekeptinsidehispersonalinneroffice.66Meanwhile,the

FBI’sreportstotheNixonadministrationconsistentlydemonstratedthatNewLeftand

BlackPowerradicalismgrewlargelyfromdomesticconditions;therewaslittle

evidence,ifany,thatAmerica’snewgenerationofleftistswasdirectlysupportedby

foreignCommunistgovernments.67UnbeknownsttoNixon,Hooveralsocontinuedto

authorizetheFBI’sCOINTELPROsagainstthedwindlingCommunistParty,theSocialist

WorkersParty,theKuKluxKlan,theBlackPowermovement,andtheNewLeft.Hoover

wasseriousaboutdefendingthenation’sstatusquofromforeignanddomestic

revolutionarymovements,evenifthethreatsposedbysuchmovementswereremote

andtheFBI’sactionsviolatedlaw-abidingAmericans’civilliberties.Buthewas

determinedtogoaboutthisonhisownterms,regardlessofwhowasincontrolofthe

WhiteHouse.

“CultoftheGun”

WhileRichardNixonandFBIofficialsworriedaboutthegrowingrateofrevolutionary

bombings,AmericanleftistsfearedtheriseofNixon.Mostleftistscorrectlyrecognized

Nixon’spledgetoachievean“honorablevictory”inVietnamthroughanunspecified

“secretplan”toendthewarasasubterfugedesignedtoconcealhisplansforan

66Gentry,J.EdgarHoover,636.67Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,16.

66

escalationinU.S.hostilities.68Moreover,tomanyontheU.S.left,Nixon’selectionona

“law-and-order”platform—onethatscapegoatedrioters,protesters,andpolitical

radicalsasthemainsourceofthecountry’sproblems—portendedtheriseoffascismin

theUnitedStates.Thisanalysiswasnotaccurate.ItistruethatNixonescalatedthewar,

thatpoliceviolencecontinuedunabated,andthatleftistmovementshadyettochange

theseproblems.ButtheUnitedStateswasnotadictatorship.Nonetheless,withoptions

forachievingsocialchangethroughthenormalchannelsoftheU.S.politicalsystem

seemingincreasinglylimited,someAmericanradicalslookedtoimportrevolutionary

guerrillawarstrategiesfromAsia,Africa,andLatinAmerica.Themostvocal

proponentsofguerrillawarfarecamefromtheranksoftheBlackPantherPartyand

SDS.InfluentialfactionswithineachorganizationembracedChéGuevara’sfocotheory

ofguerrillawarfareasastrategyforachievingsocialistrevolutionintheUnitedStates.

Ultra-leftists’increasingmilitancy,inturn,enflamedtensionwithpoliceandheightened

factionalismwithintheleft,whichtheFBIeagerlysoughttoexacerbatethroughits

counterintelligenceprograms.

InsurgentviolencewasnothingnewtoU.S.history.FromIndianwarsandslave

revoltssincetheseventeenthcenturytoanarchistbombingsandotherformsoflabor

revoltduringtheGildedAgeandProgressiveEra,America’soppressedhadperiodically

takenuparmstoresistcolonialism,slavery,economicexploitation,andotherformsof

violencesanctionedorcarriedoutbythestate.AfterWorldWarII,however,worldwide

anticolonialmovementsinspiredanewformofinsurgentviolenceintheUnitedStates,

asrevolutionaryregimesincountriessuchasChina,Cuba,Algeria,andTanzania68KenHughes,ChasingShadows:TheNixonTapes,theChennaultAffair,andtheOriginsofWatergate(Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginiaPress,2014).

67

endeavoredtobuildsocialistsocieties,andasarmednationalliberationstruggles

againstU.S.-backeddictatorshipsandalliedEuropeancolonialpowersraged

throughoutAfrica,LatinAmerica,andSoutheastAsia.Inthiscontext,ahandfulof

influentialAfricanAmericanleadersbegantoquestionthecivilrightsmovement’s

strategyofnonviolentdirectactionandpromoterevolutionaryguerrillawarfareinthe

UnitedStates.AfricanAmericanandThirdWorldrevolutionaries’ideasonguerrilla

warfare,developedamidsttheglobaluprisingsofthemid-1960s,wouldlaterinform

militantBlackPantherandSDSresponsestotheNixonadministration.

Theblackfreedomstruggle’smostvisiblecriticofnonviolencewasMalcolmX.

BorninMalcolmLittleinOmaha,Nebraskain1925,MalcolmXgainedprominence

duringthelate1950sandearly1960sasaspokespersonfortheNationofIslam(NOI),

theblackseparatistreligioussectledbyElijahMuhammad.In1964,amidafalloutwith

MuhammadandhisgrowinginterestinBlackNationalismandPan-Africansocialism,

MalcolmXpartedNOItofoundtheOrganizationforAfro-AmericanUnity.69MalcolmX

spokebeforeaudiencesthroughouttheUnitedStates,critiquingnonviolenceonboth

moralandpracticalgrounds.HeaffirmedAfricanAmericans’righttoself-defense,

callinguponblackstoformrifleclubstoprotectthemselvesfromracistwhite

vigilantes,whileprescientlywarningthatgrowingnumbersofblackyouthwould

embracearmedrevoltifdeniedtheopportunitytogainself-determinationfortheir

69OthersintheAfricanAmericanfreedomstrugglequestionednonviolenceearlier.ManySouthernblackactivists,forexample,adoptednonviolencereluctantly,afteragreatdealofpersuasionfrommovementleaderslikeBayardRustinandDr.MartinLutherKingJr.Mostembracednonviolencenotoutofacommitmenttopacifism,butbecauseoftheirbeliefinitsstrategicvalueinthestruggletooverturnSouthernstates’racistJimCrowregimes.Moreover,theSoutherncivilrightsmovementwasnotasnonviolentasittypicallyappearedinthemedia.Throughoutthelate1950sandearly1960s,groupsofarmedAfricanAmericansprovidedsecurityfornonviolentactivistsinavarietyofsettings,insomecasesexchangingfirewithwhiteracistvigilantes.SeeAkinyeleO.Umoja,WeWillShootBack:ArmedResistanceintheMississippiFreedomMovement(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2013).

68

communitiesthroughtheelectoralprocess.“Justasguerrillawarfareisprevailingin

AsiaandinpartsofAfricaandinpartsofLatinAmerica,”hedeclaredbeforeaCleveland

audienceonApril3,1964,“you’vegottobemightynaïve,oryou’vegottoplaytheblack

mancheap,ifyoudon’tthinkthatsomedayhe’sgoingtowakeupandfindthatit’sgot

tobetheballotorthebullet.”70MalcolmXagainpredictedthecomingofguerrilla

warfaretoAmericasixdayslaterinNewYork.Referringtoarecentincidentinwhich

blackyouthinJacksonville,Floridafoughtpolicewithhomemadegasolinebombs,

MalcolmXobserved,“There’sanewstrategycomingin.It’llbeMolotovcocktailsthis

month,handgrenadesnextmonth,andsomethingelsethenextmonth.”71“Youshould

notfeelthatIamincitingsomeonetoviolence,”heexplained.“I’monlywarningofa

powderkegsituation.”72

WhileMalcolmXprophesizedaboutguerrillawarfare,alesser-knownmilitant

namedRobertF.WilliamsdirectlycalleduponAfricanAmericanstoadoptthetactic.As

leaderoftheMonroe,NorthCarolinachapteroftheNationalAssociationforthe

AdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),Williamsgainedinternationalnotorietyasan

advocateforarmedself-defenseafterhisgroupemployedgunfiretofendoffanattack

bylocalKlansmeninOctober1957.73Later,asapoliticalexileinCubaandChina,where

hefledtoescapeanFBImanhuntpredicateduponfalsekidnappingcharges,Williams

gainedattentionasanapostleofarmedrevolution.Inthespring1964issueofhis

newsletter,TheCrusader,Williamspublishedanarticleentitled“TheUSA:ThePotential70MalcolmX,“TheBallotortheBullet,”inMalcolmXSpeaks:SelectedSpeechesandStatements,editedbyGeorgeBreitman(NewYork:GrovePress,1966),38.AlsoseeManningMarable,MalcolmX:ALifeofReinvention(NewYork:Viking,2011).71MalcolmX,“TheBlackRevolution,”inMalcolmXSpeaks,49.72Ibid.73TimothyB.Tyson,RadioFreeDixie:RobertF.WilliamsandtheRootsofBlackPower(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1999),88-89.

69

ofaMinorityRevolution,”inwhichheinsistedthatnonviolencewasineffective,and

assertedthatblackAmericans“mustpreparetowageanurbanguerrillawarofself-

defense.”74Hecalledupon“Afroamericanfreedomfighters”tolearntheartofbuilding

Molotovcocktails,homemadeacidbombs,andboobytrapsforuseagainstracist

police,”andtoclandestinelypurchase“handgrenades,bazookas,lightmortars,rocket

launchers,machinegunsandammunition”fromAmericanservicemen.75

Williams’outlookdifferedfromthatofMalcolmX,whopriortohisdeathatthe

handsofNOIgunmenonFebruary21,1965,maintainedopennesstothepossibilitythat

AfricanAmericanscouldgainself-determinationfortheircommunitiesbyvotingblack

politicalleadersintooffice.76ChasedintoexilebytheKuKluxKlan,NorthCarolina

police,andtheFBI,WilliamsbelievedthatAmerica’sracistwhiteswererespondingto

thecivilrightsmovementwithanorganizedefforttophysicallyexterminateblack

people.“Thefascistelementsarearming,”heargued,“nottoliberateourbrutally

oppressedpeople,buttoliquidateus.”77InWilliams’view,theriseofAmericanfascism

precludedthepossibilityofAfricanAmericanelectoralorganizingandnecessitated

guerrillawarfare.“Whatisintegration,”heasked,“whenthelawsaysyesandthepolice

andhowlingmobsayno?Ouronlylogicalandsuccessfulansweristomeetorganized

andmassiveviolencewithorganizedandmassiveviolence.”78Williamsarguedthat

74RobertF.Williams,“USA:ThePossibilityofaMinorityRevolution,”TheCrusader5,no.4(May-June1964),FreedomArchivesOnlineDatabase,6.75Ibid.76Marable,MalcolmX,303.77Williams,“USA:ThePossibilityofaMinorityRevolution,”5.78Ibid,5-6.

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AfricanAmericanguerrillaviolencewasaformofself-defensebecauseitsaimwasto

eliminate“thesourceofevilandterror.”79

Duringthemiddleandlate1960sseveralAfricanAmericanpolitical

organizationsinspiredbyMalcolmXandRobertF.Williamssoughttochannelurban

blackrageintoanationalmovement.Theseincludedthesemi-clandestine

RevolutionaryActionMovement(RAM)andSNCC,whoseleadersStokelyCarmichael

andH.RapBrownbecameoutspokencriticsofnonviolenceandadvocatesofBlack

Poweratthesametimethattheirorganizationbegantocrumbleamidstinternal

conflict.80BythetimeNixonwontheNovember1968presidentialelection,however,

leadersoftheBlackPantherPartyhadbecomethemostvisibleAfricanAmerican

proponentsofrevolutionaryguerrillawarfareintheUnitedStates.

MerrittCollegestudentsHueyP.NewtonandBobbySealefoundedtheBlack

PantherPartyinOaklandin1966.Frustratedwithpervasivepolicebrutalityintheir

community,Newton,Seale,andtheirrecruitsdedicatedmuchoftheirinitialenergy

towardspatrollingtheOaklandpolice.WhenpolicestoppedAfricanAmerican

motorists,BlackPantherswouldemergeonthescenedisplayingloadedgunsandlaw

books,statingtheirintenttolawfullyobservepolicebehaviorandensurethatthe

officerswerenotviolatingtherightsofcommunitymembers.81NewtonandSealealso

draftedthegroup’sinfluential“TenPointProgram,”anideologicalhybridofBlack

Nationalism,ThirdWorldMarxism,andsocialdemocraticliberalismthatcalledforfull

employment,publichousing,culturallyrelevanteducation,reparations,anendtopolice

79Ibid,6.80AkbarMuhammadAhmad,“RAM:TheRevolutionaryActionMovement,”inBlackPowerintheBellyoftheBeast,editedbyJudsonL.Jeffries(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2006);Carson,InStruggle.81BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,42-50.

71

brutality,freedomforblackprisoners,andblackmen’sexemptionfromU.S.military

service.82TheBlackPanthersbecameanationalsensationafterstagingadramatic

armedprotestatCalifornia’sStateHouse.OnMay21967,thirtyBlackPanthers,armed

withriflesanddeckedoutinblackberetsandleatherjackets,stormedthestatecapitol

toprotesttheMulfordAct,anewguncontrolbilloutlawingpublicdisplayoffirearms

thatlawmakershadintentionallydraftedtooutlawthePanthers’policepatrols.Asthe

Panthershoped,thespecterofyoungblackmenwithgunsattractedwidespread

televisioncoverageandinterestintheirorganization.83

TheBlackPanthers’confrontationswithpoliceenteredanewphaseafter

October27,1967,whenOaklandpolicearrestedHueyNewtonatatrafficstopfollowing

ashootoutthatleftOfficerJohnFreydeadandNewtonandanotherofficerwounded.

ThearrestturnedNewtonintoaleftistcausecélèbre,asmassmediaattentiononhis

caseandeffortstobattlemurderchargesandthedeathpenaltybuoyednational

interestinthePanthers.84Newton’simprisonmentalsocreatedanopeninginthe

Party’sleadership,intowhichsteppedEldridgeCleaver.Anex-convictintheCalifornia

prisonsystemwhosebestsellingmemoirSoulonIce(1968)becamenotoriousforits

assertionthatrapingwhitewomenwasan“insurrectionaryact,”Cleaverhadgained

prominenceinBayArearadicalcirclesaftertakingapositionasawriterforRamparts,a

82TheProgram’stenthpointcalledfor“aUnitedNations-supervisedplebiscitetobeheldthroughouttheblackcolony[meaningAfricanAmericancommunities]inwhichonlyblackcolonialsubjectswillbeallowedtoparticipate,forthepurposeofdeterminingthewilloftheblackpeopleastotheirnationaldestiny.TheBlackPantherPartyforSelf-Defense,“TheTen-PointProgram:WhatWeWant/WhatWeBelive,”October1966,inTheMovementsoftheNewLeft1950-1975:ABriefHistorywithDocuments,editedbyVanGosse(NewYork:Bedford/St.Martins,2005),103-106.83BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,61-62;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,xviii.84BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,99-114;Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,116-133.

72

magazinepublishedbywhiteNewLeftists.85AstheBlackPanthers’Ministerof

Communication,CleavereditedandexpandedproductionoftheBlackPanther

newspaperandledthe“FreeHuey”campaign.Healsobecamewellknownforhisvocal

callsforurbanguerrillawarfare,assassinationofpoliceofficers,andotherviolence,

threateningtoburndowntheWhiteHouseononeoccasionandtobeatGovernor

RonaldReagan(“thepunk”)todeathwithamarshmallowonanother.86

MilitantrhetoricwasnotconfinedtoCleaver.ApopularPantherslogan,often

chantedasmembersofthegroupmarchedinmilitaryformation,wasacall-and-

response:“Revolutionhascome!Offthepigs!Timetopickupthegun!Offthepigs!”In

Sixtiesstreetslang,“off”meantkilland“pigs”referredtothepoliceandanyonewhom

ultra-leftmilitantsbelievedtobecollaboratingwiththem.87HueyNewtonhad

intentionallydirectedthePantherstousetheterm“pigs”inorderto“stigmatize”police,

givingthema“labelotherthanthatfearimagetheycarriedinthe[black]community.”88

Meanwhile,theweeklyBlackPanthernewspaperregularlypublishedillustrationsof

youngblacksposingwithgunsorusingvariousweaponstokillpoliceofficers

portrayedaspigs.Thepaper’sheadlinesandgraphicsincitedviolentretaliationfor

policeattacksagainstPanthersandAfricanAmericancommunities:“FreeHueyorthe

Sky’stheLimit”;“BlowOinkOinkAway”;“SnipetheHogs.”89

85EldridgeCleaver,SoulonIce,3rded.(NewYork:DeltaTradePaperbacks,1999).Foraparticipant-observeraccounthighlycriticalofCleaver’sroleintheBlackPantherParty,seeEkwuemeMichaelThelwell,IntroductiontoRage,byGilbertMoore,2nded.(NewYork:CarrollandGraf,1993),xxix-xxxii.86Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,100-104;O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”295.87DanGeorgakas,“ArmedStruggle—1960sand1970s,”inEncyclopediaoftheAmericanLeft,editedbyMaryJoBuhle,PaulBuhle,andDanGoergakas(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1998),58;Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,106.88NewtonquotedinMurch,LivingfortheCity,135.89Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,103;TheBlackPantherBlackCommunityNewsService2no.6,(September14,1968),1;andno.15-17(December1968),2,FreedomArchivesdigitalarchive.

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TheBlackPanthersbroadcastviolentrevolutionaryrhetoricastheorganization

rapidlyexpanded,openingofficesinmorethanfortycitiesacrossthecountryoverthe

courseof1968and1969,whilealsoenduringinheightenedviolentconflictwithlocal

policeagencies.90PoliceintheBayArea,LosAngeles,Chicago,NewYork,andother

citiesregularlyharassedBlackPanthersandtheirsupporters,sometimesarresting

themontrumped-upcharges.ViolentconfrontationsbetweenpoliceandPanthers

during1968included:aFebruary25BerkeleypoliceraidonthehomeofBobbySeale

andhiswife;aMarchpoliceshootingthatleftBlackPantherGlenCarterdead;anApril

3policeraidonablackEpiscopalChurchinWestOaklandwhosepastorloanedthe

Panthersspaceforcommunitymeetings;anApril6shootoutataWestOaklandhouse

thatresultedinthedeathofBlackPantherBobbyHuttonandthewoundingofEldridge

Cleaverandtwoofficers;theAugust1policebeatingofNewYorkPantherGordon

Cooke;anAugust5gunfightatatrafficstopinLosAngelesthatendedwiththedeaths

ofthreePanthersandthewoundingoftwopoliceofficers;theshootingupofthe

storefrontwindowsattheOaklandPantherheadquartersbytwoon-dutycops;andthe

October15policeshootingdeathofSeattlePantherWeltonArmstead.91

ThePantherspubliclyportrayedmostoftheseincidentsasunprovokedpolice

attacks.Inmanycases,however,thePanthersantagonizedpolicewithconfrontational

rhetoricoropendisplaysoffirearms—activitiesthatwerelegal,andresponsestopast

experienceswithstateviolence,butnonethelesspromptedviolentpolicereactions.

Moreover,ashistorianJamaLazerow,haspointedout,withmanyofBPP’srecruits

90BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,2.91Murch,LivingfortheCity,160-164;BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,146,148,155;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,125.

74

drawnfromtheurbanunderclasswhomPartyleaderssoughttopoliticize,therewas

oftena“porousboundary”betweensomemembers’criminalandpoliticalactivity.92At

leastoneofthesedeadlyincidentscameaboutaresultofaPantherattemptatanti-

policeviolence.TheApril6firefightinWestOaklandthatresultedinthepolicekillingof

BobbyHuttoneruptedafterEldridgeCleaverbungledanattempttoambushagroupof

policeofficers.Byputtinghisadvocacyofguerrillawarfareintopractice,Cleaverhad

hopedtoestablishtheBlackPantherParty’spositionasthe“vanguard”ofAmerica’s

comingrevolutionamidthenationwideurbanriotsthathaderuptedfollowingMartin

LutherKing’sassassinationtwodaysearlier.93InNovember1968,Cleaverfledthe

countryafterjumpingbailonmurderchanges.HemadehiswaytoCubabefore

surfacinginAlgeriainJuly1969,wherehiswifeElaineCleaverandseveralother

PanthersjoinedhiminestablishingtheBlackPantherParty’s“InternationalSection”

headquarteredinadowntownAlgiers“PantherEmbassy”providedbythecountry’s

socialistgovernment.94

IntheyearsleadinguptoNixon’selection,alargeportionofSDShadalsocome

tophilosophicallyembracerevolutionaryguerrillawarfare.Thiswasafarcryfromthe

principlesoutlinedinthegroup’sfoundational1962PortHuronStatement.Draftedby

TomHaydenandinspiredbythenonviolentcivilrightsmovement,thePortHuron

Statementhadlaidoutanidealisticvisionfor“participatorydemocracy,”inwhich

Americansofallraceswouldcontributeequallyanddirectlyinthepoliticalprocesses

92JamaLazerow,‘‘‘ARebelAllHisLife’:TheUnexpectedStoryofFrank‘Parky’Grace,”inJamaLazerowandYohuruWilliams,InSearchoftheBlackPantherParty:NewPerspectivesonaRevolutionaryMovement(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2006),134.OntheneedforfurtherexplorationofthisconceptinBlackPantherhistoriography,seeStreet,“TheHistoriographyoftheBlackPantherParty,”371.93Murch,LivingfortheCity,163-164.94BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,314-319;Murch,LivingfortheCity,165,186.

75

thatgovernedthenationandtheireverydaylives.95Duringthemid-1960s,SDS

chaptersorganizedcivilrightscampaignsinsolidaritywithSNCCandthecivilrights

movement,aseriesofgrassrootsEconomicResearchandActionProjectsocialjustice

initiativesinMidwesterncities,andseverallargedemonstrationsagainsttheU.S.warin

Vietnam.96By1966,however,amidPresidentJohnson’sescalationofthewarand

ongoingpoliceattacksonprotesters,SDShadjoinedthelargerantiwarmovementin

moving,inorganizerGregCalvert’swords,“fromprotesttoresistance.”97Tomost

antiwaractivists,resistancemeantdraftrefusalorotherformsofnonviolentdirect

action.Butinthefallof1967,antiwarmilitantsinBerkeleyandNewYorkresisted

policebatonsandteargasgrenadeswithhelmets,shields,sticks,bottles,androcks.98

Suchtacticsexpandedduring1968,asgroupsofparticipantsintheColumbiaUniversity

studentstrike,protestsoutsideChicago’sDemocraticNationalConvention,andother

massdemonstrationsincorporatedvandalismandstreetfightingintotheirprotest

repertoires,andasSDSmembershipsurgedfromapproximatelyfivethousandin1965

intothetensofthousands.MilitantprotestsintheUnitedStateswerepartofthemuch

largerglobaluprisingof1968.Theyear’srebellionsbeganwhenVietnamese

CommunistguerrillascarriedoutadevastatingnationwidegroundattackonU.S.and

SouthVietnameseforcesduringtheJanuary“TetOffensive,”andcontinuedwithyouth-

95TomHaydenandStudentsforaDemocraticSociety,“ThePortHuronStatementofStudentsforaDemocraticSociety,”availableonlineathttp://www.h-net.org/~hst306/documents/huron.html(accessedJune1,2016).AlsoseeHowardBrickandGregoryParker,eds.,ANewInsurgency:ThePortHuronStatementanditsTimes(AnnArbor:MichiganPublishing,2015)96ThemostcomprehensivebookonSDShistoryremainsSale,SDS.97Ibid,315.AlsoseeSimonHall,PeaceandFreedom:TheCivilRightsandAntiwarMovementsinthe1960s(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2005),121.98Sale,SDS,374-379.

76

ledrevoltsonbothsidesoftheColdWar’s“IronCurtain,”fromFrance,WestGermany,

andCzechoslovakiatoMexico,China,andJapan.99

Americanleftistmilitantschampionedguerrillawarfarenotonlyinresponseto

U.S.stateviolence,butalsoaspartofaglobaltrendintherevolutionaryleft.Guerrilla

warfarebecameincreasinglypopularamongrevolutionariesthroughouttheworld

followingtheJanuary1966FirstSolidarityConferenceofthePeoplesofAfrica,Asia,

andLatinAmerica(popularlyknownastheTricontinentalConference)inHavana,

Cuba.AshistorianVijayPrashadexplained,theTricontinentalConferenceinaugurated

aperiodinwhichgrowingsectorsoftheinternationalleftembracedthe“cultofthe

gun,”revivingarmedstruggle“notonlyasatacticofanticolonialismbutsignificantlyas

astrategyinitself.”100TheTricontinentalConferencewasoneinaseriesofmeetingsof

ThirdWorldleadersconvenedinthedecadesfollowingWorldWarIIforthepurposeof

advancinganticolonialstrugglesforland,peace,andfreedomamongthepeoplesof

Asia,Africa,andLatinAmerica.EarliermeetingsoftheNon-AlignedMovementhad

emphasizedcooperativeeffortstopromotepoliticalindependenceandnonviolent

internationalrelationswithintheUnitedNations.101By1966,however,thewarin

VietnamhaddrivenanideologicalwedgeintotheThirdWorldmovement.Whilesome

leaderssoughttocontinueeffortsatbuildingUNinstitutionswhilemaintaining

peacefulco-existencewiththeU.S.anditsallies,increasingnumbersofrevolutionaries

drewinspirationfromtheVietnamesepeople’ssuccessusingguerrillawarfaretobog

99GeorgeKatsiaficas,TheImaginationoftheNewLeft:AGlobalAnalysisof1968(Boston:BeaconPress,1987).100VijayPrashad,TheDarkerNations:APeople’sHistoryoftheThirdWorld(NewYork:TheNewPress,2007),15,107.Italicsinoriginal.101Ibid,11.IreferheretotheAfro-AsianMeetingsinBandungandCairo(1955and1961)andtheNAMmeetingsinBelgradeandCairo(1961and1964).

77

downthemightyU.S.military—sinceMarch1965,theU.S.haddeployedover200,000

troopstoSouthVietnamanddroppedmillionsoftonsofbombsontheNorthandSouth,

yethadgainedneithernewterritorialcontrolnorsupportfromtheVietnamesepeople.

NguyenVanTienoftheNationalLiberationFrontofSouthVietnamandTranDanh

TuyenofthegovernmentofNorthVietnamprovidedsomeoftheTricontinental’smost

popularpresentations,whiletheconference’shostPresidentFidelCastrohailedthe

Vietnameseguerrillas’efforts.Guinea-BissauananticolonialleaderAmilcarCabralalso

extolledthenecessityofrevolutionaryviolence.“Wedonotthinkwewillshockthis

assembly,”hedeclared,“bystatingthattheonlyeffectivewayofdefinitivelyfulfilling

theaspirationsofthepeoples,thatistosayofattainingnationalliberation,isbyarmed

struggle.”102

Themostinfluentialstatementonrevolutionaryviolencetocomeoutofthe

TricontinentalwasfromArgentineheroofthe1959Cubanrevolution,ErnestoChé

Guevara.Guevaradidnotattendtheconference,buthesentalettertothedelegates

fromTanzania,wherehehadrecentlygoneintohidingafterretreatingfromafailed

missiontosparkrevolutionaryinsurgencyintheCongo.Inhis“Messagetothe

Tricontinental,”Guevaraoutlinedastrategyforglobalsocialistrevolutioncenteredon

guerrillawarfare.HearguedthatdefeatofU.S.imperialismintheThirdWorld—

manifestedinmilitaryinterventions,economicdomination,andbackingofdictators

friendlytowardsAmericanbusinessinterests—necessitatedthat“two,three,many

102Ibid,108.AmilcarCabral,“TheWeaponofTheory,”addressdeliveredtotheFirstSolidarityConferenceofthePeoplesofAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmerica,January1966,http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/weaponoftheory.html(accessedJune1,2016).CabralledthePartidoAfricanodaIndependênciadaGuinéeCaboVerde(PAIGC;AfricanPartyfortheIndependenceofGuineaandCapeVerde)initsstruggleagainstPortuguesecolonialism.

78

Vietnamsflourishthroughouttheworldwiththeirshareofdeathsandtheirimmense

tragedies,theireverydayheroismandblowsagainstimperialism,impelledtodisperse

itsforcesunderthesuddenattackandtheincreasinghatredofallthepeoplesofthe

world.”103Guevaracalleduponrevolutionariestopickupthegun,arguingthata

proliferationofarmedinsurgenciesacrossAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmericawould

overextendU.S.militarycapacities,fomentdissentandclassstrugglewithintheU.S.,

andultimatelyresultintheoverthrowofU.S.imperialismandtheliberationofThird

Worldnations.104

Whilea“people’sarmy”wasamodelofanti-imperialistresistanceinplaceslike

VietnamandthePortuguesecoloniesofAfrica,incountrieswhereamassmovement

waslessdeveloped,armedstruggle,accordingtoGuevara,couldstillplayanimportant

roleintheformofthe“foco.”FrenchMarxistRegisDebrayfurtherpopularized

Guevara’srevolutionarystrategyinhis1967book,RevolutionintheRevolution?,

publishedthesameyearthatheparticipatedinGuevara’sfailedguerrillacampaignin

Bolivia.Debray,arguedthatfocos—small,mobilecellsofdisciplinedguerrillas—could

quicklystrikeenemytargetswithspectacularattacksbeforeretreatingintohiding,and

intheprocess,recruitandtrainotherfocosthatcouldeventuallyuniteasapeople’s

armycapableofbringingaboutgeneralinsurrectionandtheultimateoverthrowof

capitalistregimes.105

103ChéGuevara,“MessagetotheTricontinental,”inChéGuevara,GuerrillaWarfare,editedbyBrianLovemanandThomasM.Davies,Jr.,3rded.(Wilmington,DE:SRBooks,1997),176.104Ibid,175-176.105RégisDebray,RevolutionintheRevolution?(NewYork:GrovePress,1967)andStrategyforRevolution:EssaysonLatinAmerica(NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,1971).

79

Amidsttheglobalanddomesticturmoilof1968,youngAmericanleftistseagerly

circulatedthewritingsofGuevaraandDebray,oftenreadingtheminconjunctionwith

MaoZedong’sLittleRedBook,FranzFanon’sWretchedoftheEarth,worksbyVladimir

LeninandKarlMarx,andRobertF.Williams’writingsonguerrillawarfare,which

prescribedaformulaforfocorevolutionintheUnitedStates.106Manualsfor

manufacturingbombsandotherhomemadeweaponsalsomadetheroundsthrough

leftistcircles—titlesincludedtheEnglishtranslationofthe1963Cubanbooklet“150

QuestionsforaGuerrilla,”anarticleentitled“GrenadesandBombs:Anti-Propertyand

Anti-Personnel”publishedintheNovember16,1968issueoftheBlackPanther

newspaper,andU.S.Armyfieldguidesonguerrillawarfareandexplosives

manufacture.107Accordingtoobservers,copiesofabomb-makingguidecalled

“MechanicalMethodsofSabotage”“werescoopedupwithunabashedenthusiasm”at

theOctober1968nationalSDSconventionheldinBoulder,Colorado,notfarfrom

whereCameronBishopandhisfriendswereintheprocessofrefiningtheirskillsin

explosivesmanufacture.108Meanwhile,imagesofChéGuevara,alongwiththeNLFflag,

becamefixturesatU.S.antiwarprotests,inBlackPantheroffices,andonthewallsof

Americancollegedormitories.109TheNewLeftnewspapertheBerkeleyBarbreported

106Williams,“USA:ThePossibilityofaMinorityRevolution,”doesnotspecificallyusethetermfoco,buttheguerrillastrategyitpromotesisessentiallyfocoist.ItisuncleartowhatextentCubanPresidentFidelCastro’sforeignpolicy,whichinvolvedpromotingfocotheoryinternationally,influencedWilliams’writings.WilliamscontinuedtopublishTheCrusaderuntil1968,aftermovingfromCubatoChina.Accordingtohisbiographer,Williams’isolationlikelycontributedtothe“frustrations,delusions”and“apocalypticvisions”thatcharacterizedhiswritingsonguerrillawarfare.SeeTyson,RadioFreeDixie,298-299.On1960sleftists’readingmaterials,seeVaron,BringingtheWarHome,57.107SenateSubcommitteeonInvestigations,HearingsonRiots,CivilandCriminalDisorders,Part25,5577.AlsoseeAnnLarabee,TheWrongHands:PopularWeaponsManualsandtheirHistoricChallengestoaDemocraticSociety(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2015),67.108SenateSubcommitteeonInvestigations,HearingsonRiots,CivilandCriminalDisorders,Part25,5577;Sale,SDS,504109Gitlin,TheSixties,261-282.

80

thatentreatiesto“killawhitecop”drewenthusiasticapplauseatradicalstudent

gatherings.110

The“cultofthegun”hadarrivedintheUnitedStates.OnAugust1,1968,a

surprisearmedattackonClevelandpoliceofficersbyagroupcallingitselftheBlack

NationalistsofNewLibyaresultedinthedeathsofthreecopsandfourmilitants.

EldridgeCleaverpraisedtheassault,sayingitdemonstrated“thatpsychologically

blacksarenotonlypreparedtodiebutkill.”111Duringthefallof1968,NewLeftradicals

carriedoutapproximatelyfortybombingsandarsons,includingattacksonaCIAoffice

inAnnArborandROTCfacilitiesatUCBerkeley,UniversityofDelaware,OregonState

University,TexasStateUniversity,WashingtonUniversity,andtheUniversityof

Washington.112TheMichigan-basedWhitePantherParty,comprisedofworking-class

whiteradicalswhoemulatedtheBlackPanthers,issuedastatementreading,“Getagun,

brother,andlearnhowtouseit.You’llneeditprettysoon.”113

Writingfromjailin1968,BlackPantherMinisterofDefenseHueyNewton

outlinedhisvisionofdevelopingafocoistclandestinerevolutionaryguerrilla

organization.“Whenthepeoplelearnthatitisnolongeradvantageousforthemto

resistbygoingintothestreetsinlargenumbers;andwhentheyseetheadvantagein

theactivitiesoftheguerrillawarfaremethod,theywillquicklyfollowthisexample,”he

110February9-15,1968BerkeleyBarbquotedinJeremiSuri,PowerandProtest:GlobalRevolutionandtheRiseofDétente,2nded.(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2005),171.111Perlstein,Nixonland,294.112Sale,SDS,503.113Perlstein,Nixonland,339.AsPerlsteinexplains,aclandestinegroupofright-winganti-CastroCubanscarriedoutmorethanadozenarsonsandbombingsinNewYork,LosAngeles,Chicago,andMiamiduring1968,andaright-wingvigilantegroupcalledtheMinutemencarriedoutaraidonapacifistfarminConnecticutthatresultedinashoot-outwithstatepoliceandtheblindingofonemember.TherightwingJewishDefenseLeaguealsocarriedoutseveralbombingsintheearly1970s.MoreresearchisneededtodeterminetheFBI’sresponsetoright-wingguerrillagroups.Leftwingguerrillasandinsurgents,however,wereresponsibleforfarmorebombingsduringthelate1960sandearly1970s.

81

wrote.“Whenthevanguardgroupdestroysthemachineryoftheoppressorbydealing

withhiminsmallgroupsofthreeandfour,andthenescapesthemightofthe

oppressor,”Newtoncontended,“themasseswillbeoverjoyedandwilladheretothis

correctstrategy.”114Duringthesameyear,theBPPstartedtosecretlybuilda

clandestineundergroundinfrastructure.LosAngelesPantherGeronimoPratt,a

decoratedVietnamveteranandformerGreenBeret,helpedorganizethePanther

undergroundwhiletravellingthecountryin1968,simultaneouslyfacilitatingthe

formationofnewBPPchaptersinAtlanta,Dallas,NewOrleans,andotherSouthern

cities.115Pantherleadershippassedarulethat“nopartymembercanjoinanyother

armyforceotherthantheBlackLiberationArmy.”116Littleisknownabouttheactivities

ofthePantherunderground,thoughitsmembershavebeensuspectedofengagingin

illegal,armedfundraisingactivities.NotuntilMay1971,however,aftertheBPP

formallysplitintotworivalfactions,wouldtheBlackLiberationArmybegintopublicly

takecreditforpoliceambushesandotherguerrillaattacks.

Nixon’snarrowtriumphinthe1968presidentialelectionwasakeymomentin

theviolentdialecticofstateandinsurgentviolencethatescalatedoverthecourseofthe

Johnsonadministration.Ononehand,theriotsandbombingshadhelpedNixon,who

cooptedthelanguageofcivilrightstoadvancehislaw-and-orderpolicingagenda;upon

acceptinghisnominationastheRepublicanParty’spresidentialcandidatehe

proclaimedthatthe“firstcivilrightofeveryAmericanistobefreefromdomestic

114NewtonquotedinUmoja,“TheBlackLiberationArmyandtheRadicalLegacyoftheBlackPantherParty,”227.115Ibid,228.116Ibid,227.

82

violence.”117Ontheotherhand,tomanyradicalsalreadyinclinedtowardssupporting

revolutionaryguerrillawarfare,Nixon’selectoralvictorywasfurtherconfirmationthat

U.S.policiescouldnotbechangedthroughnormalpoliticalmechanismsorthrough

traditionalleftiststrategiesofgrassrootsorganizingandparty-building.Throughoutthe

firsthalfof1969,theBlackPanthernewspaperwarnedofemerging“fascism”inthe

UnitedStates,attributingmountingpoliceattacksonitsmemberstothe“pigpower

structure’s”nationwideconspiracyto“suppressthewilloftheblackcommunity.”118

Stateandmunicipal-levelactionsagainsttheBlackPantherParty,carriedoutas

theJusticeDepartmentindictedCameronBishopandtheChicago8,alsogaveleftists

theimpressionthatU.S.authoritieswouldstopatnothingtocrushdomesticdissent.On

April2,1969,usinginformationprovidedbythreepaidpoliceinformants,aNewYork

grandjuryindictedtwenty-onemembersoftheNewYorkBPPforconspiringto

assassinatepoliceofficersandbombpoliceprecincts,departmentstores,andtheBronx

BotanicalGarden.Inearlymorningraids,NewYorkCitypolicearrestedtenofthe

accused.Twoofthesuspectswerealreadyinpolicecustodyonrobberycharges,whilea

fewmanageddodgethepoliceraidandjoinEldridgeCleaverinAlgeria.Policecaught

upwiththerestoverthenextweeksandmonths.Ajudgesetbailat$100,000foreach

ofthedetaineddefendants.Twoyearslater—afteraneight-monthtrial,thenthe

longestinNewYorkhistory—ajuryacquittedallmembersofthePanther21.Mostof

117RichardNixon,AddressAcceptingthePresidentialNominationattheRepublicanNationalConventioninMiamiBeach,Florida,August8,1968,TheAmericanPresidencyProjectonlinedatabase,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25968.118BlackPantherBlackCommunityNewsService2,no.20(January15,1969),1;3,no.8(June14,1969),1;3,no.12(July12,1969),1.

83

thedefendantsremainedincarceratedinthemeantime,however,leavingtheNewYork

Pantherswithoutmostofitscoreleadersandorganizers.119

DidtheNewYorkauthoritiesindictthePanther21becausetheyviewedtheBPP

asathreattothestate’spoliticalorder?Ordidtheyacttopreventwhattheybelievedto

beanimpendingdeadlyguerrillaattackonNewYorkpoliceofficers?TheBlack

PanthersandtheirsupportersportrayedthePanther21indictmentsastrumped-up

chargessimilartothoseNixon’sJusticeDepartmenthadlodgedagainsttheChicago8a

monthearlier,partofabroadercampaignofstaterepressionthatmadenodistinction

betweenstateagenciesanddeniedanyPantherinvolvementinillegalactivity.The

BlackPanthernewspaper,forexample,calledthePanther21raidspartofa“Pig

Conspiracy”to“DestroythePanthers.”120Overthecourseof1969and1970,manyon

themilitantleft,particularlywhitesupportersofthePanthers,cametoseethePanther

21astheprimesymbolofU.S.politicalrepression.Inhisnowfamousarticlethatcoined

theterm“radicalchic,”journalistTomWolfewroteaboutafundraiserforthePanther

21heldincomposerLeonardBernstein’sswankyParkAvenuepenthouse.Inthearticle,

WolferecalledthePanther21’syoungwhiteleftistattorneyGeraldP.Lefcourtspeaking

beforeBernstein’scrowdofcelebrityguestsandcomparinghisdefendants’casetothe

Reichstagfire,the1933arsonatGermany’sparliamentbuildingthatprecipitatedAdolf

Hitler’smassarrestofthecountry’scommunists.“Ibelievethisodioussituationcanbe

comparedtotheReichstagFire,”Lefcourtsaid,warningthataGestapo-likeround-upof

119MurrayKempton,TheBriarPatch:ThePeopleoftheStateofNewYorkv.LumumbaShakurEtAl.(NewYork,E.P.Dutton,1973).120ZaydMalik-Shakur,“PigConspiracyagainstNYPantherTwenty-One,”andOlaywah,“NYPigsMovetoDestroyPanthers,”BlackPantherBlackCommunityNewsService,April20,1969,10,11.

84

U.S.leftists“couldbeanoutcomeofthiscase.”121“Theonlythingthatcanstopit,”he

insisted,“isforpeoplelikeourselvestomakeanoiseandmakeanoisenow.”122

TheNYPD’sarrestsofthePanther21werepreemptive,yes.Butitisplausible

thatleastsomemembersinthegroupmayhavebeeninvolvedinaplantolauncha

guerrillaattackonpoliceofficers.Afterall,theOaklandPanthers’promotionof

revolutionaryviolencehadbeenacentralfactorinspiringmanyoftheyoungradicals

whoformedtheNewYorkBPPchapterinthespringof1968afterMartinLutherKing’s

assassination.Panther21defendantKuwasiBalagoon(formerlyDonaldWeems),a

tenants’rightsorganizerwhohadpreviouslyenduredapolicebeatingduringaprotest

insidetheHouseofRepresentatives,laterrecalledthatonereasonhejoinedtheParty

wasbecauseheappreciated“thatthecadrebelievedthatpoliticalpowerstemsfromthe

barrelofagun.”123FellowPanther21defendantAfeniShakursimilarlyrecollected

joiningtheBPPafterbeingimpressedwiththeCaliforniaPanthers’armed1967protest

inSacramento.124Panthersandcitypolicehadalsoparticipatedinaseriesofviolent

exchangessincetheBPPsetupshopinNewYorkCity.OnAugust1,1968,aprotest

outsidetheBrooklynBPPofficeinwhichtwenty-year-oldPantherGordonCookeuseda

bullhorntoderidepoliceas“racist,”“pigs,”and“crackers”endedwithpoliceseverely

beatingandarrestingCookeandseventeen-year-oldfellowPantherDarrellBaines.125

ThenextmorningtwomenwieldingashotgunambushedtwocopsinBrooklyn’s

CrownHeightsneighborhood,woundingtheofficerswithbirdshot;somepoliceblamed

121LefcourtquotedinTomWolfe,“RadicalChic:ThatPartyatLenny’s,”NewYorkmagazine,June8,1970.122Ibid.123BalagoonquotedinBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,152.124Shakurquotedinibid.125PoliceclaimedthatBaineshadkickedacopinthecrotch.Ibid,155.

85

thePanthersdespiteNewYorkPartycaptainJoudonFord’sdenial.Afewweekslater,

BrooklynPanthersparticipatedinarebellionwithotherAfricanAmericanyouthsin

whichprotestersattackedpoliceandfirefighterswithprojectiles,smashedshop

windows,andlootedstores.Duringthenextday’sarraignmentforsevenrebels

arrestedduringthemayhem,150whitemen,includingoff-dutypoliceofficerswearing

pinssupportingwhitesupremacistpresidentialcandidateGeorgeWallace,shouted

racialepithetswhilebeatingasmallgroupofNewYorkPanthersandwhiteSDS

membersinasixthfloorlobbyoftheBrooklynCriminalCourt.Thefollowingweek,in

theearlymorninghoursofSeptember12,gunmencarriedoutanotherpoliceambush

nearthesiteofthepreviousmonth’sshotgunattack,woundingtwoofficerswith.308

rifleblastsfiredthroughtheirpatrolcarwindow.126

AmidescalatingviolencebetweentheNewYorkPanthersandcitypolice,some

soon-to-bemembersofthePanther21studiedtheartofguerrillacombat.Kwando

Kinshasa(formerlyWilliamKing),aformermarinesergeant,authoredamimeographed

guideentitled“UrbanGuerrillaWarfare.”Policeseizedacopyofthehandbookupon

arrestingfellowPanther21defendantDhorubabinWahad(formerlyRichardMoore),

alongwithamapoftheBronxannotatedwithpencilmarksnotingthelocationsoftrain

stations.FromtheapartmentofCurtisPowell,aresearchchemist,policeseizedbottles

ofhydrochloricandnitricacidinadditiontoabookentitledHighExplosivesand

Propellants.Policealsoconfiscatedfivepistols,tworifles,andthreeshotgunsduringthe

126Ibid,155-159.

86

Panther21raids.127FollowingtheiracquittalsinFebruary1971,membersofthe

Panther21wouldgoontoformthenucleusoftheBlackLiberationArmy.

ThetruthofwhetherornotthemembersofthePanther21wereplanningan

assaultonpoliceofficerspriortotheirarrestmayneverbeknown.DetailsofPanther

involvementinvariousattacksonpolice,suchastheDecember1968machine-gunning

ofaNewarkpolicestation,maylikewiseremainamystery.128Itisclear,however,that

violenceflowedbothwaysbetweenthePanthersandpolice,andthatelementsofeach

understandablysawtheotherasathreattoitsexistence.Hoover’sFBI,encouraged

localpoliceagenciestotargetmembersoftheBlackPanthersandSDSwitharrest,while

carryingoutitsowncovertcounterintelligenceprogramsagainstbothgroups.

HistorianshaverepeatedlyhighlightedtheFBI’sCOINTELPROoperations

againstthePanthers,arguingtheofficialscarriedthemoutbecausetheyviewedthe

BPPasathreattoAmerica’spoliticalorder,andinsomecasespointingtothe

counterintelligenceprogramsastheprimaryreasonfortheParty’sdownfall.129Abrief

reviewoftheFBI’sCOINTELPROsagainsttheBPP,however,revealsthattheBureau’s

mainintentionwastopreempttheParty’scapacitytocarryoutinsurgentviolence.To

theextentthattheFBIwassuccessfulinunderminingtheBlackPantherParty,itwas

becauseCOINTELPROagentsexploitedtheParty’sfactionalism,violenttendencies,and

undemocraticparamilitarystructure,traitsthathadironicallydevelopedwithinthe

BPPinthecontextofitsmembers’ongoingstrugglestoconfrontpoliceviolence.During

thefirsthalfof1969,theFBI’sCOINTELPROoperationsexacerbatedfactionalismand

127Kempton,TheBriarPatch,10-11.128BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,213.129SeemyIntroductionforfurtherexplanation.

87

paranoiawithintheBPP,leadingtomoreviolenceandcriminalchargesthatPanthers

andtheirsupportersinSDSattributedtoagovernmentconspiracytocrushtheleft.

AfterlaunchingCOINTELPRO-BlackNationalist-HateGroupsinAugust27,1967,

Hooverexpandedtheprogramfromtwenty-threetoforty-oneoftheFBI’sfifty-onefield

officesonMarch4,1968,explainingthattheprimarygoalwasto“preventviolenceon

thepartofblacknationalistgroups.”130Inareferencetothepreviousdecade’sKenyan

armedrevoltagainstBritishcolonialrule,Hoovercalledonagentstopreempta“‘Mau

Mau’inAmerica.”Hedirectedhismentoprevent“coalitionofmilitantblacknationalist

groups”and“theriseofa‘messiah’whocouldunify…theblacknationalistmovement,”

inpart,by“pinpoint[ing]potentialtrouble-makersandneutraliz[ing]thembeforethey

exercisetheirpotentialforviolence.”131TheFBIdidnotbegintodirectCOINTELPRO-

BNHGoperationsagainsttheBlackPantherParty,however,untilthesummerof1968.

OnSeptember27,1968—sixweekspriortoNixon’selectionvictory—Headquarters

orderedagentstomaketheBPPthemainfocusofCOINTELPRO-BNHG.Inthememo

approvingthisshiftinCOINTELPRO-BNHG’spriorities,FBIDomesticSecurityDivision

officialG.C.MooredescribedtheBPPas“themostviolence-proneorganizationofall

theextremistgroupsnowoperatingintheUnitedStates,”onethat“putsparticular

emphasisonnotonlyverbalattacksbutalsophysicalattacksonpolice.”132Warning,

130FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,“CounterintelligenceProgram;BlackNationalist-HateGroups;RacialIntelligence,”March4,1968,COINTELPRO-BlackExtremistsFile,Part1,FBIVaultonlinedatabase.ThisdocumentisalsoreprintedinChurchillandVanderWall,TheCOINTELPROPapers,108-109.AlsoseeBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,202.131FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,March4,1968.AtthispointCOINTELPRO-BNHGnamed“theradicalandviolence-proneleaders,members,andfollowers”ofSNCC,SCLC,RAM,andNOIasitsprimarytargets.132FBImemo,G.C.MooretoW.C.Sullivan,“CounterintelligenceProgram;BlackNationalist-HateGroups;RacialIntelligence;(BlackPantherParty),”September27,1968,inChurchillandVanderWall,TheCOINTELPROPapers,124.TheFBI’sannualreportforfiscalyear1968,issuedonOctober1,1968,onlybrieflymentionedthePanthersasanOakland-basedgroupthatadvocated“theuseofgunsandguerrilla

88

“moreviolencecanbeexpectedfromthisorganizationintheimmediatefuture,”FBI

officialsorderedagentsto“accelerate”investigationsoftheBPP,increaseinformants

withintheorganization,andlaunchcounterintelligenceoperationsthat“maybring

aboutresultswhichcouldleadtoprosecutionoftheseviolence-proneleadersand

activemembers,therebythwartingtheireffortstoperpetrateviolenceintheUnited

States.”133

BytimetheBPPbecamethefocusofCOINTELPRO-BNHG,thePartyhadbeen

activefortwoyears;HueyNewtonhadbeeninprisonfornearlyoneyear;andtheBPP

hadestablishedchaptersinNewYork,LosAngeles,Chicago,andSeattle.Whyhadthe

FBInottargetedtheBPPwithitsCOINTELPROoperationssooner?AccordingtoJoshua

BloomandWaldoMartin,theBPPgainedtheFBI’sattentionduetoits“growing

nationalscope,andthepoliticalchallengeitnowposedtothestatusquo.”134FBI

officialsindeedobservedinSeptember1968thattheBPPwas“rapidlyexpanding”—in

thefallof1968theBPPformednewchaptersinDeMoines,Baltimore,Denver,and

othercities.135However,amoreprobableexplanationisthatCharlesBates,Special

AgentinChargeoftheFBI’sSanFranciscooffice(whichheldjurisdictionoverOakland)

wasresistanttoimplementingtheprogram.OnseveraloccasionsHooverreprimanded

BatesforhisfailuretodevelopeffectiveCOINTELPROoperationsagainsttheBPP.136

AccordingtoformerSanFranciscoSpecialAgentWilliamCohendet,theofficewasalso

tacticstoendtheirallegedoppression.”The1967reportdidnotmentiontheFBIatall.SeeBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,210and445fn46.133FBImemo,G.C.MooretoW.C.Sullivan,September27,1968.134BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,203.135FBImemo,G.C.MooretoW.C.Sullivan,September27,1968.136FBIairtel,DirectortoSACSanFrancisco,May27,1969,reprintedinChurchillandVanderWall,TheCOINTELPROPapers,144.

89

unsuccessfulindevelopingreliableinformantswithintheOaklandBlackPanthers.137

Moreover,theCOINTELPROdocumentsclearlystatedthattheFBIwastargetingthe

Panthersnotbecauseofthegroup’spoliticalideologyorprogram,butbecauseofits

“violenceprone”nature.138

COINTELPRO-BNHGdocumentsalsorevealthatbythetimetheBPPattracted

theFBI’sattention,thePartywasalreadybesetwithviolentfactionalism.InanAugust

8,1968memotoHeadquarters,theFBI’sNewYorkofficereportedinformation,likely

gleanedfrominformants,thata“breakbetweenSNCCandtheBlackPanthersappears

severeandperhapsfinal.”139SNCCleadersStokelyCarmichael,H.RapBrown,and

JamesFormanhadenteredanalliancewiththePanthersthepreviousFebruaryinan

attempttouniteanationalBlackPowermovement,buttheseasonedcivilrights

activistsremainedcriticalofthePanthersonseveralgrounds,includingtheirheavy

relianceonwhitesforfundraisingandmediaaccess.140AccordingtotheNewYorkFBI

memo,FormanandBrownhad“resignedtheirBPPmembershipbecausetheyfindit

difficulttogoalongwithBPPviolentschemes.”141Theincidentthatprecipitatedthis

splitmayhavebeenonethatCarmichaelrecalledinhismemoir,when“agroupof‘West

CoastPanthers’…invadedthe[NewYorkSNCC]office,heldJimFormanatgunpoint,and

threatenedhislife.”142

137RozPayne,“WACingOff:Gossip,Sex,Race,andPoliticsintheWorldofFBISpecialCaseAgentWilliamA.Cohendet,”inLazarowandWilliams,InSearchoftheBlackPantherParty,158-180.138FBImemo,G.C.MooretoW.C.Sullivan,September27,1968.139FBImemo,SACNewYorktoDirector,August8,1968,COINTELPRO-BlackExtremist,Section3.140Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,129-132;BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,111-114.141FBImemo,SACNewYorktoDirector,August8,1968.142StokelyCarmichael,ReadyforRevolution:TheLifeandStrugglesofStokelyCarmichael(KwameTure),withEkwuemeMichaelThelwell(NewYork:Scribner,2003),671.RhodesandAustinbothcastdoubtonCarmichael’saccountandinsinuatedthatthePantherconfrontationwithForman—whichbysomeaccountsincludedEldridgeCleaverputtingapistolinForman’smouthtocompelhimtomoveforward

90

Similarly,aSeptember25,1968memofromtheLosAngelesFBIofficereported

“friction”betweenthelocalBPPchapterandmostofthecity’sotherradicalgroups,

includingSNCC,theBlackCongress,andtheBrownBerets(amilitantChicano

organization).TensionswereespeciallyhighbetweenthePanthersandRonKarenga’s

blackculturalnationalistUSorganization.Citinginformationlikelygainedfrom

informants,theLAofficereportedthattheBPP“has‘letoutacontract’onKarenga

becausetheyfeelthathehassoldouttotheestablishment.”143OnNovember25,1968,

Hooverobservedthat“thestruggle”betweentheBPPandUSwas“takinganauraof

gangwarfarewithattendantthreatsofmurdersandreprisals.”144

ItwasonlyafterobservingthePanthers’violentinternalfactionalismand

frictionwithothergroupsthattheFBIbegantoemployCOINTELPROoperations

designedtofurtherexacerbatesuchtensions.Forexample,FBIagentsposingasBlack

NationaliststelephonedthehomesofSNCCmemberstoinformthemthatPanthers

intendedtokillthem(oneofthesecallsreachedtheterrifiedmotherofStokely

Carmichael),andsentfakelettersandcartoondrawingstoleadersofboththeBPPand

theUSorganizationdesignedtoagitateconflictbetweenthegroups,exacerbatingfears

thateachsidewantedtokilltheother.145InChicago,FBIagentssentBlackstone

RangersgangleaderJeffFortanonymousmessagesquotinglocalBlackPantherleaders

withafullSNCCmergerwiththeBPP—wasaproductofFBICOINTELPROoperations.TheauthorscitedtheChurchCommitteereportsandevidenceofFBIoperationsdesignedtoexacerbatedtensionsbetweentheBPPandSNCCthattookplaceafterthisincident.Rhodes,FramingtheBlackPanthers,186-188;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,130-134.143ThememostatedthatthePantherswerekeepingthehitontheKarenga“inabeyancependingtheresultsoftheHueyNewtontrial,inasmuchastheBPPwishestoretainasmuchsupportfromtheentireblackcommunityaspossible.”FBImemo,SACLosAngelestoDirector,September25,1968,COINTELPRO-BlackExtremist,Section3.144ChurchCommittee,BookIII,22.145Formoredetailsontheseoperations,seeChurchCommittee,BookIII,189-198;Austin,UpAgainsttheWall,133;andBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,218-219.

91

whohadcriticizedhislackofsupportforthepoliticalstrugglesinthecity’sblack

communities,hopingtoprovokeviolencebetweenthetwogroups.146

BythetimeNixoncameintooffice,tensionswithintheBPP—andbetweenthe

Panthersandothermilitantgroups—hadalreadyreachedaboilingpoint.These

tensionsincreasedevenfurtheramidEldridgeCleaver’sflightfromthecountry,local

policeattacksontheorganization,FBICOINTELPROoperations,andtheParty’srapid

growth.OnJanuary12,1969,lessthanfourmonthsaftertheFBIshiftedthefocusof

COINTELPRO-BNHGtotheBPP,BobbySealeclosedtheParty’smembership,fearfulthat

theorganization’srapidexpansionwascreatingtoomanyopportunitiesforinfiltration

bypoliceinformants.“Wenowhave45[chapters],”hetoldthepress,“Wearen’ttaking

inanynewmembersforthenextthreetosixmonths…Weareturninginwardto

tightensecurity,[to]getridofagentsandprovocateursandthepromotepolitical

educationamongthosewhohavejoinedthePanthersbutstilldon’tunderstandwhat

we’reallabout.”147AmidsthistighteningofPartysecurity,Sealedecidedtomake

“survivalprograms,”suchasfreebreakfastprogramsforchildrenandcommunity

medicalclinics,aprimefocusoftheorganization’sactivities.148

Violencecontinuednonetheless.Fivedayslater,conflictbetweentheLA

PanthersandtheUSorganizationresultedinbloodshed.OnJanuary17,USgunmen

shotdeadlocalPantherleadersJohnHugginsandAlprentice“Bunchy”Carteronthe

UniversityofCaliforniaLosAngelescampus,weremembersofbothgroupshad

participatedinacontentiousmeetingovercontroloftheuniversity’sblackstudent

146ChurchCommittee,BookIII,195-197.147SealequotedinBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,344.148Murch,LivingfortheCity,169-174;BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,176-198

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group.LocalpoliceinitiallyrespondedbyarrestingseventeenlocalPantherswhilethe

USassailantswentfree.149AfterthedeathofherhusbandJohn,LosAngelesPanther

ErickaHuggins,movedtohishometownofNewHaven,Connecticut,whereshesoon

becamethetargetofaconspiracyindictmentresultingfromthetortureandmurderof

BPPmemberandaccusedpoliceinformant,AlexRackley.

DetailsaroundtheRackleytorture-murderremaincontested,butmostagreeon

thekeyfacts.InMay1969,atravelingPanthernamedGeorgeSams—whomanylater

accusedofbeinganFBIinformant—joinedNewHavenPanthersWarrenKimbroand

LonnieMcLucasintyingRackleytoachair.Inafarcical“trial”thatHugginstape-

recorded,fellowPanthersaccusedRackleyofworkingasapoliceinformantand

torturedhimwithbeatings,deaththreats,acoat-hangertwistedaroundhisneck,and

boilingwaterdumpedonhisbody.OnMay20,Sams,Kimbro,andMcLucasdrove

RackleytothenearbytownofMiddletown,wheretheyshothimtodeathandlefthis

bodyinaswamp.Thenextevening,afterrecoveringRackley’sbody,policearrested

Kimbro,McLucas,Huggins,andfourotherlocalPanthers.InAugust,authorities

extraditedSamsfromCanada,wherehehadbeenarrestedonweaponschargeswhile

tryingtostartupaBPPchapterinHalifax.150PolicearrestedBobbySealeinBerkeley

duringthesamemonth,andtransportedhimtoConnecticutonchargesthathehad

orderedtheRackley’sexecutionamidhisongoingeffortstopurgethePartyof

suspectedpoliceinfiltrators.151ThedefendantsbecameknownastheNewHavenNine.

Theirtrialsin1970becamerallyingpointsforthemilitantleft,thoughrevelationsof

149BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,219.150Ibid,251.151Ibid,248.

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Pantherinvolvementintortureandmurdercontributedtoadeclineinsupportforthe

Party.ChargeswereeventuallydroppedagainstSealeandHuggins.

LikethecaseofthePanther21,detailsofstateinvolvementintheassassinations

ofLAPanthersandtheeventsleadingtochargesagainsttheNewHaven9willlikely

remainunknownanddebatedforyearstocome.Panthersympathizersandsome

scholars,forexample,haveallegedthatpoliceinformantsplayedcriticalrolesinboth

theHuggins-CarterkillingsandRackleykillings.Thereisnodocumentaryevidenceof

directstateinvolvementineitheroftheseincidents,however.Whatisclear,isthat

thesekillingsoccurredasPanthermilitancy,cultivatedasaresponsetopoliceviolence

andinspiredbyThirdWorldguerrillarevolutionaries,contributedtoacycleoffurther

policeviolenceanddeadlyfactionalismwithintheBlackPantherPartyandthebroader

BlackPowermovement.

TheBPP’snewfocusondevelopingcommunity“survivalprograms”didnot

dampenthisviolentescalation,asPantherleaderscontinuedtoromanticizeviolence

againstpoliceandotherauthorityfigures.SpeakingbeforeaSanFranciscoantiwarrally

onNovember15,1969,forexample,BlackPantherchiefofstaffDavidHilliardcalledfor

PresidentNixon’sassassination.“WesaydownwiththeAmericanfascistsociety!”he

proclaimed;“LaterforRichardMilhousNixon,themotherfucker!…WewillkillRichard

Nixon…Wewillkillanymotherfuckerthatstandsinthewayofourfreedom!”152Black

PantherhistorianshavepointedtotheFBI’seffortstounderminetheBPP’sbreakfast

programsasevidencethatHooverviewedtheinitiativesasathreattoAmerica’s

152Hilliardquotedinibid,341-342.

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politicalorder.153ButtheFBIdocumentsshowthatitwasnottheactoffeedingchildren

thatbotheredBureauofficials,buttheirviewthatthebreakfastprogramswerea

vehiclethroughwhichthePartypromotedthe“insidiouspoison”ofanti-policeviolence

amongchildrenandthewidercommunity.InaMay27,1969messagetotheSan

FranciscoFBIoffice,HooverprovidedanexamplefromaPantherweddingatan

OaklandchurchthathostedBPPbreakfastprograms.Citingarecentarticleonthe

weddingintheBlackPanthernewspaper,HooverdescribedhowSealeandother

Panthersledchildreninasongwiththerefrain“WeWantaPorkChopOffthePig.”154

Panther-relatedviolencecontinuedoverthesummerof1969.Aprominent

incidentoccurredonAugust15,1969,amidtheFBI’sCOINTELPROoperationsdesigned

toenflametheviolentUS-Pantherconflict,whenUSgunmenmurderedBlackPanther

SylvesterBellinaSanDiegoparkinglot.Threedayslater,theSanDiegoFBIoffice

expressedsatisfactionwithBell’sslaying.“Shootings,beatings,andahighdegreeof

unrestcontinuestoprevailintheghettoareaofSoutheastSanDiego,”theSanDiego

SpecialAgentinChargewroteinamemotoHeadquarters.“Althoughnospecific

counterintelligenceactioncanbecreditedwithcontributingtothissituation,itisfelt

thatasubstantialamountoftheunrestisdirectlyattributabletothisprogram.”155

WhenNixoncametooffice,SDSwasalsofraughtwithinternaldisagreement,

thoughinaformlessdeadlythanthatoftheBlackPanthers.Thekeypointsof

contentionwerewhetherornottosupportthePanthers,theNLF,andtheconceptof

guerrillawarfare.An“actionfaction”ledbyBernadineDohrnandotherfutureWeather

153Ibid,211.154FBIairtel,DirectortoSACSanFrancisco,May29,1969.155ChurchCommittee,BookIII,192-194.

95

Undergroundleadershadgainedastrongpresenceintheorganization’sChicago

NationalOfficetheprevioussummer,aswellaspredominanceamongSDSchaptersin

Michigan,Ohio,andNewYork.ActionfactionleaderssoughttodevelopaMarxist-

Leninistcadreorganizationwhilecallingforincreasinglymilitanttacticstosupportthe

BlackPanthers,confrontpolice,andendthewarinVietnam.ActionfactionleadersBill

AyersandJimMellen,whowouldbothalsogoontojointheWeathermen,wrotea

paperinthespringof1969callingforarmedrevolution.“Thereactionarynatureof

pacifism,theneedforarmedstruggleastheonlyroadtorevolution[are]essential

truths,”theywrote;“We[must]recognizetheurgencyoffightingwhitesupremacyby

buildingthematerialstrengthofthewhitemovementtobeaconscious,organized,

mobilizedfightingforcecapableofgivingrealsupporttotheblackliberation

struggle.”156InadditiontoorganizingthedisruptionsatNixon’sinauguration,Mark

RuddandotherSDSactionfactionmilitantswentonawindowandlimousine-smashing

spreeonWallStreetinAprilafteraNewYorkjudgerefusedbailforimprisoned

membersofthePanther21.157

ThemainorganizedoppositiontotheactionfactionwithinSDSwastheBoston-

based“praxis-axis”faction,agroupofactivistsassociatedwiththeMaoistProgressive

LaborParty(PLP),wellknownfortheirmembers’clean-cutappearancesand

denunciationofthecounterculture,revolutionaryviolence,theBlackPanthers,and

anythingelsetheyperceivedasalienatingtotheAmericanworkingclasstheyclaimed

torepresent.MembersofPLPwerehighlydoctrinaire,andspentmuchoftheirtime

attemptingtotakeoverSDSpoliciesthroughbloc-voting,longmeetings,andabarrage156AyersandMellenquotedinSale,SDS,515-516.157Rudd,Underground,133-134.

96

ofsectarianarticlessubmittedtoNewLeftNotesandotherSDSpublications.OnePLP

articlecriticizingtheBPPallegedthatthePanthers“ignoretheworking-classdemands

…don’tattempttoorganizeBlackworkers…havenotstressedpoliticalstudyand

development…havenoclassoutlookandbelievetheyareouttofightawaragainst

whitepeopleingeneral.”158

AmidtheSDS’sfactionalism,historian-activistStaughtonLyndwarned,“both

PLPandthenationalcollectiveareworkingtorecruitarevolutionarycadreoutofSDS

nomatterwhatthecosttoSDSasanorganicallyevolvingrevolutionarymovement.”159

FactionalismturnedmanyyoungradicalsawayfromSDSjustaslocalcampusrebellions

andbombingsskyrocketedinresponsetoNixon’sescalationofthewarinIndochina,as

anewmovementofGIresistanceagainstthewartookhold,asCatholicleftistscarried

outnonviolentraidsondraftboards,andasthewomen’sliberationmovementsoared,

withmanywomenleavingmix-gendergroupslikeSDStoformtheirownfeminist

organizations.KirkpatrickSalenotedtheirony:

AtpreciselythetimeofthegreatestexplosionoftheAmericanleftinallofthedecade,SDS,itsleadingorganizationbyeveryindex—size,fame,geographicalscope,energy—wasgraduallybutunmistakablyisolatinganddiminishingitself,losingitsstudentconstituency,itswomen,itsalumni,failingtoconnectwiththehighschools,thesoldiers,theworkers.TheSDSrevolutionarieswereonthebarricades,buttheyhadforgottentolookbehind:theirtroopswerenolongerfollowing.160

AmidSDS’sincreasingfactionalism,theFBIendeavoredtodestroythe

organizationbyexacerbatingthegrowingfeudbetweentheNationalOfficeandthePLP.

InJanuary1969,theBureauconductedaseriesofcovertcounterintelligenceoperations

158Sale,SDS,534.159Ibid,514.160Ibid,528.

97

againstBernadineDohrn.Agentsdistributedseveralcartoonsdesignedtodefamethe

twenty-five-year-oldNationalOfficeorganizeramongSDSactiviststhroughoutthe

country.PortrayingDohrnholdingabagofcashinoneinstance,andsunbathingina

bikinionaMalibubeachinanother,theFBI’ssexistgraphicssoughttodepictthe

charismaticfemaleSDSleaderassomeonesquanderingtheorganization’sfundsfor

personalbenefit.161LocalpoliceharassedSDSmembersaswell.OnMay12,1969,

policeandfiremenshowedupatSDS’sChicagoNationalOfficeinresponseto

anonymousreportsofgunshotsandfireintheoffice.ThoughNationalOfficestaffers

refusedtoletthepoliceinside,thecopsbargedinanyway,andsomeoftheSDSers

pushedback.ThepolicearrestedMikeKlonsky,LesColeman,TimMcCarthy,Ed

Jennings,andDaveSlavin,andheldthemon$12,000bailfor“batteryofanofficer,”

“interferingwithafireman,“and“incitingmobaction.”162SDSmilitantsinterpretedthe

policeraidasyetanotherexampleofaNixon-backedcampaigntodestroytheleft.New

LeftNotesresponded:

Itisclearthatuntilthepowertocontroltheinstitutionsofthissocietyisinthehandsofthepeople,thepeoplewillneverhavejusticeorfreedom.PowertothePeople!DEATHTOTHEPIG!163

Conclusion

ThereislittleevidencethatFBICOINTELPROoperationsagainsttheBlackPanther

PartyandSDSsucceededintheirobjectiveofpreventingleftistviolence.G.C.Moore,a

161FBImemo,DirectortoSACChicago,January13,1969,FBICOINTELPRO-NewLeft,ChicagoFile.162Sale,SDS,533.163Ibid.

98

DomesticSecurityofficialatFBIHeadquarters,acknowledgedthisinhis1975Church

Committeetestimony:

Itisnoteasytomeasureeffectiveness…Therewerepolicemenkilledinthosedays.Therewerebombsthrown.TherewereestablishmentsburnedwithMolotovcocktails…Wecanmeasurethatdamage.Youcannotmeasureoverontheotherside,whatlivesweresavedbecause…suspicionwassownon[someone’s]leadershipandthisorganizationgraduallydeclined…orthisorganizationdidnotjoinwith[that]organizationasaresultofablackpowerconferencewhichwasaimedtowardsconsolidationefforts.164

Mooreacknowledgedthatthe“ineptitude”ofgroupssuchastheBlackPanthersand

SDScouldhavebeenthemainreasonfortheirdecline.ButMoorealsostatedthathe

andotherFBIpersonnelhopedthatcounterintelligence“didplayapart”in

underminingtheseorganizationsandtheircapacitytocarryoutpoliticalviolence.

“Maybewejustgaveitanudge,”hesaid.165

WhileitisunclearweatherornottheFBIpreventedleftistviolence,theBureau

clearlyprovokeddeadlyviolenceagainstmembersoftheBlackPantherParty.Citing

COINTELPROoperationsdesignedtoenflameviolenttensionswithUSinSouthern

CaliforniaandtheBlackstoneRangersinChicago,theChurchCommitteefoundthat

“someoftheFBI’stacticsagainsttheBPPwereclearlyintendedtofosterviolence,and

manyotherscouldreasonablyhavebeenexpectedtocauseviolence.”166Butthiswas

nottheonlyviolencetheFBIwasresponsibleforprovoking.Hoover’sFBIalsoactively

encouragedpoliceattacksonradicals,andcollaboratedwithfederal,state,and

municipaleffortstocriminallyindictandarrestleftistmilitants.Thesecombined

efforts,carriedoutamidNixon’scallfor“lawandorder,”helpedencouragetheverysort

164ChurchCommittee,BookIII,22.165Ibid.166Ibid,188.

99

ofviolencetheFBI’scounterintelligenceprogramssoughttoprevent,asmoreandmore

leftists—unawareofgrowingtensionsbetweenHooverandNixon—felttheneedto

fightbackagainstwhattheyinterpretedasaconcertedgovernmentefforttorepress

theBlackPowermovementandtheNewLeft.

Itwouldbedisingenuous,however,toblamethemilitantleft’sturntoviolence

completelyonthestate.Americanradicals’decisionstoembracethe“cultofthegun”

wereconsciousanddeliberate,partofaninternational(thoughalmostcompletely

ineffective)revolutionarystrategy.PlentyofpeoplewithintheU.S.leftdisagreedwith

theultraleftmilitantsintheirmidst.ItwascommonwithintheNewLeft,forexample,to

refertomembersofSDS’s“actionfaction”andotherswhopromotedviolenceas

“crazies.”167Feelingdisempowered,alienated,orafraid,manyleftiststurnedawayfrom

politicsaltogetherasviolent“revolutionary”rhetoricincreased.168Nonetheless,the

“violentdialectic”ofstateandinsurgentviolencecontinued.Duringthesecondhalfof

1969,suchviolencewouldleadtoincreaseddivisionswithinboththemovementsofthe

leftandthestate,andpushsomeradicalsfurtherdownthepathtowardsclandestine

urbanguerrillawarfare.

167Rudd,Underground,131.168Ibid,168-169.

100

CHAPTER2

INTERNALWARS:FACTIONALISMANDTHETURNTOCLANDESTINITY

TwomonthsafterJ.EdgarHooverplacedDenvertransmissiontowerbomberCameron

BishopontheFBI’slistofTenMostWantedFugitives,atopBureauofficialparticipated

inafatefulmeetingwitharepresentativeoftheNixonadministration.OnJune19,1969

inWashingtonD.C.,theFBI’sAssistantDirectorforDomesticIntelligenceWilliamC.

SullivanmetforthefirsttimewithNixonaideTomHuston.HustonwenttoseeBill

SullivanunderordersfromPresidentRichardNixon.AlthoughtheFBIhadreiteratedto

WhiteHouseCouncilJohnEhrlichmaninAprilthattheirwasnodirectforeigninfluence

uponAmerica’sBlackPowermovementandNewLeft,thePresidentremained

convincedthatthemassstreetprotestsandgrowingnumberofrevolutionary

bombingssweepingthecountrywerenotmerelyexpressionsofdomesticangerover

thewarinVietnamandentrenchedracism,butpartofaforeign-fundedCommunist

conspiracy.WhenEhrlichmanandhisassistantEgil“Bud”Kroghwereunabletofind

evidenceofsuchfunding,Nixonwasunsatisfied.Allegedly,thePresidentturnedto

Ehrlichmanandsaid,“GetHustononthis.”1

Hustonwasatwenty-eight-year-oldself-described“conservativehard-liner.”2In

1966and1967,whilecompletinghislawdegreeatIndianaUniversity,heservedas

presidentofYoungAmericansforFreedom,thenation’sleadingconservativestudent

organization.In1968hecampaignedforNixonwhileworkingatthePentagonasan

1ThomasCharlesHuston,oralhistoryinterviewwithTimothyNaftali,April30,2008,RichardNixonPresidentialLibraryonlinearchive,16-17.2Ibid,2.

101

analystfortheArmy’sDefenseIntelligenceAgency,buildingcrucialsupportforthe

RepublicancandidateamonggrassrootsconservativeswhohadbackedBarry

Goldwaterin1964.Aftertheelection,HustontookapositionintheNixon

administration,workingunderEhrlichmanandspeechwriterPatBuchannan.3

SullivanwashappytomeetwithHuston.OneoftheBureau’stopofficials,

SullivanhadworkedhiswayuptheFBIhierarchysince1941,whenattheageof

nineteen,theMassachusettsnativefirsttookapositionasspecialagentinthe

Milwaukeefieldoffice.In1961,afterworkinganumberofotherpositions,Sullivanwas

promotedtoAssistantDirectoroftheDomesticIntelligenceDivision.Inthiscapacity,

SullivanoversawtheFBI’scounterintelligenceprograms,includingoneofthemost

notoriousCOINTELPROoperations:themailingofananonymouslettertoMartin

LutherKingJr.inNovember1964,urgingthecivilrightsleadertocommitsuicideor

elsethesenderwouldleaktaperecordingsofhisextramaritalaffairstothepress.4The

reasonSullivanwasgladtomeetwithHustonisbecauseheimmediatelyrecognizedthe

youngWhiteHouseaideasapotentialallyinagrowingdisputewithhisboss,Director

Hoover,overtheproblemofrevolutionaryviolence.Asmilitantstreetprotests

expandedalongwithviolentrevolutionaryrhetoricandincreasedincidentsofpolitical

3Ibid,2-4.4AgentshadsecretlytapedKing’sillicitencountersusinghiddenmicrophones(knownas“bugs”inFBIparlance)inhishotelrooms.“Thereisonlyonewayoutforyou,”theletterthreatened.“Youbettertakeitbeforeyourfilthy,abnormalfraudulentselfisbaredtothenation.”SullivanwrotetheletterandorderedanagentinMiamitomailittoKingfromAtlanta.TheFBIcarriedoutthisoperationpriortoKing’sacceptanceoftheprestigiousNobelPeacePrize,amidofficials’angeroverhisassociationwithCommunistsandpubliccriticismoftheBureaufornotprotectingcivilworkersfromviolentwhiteracists.TheAmericanpublicfirstlearnedoftheFBI’s“suicideletter”toKingduringtheChurchCommissionhearings.TheChurchCommissionbaseditsreportingonaheavilyredactedversionofthelettertheFBIhadreleasedtothem.In2014,however,researchersdiscoveredtheoriginalletterinHoover’s“OfficialandConfidential”filesattheNationalArchives.SeeBeverlyGage,“WhatanUncensoredLettertoM.L.K.Reveals,”NewYorkTimesMagazine,November11,2014.Theonlineversionofthearticleincludesadigitalcopyoftheuncensoredletter.

102

bombings,SullivanwishedtorevivetheFBI’suseofillegalsurveillancetechniquessuch

asbreak-ins,mail-opening,warrantlesswiretapping,anduseofteenagedinformants.

DuringthefirstmonthsofNixon’spresidency,theColoradotransmissiontower

bombingsandHoover’swranglingwithCabinetofficialsoverdomesticsurveillancehad

causedfrictionbetweentheFBIandNixonadministration.Nowthisfrictionwas

worsening,causingasplitwithinthetopoftheFBIhierarchy.WithoutHoover’s

knowledge,SullivanusedhismeetingwithHustonasanopportunitytoadvancesecret

planstoreinstituteillegalFBIsurveillancepracticesinordertocombatleftistviolence.

Overthenextyear,SullivanandHustonwouldmeetonseveralmoreoccasionsto

discussstrategiesforcombatingrevolutionaryviolence,settingthestageforwhat

wouldsoonbecomeafullscalebureaucraticconflictbetweenHooverandtheNixon

administration.

Escalatingviolencebetweenthestateandrevolutionaryinsurgentskindled

internalwarsnotonlywithintheExecutiveBranchofthefederalgovernment,butalso

withintheU.S.left.Coincidentally,thedebatesoverthestrategicmeritsofurban

guerrillawarfarethathadgivenrisetocleavageswithintheBlackPantherPartyand

SDSreachedacriticalturningpointontheverysameweekendinJune1969when

SullivanfirstmetwithHuston.OnJune21,attheorganization’sNationalConventionin

Chicago,theWeathermanfactiontookoverSDSandannouncedplanstobuild

America’sfirstrevolutionaryurbanguerrillaarmy.Overthenextsixmonths,ongoing

violencebetweenleftistradicalsandthestateacceleratedWeatherman’stransition

towardsclandestineurbanguerrillawarfare.Thisdevelopment,inturn,confirmed

103

SullivanandHuston’sbeliefthattheFBIwasnotadequatelyequippedtorespondto

leftistviolence.

“APositionofMilitantExtremism”

AccordingtoSullivan,Hoover’srestrictionsonillegalsurveillancetacticscaused

widespreadfrustrationwithintheFBIandamongofficialsintheCentralIntelligence

Agencyadotherintelligenceagencies,whocomplainedthattheBureau“seemed

incapableofdealingwiththedomesticturmoil—thebombings,murders,andriots—of

the1960s.”5Rememberinghisownfrustrations,Sullivanrecollectedfeelingthat

“HooverineffectputtheDomesticIntelligenceDivisionoftheFBIoutofbusiness.”“Our

handsweretied,”herecalled;“itbecamevirtuallyimpossibletodoourjob.”6CharlesD.

Brennan,theDomesticIntelligenceDivision’sInternalSecurityChief,whojoined

SullivaninhisfirstmeetingwithHuston,sharedthesesentiments.Brennanlater

reflectedthatHoover’slimitationsoninvestigativepracticesduringthe1960s,coupled

withashiftofFBImanpowertowardsorganizedcrimeandcivilrightscases,“provided

adrainwhichmateriallyaffectedthoseofuswhowereinvolvedinsecurityand

intelligenceinvestigations.”7SullivanandBrennanfoundasympatheticandearnestally

inHuston.Inhis1978memoir,SullivanrecalledhisfirsttimemeetingtheyoungWhite

Houseaide.“AsfarasIwasabletotell,”Sullivanremembered,Huston’s“onlyinterest

wasindoingagoodjobforhiscountry…ThefactthatI,aliberalDemocrat,couldfind

5WilliamC.Sullivan,TheBureau:MyThirtyYear’sinHoover’sFBI,withBillBrown(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1979),206.6Ibid.7CharlesD.Brennantestimony,SenateSelectCommitteetoStudyGovernmentalOperationswithRespecttoIntelligenceActivities,HearingsonIntelligenceActivities,Vol.2,TheHustonPlan,94thCong.,1stsess.,1975(hereafterHustonPlan),101.

104

somuchtoadmireinHustononlyprovedtomethataman’spoliticshavelittlebearing

onhistrueworth.”8

Duringtheirmeeting,SullivanandBrennanconfirmedwhatEhrlichmanhad

alreadyestablishedinhisearlierreporttoNixon:therewasnoevidencethatCuba,

China,oranyotherforeignCommunistpowerwasfinancingU.S.leftistorganizations.

However,Sullivandidseedomesticradicalsasaseriousthreat,onethathebelieved

Hooverwasfailingtotakeseriously.SullivanusedhismeetingwithHustontoconvey

hisfrustrationswiththeFBIDirector.Hoover,heargued,placedtoomuchofthe

Bureau’semphasisonfightingCommunistsubversion,whenthemainthreattointernal

securitycamefromdomesticgroupsthatpreachedviolentrevolutionandengagedin

bombingsandotherviolentacts.AccordingtoHuston,theColoradotransmissiontower

bombingswereamongthoseSullivancitedasexamples.9

SullivanandBrennanarguedthatHoover’srestrictionsonillegalsurveillance

tacticswereseverelylimitingtheBureau’scapacitytopreventrevolutionaryviolence.

Moreover,SullivanarguedthatHoover,inhispersonaldesiretomaintaintheFBI’s

hegemonyoverdomesticintelligenceoperations,regularlywithheldinformationfrom

theCIAandotherU.S.intelligenceagencies.AccordingtoSullivan,thispractice

infuriatedtheotherintelligenceagencies’directors,andfurtherunderminedthefight

againstleftistviolence.Sullivanbelievedthatinordertopreventbombingsandother

revolutionaryattacks,theFBIneededtoworkwithotherintelligenceagenciestolearn

aboutradicals’plansforviolencebeforetheyhadachancetocarrythemout.Ifthe

greatergoodofdefendingAmerica’snationalsecurityrequiredbreakingafewlaws,so8Sullivan,TheBureau,207.9Hustonoralhistoryinterview,19.

105

beit.Intheirsubsequentmeetingsoverthenextyear,SullivanandHustonwouldhatch

aplantoovercomeHoover’srestrictionsonextralegalsurveillancepracticesandhis

stonewallingofcoordinationwithotherU.S.intelligenceagencies.

Meanwhile,leftistviolenceinAmericawasontherise.Attheverysamemoment

thatSullivanandHustonweremeetingforthefirsttimeinWashingtonD.C.,SDSwas

holdingtheirannualmeetinginChicago.Bittersectariandebates—overthebest

approachesforendingthewarinVietnam,challengingpoliceattacksontheBlack

Panthers,andcreatingarevolutionarymovementamongAmerica’syouth—were

tearingtheorganizationapart.Thoughthe1969NationalConferenceresultedinthe

collapseofSDSasanationalorganizationcableofunitingstudentoppositiontothewar,

itgavebirthtosomethingnew.EmergingfromthewreckageofSDScamethe

Weathermen,whichwithinsevenmonthswouldbecometheWeatherUnderground,

America’sfirsthomegrownclandestineurbanguerrillaorganization,andthecentral

sourceofamajorcrisisforboththeFBIandtheNixonadministration.

SDSmetfromJune19to21.Bythethirdlongdayofagonizingdebate,SDSsplit

intotworivalfactions.ThelosingfactionwastheWorker-StudentAlliance(WSA),a

groupofactivistsassociatedwiththeearlier“action-praxis”factionandtheProgressive

LaborParty(PLP).ComingoutontopwastheRevolutionaryYouthMovement(RYM)

faction,anoutgrowthofthe“actionfaction”whichwasitselfmadeupoftwosub-

factionsunitedintheirhatredofthePLPandtheirsupportfortheBlackPantherParty

andVietnam’sNationalLiberationFront.LeadingRYMwastheWeathermansub-

faction,namedafteritspositionpaper,“YouDon’tNeedaWeathermantoKnowwhich

106

WaytheWindBlows,”thetitletakenfromalineinahitBobDylansong.10

DrawingonfocotheoryandhailingthemartyrdomofChéGuevara,the

Weathermanstatementcalledforthedevelopmentofarevolutionaryanti-racist

movementamongAmerica’sworking-classwhiteyouth,whichit’ssignatoriessoughtto

moldinto“onedivisionoftheInternationalPeoples’Army”theyhopedwould

“dismemberanddisposeofU.S.imperialism.”11LiketheBlackPanthers,Weatherman

sawnopossibilitiesforcreatingsocialchangethroughnonviolentdirectactionor

normalavenuesoftheU.S.politicalprocess.Theyalsodidnotacknowledgethatleftist

violenceandmilitantrhetoricinformedpoliceresponsestoradicals.Inthecontextof

violentU.S.imperialismandNixon’s“lawandorder”agenda,Weathermangeneralized

“pigs”asthedomesticmilitaryarmofthe“repressiveimperialistState.”Actingon

behalfofthe“rulingclass,”policewould“inevitably”escalatetheir“repression”ofthe

left,notinresponsetoperceivedthreatsofviolence,butaccordingto“howthreatening

theMovementistotheirpower.”12Theanalysiswasself-serving.Itenabled

Weathermantoplotacoursetowardsarmedguerrillastrugglewhileshirking

responsibilityfortheirownroleinshapingpoliceactionsagainstthemovementsofthe

U.S.left.

Intheirmanifesto,Weathermanheldontomovement-buildingaspartoftheir

10KarenAshley,BillAyers,BernadineDohrn,JohnJacobs,JeffJones,GerryLong,HowieMachtinger,JimMellon,TerryRobbins,MarkRudd,andSteveTappis,“YouDon’tNeedaWeathermantoKnowwhichWaytheWindBlows,”NewLeftNotes,June18,1969,InternetArchive,https://archive.org/details/YouDontNeedAWeathermanToKnowWhichWayTheWindBlows_925(accessedJune1,2016).AbriefexcerptofthiswordymanifestoisavailableinDorhn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,67-68.Forfurtheranalysisofthisdocumentandthe1969SDSnationalconference,seeVaron,BringingtheWarHome,49-51;Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,82-89;andSale,SDS,559-579.Thestatement’stitlecamefromBobDylan’s1965song“SubterraneanHomesickBlues.”11Ashley,etal.,“YouDon’tNeedaWeathermantoKnowwhichWaytheWindBlows.”12Ibid.

107

revolutionarystrategy.Ultimately,however,Weathermanassertedthatarmedstruggle

wouldbenecessarytocounteraforthcomingwaveof“all-outmilitaryrepression.”13

Overthenextsixmonths,thegroupwouldabandonmovement-buildingwhile

preparingforclandestineurbanguerrillawar,traininginmartialartsandbomb-

making,andstudyingthefocoisttextsofGuevaraandDebray.14Themovetofoco-

inspiredclandestinitysetWeathermanapartfromCameronBishopandotherlate

1960sradicalbombers,aswellasfromanarchistinsurgentsofthelatenineteenthand

earlytwentiethcentury.Previousrevolutionarybombersandsaboteurshadmaintained

publicactivistliveswhileoccasionallyengaginginsecretiveactsofpoliticalviolence.

Weatherman,incontrast,setouttoconstructanundergroundinfrastructureintowhich

theycouldescapecompletelyfromstatesurveillance.15Fromtheunderground,they

hopedtolaunchaprotractedcampaignofurbanguerrillawarfare,onethatcoulddivert

thestate’sresourcesawayfromitsattackontheBlackLiberationmovement,and,

accordingtotheirinterpretationoffocotheory,igniteabroaderrevolutionaryuprising

amongAmerica’syouth.

ThoughtheColumbiastrikeandconcernsoverdisruptivestudentunresthad

beentheimpetusbehindCOINTELPRO-NewLeft,priortotheJune1969National

ConventionFBIofficialsalsoworriedthatarevolutionarymovementledbyaunited

andpowerfulSDScouldalsothreatenAmericansociety.IntheviewofFBIdomestic

securityofficials,thethreatofNewLeft“subversion”wasdistinctfromthesupposed

foreign-backedthreatposedbytheCommunistParty.AsR.L.Shackelfordexplainedto

13Ibid.14Rudd,Underground,180-183.15Forasociologicalanalysisoflate1960sradicals’turntoclandestinity,seeZwerman,etal.,“DisappearingSocialMovements.”

108

hissupervisorsCharlesBrennanandWilliamSullivaninNovember1968:

ItappearstheNewLeftisgravitatingtowardsestablishingapowerbasewithinthestructureofhighereducation.ItiswellestablishedthebasicideologicaldifferencebetweentheNewLeftandtheCommunistParty,USA(CPUSA)restsonthispoint.TheCPUSAbelievesrevolutionmustcomefromthelaboringclass,theNewLeftbelievesfromtheintelligentsia. TheLatinAmericanversionofuniversitiesbeingcorruptedintopowerbasesforrevolutioniswellknown.Theevolutionoftheiruniversities,assacrosanctplaces,offlimitstotheirgovernments,isnotsomethingwecanaffordtositbyandseefollowedhere.16

Intheyearleadinguptothe1969NationalConvention,theFBI’sdual

objectives—ofpreventingbothsubversionandviolence—eachinformedCOINTELPRO

operationsagainstSDS,sometimesinconflictingways.Indeed,shortlybeforethe

NationalConvention,theFBIworriedthatthePLP’s“praxisaction”factioncould

transformSDSfrom“ashapelessandfractionalizedgroupintoamilitantand

disciplinedorganization”capableofconsolidatingarevolutionarystudentmovement.17

Withthesefearstakingimmediateprecedentoverviolenceprevention,theFBI

undertookseveralCOINTELPROactionsdesignedtopreventPLPfromdominating

SDS.18Inoneinstance,FBIofficialsdirectedtheirnumerousinformantsinsideSDSto

votefortheNationalOfficefaction(whichwouldsoonbecomeknownasthe

Weathermanfaction)inthevoteforofficersduringtheNationalConvention.The

SpecialAgentinChargeoftheClevelandFieldOfficelaterreportedthatalthoughthe

“preciseeffect”ofthisinitiativecouldnotbemeasured,theFBI’spreferredoutcome

materializednonetheless,asWeatherleadersMarkRudd,BernadineDorhn,BillAyers,

16FBImemo,R.L.ShackelfordtoC.D.Brennan,November5,1968,COINTELPRONewLeft,Headquartersfile,section1.17FBImemo,SACClevelandtoDirector,August1,1969,FBICOINTELPRO-NewLeft,ClevelandFile.18AaronLeonard,“TheFBIandtheShatteringofStudentsforaDemocraticSociety,”Truthout,October2,2014,http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/26558-the-fbi-and-the-shattering-of-students-for-a-democratic-society(accessedJune1,2016);Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere,62-64.

109

andJeffJonesassumedtheirnewpositionsasSDSnationalofficers.“TheSDSasthe

mainstayofthenationalNewLeftMovementisnowseriouslydividedand,tothis

extent,weakened,”hereported,noting,“theNationalOfficefactionisgraduallybeing

forcedintoapositionofmilitantextremismwhichhopefullywillisolateitfromother

elementsofthelibertariancommunityandeventuateitscompletediscreditinginthe

eyesoftheAmericanpublic.”19

AftertheNationalConvention,however,theFBIshiftedthefocusofitsNewLeft

surveillanceandcounterintelligenceoperationstowardstheWeathermanfaction,

hopingtopreventthegroupfromcarryingoutdisruptiveorlethalviolence.OnJuly25,

1969,afewdaysafterWeathermantookoverStudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS),

FBIInternalSecurityChiefCharlesD.BrennanwarnedAssistantDirectorWilliamC.

Sullivanaboutthefaction’sembraceofclandestineguerrillaviolence.Weatherman,he

explained,soughttomoveSDS“intothepositionofaclandestineorganizationof

Marxist-Leninistrevolutionistswhichwillsupportsimilargroupsthroughouttheworld

anduseforceandviolencetoachievetheirobjectivesinthiscountry.”20Indeed,the

emergenceofWeatherman,adevelopmenttheFBIhadironicallyencouraged,now

servedasconfirmationofSullivanandBrennan’sviewthatleftistviolencepresenteda

newurgentthreattoU.S.nationalsecurity,onethattheFBIwasnotfullypreparedto

confront.

Clandestinity

AlthoughCharlesBrennanobservedasignificantshiftinSDS’sstrategy,theFBIhadno19SACClevelandtoDirector,August1,1969,4.20FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,July25,1969,FBIWUO,Roll5,Section52.

110

specificknowledgeofWeathermanplansforviolence.BrennanandotherFBIDomestic

SecurityofficialsalsohadnonewcounterstrategyforunderminingWeathermanor

clandestineurbanguerrillagroups.Intheabsenceofsuchanewstrategy,Brennan

respondedtoWeathermanwithacounterintelligenceoperationsimilartothosetheFBI

hadbeendirectingagainstSDSsinceApril1968.Brennanrecommendedfurnishing

informationonSDS’sfactionalismto“friendlynewsservices”withtheaimofpromoting

“awidersplitinthisrevolutionaryyouthgroup.”21TheFBIwouldcarryoutmany

COINTELPROoperationsaimedtoundermineWeathermanbeforethegroup’s

membershipwentfullyundergroundinMarch1970;agents’pressureonlandlords,for

example,managedtogetatwoWeathermancollectiveskickedoutoftheirapartments

inCambridge,Massachusetts.22

Inadditiontoprecipitatingnewcounterintelligenceoperations,theJune1969

SDSNationalConventionmarkedthebeginningofadramaticexpansionintheFBI’s

surveillanceofAmericanleftistorganizations.InJuly,replicatingprogramstargeting

theCPUSA,SNCC,andtheBlackPanthers,theBureauinitiatedaprogramtodevelop

“toplevelinformants”withinSDS’sNationalOffice,whomtheyhopedcouldprovide

dailyreportsontheactivitiesoftheorganization’sleadership.InamessagetoFBI

Headquarters,theChicagoFieldOfficeaffirmedtheirsupportforsuchefforts,

expressingdismaywiththeirlackofinformantsinsidetheWeathermanfaction,whom

theydescribedas“extremelysecurityconsciouspermittingveryfewindividuals,even

21Ibid.22FBIairtel,SACBostontoDirector,February26,1970;FBImemo,SACBostontoDirector,May15,1970,COINTELPRONewLeft,sections2and3.

111

thoughknownmembersoftheSDS,tovisittheNationalOffice.”23Afterthisinitiative

theFBIcontinuedtoexpanditsdomesticsurveillanceoperations.BetweenJuly1969

andJuly1972,theFBIincreasednewdomesticsurveillancebyoverfiftypercent,as

agentsinitiatedover1,000newinvestigationsof“subversives”and“extremists.”24A

1976federalgovernmentreportonFBIpracticesattributedthisdevelopmentto“the

increasingnumberofradicalnewleftgroupsassociatedwithmilitantdemonstrations

andeitherinvolvedorsuspectedofinvolvementinarson,bombings,anddestructionof

Governmentproperty.”25Accordingtothereport,theFBIwasespeciallyconcerned

withWeathermanaswellas“blackmilitantgroups,particularlytheBlackPanther

Party.”26

TheFBItrackedWeathermanwithgrowingalarmduringthesummerof1969,a

periodofsurgingpopularprotestagainsttheU.S.warinVietnam.Gleaninginformation

frominformantsandSDSpublicationssuchasNewLeftNotes,theFBIwatchedas

Weathermanplannedtheir“SDSNationalAction,”otherwiseknownasthe“Daysof

Rage,”inwhichorganizerssoughttodelivertensofthousandsofmilitantprotestorsto

downtownChicagofromOctober8-11to“bringthewarhome”andengagepolicein

hand-to-handcombat.27

WeathermanconceivedtheDaysofRageasameanstoachievetheirgoalof

sparkingawhiteworking-classyouthrevoltandopeningafrontagainstU.S.

imperialismintheheartofAmerica.Organizersextolledviolence,pronouncingtheir

23FBIairtel,SACChicagotoDirector,“TopLevelInformantDevelopment(TOPLEV),”July28,1969,WUOFBI,Roll5,Section53.24GAO,FBIDomesticIntelligenceOperations,133.25Ibid.26Ibid,133-135.27Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere,64;Varon,BringingtheWarHome,61-62.

112

intentionsto“tearuppigcity”and“kickass”inconfrontationswiththepolice,asthey

attemptedtorecruitparticipantsathighschools,communitycolleges,andyouth

hangouts.28WeatherwomanCathyWilkersonlaterrecalledthatsuchactivities“gave

voicetothefrustration,anger,andgrowingabandonthatsomanyyoungactivistsfelt,”

and“seemedtoelectrifytheimaginationofanewconstituencyofyoungpeople,

especiallyteenagers.”29“SomeoftheleadersofWeatherman,however,mistookthese

youthfulexpressionsofalienationforpoliticalconsciousness,”Wilkersonwrote;“Many

wantedtobeconvinced”oftheerroneousnotion“thatifafewthrewupthebarricades,

hundredsofthousandswouldfollow.”30

UponobservinganescalationinWeatherman’smilitantrhetoricandplansfor

violence,FBIFieldOfficesinChicagoandothercitiesshiftedthe“majorthrustof[New

Left]counterintelligenceactivity”towardsthegroup.31OnewaytheFBIsoughtto

undermineWeathermanwasbydiscreditingthemintheeyesofthepublic.Achieving

thisobjectivewasnotdifficult,giventhegroup’snearlynon-existentpopularsupport.

TofurthertarnishWeatherman’simage,theFBIsimplyhelpedtopublicizeitsleaders’

outrageousviolentrhetoric.InoneAugust1969counterintelligenceoperation,for

example,ClevelandagentstippedoffalocaltelevisionnewsstationthatSDSwas

holdingaregionalconferenceinthecity,andsuggestedreportersseekinterviewswith

theorganization’sleaders.Asaresult,StationWJWtelevisedaninterviewinwhich

MarkRuddandtwootherWeatherleaders,intheFBI’swords,“exhibitedaninsolent,

arrogantattitudeandopenlyproclaimedtheircommunisticphilosophyandintentto

28Varon,BringingtheWarHome,61.29Wilkerson,FlyingClosetotheSun,284.30Ibid.31FBImemo,SACChicagotoDirector,March31,1970,FBIVault,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,ChicagoFile.

113

‘smash’theUnitedStatesGovernment.”Cleveland’sSpecialAgentinChargereported

withsatisfactionthat“Rudd’sstatementshaveservedtoalarmandalertcitizensofthis

areaandhaveconvincedmanywhowerepreviouslyindifferenttothisproblemposed

bytheSDS.”32Inanotherinstance,Chicagoagentsdistributedamong“moderate

groups”atwenty-seven-pagecartoonbookdesignedtolampoonWeatherman’s

“revolutionaryideals”andadvocacyofviolentstreet-fightingtactics.33Accordingto

Chicago’sSpecialAgentinCharge,thebook“causedconcernoverSDSactivities”and

“appearedtobeespeciallysuccessfulamonghighschoolstudentswhereSDSwas

attemptingtoorganize.”34

TheFBIalsoendeavoredtopromotefissuresbetweenWeathermanandother

radicalgroups.Spreadingrumorsthroughinformantsandanonymouslymailedletters,

FBIagentssoughttosowdivisionsbetweentheSDSNationalOfficeandtheChicago

BlackPanthers,deepenanimositybetweenWeathermanandthePLP,andpromote

distrustbetweenWeathermanandRevolutionaryYouthMovementII,theanti-PLP

factionthatsplitfromWeathermanaftertheSDSNationalConvention.35Factionalism

ransohighinSDSaftertheJune1969NationalConference,however,thatsuchFBI

operationswerebarelyneededtounderminethecrumblingSDS.ObservinginAugust

1969thattheWeathermanfactionhad“expelled”severalmemberswho“expressed

opinionsdifferingfromthe‘line’establishedbythecurrentleaders,”theSpecialAgent

inChargeofCleveland’sfieldofficewarnedFBIHeadquartersthatattemptingtodisrupt

32FBImemo,SACClevelandtoDirector,October3,1969,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,HeadquartersFile,section2.33SACChicagotoDirector,June30,1969.34Ibid.35FBImemo,SACChicagotoDirector,June30,1969;andFBIairtel,SACChicagotoDirector,September4,1969,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,ChicagoFile.

114

SDSthroughtheuseofpaidinformantswasnotworththerisk.36“Atpresent,”hewrote,

“itdoesnotseemwisetoriskvaluableinformantsbyengagingtheminthedelicatetask

ofinjectingdisruptiveopinionsintoSDSpolicy-makingdecisions.”37

WhilecarryingoutCOINTELPROoperationsagainstWeatherman,theFBIalso

conductedsurveillanceinanefforttoascertainthegroup’splansfortheDaysofRage

andotherpotentiallyviolentactions.TheFBIstartedtappingthephonesinSDS’s

ChicagoNationalOfficeinMay1969,amonthbeforeWeathermancoalescedduringthe

organization’sJuneNationalConvention.38WilliamDysonwasoneoffourSpecial

Agentswhologgedmorethan160hoursperweeklisteninginonSDSphone

conversations,astheorganization’sactivistsbegantoconsiderthemeritsofguerrilla

warfare.HelaterrememberedtheexcitementhefeltwhilemonitoringSDSactivitieson

arecordingmachineinthe“CentralTesurPlant,”alocked,windowlessroomlocatedin

“thebowelsoftheChicagoOffice.”39“IwatchedthembecometheWeathermen!Iwas

withthemwhentheybecametheWeathermen!”herecalled,claiming,“Iknewmore

aboutthesepeoplethantheyknewaboutthemselves.”40

WiththeAttorneyGeneral’sapproval,theFBIalsoinstalledahidden

microphoneinSDS’sChicagoRegionalOfficeinSeptember1969.41FBIHeadquarters

wishedto“bug”SDS’sNationalOfficeaswell,butChicagoagentswereunableto

36FBImemo,SACClevelandtoDirector,August1,1969,COINTELPRONewLeft,Clevelandfile.37Ibid.38TheFBIpreviouslytappedthephonesintheSDS’sChicagoNationalOfficefrom1965to1966aspartofaninvestigationof“Communistinfiltration”oftheorganization,butterminatedtheirtelephonesurveillanceunderordersfromtheAttorneyGeneral.39FBIsurvey,SACChicagotoDirector,November11,1969,FBIWUO,Roll8,“JuneMail”section.“Tesur”isanFBIcodewordfor“technicalsurveillance,”otherwiseknownastelephonesurveillance,orelectronicwiretapping.40WilliamE.Dyson,oralhistoryinterviewbyStanleyA.PimentelonbehalfoftheSocietyofFormerSpecialAgentsoftheFBI,Inc.,January15,2008,28(emphasisinoriginal).41FBIteletype,DirectortoSACChicago,September9,1969,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,ChicagoFile.

115

conductthebreak-inrequiredformicrophoneinstallationduetothepresenceof

Weathermansecurityvolunteersstationedoutsidetheoffice’ssteel-plateddoor

twenty-fourhoursaday.42Weatherman’s“guardwatch”wasonlyoneofseveral

securitymeasuresthegrouptooktocounterFBIandpolicesurveillance.Having

becomeradicalizedamidapoliticalcountercultureinwhichactivistswereaccustomed

topolicesurveillance,harassment,andbrutality,Weathermanmilitantscorrectly

assumedthattheirphonesweretappedandthatpoliceinformantssoughttoinfiltrate

theirmeetingsandorganization.43AnAugust1969ChicagoFBIreportnotedthat

activistsintheSDSNationalofficehadadoptedan“extremeconcernforsecurity”after

ChicagopolicearrestedfiveleadersonthepremisesthepreviousMay.“Sincethenand

particularlyafterthenew[Weatherman]leadershiptookoverthe[NationalOffice],”the

reportnoted,“theirsecurityproceduresincreasedtotheextentthatatthepresentno

onenotknownpersonallytooneofthethreenationalsecretariesmaybeadmitted.”44

DespiteWeatherman’scounter-surveillancemeasures,theFBImanagedto

obtainagreatdealofinformationfromitswiretapsontheSDSNationalOfficephones

anditsmicrophoneinsidetheChicagoRegionalOffice.WilliamDysonandother

eavesdroppingagentscompiledextensivenotesonWeatherpeople’splansandother

activities,takingparticularinterestinmembers’travelstoCuba,conversationswith

BlackPanthers,andcommunicationswithactivistsinlocalSDSchapters.45Inareport

42FBIairtel,SACChicagotoDirector,August8,1969,FBIWUOFile,“JuneMail”Section.TheFBIwasalsounabletospyonSDSfromroomsadjoiningtheNationalOfficebecausethebuildinghousingtheofficewasownedbyJohnRossen,whomagentsdescribedas“aformerCommunistPartymember,andlong-timeactivistincommunistfrontcauses”withaknown“anti-Bureauattitude.”43Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere,171-174.44SACChicagotoDirector,August8,1969.45FBImemo,SACChicagotoDirector,“JustificationforContinuationofTechnicalorMicrophoneSurveillance,”August8,1969,FBIWUOFile,“JuneMail”Section.

116

toDirectorHoover,Chicago’sSpecialAgentinChargesummarizedthattheelectronic

surveillancehad“furnishednumerousidentitiesofSDSleadersinotherpartsofthe

UnitedStates,plusinformationconcerningaimsandpurposesandfutureplansaswell

asinformationconcerningfinancesofSDS.”46

TheDaysofRagefellfarshortofthewhiterevolutionaryurbaninsurrection

Weathermanleadershadenvisioned.Onlyafewhundredactivistsshowedupin

Chicagoforthepre-plannedriot,afractionofthefifteenthousandthatorganizershad

hopedfor.47AlthoughtheFBI’scounterintelligenceeffortslikelyenhancedthe

alienatingeffectsofthemilitants’factionalismandluridrhetoric,Weathermanhad

largelysucceededinturning-offwould-berecruitsontheirown.MarkRuddhadapoint

whenhereflecteddecadeslater,withheavyself-criticism,thatWeathermanhad

“playedintothehandsoftheFBI.”“Wemightaswellhavebeenontheirpayroll,”he

said.48TheFBIwasunable,however,topreventWeathermanviolenceonChicago’s

streets.Indeed,bydisruptingtheNewLeftandBlackPanthers,andgivinglocalpolicea

greenlighttoharass,arrest,andbeatradicalactivists,theFBIhadhelpedinspire

Weatherman’sturnto“revolutionary”violence.

OnOctober6,inanattempttoinspirerevolutionarymilitancyatthe“Daysof

Rage,”Weathermanactivistscarriedouttheirfirstbombing.Theblastdemolisheda

statuecommemoratingChicagopolicekilledduringthe1886Haymarketriots(radicals

despisedthemonumentbecauseitneglectedtomemorializethefouranarchistlabor

46Ibid,5.ChicagopolicealsoregularlyfollowedandharassedWeathermanmilitantsthroughoutthesummerandfallof1969.SeeBerger,OutlawsofAmerica,106-107;andVaron,BringingtheWarHome,153.47Varon,BringingtheWarHome,74;Rudd,Underground,181.48Rudd,Underground,ix.

117

activistsauthoritieshangedin1887inretaliationfortheofficers’deaths).49Dayslater,

Weathermanmilitantswhoshowedupforthedemonstrationsprovokedclasheswith

thepolice,andsmashedhundredsofresidential,store,andcarwindows.Sixty-four

policeofficerssustainedinjuriesduringtheconfrontations,asdidmanyoftherioters,

whosufferedbrutalpolicebatonbeatings.Policealsoshotsixprotesters,andarrested

287,utilizingFBIintelligencetoidentifyWeathermen.50ChicagoAssistantCorporation

CouncilRichardElrodbecameparalyzedduringthestreetfightsafterhittinghisneck

againstaconcretewallwhiletryingtotackleWeathermanBrianFlanagan.51Utilizing

languagethattheFBIwouldsoonregularlyusetocharacterizeWeatherman,the

ChicagoTribuneechoedthefeelingsofmanyAmericanswhowatchedfootageofthe

violenceontelevision,describingtherioters’actionsasa“carnivalofmindlessterror.”

InastatementlegitimizingtheFBI’seffortstodestroytheWeathermanorganization,

theTribunecalledonpolicetostampoutthe“NewBarbarians.”52ChicagoFBIagents,in

turn,seizedonthefactthattheDaysofRagehad“resultedinwidespreadpublicity

unfavorabletotheWeathermanfactionofSDS,”andproposednewcounterintelligence

actionsdesignedtoeliminateanyremainingpopularsupportforthegroup.53

TheFBIaccuratelyforesawthe“DaysofRage”asapreludetoWeatherman’s

involvementinanewformofviolence:clandestineurbanguerrillawarfare.Inanairtel

senttothirteenmajorFieldOfficesonOctober23,1969,DirectorHooverreported

receivingintelligence,likelygleanedfrominformants,“thattheNewYorkCityarea49Varon,BringingtheWarHome,76.50FBImemo,SACChicagotoDirector,December31,1969,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,ChicagoFile.51Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere,64;Varon,BringingtheWarHome,82;Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,109-112.52ChicagoTribunequotedinVaron,BringingtheWarHome,83.53FBImemo,SACChicagotoDirector,October13,1969,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,HeadquartersFilepart2.

118

‘Weatherman’factionofSDSisgoingundergroundandformingcommando-typeunits

whichwillengageinterroristicacts,includingbombings,arsonsandassassinations.”54

Hooverstillhadnoclearstrategyforcombattingclandestineleftistguerrillas,however.

Lackingsuchastrategy,Hooverandhismendrewupontime-testedinvestigativeand

“preventative”surveillancetechniquestheFBIhaddevelopedinitsprevious

investigationsofcriminals,Communists,andKlansmen.Notingthatmembersofthe

OhioSDSRegionalOfficeorganizedweeklykarateandfirearmstrainingcoursesduring

thesummerof1969,Hooverdirectedrecipientofficesto“thoroughlyreviewpertinent

files”andconsult“logicalknowledgeablesources”inorderto“determinewhetherany

indicationsofsuchactivityexistsinthoseterritories”andif“the‘Weatherman’faction

intendstofollowthispatternonanationalbasis.”55InlateNovember,underHoover’s

direction,FBIofficesthroughoutthecountrybegancompilingbiographiesofallknown

membersofSDS’sWeathermanfaction,gatheringapproximately270inunderamonth,

andaddingmostnamestotheBureau’sSecurityIndex.56Hooveralsoorderedovera

dozenFieldOfficestodevelopinformantscapableofinfiltratinglocalWeatherman

collectives.57

Inspiteoftheseefforts,FBIinvestigatorsfeltfrustratedwiththeirlimited

knowledgeofWeatherman’splansandactivities.OnDecember19,1969,Internal

SecurityChiefCharlesBrennanconveyedsuchfeelingstoAssistantDirectorWilliam

Sullivan,lamentingthatbecauseoftheWeatherman’ssecrecy,theBureauhadbeen

54FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,October23,1969,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section,57.55Ibid.56FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,December19,1969,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section59.57Ibid.

119

“unabletoobtainthepenetrativecoveragewedesire.”58Inadditiontorevealingthe

challengesWeatherman’sturntoclandestinityposedtoFBIsurveillanceefforts,

Brennan’smemoconveyedtheaccumulatingfrustrationheandSullivanfeltover

Hoover’sbanonillegalsurveillancetechniques.BrennanandSullivanhadsomething

importantincommonwiththeDirector,however:anongoingfailuretoacknowledge

thatpoliceviolenceandFBIcounterintelligenceoperations—particularlythosedirected

againsttheBlackPantherParty—helpedstrengthenWeatherman’sresolvetoprepare

forguerrillawarfare.

AcriticaldeadlypoliceattackontheBlackPanthersoccurredinChicagoduring

thepredawnhoursofDecember4,1969.At4:00A.M.,inanallegedefforttoseizeillegal

weaponsonbehalfoftheIllinoisState’sAttorney,fourteenChicagopolicearmedwith

fiveshotguns,asubmachinegun,andtwenty-oneotherfirearmsraidedtheMonroe

Streetapartmentofthecity’sBlackPantherleader,twenty-year-oldFredHampton.

Whentheoccupantsoftheapartmentrefusedtoletthemin,thepoliceopenedfire

throughthedoor,andcontinuedshootingastheybargedtheirwayinside,unloading

over90roundsinamatterofminutes.Whentheshootingstopped,FredHamptonlaid

deadonhisblood-soakedmattress,havingbeenkilledinhissleep.Thepolicehadalso

takenthelifeofMarkClark,leaderofthePeoriaBPPchapter,whohaddecidedtospend

thenightintheapartment.FellowPantherDeborahJohnson,whowasalsoHampton’s

fiancé,pregnant,andsleepinginthesamebed,miraculouslysurvivedtheattack.She

wasimmediatelyarrested,alongwithsixothersurvivingPanthers,mostofthem

teenagers,fourwithseriouswounds.Thepoliceinitiallyassertedthattheyhadopened

58Ibid.

120

fireinresponsetoshotscomingfrominsidetheapartment,aclaimreprintedwithout

questioninthenextday’snewspaper.Afewmonthslater,however,anFBIinvestigation

carriedoutonbehalfoftheJusticeDepartment’sCivilRightsDivisiondeterminedthat

allofthebulletsfiredintheraidhadcomefrompolicegunswiththeexceptionofone,

whichMarkClarkshotintothefloorafterapoliceroundpiercedhisheart.59

LikeotherpolicekillingsofBlackPanthers,thedeathsofFredHamptonand

MarkClarkoccurredamidescalatingviolencebetweenlocalpoliceandPanthers.

TensionsinChicagohadbeenbuildingsincetheprevioussummer,whenHamptonwas

servingajailsentencefor“appropriating”$71worthoficebarsfromanicecreamtruck

anddistributingthemtoneighborhoodchildren.FBIagentsandChicagocarriedout

severalraidsonthelocalPantherofficeduringthesummerandfall,resultinginarrests

andshotsfired.PanthersandChicagopoliceengagedinfirefightsinJulyandOctober.

ThisviolenceoccurredamongbroadertensionsbetweenAfricanAmericansand

Chicagopolice;fifty-nineblacksdiedatthehandsofChicagopolicein1969and1970.

OnNovember13,nineteen-year-oldformerPantherSpurgeonJakeWintersinitiateda

spontaneouspoliceambushandprolongedfirefightthatresultedinhisowndeath,the

deathoftwoofficers,andthewoundingofsevenmore.60

ManyinthelawenforcementcommunityblamedPantherviolenceonHampton,

wholedtheParty’sChicagochapter,eventhoughhehadbeenoutoftownduringthe

November13incident.HamptonhadbeenoneofthemostsuccessfulPanther

organizersinthecountry,overseeingasuccessfulFreeBreakfastProgramandFree

HealthClinic,andforgingalliances—albeitsometimesstrainedones—withlocal59O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”310-312;BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,237-239.60BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,236-237;O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”310-312.

121

chaptersofSDS,theradicalPuertoRicanYoungLordsOrganization,andtheBlackstone

Rangersstreetgang.61AmidescalatingpoliceviolenceagainstthePanthersinChicago

andbeyond,Hampton,likeBobbySeale,opposedimmediateoffensivearmedattackson

policeofficers.InsteadhesawPanther“survivalprograms”asmeanstounite

oppressedcommunitiesintoasocialmovementcapableofoverthrowingU.S.capitalism

andimperialismthroughfutureorganizedpopularrevolutionaryviolence.“Wenot

gonnafightreactionarypigs…withanyreactiononourpart,”hetoldalargemultiracial

audiencein1969,“Wegonnafighttheirreactionwhenallofusgettogetherandhavean

internationalproletarianrevolution.”62Duringthesamegathering,Seale,thenontrial

intheChicagoEightcase,exclaimedtothecrowd,“We’regoingtostandtogether.We’re

goingtohaveaBlackArmy,aMexicanAmericanArmy,andallianceinsolidaritywith

progressiveWhites,Allofus.Andwe’regoingtomarchonthispigpowerstructure.And

we’regoingtosay:‘Stick‘emupmotherfucker.WeComeforwhat’sours.’”63

UnconcernedwiththenuancesofviolentPantherrhetoric,policeandotherofficials

sawHamptonasathreat.AfterthebloodyNovember13gunbattle,rumorsbeganto

spreadonChicago’sstreetsthatthepolicewantedHamptondead,andsomeactivists

urgedhimtoleavethecity.64

TheBlackPanthersportrayedtheHamptonandClarkkillingsaspremeditated

murder,andaspartofthestate’slargercampaignofrepressionagainsttheir

organization.Giventhefactsoftheraid,theirargumentwasconvincing.Forseveral

daysafterthekillings,ChicagoPantherskeptHampton’sapartmentopentothepublic.

61O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”310-312.62HamptonquotedinBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,230.63Sealequotedinibid.64Anonymoussource,conversationwiththeauthor,2014.

122

Takingcarefulprecautionstoensurethatnobodydisturbedthecrimescene,Panthers

touredneighbors,activists,andjournaliststhroughtheapartmenttoviewHampton’s

bloodymattressandthedozensofbulletholesthatriddledtheapartment’swalls.

MediacoverageoftheapartmentgeneratedinternationaloutrageandforcedtheJustice

DepartmentmandatetheFBI’sinvestigationofthekillings.Fornearlyadecade,

however,theFBIconcealedthefactthattheirownpaidinformantWilliamO’Neal,who

servedasFredHampton’sbodyguard,hadprovidedhishandlerSpecialAgentRoy

Mitchellwithahand-drawnfloorplanoftheapartmentfeaturingthelocationof

Hampton’sbedthatpolicehadusedintheraid.65

Aswithotherincidentsofdeadlyconflictbetweenradicalsandpoliceduringthe

Nixonera,criticalfactssurroundingtheHampton-Clarkkillingsremainunknownand

hotlydebated.Inparticular,thebeliefpersiststhatHoover’sFBIorderedthekillingsas

partofitscounterintelligenceprogramagainsttheBlackPanthers.66Thereisno

documentaryevidencetosupportthisassertion,however.FBISpecialAgentMitchell

certainlydidprovideChicagopolicewithO’Neal’ssketchoftheHamptonapartment’s

floorplan.ButdidhedosounderordersfromFBIHeadquartersortheChicagoSpecial

AgentinChargeMarlinC.Johnson?Ordidhedosoonhisown?Anddidheknowhow

theChicagopoliceweregoingtouseit?Didhecare?67WhydidHooverconcealtheFBI’s

65TheFBIprovidedO’Neilwitha$300bonusaftertheHampton-Clarkkilling,andheremainedaninformantontheFBIpayrollforseveralmoveyears.RumorshavealsocirculatedthatO’NeildruggedHamptonthenightbeforetheraid,butthereisnodocumentaryevidencetosupportthis.O’Reilly,“RacialMatters,”312.66WardChurchillandJimVanderWallmadethisassertionandothershaverepeatedit.67WilliamO’Neal,whomFBIagentsrecruitedasaninformantinexchangeforconvincinglocalpolicetoreduceaseriesofunrelatedcriminalchargesagainsthim,neverimaginedthatChicagopolicewouldusehissketchinanoperationtokillFredHampton.Guiltofhisinvolvementinthekillingsplaguedhimfortwodecades.AfterspeakingabouthisexperiencesinaninterviewforthePBSdocumentaryseriesEyes

123

connectiontotheraid?Tocover-upanFBIplot?Tocover-upotherillegalFBIactivity?

TopreservetheBureau’spublicimage?Althoughitisunlikelythatwewilleverhave

definitiveanswerstothesequestions,onecriticalfactisclear:theHampton-Clark

killingsservedtoconfirmmilitantleftists’suspicionsthatthegovernmentwouldstopat

nothing,includingmurder,tocrushAmerica’sradicalleft.

TheHampton-ClarkkillingswereacriticalfactorguidingWeatherman’spath

towardclandestineurbanguerrillawarfare.AshistorianJeremyVaronexplained,

“Hampton’smurderdeeplyaffectedtheWeathermen,underscoringabasicpremiseof

theirsandtheNewLeftasawhole:thatraceconstitutedaprimarybasisofoppression

andvastlyseparatedtheexperiencesofblackandwhiteactivists.”68WeathermanDavid

Gilbertrecalled,“itwasthemurderofFredHamptonmorethananyotherfactorthat

compelledustotakeuparmedstruggle.”69Similarly,CathyWilkersonremembered,

“themurders[ofHamptonandClark]seemedtocallforyetagreaterescalation,sothat

atleastthiskindofpolicebehaviorwouldnotsilentlybecometheacceptednorm…The

ruleshadchanged,andwhateverWeathermanwasplanning,Iwantedtobepartofit.”70

ThreeweeksaftertheHampton-Clarkkillings,onDecember27-30,1969,the

Weathermen(andwomen)engagedinafrenzied,finalcallforarmedrevolutionduring

theirNationalCouncilinFlint,Michigan.Themeetingofabout300people,dubbedthe

“NationalWarCouncil”byorganizers,wasWeatherman’slastpublicgathering.Atthe

FlintWarCouncil,Weatherleadersengagedinsomeofthemostflamboyantlyviolent

onthePrize,O’Nealcommittedsuicide.EyesonthePrize:ANationofLaws?1969-1971,directedbyHenryHampton,Blackside,1987.68Varon,BringingtheWarHome,156.69Gilbertquotedinibid.70Wilkerson,FlyingClosetotheSun,314.

124

rhetorictoevercomeoutoftheNewLeftastheyengagedintheirlastopenrecruitment

effortbeforegoingunderground.Organizersoftheeventcouchedtheirexhortationsto

armedrevolutionincountercultureimageryandparlance,decoratingtheirmeeting

areawithimagesofChéGuevaraandFredHampton,andpostersfeaturinghanddrawn

gunsightsandthewords“P-I-E-C-EN-O-W.”71Oneofthemostwidelypublicized

statementstocomeoutofthegatheringwasonethatBernadineDorhnandother

Weatherpeoplelaterdeeplyregretted.RomanticizingtheCharlesMansoncult’smurder

ofactressSharonTateandsixotherindividualstheprevioussummer,Dohrnexclaimed,

“Digit;firsttheykilledthosepigs,thentheyatedinnerintheroomwiththem,thenthey

evenshovedaforkintopigTate’sstomach.Wild!”72Weatherleadersmadesuch

proclamationsastheyannouncedtheirplanstogounderground,andworkedtopsych

eachotherupforthetaskofbuildingaclandestineurbanguerrillaorganization.73At

theWarCouncil,Weathermilitantsalsoconductedmartialartsclassesanddiscussed

plansforsecuringweapons,choosingtargets,andbuildingasecureunderground

infrastructure.74

Discouragedwiththeshortcomingsoftheirintelligencegathering,FBIofficials

lookedtotheFlintWarCouncilasanopportunitytowidentheirsurveillanceon

Weatherman.TheFBIcompiledanannotatedlistofoverahundredcoreactivistswho

attendedtheWarCouncil,drawingoninformationprovidedbytheirowninformantsin

thecrowd,aswellasbytheFlintPoliceDepartment,whoseofficerspulledoveratleast

71Varon,BringingtheWarHome,159.72Dorhnquotedinibid,160.73Ibid,158-159.74Ibid,159.

125

twentycarscontainingsuspectedWeathermanmilitantsenroutetothegathering.75In

theirreportsontheconference,FBIofficialsunderscoredsomeoftheWeatherleaders’

mostinflammatorycomments,includingBillAyers’remarksonthe“necessitytotake

onarmsandoffthepigs.”76DirectorHooverforwardedinformationonWeatherman

obtainedattheWarCounciltoPresidentRichardNixon,AttorneyGeneralJohnMitchell,

NationalSecurityAdvisorHenryKissinger,theStateDepartment,theCentral

IntelligenceAgency(CIA),theSecretService,andthreedifferentmilitaryintelligence

agencies.ThecontentsofHoover’sdeclassifiedcorrespondencewiththeseofficialsare

heavilyredacted,butthelettersprobablycontainedwarningsofWeatherman’splansto

carryoutguerillaviolence.77PresidentNixonlaterrecalledreadingHoover’sreportson

Weatherman’sWarCouncilwithgraveuneaseovertheorganization’splansto“begina

newcampaignofundergroundwarfare,policemurder,andbombing.”78

TheFBIgainedagreatdealofinformationaboutthosewhoattendedtheWar

Council,buttheygainednospecificknowledgeaboutWeatherman’splansforurban

guerrillawarfare.Thoughvocalintheiradvocacyofarmedrevolution,Weatherman

militants,maintainingtheirusualsecurityprecautions,intentionallykeptthespecific

detailsoftheirplanssecret.Immediatelyfollowingtheconference,Weatherman

memberscommencedtheirprocessofgoing“underground”tobuildaclandestine

revolutionaryorganizationcommittedtosustainedurbanguerrillawarfare.

75SenateSubcommitteetoInvestigatetheAdministrationoftheInternalSecurityActandotherInternalSecurityLaws,WeatherUnderground:SubcommitteetoInvestigatetheAdministrationoftheInternalSecurityActandotherInternalSecurityLaws,94thCong.,1stsess.(Washington:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1975),125-129.IhenceforthcitethisreportasWUR.76FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,December20,1969,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section59.77FBImemo,R.D.CottertoW.C.Sullivan,December31,1969,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section59;FBIcorrespondence,FBIDirectortoAttorneyGeneral,January2,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60;FBIcorrespondence,FBIDirectortoHenryKissinger,January2,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60.78Nixon,RN,470.

126

Tothisend,Weathermaninitiatedaprocessof“consolidation.”Afterclosing

downtheSDSNationalOfficeinChicagoinJanuary1970,theorganizationorchestrated

aseriesof“purges”designedtoeliminatepoliceinformantsandindividualsdeemed

lackingincommitment.OneFBIinformantmanagedtosurviveWeatherman’spurges:

LarryGrathwohl,aVietnamveteranwhoinfiltratedthegrouptheprevioussummer,

andsurvivedan“acidtest”inwhichmembersofthegroupconsumedLSDwhile

Weatherleaderstauntedandinterrogatedthem.79Weatherman’sremainingmembers,

numberingapproximately150,alsocommencedapainfulprocessofbreakingtieswith

familymembersandabovegroundacquaintancesinordertoestablishnew,assumed

identitiesbasedonfakeIDs.IntheSanFranciscoBayarea,Chicago,Detroit,andNew

YorkCity,Weathermanestablishedcollectiveswherememberslivedclandestinelyin

rented“safehouses”incounter-cultureenclavesorurbanwhiteworking-class

neighborhoods.Theyaccumulatedskillswithexplosives,documentforgery,and

disguise,financingtheiractivitieswithinheritedfamilymoney,stolenchecks,and

shoplifting.Reinventingthemselvesasaparamilitaryorganization,Weathermanalso

fortifiedarigidlyhierarchicalcommandstructure,withaWeatherbureaucomprisedof

BernadineDohrn,JeffJones,JohnJacobs,andTerryRobbins,makingmostofthegroup’s

majordecisions.80Afteradecadeofescalatingpoliticalviolence,the1960shadbirthed

America’sfirstclandestinerevolutionaryurbanguerrillaorganization.

79LarryGrathwohl,BringingDownAmerica:AnFBIInformerwiththeWeathermen,astoldtoFrankReagan(NewRochelle,NY:ArlingtonHousePublishers,1976),119-122.GrathwohlparticipatedintheDaysofRage,anddatedWeatherwomanNaomiJaffe.HeclaimedinhismemoirtohavefakedtakingLSDduringtheWeatherman“acidtest.”80Rudd,Underground,182;Varon,BringingtheWarHome,171-172.

127

Conclusion

AsWeathermanformedanundergroundinfrastructureandhatchedsecretplansfor

revolutionaryguerrillawarfareinsidetheUnitedStates,theFBIfacedachallenge

unlikeanyotherithadconfrontedinitsforty-fiveyearhistory.Thethreatof

WeathermanviolencelikelyinformedHoover’sproclamationduringaFebruary1970

Congressionalhearingthat“Weathermanisthemostviolent,persistentandpernicious

ofrevolutionarygroups,”astatementthatsuggestedtheorganizationhadreplacedthe

BlackPanthersastheFBI’spublicenemynumberone.81TheFBIsuspected

WeathermaninvolvementintwoFebruary1970bombingsofBayAreapolicestations,

oneofwhichmangledthearmofBerkeleypolicemanPaulMorgan,andanotherthat

killedSanFranciscopoliceofficerBrianMcDonnell.Forty-fiveyearslater,itwouldturn

outthattheirhunchwascorrect,afterananonymousformerWeathermilitant

confessedtoajournalistthatthegrouphadstagedtheattacks.82Weathermandidnot

publiclytakecreditforthebombings,however.AsfarastheFBIandotherlaw

enforcementagenciesknewatthetime,theseattackscouldhavebeencarriedoutby

anynumberoftheanonymousradicalstheninvolvedinnighttimebombingand

sabotageactivities;atleastseventeenotherleftistbombingsoccurredthroughoutthe

UnitedStatesinFebruary1970.83Weatherman’sfutureviolentattacks,andthe

consequencesofsuchactions,remainedimpossibletoforesee.

AsWeathermantransitionedintotheunderground,thegroup’sleadershiphad

noqualmswithkillingpoliceofficers.TheFBIwaswellawareofthis,thankstotheir

81WUR,38.82Burrough,DaysofRage,94-97.83Ibid,96.

128

surveillanceoftheDecember1969FlintWarCouncil.Aninfluentialfactionofthe

organization,ledbyJohnJacobsandTerryRobbins,alsoadvocateddeadlyattackswith

seriouscasualtiesasameanstogiveAmericansatasteoftheviolencetheirgovernment

inflicteddailyuponthepeopleofVietnam.Fatefully,aWeatherUndergroundanti-

personnelbombwouldtakethelivesofRobbinsandfellowWeathermilitantsTedGold

andDianaOughtonbeforethegrouphadachancetoinflictamass-casualtiesbloodbath.

ThedeathofthreeWeatherpeopleinanaccidentalexplosiononMarch6,1970would

nonethelesshavefar-reachingconsequencesfortheFBIandtheNixonadministration.

129

CHAPTER3

COUNTERINGANEWTHREAT:THEWEATHERUNDERGROUND,“TERRORISM,”

ANDTHEHUSTONPLAN

AkeyturningpointintheFBI’sWeatherUndergroundinvestigationoccurredafter

twenty-three-year-oldmilitantTerryRobbinsmadeafatalmistake.OnMarch6,1970,

whilepreparingantipersonnelnail-bombsintendedforadanceatNewJersey’sFortDix

Armybase,hecrossedlivewires.Withinaninstant,aseriesofexplosionsleveledthe

upscaleGreenwichVillagetownhousethatheandotherWeatherUnderground

memberswereusingasabomb-makinglaboratory.TheblastkilledRobbinsandfellow

WeatherpeopleDianaOughtonandTedGold,manglingtheirbodiesbeyond

recognition.Theexplosioncouldhavebeenmuchworse.Morethaneightysticksof

dynamitestoredwithinthehousefailedtodetonate,therebysavingthesurrounding

cityblockfromdestruction,andsparingthelivesofWeatherradicalsCathyWilkerson

(whosefatherandstepmotherownedthetownhouse)andKathyBoudin.Escapingthe

wreckage,thepairbrieflysoughtshelterinthehomeofaneighborbeforedisappearing

intotherevolutionaryunderground.1

OccurringamidasteepincreaseinleftistbombingincidentsintheU.S.and

aroundtheworld,thetownhouseexplosiondemonstratedtotheFBIthattheWeather

UndergroundwasseriousaboutitsplanstoformAmerica’sfirstclandestine

revolutionaryurbanguerrillaorganization.Indeed,immediatelyaftertheblast,a

1Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,127-129;Varon,BringingtheWarHome,173-174.Wilkerson’sfatherandstepmotherwereonvacationatthetime.ForWilkerson’saccount,seeFlyingtooClosetotheSun:MyLifeandTimeasaWeatherman,345-348.

130

nationwideFBI-ledmanhuntforcedthegroup’smemberstoimmediatelygo

underground.Remakingthemselvesasurbanguerrillaslivingunderassumedidentities

insecretsafehousesthroughoutthecountry,thegroup’syoungmembersadopted

clandestinityasameanstocarryoutasustainedcampaignofarmedrevolutionary

strugglewhiledeliberatelyavoidingstatesurveillanceandrepression.Thisreality,

alongwiththeWeatherUnderground’splansforfurtherviolence,presentedtheFBI

withanurgentdilemma:Howcouldagentspreemptandcaptureviolentrevolutionaries

whoseguerrillaorganizationwasimpermeabletosurveillanceandinformant

infiltration?

TheFBIrespondedtothisdilemma,inpart,byframingleftistguerrillaviolence

as“terrorism.”OnMarch31,1970,FBIofficialsheldasecretconferenceto“coordinate

guidelinesforrecommendationsconcerningbombingmattersandextremistterroristic

activities.”Duringthemeeting,InternalSecurityChiefCharlesBrennanandhis

colleaguesidentified“leftistterroristactivity”asanunprecedentednewnational

securitythreat,andproposedseveralnewmeasuresdesignedtoaddressthisproblem.2

ItwasthefirsttimeinFBIhistoryinwhichofficialsstrategizedaroundaproblemthey

explicitlydefinedas“terrorism.”

PresidentRichardNixonalsoinitiatedneweffortstocombatleftistguerrilla

“terrorism.”OnJune5,1970NixonandafewofhisaidesmetwithleadersoftheFBI,

CentralIntelligenceAgency,NationalSecurityAgency,andtheDefenseIntelligence

2FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,April1,1970,1,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section6.ThischapteristhefirstthoroughhistoricalanalysisoftheFBI’searlyWeatherUndergroundinvestigation.ItbuildsupontheworkofDavidCunninghamandJeremyVaron,whoeachprovidepartialcoverageofthistopicascorollariestotheirstudiesonCOINTLEPRO-NewLeftandtheWeatherUnderground,respectively.Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere;Varon,BringingtheWarHome.

131

Agency,orderingthementodeviseaplantocounterthegrowingthreatofwhathe

calleddomestic“revolutionaryterrorism.”3Threeweekslater,Nixonapprovedaplan

draftedbyFBIAssistantDirectorWilliamC.SullivanandWhiteHouseaideTomHuston

forwhatwasthenthegreatestconsolidationoffederalsurveillancepowerinU.S.

history.Theinitiative,whichlaterbecameknownasthe“HustonPlan,”coordinatedall

federalintelligenceagencies’activitiesunderthedirectcommandoftheWhiteHouse.

TheplanalsoliftedFBIDirectorJ.EdgarHoover’smid-1960srestrictionson

warrantlesselectronicsurveillance,break-ins,mail-opening,anduseofinformants

undertheageoftwenty-one.Designedtopreemptrevolutionaryviolencewith

expansive“preventative”surveillancemeasures,theHustonPlanoutlinedtheUnited

States’firststateinstitutiondedicatedtocombatingthenewproblemof“terrorism.”

Nixonbackedoutoftheagreementfivedayslater,however,underpressurefrom

Hoover.Determinedtopreservetheinstitutionalautonomyhehadcarefullycultivated

throughouthisforty-six-yearcareer,HooverblockedtheHustonPlaninaneffortto

defendtheFBI’sjurisdictionoverdomesticsurveillanceandshieldtheBureaufromthe

publicoutcryheknewwouldoccuriftheAmericanpeopleeverlearnedaboutthe

secretproject.

Constituting“terrorism”asa“governableproblem,”distinctfromotherformsof

violence,criminality,and“subversive”activity,enabledofficialstodevisenewtactics

andstrategiestocounterthisnovelthreat.4AsFBIWeatherUndergroundinvestigator

SpecialAgentWilliamE.Dysonrecalled,priortoofficials’framinginsurgentviolenceas

3RichardNixon,“PresidentialTalkingPaper,”June5,1970,inHustonPlan,396.4Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,4,106.

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“terrorism,”“itwasdifficulttodevelopacommonstrategytodealwiththeproblem.”5

In1970,fightingtheWeatherUndergroundandotherleftistguerrillasbecameatopFBI

priorityastheBureaushifteditsfocusfrombattlingCommunist“subversion”to

preventingleftist“terrorism.”AstheabortedHustonPlanindicated,however,Nixon

andotherofficialswerefarfromsatisfiedwithHoover’seffortstothwartrevolutionary

guerrillaviolence.

MosthistoricalscholarshipontheHustonPlanmirrorspubliccriticismthat

emergedafteritsinitialdisclosureduringaJune1973SenateWatergatehearing,

viewingthesecretinitiativeprimarilyasevidenceofPresidentNixon’sparanoiaand

utilizationofU.S.intelligenceagenciestoadvancehispersonalpoliticalagenda.6But

5WilliamE.Dyson,Terrorism:AnInvestigator’sHandbook,4thed.(Waltham,MA:AndersonPublishing,2014),20.6AnexceptionisRonHughes,ChasingShadows,71-73,whichofferedabriefexplanationofhowtheWeatherUnderground’stownhouseexplosionandNixon’sconcernsoverleftistviolenceinformedtheHustonPlan.ThekeydetailedscholarlyworkonthehistoryoftheHustonPlanisAthanTheoharis,Chapter1,“TheHustonPlan,”inSpyingonAmericans.Theoharis,aleadinghistorianoftheFBIwhoworkedasastafferfortheChurchCommission,focusedonhowNixon’spersonalityandColdWarconcernsofforeignsubversioninformedtheHustonPlan,arguingthattheeffortwasaproductof“secrecyshroudingColdWar‘nationalsecurity’policy”andNixon’spersonaldesireforinformationhecouldusetodiscredithisadversaries,particularlythoseintheantiwarmovement,13-14.FellowChurchCommissionstafferandpoliticalscientistLochK.Johnsonofferedasimilaranalysis,thoughhebrieflymentionedleftistviolenceasamotivationfortheplan.SeeLochK.Johnson,Chapter7,“TheHustonPlan,”inAmerica’sSecretPower:TheCIAinaDemocraticSociety(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989),140.TheoharisandJohnsonbothmadeargumentssimilartothosearticulatedbytheChurchCommittee.SeeChurchCommittee,BookII,111-115;and“NationalSecurity,CivilLiberties,andtheCollectionofIntelligence,”inChurchCommittee,BookIII,921-986.OtherworksbyFBIexpertsthatoverlookhowtheWeatherUndergroundandotherviolentrevolutionariesinformedtheHustonPlanincludeJeffreys-Jones,TheFBI,180;andPoveda,LawlessnessandReform,39-40.CunninghammentionstheWeatherUnderground’sinfluenceontheHustonPlanonlyinpassing;Cunningham,There’sSomethingHappeningHere,300,footnote87.BeverlyGageprovidesabriefoverviewoftheHustonPlan,arguingthatitwas“themostsignificantepisode”ina“six-yearconflict”betweentheFBIandtheNixonadministrationpriortotheWatergatescandal.WhileGageacknowledgesthat“concernovertheriseindomesticbombingsstemmingfromaradicalizedantiwarleft”motivatedtheHustonPlan,herarticledoesnotfullyexplorehowleftistguerrillaattacksandofficials’framingofsuchviolenceas“terrorism”informedthesecretinitiative.SeeGage,“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”169-170.ForabriefjournalisticaccountofhowNewLeftviolenceinfluencedtheHustonPlan,seeWeiner,Enemies,290-292.JournalistBryanBurrough’sshortaccountoftheHustonPlan,basedlargelyonWeiner’s,explainstheplaninrelationtotheWeatherUndergroundtownhousebombing,butwithanumberoffactualinaccuracies.SeeBurrough,DaysofRage,132-135.

133

clandestineleftistguerrilla“terrorism”andtheFBI’sinabilitytopreventitwerethe

primaryconcernsdrivingNixonandtheplan’sarchitects.TheHustonPlanwasan

attemptbytheNixonadministrationandFBIAssistantDirectorWilliamC.Sullivanto

overrideDirectorHoover’slongstandingsemi-autonomousauthority,whichthey

viewedasanimpedimenttotheirwaragainstdomestic“revolutionaryterrorism.”A

productofSullivan’ssecretmeetingswithTomHustonontheproblemofrevolutionary

bombingsduringthesecondhalfof1969,theHustonPlanwasalsothefirstmajor

showdowninwhatwasnowafull-scaleinstitutionalconflictoverguerrillaviolenceand

FBIautonomy,abureaucraticstrugglethatwouldlaterculminateintheWatergate

Scandal.

“Large-ScaleShifttoTerrorism”

DespitewatchingStudentsforaDemocraticSociety’s(SDS)Weathermanfactionwith

growingalarmsinceJune1969,itwasnotuntiltheMarch6,1970GreenwichVillage

townhousebombingthatFBIofficialsbegantofullyreckonwiththenewchallengethe

WeatherUndergroundpresentedtopoliceagencies.Thoughaccidental,thedeadly

explosiondemonstratedtheseriousnessoftheorganization’splanstocarryout

revolutionaryguerrillawarfareinsidetheUnitedStates,andsignaledthelikelihoodof

moreviolenceinthenearfuture.Thedetonationofanti-personneldevicesalsoseemed

toindicatethatthegrouphadnoqualmskillingciviliansintheirquestforrevolutionary

change.Moreover,thetownhouseblastshinedaspotlightonthegroup’sevasionofthe

FBI’svastintelligenceinfrastructure.Inresponse,andundermountingpressurefrom

theNixonadministration,DirectorJ.EdgarHooverandotherFBIofficialsboth

134

intensifiedandreevaluatedtheirWeathermaninvestigation,institutingseveralnew

investigativemeasuresdesignedtocombatwhattheycalledleftist“terrorism.”

ThetownhousebombingaccompaniedotherdevelopmentsthatraisedFBI

officials’alarmoverWeatherUndergroundplansforfutureviolence.Onthesameday

asthetownhouseblast,Detroitpolicelocatedtwoundetonateddynamitebombs,onein

awomen’sbathroomintheirDepartment’s13thprecinct,andasecondinsidetheoffices

oftheDetroitPoliceOfficersAssociation.Faultyignitiondevices,crudelyconstructed

fromcigarettesandfirecrackerfuses,hadpreventedtheexplosivesfromdetonating.

Likethoseinthetownhouse,theDetroitbombsweredesignedtoinflictcasualties,and

theyprobablywouldhavehadtheyexplodedasintended.Thoughtheylackedhard

evidence,theFBIstronglysuspectedWeatherUndergroundinvolvement.7Bureau

investigatorsalsotraceddynamiterecoveredfromtheGreenwichVillagetownhouseto

Keene,NewHampshire,whereamanidentifyinghimselfasDavidBellarhadpurchased

itfromtheNewEnglandExplosivesCompanyfourdayspriortotheexplosion.Inan

urgentteletype,HooverorderedagentsinBoston,Albany,andotherFieldOfficesto

immediatelyinvestigatetheincident,aswellasaseconddynamitepurchaseinBarre,

Vermont,onMarch6,thedayofthetownhouseexplosion,bysuspectedWeatherman

RonaldFliegalman.8Inanotherlead,agentsuncoveredstolenstudentIDcardsand

checkbooksfromthetownhousewreckage,itemstheybelievedWeathermilitantshad

used“tofraudulentlypurchasequantitiesoffirearms.”9

FurtherdistressensuedonMarch12,whenagroupcallingitselfRevolutionary

7FBImemo,“StudentsforaDemocraticSociety,”March11,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60.8FBIteletype,DirectortoSACAlbany,March19,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section61.9FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,March20,1970,FBUWUO,Roll6,Section61.

135

Force9bombedthreeManhattanskyscrapers.Securityforcesavoidedcasualtiesby

heedingthebombers’evacuationinstructionsandshepherdingthousandsofworkers

fromthebuildings.Morethan600additionalbombthreatsissuedoverthefollowing

threedayswroughthavocinthecity,aspolicescrambledtoinvestigatefalseleadsand

evacuatethousandsofadditionalpeople.10Threedayslater,acarinMarylandcarrying

blackactivistsRalphFeatherstoneandWilliam“Ché”Payneexploded,killingbothmen.

PolicecontendedthatFeatherstoneandPaynewereontheirwaytocarryouta

bombingwhentheexplosiveintheirvehicleprematurelydetonated,thoughrumorsof

acovertFBIorpoliceassassinationcirculatedwithintheLeft.11Twodaysafterthat,

anotherbombtorethroughthecornerofanearbycourthousewhereSNCCleaderH.

RapBrownwastobetriedonchargesofincitingariotinthetownofCambridgein

1967.Afterthebombings,Brownimmediatelywentunderground.12Theexplosions

promptedHoovertowarnhisagentsofthelikelihood“terroristacts”by“black

extremists,”inadditiontothosecarriedoutbyWeathermanmilitants,would“increase

infrequencyandviolenceunlessaggressiveinvestigationisundertakentobringabout

10MurraySchumach,“FewerBombCallsareMadeinCity,”NewYorkTimes,March15,1970,40.11Ina1988article,SNCCveteranEkwuemeMichaelThelwellbrieflyrecalledRalphFeatherstone’spoliticalevolution.Featherstone,affectionatelyknowntohisfriendsas“Feather,”wasaWashingtonD.C.nativewhovolunteeredinthe1964MississippiFreedomProject,gainingagreatdealofrespectamonglocalsandfellowactivistsforhisorganizingskills.Withinayear,however,escalatingpoliceandvigilanteviolenceagainsttheBlackfreedommovementseemedtohavepushedFeathertoembracerevolutionaryviolence.ThelwellrecalledavisittoFeatherstone’ssmallWashingtonD.C.apartmentin1965:“BeforeIlefthereachedunderthenarrowbed.‘Iwannashowyousomething,’hesaidwithsuppressedexcitement.The‘something,’hesaid,wasanAK47attackrifle,ugly,ominous,lethal,cradledlikeababyonhislap.Ibeggedmybrothertogetridofit.Idon’tknowifhedid.Notlongafterhewasblowntopiecesbyacarbombinambiguouscircumstancesthetruthofwhichhasneverbeensatisfactorilyexplained.”MichaelThelwell,“1968:AScore-Settling,Ass-Kicking,Head-Whipping,Dues-Taking,Hypocrisy-Exposing,Innocence-Destroying,Delusion-EndingYear,”VOICEMagazine,March1988,34(copyinauthor’spossessioncourtesyofEkwuemeMichaelThelwell).12CarlOglesby,RavensintheStorm:APersonalHistoryofthe1960sAnti-WarMovement(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2008),289-290;EkwuemeMichaelThelwell,“H.RapBrown/JamilAl-Amin:AProfoundlyAmericanStory,”forwardtoDieNiggerDie!APoliticalAutobiography,byH.RapBrown(JamilAbdullahAl-Amin),2nded.(Chicago:LawrenceHill,2002),xx,xxii.

136

successfulprosecution…ofguiltyparties.”13

ThetownhouseexplosionandtheMarch12thbombingspromptedtheNixon

administrationtoputpressureontheFBI.PresidentNixonconveyedhisconcernover

theviolencetoAttorneyGeneralJohnN.Mitchell.ThroughhisthreeAssistantAttorney

Generals,MitchellrecommendedtoHooverthattheFBI,ratherthanlocalpolice,lead

investigationsofallfuturepoliticalbombings.14TheWeatherUnderground

investigationtookonfurtherurgencyafterApril1,whenpolicediscoveredalarge

cacheofdynamiteandgunsinaChicagoapartment.Again,theFBIsuspectedthe

WeatherUndergroundastheculprits.15

HooverfeltcertainthattheWeatherUndergroundwasstockpilingexplosives

andfirearmsforimminentuse.Hethereforecommandedhisagentsto“intensify”their

investigationoftheorganization,captureitsmembers,andpreempttheirplansfor

revolutionaryviolence.16Hooverdirectedagentsto“identifyWeathermanmembers,

ascertaintheirwhereaboutsanddeterminetheirplanstodirect‘strategicsabotage’

againstthe‘establishment.’”17Morespecifically,hecalledoninvestigatorstolocate

Weathermilitantsinlocal“communes,”inwhichcollectivesofyoungradicalslived

togetherwithsharedfoodandlivingexpenses,andtoinfiltratesuchgroupswith

informants.HealsoinstructedagentstoworkwithlocalpolicetolocateWeather

Undergroundfugitives,usingphotoalbumscontainingdetaileddescriptionsofthe

group’smembers.18InordertocoordinatetheFBI’sstepped-uppursuitofthe

13DirectortoSACBoston,March24,1970.14FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.C.Sullivan,April1,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60.15WUR,25.16BrennantoSullivan,March20,1970.17FBIairtel,DirectortoSACBoston,March12,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60.18Ibid.

137

guerrillas,theDirectororderedSpecialAgentsInChargeofsixteenmajorFieldOffices

toform“specialsquads,”dedicatedtoinvestigatingtheWeatherUndergroundand

otherviolentleftistgroups,comprisedofagentswithexperienceapprehending

fugitives.19UnderheavypressurefromDirectorHoover,specialagentsinvestigatingthe

WeatherUndergroundworkedtirelesslytofindthegroup’sclandestinemembers.In

somecases,theyresortedtoliesandemotionalmanipulation.Afterthetownhouse

bombing,FBIagentsvisitedtheparentsofseveralWeatherUndergroundmembersand,

inanefforttosecureinterviewsleadingtoinformationonwantedradicals’

whereabouts,toldsomeofthemerroneouslythattheirchildhaddiedinthe

explosion.20

NowthattheWeatherUndergroundhadgoneunderground,theFBIdetermined

thatcounterintelligenceprogramswerenolongereffectivemeansbywhichtocombat

theorganization.Becausetheyhadonlyoneinformantwithinthegroup,theFBIwas

unabletosowinternalconflict.Andbecausethetownhouseblasthadalready

diminishedtheorganization’slittleremainingpublicsupport,itwashardlynecessary

fortheBureautoexpendenergydiscreditingtheWeatherUnderground.Instead,the

BureaufocusedondestroyingtheWeatherUndergroundthroughtraditionalcriminal

investigationsofitsmembers.ThroughoutMarch1970,HooverurgedtheDepartment

ofJusticetopromptlyindictWeatherUndergroundmembersonchargesofviolatingthe

19Ibid;M.WesleySwearingen,FBISecrets:AnAgent’sExposé(Boston:SouthEndPress,1995),70.20ThaiJones,whoseparentsEleanorRaskinandJeffJoneswereWeatherUndergroundguerrillas,wrotethatFBIagentsvisitedhisgrandmotherAnneSteinafterthetownhouseblastandinformedherthatherdaughterEleanorhaddiedintheexplosion.AnoldleftradicalwithpreviousexperienceresistingtheFBI,Steinrefusedtospeakwiththeagents.JonesnotesthatFBIagentsattemptedthesametrickwithparentsofotherWeatherUndergroundfugitives,thoughitisunknownwhatinformationtheagentsgleanedfromtheseefforts.ThaiJones,ARadicalLine:FromtheLaborMovementtotheWeatherUnderground:OneFamily’sCenturyofConscience(NewYork:FreePress,2004),14.

138

SmithActof1940orotherfederallaws.21FBIagentsinChicagoworkedtirelesslyto

providetheDepartmentwithevidencetosupportindictments,believingthatcapturing

fugitiveswas“themosteffectivemethodtodisrupttheactivitiesofthisdangerous

group.”22AttorneyGeneralMitchellfollowedthroughonApril2,announcinga15-count

indictmentchargingtwelveWeathermanleaderswithconspiracyandinterstatetravel

toinciteariotduringChicago’sOctober1969“DaysofRage.”Theindictmentalso

namedtwenty-eightotherWeathermilitantsasco-conspirators.Nowthatalarge

numberoftheWeatherUnderground’smemberswerefederalfugitives,theFBIhad

jurisdictiontoapprehendthem.23

WeatherUndergroundfugitives,however,werenowheretobefound.By

attractingunexpectedpoliceattention,thetownhousebombingforcedWeather

militantstoeitherleavetheorganizationorgoundergroundimmediately.24AsBill

Ayersrecalledthedaysfollowingthedeadlyblast,“Wetooknewnamesandfashioned

clumsydisguisesandkeptourlivingspaceshiddenevenfromeachother.Wemetup

mostlyatnightinelaboratelyguardedways,andthenusuallyonlybriefly.”25Similarly,

DavidGilbertrememberedrapidlyalteringhispersonalappearance:

21DirectortoSACBoston,March12,1970;FBImemo,W.C.SullivantoC.D.Brennan,April3,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section61.22FBImemo,SACChicagotoDirector,March31,1970,FBICOINTELPRO-NewLeft,ChicagoFile.23WUR,131.TheApril2,1970Chicagoindictmentsbuiltupontwoearlierones.OnDecember19,1969,aCookCountrygrandjuryindictedsixty-fourWeatherUndergrounddefendantsforallegedviolationsofIllinoislawstemmingfromtheDaysofRage.ThefirstfederalindictmentsagainstWeatherUndergroundguerrillascameonMarch17,1970,whenaCookCountyjudgeissuedUnlawfulFlighttoAvoidProsecutionwarrantsforKathyBoudin,CathyWilkerson,BernadineDohrn,andthreeotherWeatherwomenwhofailedtoshowupforcourthearingsstemmingfromtheDaysofRage.BrennantoSullivan,March20,1970;FBIMemo,A.JonestoMr.Bishop,April7,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section61.ThesechargesweresimilartothoseAttorneyGeneralMitchelllodgedagainsttheChicagoEightayearearlier,onMarch20,1969,fortheirinvolvementintheAugust1968demonstrationsagainsttheChicagoDemocraticNationalConvention.24Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,128-129;Varon,BringingtheWarHome,179.25Ayers,FugitiveDays,205.

139

I’dgonefromclean-shaventoabushybeard,fromshortdarkhairtolongandlight,fromhornrimmedtorimlessglasses,fromaninformalversionofcollegiatedresstotie-dyedshirtsandbell-bottoms.OnedayIwalkedrightpastanoldcollegefriend,whodidn’trecognizeme…Welearnedtoplaycloseattentiontogait,carriage,andstyle,whichcouldbemorerevealingthanglassesandhair,especiallyforwomen,whodidn’thavetheadvantageofbeards.26

TheFBIhadnowayofknowingit,butthelossofthreecomradesinthetownhouseblast

hadalsodealtasevereemotionalblowtotheWeatherUnderground’smembership,and

promptedthegrouptoforgoviolentattacks,suchastheplannedFortDixaction,that

wouldphysicallyharmhumanbeings.AtasecretMaymeetinginnorthernCalifornia,

WeatherleadersBernadineDohrn,JeffJones,andBillAyersrenouncedmurderasa

revolutionarytactic,andformulatedanewpolicyofconsciouslyavoidingcasualtiesin

futureactions.27

AsfarasHooverandhismenwereconcerned,however,theWeather

UndergroundremainedadeadlyandimminentthreattoAmericanlives.Moreover,the

FBIhadnoideawhenorwheretheWeatherUndergroundwouldstrikenext.This

realitytroubledHooverdeeply.WouldthenextWeatherUndergroundattackresultin

casualties?WouldittakePresidentNixonbysurpriseanddiminishtheExecutive

Branch’sfaithinhiscompetencyasFBIDirector?AdesiretodemonstratetheFBI’s

thoroughnesslikelyinformedHoover’sdecisioninlateMarchtowriteNixon’sassistant

JohnD.Ehrlichmanandotherofficials,citinginformationfromanunnamedsourcewho

claimedthathisdaughter,asupposedWeatherUndergroundmember,haddisclosed

26Gilbert,LoveandStruggle,157.GilbertrecalledlearningtochangehisgaitbyreadingastoryaboutHarrietTubman,inwhichtheUndergroundRailroadleaderdisguisedherselffromauthoritiesbyhunchingoverandhobbling.ForanotheraccountofWeatherUndergroundmembers’securityprecautions,seeJones,ARadicalLine,7-13.27Rudd,Underground,213-215;Varon,BringingtheWarHome,181-182;Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,130.DuringthismeetingDohrn,Jones,andAyersexpelledJohnJacobs,whohadbeenavocaladvocateforlethalattacks.TheyalsodemotedRuddfromtheorganization’sleadershipcircle.

140

thegroup’splanstobombU.S.passengerairliners.28WhiteHousepressureto

demonstrateprogressintheinvestigationalsopromptedHoovertoexposetheFBI’s

loneinformantintheWeatherUnderground.InmidApril,agentsblewLarry

Grathwohl’scoverbyarrestingWeathermilitantsLindaEvansandDianneDonghiin

NewYorkCity.Inhis1976memoir,GrathwohlclaimedthathehadurgedhisFBI

handlerstoholdoffonthearrestuntiltheycouldalsonabWeatherleadersBillAyers,

MarkRudd,BernadineDohrn,orJeffJones.AccordingtoGrathwohl,NewYorkSpecial

AgentTerryRobertsstated,“weneedanarrest,”andacknowledged,“Youmayberight,

Larry,but…thisdecisioncamefromthemaninWashington.”29

Asagentshuntedforfugitives,BureauofficialsconcludedthattheWeather

Underground,alongwithother,autonomousguerrillacells,presentedanewkindof

challengetolawenforcement,onethatcompelledreevaluationofFBIinvestigative

procedures.OnMarch31,leadersoftheFBI’sDomesticIntelligence,General

Investigative,andSpecialInvestigativeDivisionsheldaconferenceto“coordinate

guidelinesforrecommendationsconcerningbombingmattersandextremistterroristic

activities.”30TheFBI’sAssistantDirectorsheldaseparatemeetingonthetopicthe

followingday.31ThemeetingswerethefirsttimeintheBureau’shistorywhen

administratorsofficiallyacknowledgedthenew,uniqueproblemofdomesticurban

guerrillainsurgency.Moreover,itwasthefirsttimethatFBIofficialsformallydefined

guerrillawarfareas“terrorism”anddevisedspecificsuggestionsforcombattingthis

28FBIletter,DirectorHoovertoJohnD.Ehrlichman,March24,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60.Hooverpresentednohardevidenceandthethreatnevermaterialized.29Grathwohl,BringingDownAmerica,175-179.30BrennantoSullivan,April1,1970,1.31Ibid.

141

particularformofpoliticalviolence.

Reportingontheconference,InternalSecurityChiefCharlesD.Brennan

conveyedtoAssistantDirectorSullivanhisperceptionthatleftistguerrillaviolencehad

arisenintheU.S.rathersuddenly,catchingtheFBIoff-guard.Inreferencetothe

WeatherUnderground,heexplained,“agroupwhichemergedonlyasanideologyin

June,1969,whichweobtainedauthoritytoconductindividualinvestigationsoninlate

November,1969,haseruptedintoamenaceofnationalproportionsinMarch1970.”32

AdmittingtotheWeatherUnderground’ssuccessinconcealingitsspecificplansfor

guerrillawarfarefromthestate,henoted,“ourcurrentinvestigationsconnectedwith

theNewYorkbombingshaveshownhowlittlewehaveseenoftheiceberg–justthe

exposedtipatChicagoinOctoberandatFlintinDecember.”Brennanidentified

Weathermanviolenceasnewtypeofthreat,onethattheFBIwasnotfullypreparedto

confront.“Ithasbecomeincreasinglyclear,”hewarned,“weareattemptingtocope

withalarge-scaleshifttoterrorismbyNewLeftextremists.”33

Duringtheirconference,BrennanandhiscolleaguesdeterminedthattheFBI

lackedsufficientresourcestopursuetheWeatherUndergroundandotherleftist

guerrillagroups.“Despiteourvoluminousinstructionstothefieldtocopewiththe

emergingWeathermanterrorism,”heexplained,“thescopeoftheproblemclearly

exceedsourexistingmanpowerlimitations.”34Brennanalsobelievedthat

inconsistenciesinDepartmentofJusticepolicieswerehinderingtheFBI’s“bombing

matters”investigations.AccordingtoBrennan,theDepartmenthadmaintaineda

32Ibid,3.33Ibid.34Ibid,4.

142

“palliativeattitude”towards“extremists”priortothebombingsofMarch1970,when

PresidentNixonexpressedhisalarmovertheviolencetoAttorneyGeneralMitchell.

Mitchell’ssuggestionthattheFBIleadinvestigationsofallfuturepoliticalbombings

promptedfrustrationandresentmentamongFBIofficials,includingHoover,whohad

respondedbynotingtheoccurrenceofmultiplebombthreatsinNewYorkCityon

March13followingthepreviousday’sblasts.“Apparently,”theDirectorremarkedina

memotohistopadministrators,“thistrioofAsst.AGswouldhaveusgointoeach.”35

CitingtheJusticeDepartment’s“procrastination”inindictingWeatherUnderground

leaders,Brennansoundedasimilarlybitternote.HereferredtotheAttorneyGeneral’s

suggestionasa“cover-upattempttoobfuscate”earlierinactionregardingFBIwarnings

ofpotentialWeatherUndergroundviolence.36

Thus,Brennansoughtnew,explicitmeasurestoaddresstheguerrillaviolence.

HerecommendedthatFBIHeadquartersimplementa“specialschoolforfield

personnelhandlingthesematters,”andissuea“lettertoallSpecialAgentsinCharge

definingourinvestigativeresponsibilities…inthesematters.”37Moreover,headvised

HeadquarterstoconductasurveyofallFBIFieldOfficesinordertoestablishthe“cost

andmanpowerrequirementsexpectedtobeincurredintheseintensiveintelligence

investigations.”38Brennanassertedthatbyestablishing“hard,specificcostfactors,”the

resultsofsuchasurveywouldprovidetheBureauwithleveragetopetitionthe

DepartmentofJusticefortheresourcesneededfortheirexpandedinvestigationsof

35Hooverquotedinibid,4.36BrennantoSullivan,April1,1970,4.37Ibid,2.38Ibid,6.

143

leftistguerrillaviolence.39HooverfollowedthroughwithBrennan’srecommendations

twoweekslater,issuinganairteldirectingallSACsto“prepareacostestimatesurveyof

knownandanticipatedcosts”associatedwithhisproposalforfurtherintensified

investigationsof“leftistterroristactivity.”40TheFBI’sextensivesurveyresultedinno

immediatenewfundingfromtheJusticeDepartment,butfacilitatedtheBureau’s

internalreorganization,asofficialstransferredpersonnelfromotherareasinto

domesticintelligenceinordertoexpandtheirinvestigationoftheWeather

Undergroundandotherleftistgroupsdeemedideologicallypronetoviolence.41The

effortwasalsolikelyoneofHoover’sregularattemptstoobtainincreased

CongressionalfundingfortheFBI’sportionoftheJusticeDepartmentbudget.

Bythetimeoftheir“bombingmattersandextremistterroristactivities”

conference,investigationsoftheWeatherUndergroundandotherleftistguerrilla

“terrorists”hadbecomeHoover’stoppriority.InMay,aBureauspokesperson

announcedthattheWeatherUndergroundinvestigationamountedto“oneofthemost

intensemanhuntsinFBIhistory.”42Butdespitetheir“intensified”investigationand

surveillanceoperations,theFBIenjoyedfewsuccessesintheirhuntforWeather

Undergroundfugitives.

Indeed,bothguerrillaresistanceandyouthprotestmoregenerallywererapidly

expanding.Forexample,afterPresidentNixonannouncedthattheU.S.Armywas

launchingagroundinvasionofCambodiaonApril30,1970,massprotestseruptedon

collegecampusesacrossthecountry,anddozensofROTCbuildingswentupinflames.

39Ibid.40FBIairtel,DirectortoallSACs,April17,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section61.41GAO,FBIDomesticOperations,134.42WUR,132.

144

TheGovernorofOhiocalledintheNationalGuardafterstudentsfromKentState

Universitysmasheddowntownshopwindowsduringaspontaneouslatenightstreet

gathering.ConfrontationwithstudentdemonstratorsatKentStateturnedbloodywhen

GuardtroopsopenedfireonacrowdofprotestersonMay4,killingfour,andsparking

morethan500additionalprotests,walk-outs,andstrikesonotherAmericanuniversity

campuses,manyofwhichshutdownclassesfortheremainderofthesemester.43So

widespreadwascampusunrest,thatNixoncanceledplanstoattendhisdaughterJulie’s

commencementceremoniesatSmithCollegeinNorthampton,Massachusetts,dueto

SecretServicewarningsofplannedstudentprotestsand“thepossibilityofanugly

incidentthatwouldmarthegraduation.”44TheCambodiainvasionandcampus

uprisingsalsoforcedNixontopostponehismeetingontheproblemof“revolutionary

terrorism”withU.S.intelligenceofficials,whichhehadoriginallyscheduledforApril.45

Meanwhile,inearlyMaytheFBIaddedtwoundergroundrevolutionariestoitsTen

MostWantedFugitiveslist:WhitePantherPartyco-founderLawrence“Pun”

Plamondon,wantedforhisallegedinvolvementinaSeptember1968bombingofa

CentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)officeinAnnArbor,Michigan;andH.RapBrown,

soughtoninterstateflightandriotconspiracycharges.46Laterthatmonth,onMay21,

theWeatherUndergroundflauntedtheirevasionoftheFBIinfrontoftheworld.Ina

tape-recordedcommuniquéissuedonthethirdanniversaryofChéGuevara’sdeath,

WeatherleaderBernadineDohrnannounceda“DeclarationofaStateofWar”against

43Appy,AmericanReckoning,186-189;Sale,SDS,636-637.44Nixon,RN,448.45Hustonoralhistoryinterview,9.46FBI,“FBI’sTenMostWantedFugitives,1950-2010”;LawrenceRobert“Pun”PlamondonandAnneLarabee,“InterviewwithLawrenceRobert‘Pun’Plamondon,”JournalfortheStudyofRadicalism1,no.1(2007),117.

145

“Amerikanimperialism.”Withinfourteendays,shewarned,theWeatherUnderground

would“attackasymbolorinstitutionofAmerikan(sic)injustice.”47Twentydayslater,

onJune10,thegroupclaimedresponsibilityforanexplosionatNewYorkCity’sPolice

Headquarters.48

TheBureau’sinabilitytolocateWeatherUndergroundfugitiveswasnotjust,as

InternalSecurityChiefBrennansuggested,aresultoflimitedmanpowerand

inconsistentsupportfromtheJusticeDepartment.TheFBIwasalsohamperedbyits

owninefficiency.AnauditofFBIdomesticsecurityinvestigationspublishedbytheU.S.

GeneralAccountingOffice(GAO)in1976determinedthattheFBIhadwastedvaluable

timeandresourceswithits1960sandearly1970sinvestigationsofhundredsofgroups

andindividualsdeemed,underunclearcriteria,tobe“subversive”or“extremist.”49

WhiletheFBIaddedpersonneltoitsWeatherUndergroundinvestigationfollowingits

April1970staffsurvey,italsomaintainedextensivesurveillanceonhundredsofleftist

groupsandindividualsunrelatedtotheurbanguerrillas,includingrivalSDSfactions

PLPandRevolutionaryYouthMovementII,bothofwhichhadofficiallydenouncedthe

WeatherUnderground.50TheGAOreportconcludedthat“ratherthanconcentratingon

themostviolence-pronegroupstheFBIhasdiffuseditsdomesticintelligence

investigativecoveragetothepointwheremanyinvestigationsdonotleadtopositive

results.”51Thestudyaffirmedthat“violentgroups,suchasthepresent-day

47WeatherUnderground,“ADeclarationofaStateofWar,”May21,1970,inDohrn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,149-151.48Dohrnetal.,SingaBattleSong,151;Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,137.49GAO,FBIDomesticOperations,iv,42-43.50Ibid,133.51Ibid,ix.

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Weatherman,”“warranttheFBI’sfullattention.”52TheFBI’swidespreadsurveillanceof

theU.S.leftreflectedofficials’ongoingconcernwithleftwingpoliticaldissentingeneral,

aswellasHoover’sinabilitytodevelopeffectivetechniquesforapprehending

clandestineguerrillafugitives.

InternalbureaucraticconflictsalsohinderedtheFBI’sWeatherman

investigation.M.WesleySwearingeninvestigatedtheWeatherUndergroundinLos

Angelesduringtheearly1970sfollowingatransferfromNewYorktwomonthsafter

thetownhouseexplosion.Inhis1995memoirFBISecrets,herecalledthatan

administrativepowerstruggleintheL.A.FieldOfficehadseverelyunderminedhis

work.AccordingtoSwearingen,BillNolan,CoordinatorofLA’sSecuritySection,

rejectedHoover’sMarch1970instructionstoestablishaspecialWeatherUnderground

Squad,assuringtheDirectorthattheguerrillaorganizationwasnotactiveinLos

Angeles.53ThisbecameaproblemafewmonthslaterwhenSwearingenidentified

WeathermanJohnFuerstashistopsuspectinacaseinvolvingthepurchaseoffifty

poundsofdynamiteandblastingcapsfromastoreinTucson,Arizona.When

SwearingeninformedhisbossthatFuerstwaslivingwithotherWeatherUnderground

fugitivesinacommunalhouseinL.A.’sVeniceneighborhood,Nolanrefusedtosupport

theinvestigation,andFuerstmanagedtoslipoutofLosAngeleswiththeexplosives.

SwearingenassertedthatNolandidnotwanttobelievehimbecausehe“hadputhis

careeronthelinewhen[Nolan]toldHoovertherewerenoWeathermeninLos

Angeles.”54

52Ibid.53Swearingen,FBISecrets,70-71.54Ibid,71.

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TheFBI’sWeatherUndergroundinvestigationalsofacedanotherproblem,one

evenmoreprofoundthaninefficiencyandcorruption.TheBureaulackedinformants

insidetheWeatherUnderground.TheFBI’snetworkofinformantsoncollegecampuses

wasusefulforkeepingtabsontheabovegroundstudentleft,butitwasofnousein

trackingdownWeatherUndergroundguerrillas,whohadgoneundergroundto

deliberatelyavoidsuchsurveillance.Hooveraddressedthisprobleminanairtelhesent

tofieldofficesintenmajorcitiesonMarch12,1970,sixdaysafterthetownhouseblast.

BecauseoftheWeatherUnderground’sclandestinestatusand“useofdrugsand

extremelyimmoralconduct,”henoted,“itwillbeextremelydifficulttoobtainsecurity

informantsofthetypeusedinthepast.”Inordertoinfiltratetheunderground

organization,Hooverproposedanewkindofinformant.“Thetypeofinformantnow

needed,”hecontinued,“may,ofnecessity,bethestreet-type,ghettoinformant…

Accordingly,youshouldlooktothesegroupsforpossibleinfiltrationintotheranksof

thecollectives,communes,units,orwhatevernametheymightgoby.”55Inotherwords,

becauseFBIintelligenceinformedhimthatWeatherUndergroundguerrillastook

shelterwithinthecounter-culture,spurnedthestudentleft,andromanticizedillegal

behavior,Hooverdeducedthatthebestsourceforinformantscapableofinfiltratingthe

organizationwasthecriminalcommunity.

Hooverwascorrectthatstudentinformantswouldbeuselessforinfiltratingthe

WeatherUnderground,buthestillunderestimatedtheclandestineorganization’s

abilitytoevadestatesurveillance.TheFBIcouldnotgainaccesstotheinnerworkings

oftheWeatherUndergroundbysimplyreplacingitsstudentinformantswithcriminal

55FBIairtel,DirectortoSACBoston,March12,1970,1-2,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section60.

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ones.Experiencedwithpoliceinformantsandincreasinglyversedinthetechniquesof

guerrillawarfare,WeatherUndergroundmilitantshadconsciouslyadoptedpractices

designedtoconcealtheiridentitiesandpreventinfiltration.Consequently,forthefirst

timeinhisforty-sixyearcareerastheBureau’sDirector,Hooverconfronteda

revolutionaryorganizationthattheFBIwasunabletoinfiltrate.Thisrealityprompted

growingcriseswithinboththeFBIandtheNixonAdministration.

TheHustonPlan

HooverwasnottheonlyU.S.officialalarmedbyleftistguerrillaviolence.President

Nixonwasdeeplyconcernedaswell.NixonwasalsodissatisfiedwithHoover’sjob

performance.ThePresident,goadedbyFBIAssistantDirectorWilliamSullivanand

WhiteHouseaideTomHuston,believedthatHoover’sdecisiontoceaseBureau

involvementinillegalbreak-insandsecretmail-openingin1966nowimpededtheFBI’s

investigationsoftheWeatherUndergroundandotherleftistguerrillas.56Inaddition,

Huston’sreportsandincreasingbombingshadconvincedNixonthatdomestic

revolutionaryguerrillasnowposedmoreofathreattoU.S.nationalsecuritythan

Communist“subversion”ofAmericanpolitics.Nonetheless,likeLyndonJohnsonbefore

him,NixonremaineddeterminedtofindevidencethatforeignCommunistgovernments

directlysupportedtheBlackPanthersandtheWeatherUnderground,evidencethatFBI

reportshadrepeatedlyindicateddidnotexist.57Consequently,thePresidentcalledan

OvalOfficemeetingonJune5,1970withtheleadersofalloftheUnitedStates’federal

intelligenceagencies.HooverjoinedCIADirectorRichardHelms,AdmiralNoelGaylerof56Nixon,RN,472.57Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,112.

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theNationalSecurityAgency,andLieutenantGeneralDonaldBennettoftheDefense

IntelligenceAgency,aswellasNixonCabinetmembersH.R.Haldeman,John

Ehrlichman,BobFinch,and,ofcourse,Huston.Nixondefinedthemeeting’stopic:

“revolutionaryterrorism.”58

LikeHooverandotherFBIofficials,Nixonidentifiedleftisturbanguerrilla

warfareasanewtypeofthreattoU.S.nationalsecurity.Readingfroma“talkingpaper”

thatHustonhaddraftedforhim,NixondeclaredthatAmerica’s“internalsecurity

problem”hadmovedfromthe“studentactivism”and“protestmovements”ofthe

1960sto“revolutionaryterrorismbeingperpetratedtodaybydetermined

professionals.”Hewarned:

Wearenowconfrontedwithagravecrisisinourcountry,onewhichweknow

toolittleabout.Certainlyhundreds,perhapsthousands,ofAmericans—mostly

under30—aredeterminedtodestroyoursociety...Theyarereachingoutfor

thesupport—ideologicalorotherwise—offoreignpowers,andtheyare

developingtheirownbrandofindigenousrevolutionaryactivismwhichisas

dangerousasanythingwhichtheycouldimportfromCuba,China,ortheSoviet

Union.59

ReiteratingwhatHooveralreadyknew,Nixonpointedoutthattheleftistguerrilla

groupsweremoredifficulttothwartthantheBureau’searlierarch-nemesis,the

CommunistParty.“Thenewrevolutionarygroups,”heasserted,were“lesssusceptible

topenetrationandsurveillance”andgeographicallydispersed,requiring“farbroader

coverage”thanprevioustargets.Moreover,hestated,theseorganizations“placeahigh

58Nixon,“PresidentialTalkingPaper,”HustonPlan,396.DirectorsoftheArmy,Navy,andAirForceintelligenceagenciesalsoattendedthemeeting.59Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,21;Nixon,“PresidentialTalkingPaper,”HustonPlan,396.

150

premiumonviolence.”60ThePresidentorderedthecountry’stopintelligenceofficialsto

“developaplan”tothwartrevolutionaryguerrillawarfare.“Terrorismhasreplaced

subversionastheimmediatethreat,”hestated.“Thismustbehaltedbeforeinnocent

peoplearekilled.”61

JustasPresidentJohnsonsoughtpreventativeintelligencetopreempturban

riotsin1967,Nixonnowsoughtadvancewarningofleftistguerrillaviolence.Insteadof

leavingthistaskuptotheFBI,however,forthefirsttimeinU.S.history,Nixonsought

directWhiteHousecontroloverAmerica’sintelligenceagencies,whosepowershe

soughttoconsolidateunderasinglecommand.Onseveraloccasionsoverthefollowing

twoweeks,representativesoftheFBI,CIA,NSA,DIA,andtheArmy,Navy,andAirForce

intelligencedivisionsmettofulfillNixon’sordersto“reviewthecollectioneffortsofthe

intelligencecommunityintheareaofinternalsecurityandtorecommend…additional

stepswhichcanbetakentostrengthenourcapabilitiesinthisregard.”62UnderNixon’s

orders,Hustonoversawtheproject,workingcloselywithSullivanandFBIInternal

SecurityChiefCharlesBrennan.Together,thistriodraftedthefinal“Interagency

CommitteeonIntelligence(AdHoc)”reporttothePresident.

Thecommittee’sreportprovidedanoverviewofstatesurveillanceonthe

studentNewLeft,theBlackPowermovement,Marxist-Leninistparties,andthePuerto

Ricanindependencemovement.Accordingtothereport,thegreatestthreatsthese

movementsposedtoU.S.internalsecuritywereviolenceandforeignespionage.In

termsofviolence,thereportidentifiedtheWeatherUndergroundandother“NewLeft

60Nixon,“PresidentialTalkingPaper,”HustonPlan,397.61Ibid,397.62Ibid,398-399.

151

terroristgroups”as“amajorthreattotheinternalsecurityoftheUnitedStates,”while

alsonotinganincreaseinpoliticalbombingscarriedoutbyPuertoRican“extremist

groups,”andthe“probability”offuture“terroristactivities”carriedoutby“black

extremists”associatedwiththeBlackPantherParty.63Thereportidentifiedboththe

studentNewLeftandtheBlackPantherPartyaspotentialrecruitsforforeign

intelligenceagenciesgivenmembers’travelstoCommunistcountrieslikeCuba,China,

NorthVietnam,Algeria,andtheSovietUnion,butadmittedthatU.S.intelligence

agenciespossessednocurrentevidenceofsuchactivity.64Italsonotednumerous

“gaps”insurveillanceofradicalleftistgroups,attributingmostofthemto“restraintson

intelligence,”namelyHoover’slimitsonFBIelectronicwiretapping,andprohibitionof

Bureauinvolvementinbreak-ins,mail-opening,trashcovers,anduseofinformants

underagetwenty-one.65Thoughofficiallytitledsimply,“SpecialReport,”thedocument

establishedthefoundationfortheHustonPlan.66

TheHustonPlanwasajointeffortbytheNixonAdministration,Sullivanand

Brennan,andtheheadsoftheCIA,NSA,andDIAtobypasswhattheyperceivedas

Hoover’sstonewallingofeffectiveinitiativestocombat“terrorism.”Theinteragency

committeealsoprioritizedpreventingforeignespionageandinfiltrationofNewLeft

socialmovements,butthemajorityofthereportaddressedconcernsofhomegrown

revolutionaryviolence.Theplan’sarchitectssoughttocoordinatetheeffortsofallU.S.

intelligenceagenciesunderthedirectsupervisionoftheWhiteHouseandexpand

63InteragencyCommitteeonIntelligence(AdHoc),“SpecialReport,”June1970,HustonPlan,149-150,166.64Ibid,147-148,156.65Ibid,168-181.66Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,13.

152

federalsurveillancecapacitiesbyeliminatingFBIrestrictionsonbreak-ins,mail-

opening,electronicsurveillance,andutilizationofinformantsundertheageoftwenty-

one.Throughcarefulbureaucraticmaneuvering,SullivanandHustonstrategically

plottedtoforceHoover’scompliancewiththeplan.Forone,thepairconvincedNixonto

appointHooverastheadhocinteragencycommittee’schair.Sullivanbelievedthatsuch

agesturewoulddemonstratethePresident’srespectfortheFBI’sjurisdictionover

internalsecuritymatters,butalsoaccuratelycalculatedthatHooverwouldnotwantthe

responsibility,andwouldinsteadhandtheprojectovertohim.67Sullivanalso

concealedfromHooverhisroleindraftingthereport,knowingthathisbosswouldfire

himifhefoundout.Instead,hegavetheimpressionthatHustonwastheprimary

author.Inaddition,Sullivanstrategicallycraftedthereportinamannerdesignedto

secureHoover’ssignature.Insteadofmakingdirectpolicyrecommendations,thereport

offeredaseriesofoptions,outlinednexttoboxesforthePresidenttocheckoff,which

rangedfrommakingnochangestoexistingintelligenceprocedurestoimplementingthe

variousmeasuresSullivan,Huston,andothersonthecommitteehopedtoenact.

Therefore,bysigningthedocument,Hooverwouldnothavetoexplicitlyendorseany

particularpolicies.68SullivanandHustonalsogatheredtheCIA,NSA,andDIAdirectors’

67Ibid,21-22.SullivanlatersurmisedthatHooverdelegatedtheprojecttohimbecausetheDirectorhad“nostomach”tooverseea“penetratingreviewoftheFBI’sroleintheintelligencecommunity”andsoughttoavoidresponsibilityforanycontroversythatcouldpotentiallyarisefromthecommittee’swork.SeeSullivan,TheBureau,210.HustonlaterclaimedthatNixonaskedHoovertoappointSullivantooverseetheinteragencycommittee’swork.SeeJohnson,America’sSecretPower,141.SomehavespeculatedthatSullivan’smaneuverswerepartofanefforttopositionhimselfwithNixonasHoover’seventualsuccessor.68ReferringtoSullivanandBrennan,HustonstatedinanAugust1970memotoHaldemanthatHooverwouldhavefiredthemembersofhisstaffwhoworkedontheinteragencyreportifhefoundoutthatthey“supportedtheoptionsselectedbythePresident.”SeeTomHustonmemorandumtoH.R.Haldeman,“DomesticIntelligence,”August5,1970,HustonPlan,249.ThroughouthisdealingswithHooveronthismatter,SullivanmadeitseemasthoughHustonwasprimarilyresponsiblefortheshapingthecommittee’swork.SeeSullivan,TheBureau,211-212;andTheoharis,SpyingonAmericans,26-27.

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signaturesonthereportbeforesolicitingHoover’s,hopingthatdoingsowouldcompel

theDirectortosignaswell.69

SullivanandHuston’sschemedidnotgoasplanned,however.Hooverwaslivid

afterhereadthereport’sfirstdraft.“Thathippieisbehindthis,”hereportedly

exclaimeduponcallingSullivanintohisoffice,refusingtocallHustonbyname,instead

usingapejorativeinspiredbytheyoungWhiteHouseaide’stwo-inchsideburns.70

AccordingtoSullivan,Hooverstated“I’llonlyaccepttherecommendationsoutlinedin

thisdraftifthepresidentordersmeto.AndI’llonlycarrythemoutifsomeoneelse—

thepresident,theattorneygeneral,anyoneelse—takestheresponsibility.”71Ina

bureaucraticpowerplay,HooverorderedSullivantodraftfootnotesintothereport,

formallyindicatingtheFBIDirector’soppositiontoapermanentinteragency

intelligencecommitteeandalleffortstorelaxtheBureau’srestrictionsonillegal

domesticsurveillancepractices.Sullivancomplied,andHooversignedthefinal,revised

versionofthereport.72

HustonthenrespondedwithanotherattempttooverrideHoover.InearlyJuly,

followingthesecretreport’sfinalization,HustonpennedamemorandumtoNixon

entitled“OperationalRestraintsonIntelligenceCollection.”Thememoreiteratedthe

“ad-hoc”report’srecommendations.Thoughheacknowledgedthattacticssuchas

break-insandmail-openingwere“clearlyillegal,”HustonemphasizedthatHooverwas

theonlyU.S.intelligenceofficialwhoopposedthemeasures,objectingonthegrounds

69Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,26.70Sullivan,TheBureau,211.71Ibid.72Ibid,213;Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,29.

154

that“thecivillibertiespeoplemaybecomeupset.”73Moreover,Hustonpointedoutthat

“surreptitiousentries”and“mailcovers”(FBIparlanceforbreak-insandsurveillanceof

mailcorrespondence)werenotnewtactics,butonesthat“theFBI,inHoover’syounger

years,used…withgreatsuccessandwithnoexposure.”74HustonurgedNixon’s

approvalofthemeasures,assertingtheirnecessityinordertocombat“the

WeathermenandtheBlackPanthers”and“forestallwidespreadviolence”onAmerican

universitycampusesduringtheupcomingfallsemester.75

NixonapprovedHuston’splan.Buthedidsoindirectly,throughWhiteHouse

ChiefofStaffH.R.Haldeman,whosentHustonamemostating,“therecommendations

youhaveproposedasaresultofthereviewhavebeenapprovedbythePresident.”76

Nixonavoidedapprovingtheplaninwritingbecause,likeHoover,hesoughttoavoid

responsibilityforanypoliticalfalloutthathebelievedwouldresultshouldnewsofits

existencereachtheAmericanpublic.Nixon’sunwillingnesstoattachhisnametothe

planultimatelyresultedinitsdemise.ImmediatelyafterHustonissuedamemorandum

institutingtheplan,HooverapproachedAttorneyGeneralMitchell,whohadnoprior

knowledgeofthesecretinteragencycommittee.Inyetanotherstrategicbureaucratic

maneuver,Hooverindicatedinwritingthatheintendedtoseekwrittenpresidential

approvalpriortodirectinghisagentstoengageinanyoftheillegaltacticsauthorizedin

theplan.77ConveyingHoover’sintentions,MitchellconvincedthePresidentthat“riskof

disclosureofthepossibleillegalactions…wasgreaterthanthepossiblebenefittobe

73TomHustonmemorandum,“OperationalRestraintsonIntelligenceCollection,”HustonPlan,194-195.74Ibid,195.75Ibid,195-196.76H.R.HaldemantoTomHuston,“DomesticIntelligenceReview,”July14,1970,HustonPlan,198.77Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,33.

155

derived.”78NixonbackedoutoftheHustonPlanonJuly28,1970,fivedaysafterHuston

institutedit.Fornow,bureaucraticconflictandfearsofpublicdisclosuretrumpedthe

NixonAdministration’seffortstocombatdomestic“terrorism”throughinteragency

coordinationandthereinstatementofillegalsurveillancemeasures.

Conclusion

TheHustonPlanwastheUnitedStates’ExecutiveBranch’sfirstattempttoconfronta

problemitdefinedas“terrorism.”Sullivan,Brennan,Huston,andNixonsoughtto

reviveillegalsurveillancetacticswidelyutilizedintheHooverFBI’swaronCommunist

“subversives”duringthe1950sandearly1960s,butinresponsetoanew,distinct

threat.TheNixonadministrationproposedtheHustonPlanindirectresponseto

increasedrevolutionaryviolenceonAmerica’suniversitycampusesandcitystreets,in

theformofarsons,bombings,andthekillingsofpoliceofficers.WhiteHouseand

intelligenceofficialswereespeciallyconcernedwiththeunprecedentedthreatof

revolutionaryurbanguerrillawarfare,particularlyasposedbytheBlackPanthersand

theclandestineWeatherUnderground.TheHustonPlan’sarchitectssoughttohaltand

preemptthisthreatwiththeuseofillegalsurveillancetactics.

Nixonmadethisclearinhis1978memoir.ReflectingontheHustonPlan,the

formerPresidentwrote,“inviewofthecrisisofterrorismandviolencevisitedupon

countlessinnocentpeople,therecommendationsmadetomebytheinteragency

intelligencegroupinits1970reportwerejustifiedandresponsible.”79Accordingto

Nixon,extralegalstateactionwassometimesnecessarytodefendAmerica’scitizens78Nixonquotedinibid.79Nixon,RN,475.

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andnationalsecurityfrom“terrorist”violence.HecomparedtheHustonPlanto

PresidentAbrahamLincoln’ssuspensionofhabeascorpusduringtheCivilWarand

PresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt’sinternmentofJapanese-AmericansduringWorldWar

II,otherwartimeExecutivedecisionshecontended“willalwaysbedebated.”80Nixon

asked,“didthethreatenedandactualbombingsoftheWeathermen,andthebrutal

assaultsoftheBlackPanthers,justifyanintrusionoftheirliberties?”81“Whentheissue

juxtaposesthelivesofinnocentcitizensagainstthepossiblecurtailmentofpersonal

libertiesweallcherish,”hecontinued,“theanswersarenevereasy.”82Ultimately,

however,NixonbelievedthatAmericanPresidentswererequiredtoimplement

“emergencymeasurestomeetemergencysituations”whenneeded“todefendthe

nationandtoprotectinnocentpeople.”83

Nixon’sreflectionsontheHustonPlanwere,ofcourse,partoftheformer

President’seffortsatself-redemptionfollowingWatergate.Nixon’smemoir

downplayedhisuseofdomesticsurveillanceforpersonalpoliticalgain,andoffereda

one-sidedperspectiveondomesticrevolutionaryviolence,onethatignoredthereality

ofpoliceviolenceagainsttheBlackPanthersandotherU.S.radicalsaswellasthe

militaryviolencehewaspersonallyresponsibleforinflictinguponthepeopleof

SoutheastAsia.Nonetheless,hisaccountshedslightontheoriginsofadebateon

“revolutionaryterrorism”thatcametotheforefrontofAmericanpoliticsinthepost-

Watergateera,asintelligenceandWhiteHouseofficialsgrappledwithbothongoing

80Ibid,476.81Ibid.Nixon’sstatementontheBlackPanthersismisleading,sincealthoughPantherrhetoricoftenglorifiedviolenceagainstpoliceofficers,mostpolicewhodiedfromPantherbulletspriorto1971didsoduringincidentsinwhichbothsidesexchangedfireandsufferedcasualties.82Ibid.83Ibid.

157

domesticguerrillaviolenceandpubliccontroversyoverdomesticsurveillanceand

intelligenceagencies’violationsofAmericans’civilliberties.TheHustonPlandidnot

resolvetheFBI’sterrorismdilemma.Onthecontrary,theplan’sfailuredeepeneda

crisiswithinboththeFBIandtheNixonadministration,asleftistguerrillaviolencein

America’scitiesincreasedoverthecourseofthenexttwoyears.

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CHAPTER4

LOSINGFACE:THEWARATHOMEANDTHEFBI’SPUBLICIMAGE

OnAugust7,1970,seventeen-year-oldAfricanAmericanmilitantJonathanJackson

smuggledseveralgunsintoacourtroominCalifornia’sMarinCountyCivicCenter.The

youngmansatquietlyinthegalleryforseveralminuteswhiletheBlackrevolutionary

andprisonerJamesMcClainstoodtrialforassaultingawhiteguardinSanQuentin

Prison.ThenJacksonrosetohisfeetbrandishinganassaultrifle.“Allright,gentlemen,

I’mtakingovernow,”heproclaimed.JacksonthendistributedfirearmstoMcClainand

defensewitnessesRuchellMageeandWilliamA.Christmas,alsoradicalBlack

prisoners.ThefourmenseizedJudgeHaroldHaley,DistrictAttorneyGaryThomas,and

threefemalejurorsashostages,andthenfledtoanearbygetawayvan.District

AttorneyThomaslaterstatedthatthemenhopedtotradetheircaptivesfortherelease

ofthe“SoledadBrothers”—FleetaDrumgo,JohnClutchette,andJonathan’solder

brotherGeorgeJackson—threeradicalBlackprisonersindictedoncapitalchargesfor

killinganotherwhiteprisonguardamidescalatingviolencebetweenguardsandBlack

revolutionaryconvictsinsideCalifornia’sprisons.JonathanJackson,however,neverhad

anopportunitytoexplainhisaims.HediedalongsideMcClain,Christmas,andJudge

Haleyafterpoliceandprisonguardssurroundedthevan,afirefighterupted,anda

shootingmeleebrokeoutinsidethevehicle.1

1Accountsoftheshoot-outvary,butmostindicatethatgunfirebrokeoutbetweenpoliceandtherevolutionariesasthevanapproachedaroadblocksetupbypoliceandSanQuentinguards,andasThomaswrestedagunfromoneofhiscaptorsandbeganshootingattheminsidethevan.Thosesympatheticwiththerevolutionaries’causesclaimedthatpoliceandguardsfiredintothevanindiscriminatelyundertheprotocolofSanQuentin’s“nohostage”policy.PoliceassertedthatMcClainfiredattheroadblockfromthevan’spassengerseat.Haleydiedofablastfromashotgunthatthe

159

JonathanJacksonwasahighschoolstudentfromPasadenatormentedbythe

incarcerationofhisbelovedolderbrother.Throughregularwrittencorrespondence

fromprison,Georgehadtutoredhisyoungersiblinginfocotheoryandpolitical

economy,andlikemanyotheryoungradicalsofhistime,Jonathancametobelievethat

revolutionaryviolenceofferedhumanity’sbesthopeforovercomingtheraciststate

violenceofU.S.imperialism.2JonathanJacksondiedinanefforttoadvancesocialist

revolution.HeknewnothingabouttheHustonPlan,buthisbloodyattackprompteda

chainofunintendedconsequences.

JacksoncarriedouthisraidtwoweeksafterFBIDirectorJ.EdgarHoover

pressuredPresidentRichardNixontoabandontheHustonPlan’ssecretconsolidation

ofAmerica’sintelligenceagencies,andtwodaysafterTupamarosguerrillasin

Montevideo,UruguayexecutedAmericanhostageDanMitrione,aformerFBIoperative

workingintheircountryundertheauspicesoftheU.S.AgencyforInternational

Development(USAID).Jackson’sraidelicitedshockandalarmamongAmericanpolitical

leaders,whonervouslyviewedtheattackasaportentoffurtherpoliticalkidnappings

onUnitedStatessoil.AftertheMarinCountycourthouseincident,PresidentNixonand

hisaides,stillfrustratedbyHoover’ssabotageoftheHustonPlan,ratcheteduptheir

insistencethattheFBIexpanditseffortstothwartleftistguerrillaviolenceandpreventrevolutionarieshadtapedtohishead.GunshotwoundspermanentlyparalyzedThomas;Mageealsoenduredcriticalwounds.Oneofthejurorswasinjuredbygunfireaswell.Foraccounts,seeBerger,CaptiveNation,122-124;Cummins,TheRiseandFallofCalifornia’sRacialPrisonMovement,182-183;MinS.Yee,TheMelancholyHistoryofSoledadPrison(NewYork:Harper’sMagazinePress,1973),157-165.AccordingtoBerger,Mageelaterassertedthatthegroupplannedtotakeoveraradiostationin“anefforttoreachthepeopleanddramaticallyawakenthemtotheplightofallprisoners,particularlyBlacks,”bydescribingthe“torturousprisonconditions”enduredbyCaliforniaprisoners.2FormoreonhowGeorgeJacksonandhisincarcerationinfluencedJonathanJackson’slifeandpolitics,seetheformer’sletterstothelatterinGeorgeJackson,BloodinmyEye,2nded.(Baltimore:BlackClassicPress,1990),11-25.ForAngelaDavis’srecollectionsonthismatter,seeAngelaDavis,AngelaDavis:AnAutobiography,3rded.(NewYork:InternationalPublishers,1998),266-267.AlsoseeBerger,CaptiveNation,120-121.

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furtherkidnappings.Dozensofbombingsandotherguerrillaattacksoverthe

remainderof1970,severalofthemdeadly,onlyincreasedtheurgencyoftheNixon

Administration’sdemands.Consequently,Jackson’sraidwasthefirstofseveralleftist

guerrillaactionsthatpromptedHoovertoexpanddramaticallytheFBI’ssurveillanceof

BlackPowerandNewLeftactivistsandsecretlyreviveillegalsurveillancetechniques

outlinedintheHustonPlan.TheFBIfoughtwhatitincreasinglyreferredtoas

“terrorism”byseekingadvanced,“preventative”knowledgeofguerrillaattacks,andby

utilizingrestrictedtacticstosearchforleftistguerrillafugitives.HooverauthorizedFBI

useofinformantsundertheageoftwenty-oneandtheexpansionofwarrantless

wiretapstargetingtheBlackPantherPartyandsuspectedWeatherUnderground

associates.Furthermore,inanefforttoexpandtheFBI’sdomesticsurveillance

capabilitieswhileavoidingliabilityforillegalspytactics,Hooverusedeuphemistic

threatsandsuggestionstopressurelocalFieldOfficestoinformallyutilizemailtracking,

mail-opening,andbreak-insinconjunctionwiththeBureau’sWeatherUnderground

investigation.

Leftistguerrillaviolence,andthespecterofpoliticalkidnapping,alsodrove

HoovertoinadvertentlyprovokeintensepubliccriticismoftheFBI.OnNovember27,

1970,whilerequestingfundsfromtheSenateAppropriationsCommitteefortheFBI’s

warondomesticleftistguerrillas,Hooverclaimedtohaveintelligencethatsuggesteda

groupofactivistsassociatedwiththeCatholicpacifistorganizationEastCoast

ConspiracytoSaveLivesplannedtoblowupundergroundelectricalconduitsand

steampipesinWashingtonD.C.andkidnapatopU.S.official,laterrevealedtobe

SecretaryofStateHenryKissinger.Hoover’sfar-fetchedaccusationsbackfired,

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promptingunprecedentedcriticismoftheFBIanditsDirectorinCongressandthe

press.Inaddition,afederalgrandjury’sindictmentofthe“HarrisburgEight”the

followingmonthturnedtheantiwaractivistsaccusedoftheWashingtonbombingand

Kissingerkidnappingplotintocausecélèbres,andpromptedrenewedconcernwithin

theU.S.Leftofanescalatinggovernmentconspiracytorepresspoliticaldissent.The

chargesalsomotivatedoneoftheindicted,Philadelphiaphysicsprofessorandpeace

activistWilliamDavidon,toleadagroupofpacifistradicalsinaburglaryofalocalFBI

officewiththegoalofacquiringdocumentaryevidenceofpoliticalrepression.OnMarch

8,1971,Davidonandhissecretgroup,theCitizensCommissiontoInvestigatetheFBI,

followedthroughonhisplans,stealingthousandsofclassifiedFBIdocumentsfroma

ResidentAgencyinMedia,Pennsylvania.

TheMediaburglarywasdisastrousfortheFBIbecauseitunderminedthatwhich

HooverhadsoughttopreservewhenheblockedtheHustonPlaninJuly1970:theFBI’s

longstandingpublicimageastrustedcrime-fightersanddefendersofnationalsecurity.

Inher2014bookTheBurglary,journalistBettyMedsgerdescribedindetailhowthe

MediaburglarscarriedouttheirheistanduncovereddocumentsrevealingtheFBI’s

involvementinwidespreaddomesticsurveillance.Medsger,whoreportedonthestolen

documentsintheWashingtonPostin1971afterreceivinganonymously-sentcopiesin

themail,alsoexplainedinherbookhownewscoverageofthedisclosureselicited

unprecedentedcallsinCongressandthepressforHoover’sdismissalandforofficial

investigationsofFBIpractices.Medsger’sbookalsoillustrateshowtheheistuncovered

thefirstdocumentaryevidenceoftheBureau’sCOINTELPROsagainstdissidentsocial

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movements,operationstheChurchCommitteewouldlaterdocumentinits1976report

onFBIactivities.3

However,despitecastingnew,importantlightontheMediaburglaryand

publiclyrevealingtheburglars’identitiesforthefirsttime,Medsger’sbooksuffersfrom

akeyomission.LikeotherliteratureonthehistoryofFBIoperationsagainstpolitical

dissidents,Medsger’sbookdoesnotprovideasufficientexplanationforwhytheBureau

institutedthemassdomesticsurveillanceuncoveredbytheMediaburglars.Instead,she

fallsbackonaconspiratorialexplanationfortheBureau’smotivations,assertingthat

theFBIcarriedoutitssecretsurveillanceandcounterintelligenceoperationsagainst

Americandissidentsmerelyto“silencepeoplewhosepoliticalopinionsthedirector

[Hoover]opposed.”4Medsger’sbookmakesvirtuallynomentionofleftistguerrilla

violence.

Incontrast,thischapterillustratesforthefirsttimethatinthefallof1970the

FBIintroducedmostofitssurveillanceofNewLeftandAfricanAmericancampus

activistsuncoveredthroughtheMediaburglary,aswellastheillegalspytacticslater

exposedaftertheWatergateScandal,inadesperateandineffectiveattempttothwart

leftistguerrillaviolence.InanalyzingtheunintendedconsequencesofHoover’sfalse

accusationthatthe“HarrisburgEight”wereplottingtokidnapHenryKissinger,this

chapteralsorevealsthattheMediaburglarywasitselfanindirectproductoftheFBI’s

warwithdomesticleftistguerrillas.

3Medsger,TheBurglary.ForadocumentaryfilmaccountofthestoriesinMedsger’sbook,see1971,directedbyJohannaHamilton,MaximumPicturesandForkFilms,2014.4Medsger,TheBurglary,7.

163

August1970

ApproximatelyoneweekaftertheMarinCountycourthouseattack,FBIDirectorHoover

spokeonthephonewithPresidentNixon.Thedetailsoftheirconversationare

unknown,butapairoflettersHooverwroteonAugust17,1970shedlightonthetopics

discussed.Theletters—oneissuedtotheFBI’sfifty-nineFieldOfficesandtwenty

overseasLegalAttaches,andthesecondtoNixon—indicatethatthePresident

instructedHoovertointensifyBureauinvestigationsofleftistguerrillasinthe

aftermathofJonathanJackson’sAugust7raid.NixonwasalreadyfuriouswithHoover

overthecollapseoftheHustonPlan.TheMarinCountycourthouseincidenthadonly

increasedthePresident’sfrustrationwithHoover,astheFBIremainedunabletothwart

leftistguerrillaattacks.

Nixon’sconcernsoverrevolutionaryviolencehadbeenfurtheramplifiedby

recenteventsinSouthAmerica.Inanincidentreportedthroughouttheworld,

Uruguay’sTupamarosguerrillaskidnappedUSAIDadvisorandformerFBIagentDan

MitrioneonJuly31,andexecutedhimonAugust6aftertheUruguayangovernment

refusedtherevolutionaries’demandsforthereleaseof150leftistpoliticalprisoners.5

NixonfearedthatrevolutionaryguerrillasinspiredbytheTupamaroswouldattempt

additionalpoliticalkidnappingsintheUnitedStates.6Consequently,notonlydidthe

5Churchill,BecomingtheTupamaros,50.TheTupamarosaccusedMitrioneofcovertlytrainingUruguayanpoliceintheuseoftorturetechniques.Seepage56forChurchill’ssummaryofthedebateoverthevalidityoftheseclaims.TheMitrionekidnappingbecametheinspirationforCosta-Gavras’1973film,StateofSiege,whichlaterhelpedinspiretheSymbioneseLiberationArmy’s1974kidnappingofnewspaperheiressPatriciaHearst.6NodocumentaryevidenceprovesthattheTupamarosdirectlyinfluencedJonathanJackson’sraid,butcircumstantialevidence,suchasthetimingofhisraid,romanticizationoftheTupamarosbymanyinthemilitantU.S.left,andJackson’sextensivereadingsonguerrillawarfare,suggestthatsuchinfluencewaslikely.FormoreontheTupamaros’influenceontheU.S.left,seeibid.ForJonathanJackson’sthoughtsonrevolutionandguerrillaviolence,seeJackson,BloodinmyEye,11-25.

164

Presidentwantdomesticleftistguerrillasapprehendedandprosecuted,buthealso

wantedHoovertoobtainadvancewarningofrevolutionaries’violentplans.

TheurgencyofNixon’sdemandscameacrossinHoover’slettertohisSpecial

AgentsinChargeandLegalAttaches.“RecentactivitiesinLatinAmericaaswellasin

Californiaonthepartofrevolutionaryextremistsinthekidnappingofpublicofficials

anddiplomatsforhostagepurposes,”hewrote,“dictatetheneedforintensificationof

investigationofsuchextremistorganizationsastheBlackPantherPartyandthe

StudentsforaDemocraticSocietyincludingtheWeathermanfaction,andsimilar

violence-pronegroups.”7HooverpassedthepressurefromNixondowntheFBI

hierarchy.Referringtoleftistguerrillainvestigationsasa“matterofgreatest

importance,”HooverwarnedthesupervisorsofregionalFBIofficesthathewouldhold

them“personallyresponsibleforthedevelopmentofinformantcoverageinthese

organizationswherebytheBureauisinapositiontoascertaintheplansofextremist

elements.”8ReferringtotheperiodicreviewsofFieldOfficeinvestigationscarriedout

bytheFBI’sChiefInspectorW.MarkFelt,Hooveremphasizedtofieldsupervisors,

“Youreffortsinthisregardwillbethesubjectofclosescrutinyduringfuture

inspections.”9

Inhissecondletter,HooverinformedPresidentNixonoftheseinitiatives.“In

linewithourconversationtheotherevening,”theDirectorwrote,“Ihavehad

instructionsissuedtoeveryoneofourfieldofficesandtoourLegalAttachesabroadto

intensifyinvestigationofsuchextremistorganizations…whosemembersmaymakean

7J.EdgarHoovertoallSACs,August17,1970,inL.PatrickGrayDirector’sFile(hereafterLPGFBI),acquiredbytheauthorthroughaFreedomofInformationActrequest.8Ibid.9Ibid.

165

efforttokidnaphigh-rankinggovernmentofficials,membersofthediplomaticcorps

andmembersoftheirfamilies.”10

Hoover’slatestorderforthe“intensification”ofFBIleftistguerrilla

investigationswasdifferentfromothershehadissuedsincelate1969.Notonlydid

Hooverseekadvanceknowledgeofviolentleftistattacks,anearlyimpossibletaskgiven

theguerrillas’deliberateuseofsecrecyandclandestinity,buthealsoshiftedtheonusof

responsibilityforthiseffortfromhimselftotheSpecialAgentsinChargeoflocalfield

offices,amovelikelymotivatedbybothhisandtheNixonadministration’s

unwillingnesstoshouldertheburdenofanyfutureexposureofFBIimpropriety.While

providingnospecificinstructionsonhowtoobtainpreventativeintelligence,Hoover

stronglyimpliedthatafieldoffice’ssuccessorfailureinpreemptingrevolutionary

violencewouldprovepivotalindeterminingthecareerprospectsofitsSpecialAgentin

Charge.Consequently,theorderplacedtremendouspressureuponlocalFBIofficials.

WastheDirectorexpectingfieldofficestoreinstitutebreak-insandotherillegal

surveillancetacticshehaddiscontinuedinthemid-1960s?Shouldtheirinvolvementin

suchactivitiesbecomeknown,wouldlocalsupervisorsandfieldagentsfacesanctions?

Insuchascenario,wouldHooversupportlocalFBIpersonnel,ordisavowresponsibility

andblameillegalsurveillancetechniquesonaloneroguefieldoffice?

TheFBI’slackofrulesorregulationsforbombinginvestigationstroubledfield

agents.SpecialAgentWilliamDyson,whoinvestigatedSDSandtheWeather

UndergroundinChicago,laterrecalledhisfrustration:“Obviouslyifthere’sabombing,I

candoacrimescene.ButwhatelsecanIdo?CanIinfiltrateacollegeclassroom?CanI

10JEdgarHoovertoRichardNixon,August17,1970,inLPGFBI.

166

goandlistentoaprofessor?CanItalktoaprofessorinacollegeclassroom?CanIgoto

hisoffice?CanIputaninformantinthecollegeclassroom?Orevenonthecampus.Can

Ipenetrateanycollegeorganization?WhatcanIdo?”11Theanswerswereuncertain,

andclarificationfromHeadquarterswasnotforthcoming.

Meanwhile,theFBIinvestigatedtheMarinCountycourthouseattack.

InvestigatorsquicklytracedJonathanJackson’sgunstotheirowner,AngelaDavis,a

prominentAfricanAmericanCommunistanddoctoralstudentwhoworkedasalecturer

inphilosophyattheUniversityofCaliforniaLosAngeles(UCLA).Duringtheprevious

year,DavishadbeenthetargetofananticommunistsmearcampaignledbyGovernor

RonaldReagan,whotriedtoforceUCLAtofireher.12Davishadpurchasedtheguns

afterreceivingmultipledeaththreats,andstoredthemattheSanFranciscoSoledad

Housecommune,whereshelivedforseveralmonthswhileworkingonacampaignto

exoneratetheSoledadBrothers.JacksonworkedasDavis’sbodyguard,andhadaccess

totheguns,butDavishadnopriorknowledgeofhisplansforthecourthouseattack.

Nonetheless,fearinganindictment,shewentintohidingtwodaysaftertheraid.Hoover

putDavisontheFBI’sTenMostWantedFugitivelistonAugust18asagentssearched

forherthroughoutthecountry.13

Sixdayslater,onAugust24,afatalguerrillaattackinMadison,Wisconsindrew

additionalFBIattentiontoleftistviolence.At3:42inthemorning,agroupcallingitself

theNewYearsGangdetonatedamassivecarbombnexttotheUniversityofWisconsin’s

11Dysonoralhistory,25-26.12ThecontroversysurroundingDavisatUCLAbeganinJuly1969afterFBIinformantWilliamDivaleoutedherasamemberoftheCommunistPartyintheuniversitynewspaper.SeeBerger,CaptiveNation,108.13Berger,CaptiveNation,108;Cummins,TheRiseandFall,184-185;Davis,Autobiography,3-12,278-279.

167

SterlingHall,hometotheArmyMathResearchCenter,afacilityinvolvedinresearch

relatedtotheU.S.wareffortinVietnam.Theblast,producedfromammoniumnitrate

fertilizerandfueloilpackedintoastolenvan,sentflamesandamushroomcloud

hundredsoffeetintotheair,andstartledpeopleawakethroughoutthesleepingcity.

Thebomberscarriedouttheirattackbeforedawninanattempttoavoidcasualtiesbut

theirprecautionswereinadequate.TheexplosionkilledRobertFassnacht,apost-

doctoralphysicistwhowasconductingresearchinthebasement.

Afewhoursafterthebombing,policeinSaukCounty,fortymilesnorthof

Madison,pulledoveracarthatmatchedthedescriptionofavehicleseenfleeingthe

sceneoftheattack.InsidewerefouryoungwhiteradicalsinvolvedintheMadison-area

antiwarmovement:DwightArmstrong,hisolderbrotherKarletonArmstrong,LeoBurt,

andDavidFine.Afteracouplehoursofdetainment,however,thepolicereleasedthe

menbecausetheylackedevidencepermittingthemtoholdthesuspectsunderstate

law.Thefourmenseizedtheopportunitytofleetheareaanddisappearintothe

revolutionaryunderground.TheFBIidentifiedthemasthebombersafewdayslater.

Afterinitiatingyetanothernationwidemanhuntforrevolutionaryfugitives,Hoover

addedallfoursuspectstotheFBI’sMostWantedlistonSeptember4,1970.14

TheSterlingHallbombing,comingontheheelsoftheMarinCountrycourthouse

attack,promptedtheFBItoreinstitutebannedsurveillancepracticesoutlinedinthe

HustonPlan.OnSeptember2,FBIChiefInspectorW.MarkFelturgedHeadquartersto

14TomBates,RADS(NewYork:HarperCollins,1992),8-10,26,36.AlsoseeScottBauer,“FBIReleases1970UWBombingDocuments,”MilwaukeeJournalSentinel,April6,2011.DwightArmstrongwaseighteen,Karltonwastwenty-three,Finewaseighteen,andBurtwastwenty-two.Afterthebombing,thefourflednorth,andlivedinCanadaunderassumedidentitiesforseveralyearsbeforeFBIagentscaughtupwithFineandtheArmstrongbrothers.Burtremainsatlargetoday.HeisrumoredtohavefoughtinLatinAmericanguerrillamovementsduringthe1970s.

168

loweritsminimumagelimitforuniversitystudentinformantsfromtwenty-oneto

eighteen.“Neverinourhistoryhavewebeenconfrontedwithascriticalaneedfor

informantcoverage,”heexplainedinamemotoAssociateDirectorClydeTolson,the

FBI’slong-timenumbertwoofficialunderJ.EdgarHoover.ReinstitutingtheFBI’spre-

1967standardofeighteenastheminimuminformantagewasnecessary,Feltargued,in

ordertoprevent“terroristviolence,”including“bombings,assassinationofpolice

officers,kidnappingandtorturemurder”by“Weathermanfanatics”andother

“violence-orientedblackandwhitesavages…atwarwiththeGovernmentand

Americanpeople.”15Inhismemo,Feltindicatedthathebasedhisrecommendationson

feedbackfromspecialagentsthroughoutthecountrywhomhespokewithwhile

inspectingtheirinvestigationsoftheWeatherUndergroundandotherviolentleftist

groups.16

Felt’srecommendationreceivedakeyendorsement.Inabriefaddendumtyped

ontothebottomofthememo,AssistanttotheDirectorWilliamC.Sullivanaffirmedhis

support.SullivanwasthethirdmostpowerfulmanintheFBI.Hewasalsothearchitect

oftherecentlyabortedHustonPlan.“Noonecanpredictwithaccuracytheoutcomeof

therevolutionarystrugglegoingoninthiscountryatthistime,”hecautioned.“Those

under20yearsofageareplayingapredominantroleincampusviolence,”Sullivan

affirmed,noting,“twoofthesubjectsintheUniversityofWisconsincaseareunder

20.”17

15FBImemo,W.M.FelttoTolson,September2,1970,HustonPlan,328.16Ibid.17Ibid,329.

169

IntheirjointpleatoHoover,FeltandSullivanforgedanunlikelyalliance.Felt

haddetestedSullivansincethemid1960s.AfterhispromotiontoChiefInspectorin

1965,FeltclashedrepeatedlywithSullivanoverHoover’snewrestrictionson

warrantlesswiretaps,break-ins,useofinformantsunderagetwenty-one,andother

illegalandcontroversialFBIsurveillancepractices.LikemanyothersintheFBI,Felt

sharedSullivan’sdisagreementwithHoover’snewpolicies,viewingtherestricted

techniquesasessentialtoolsintheBureau’sfightagainstCommunistsubversion.Felt,

however,wasalsoanardentHooverloyalistwhobelievedthatbackingtheDirector’s

orderstookprecedentoversuchdisagreement.ThisiswherehedifferedfromSullivan,

whohadspentmuchof1969and1970secretlyplottingtoundermineHooverand

reinstatetheBureau’soldinvestigativetactics,effortsthateventuallyculminatedinthe

HustonPlan.Inhis1979memoir,FeltassertedthatSullivantriedmanytimesto

convincehimtocollaborateindisregardingHoover’sorders.Feltclaimedtohave

respondedtooneofSullivan’sentreatiesbyreplying,“Bill,we’vetalkedaboutthis

before.Iunderstandyourproblemsbutwearegoingtogetthejobdoneinspiteofthe

restrictions—notinspiteoftheBoss.Iamnotagainstyou—IamforyoubutIamalso

fortheDirector.”18

ThefactthatFeltwouldallywithSullivaninanattempttoreverseHoover’s

restrictionsonteenagedinformantspointstothetremendousfrustrationthesetopFBI

officialsexperiencedastheyworked,underenormouspressurebutwithlittlesuccess,

topreventrevolutionaryviolenceandapprehendleftistguerrillafugitives.Feltand

Sullivansoughttolowertheminimumageforcampusinformants,inpart,becausethey18Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,112.Felt’squotemaybefictional,butitnonethelesstestifiestohisdifferenceswithSullivan.

170

believedthatdoingsowouldimprovetheirchancesofpreventingguerrillaattacks.

However,thiswasnottheonlydrivingforcebehindthememo;itislikelythatan

internalbureaucraticstruggleinfluencedFeltandSullivanaswell.Bothmenwere

probablypartiallydrivenbytheirlong-timerivalryandtheirseparate,individual

desirestomanipulatetheFBIbureaucracyaccordingtotheirpersonalambitionsand

ideals.

ForSullivan,Felt’smemowasyetanotheropportunitytopressHooverforthe

reinstatementofFBIsurveillancetacticshehadunsuccessfullysoughttoimplement

throughtheHustonPlan.SullivanhadmanagedtoshieldhisinvolvementintheHuston

PlanfromHoover,projectingtheappearancethatHustonwasthedrivingforcebehind

theinitiative.Indeed,Sullivanwassosuccessfulinmaintainingthefacadeofloyaltyto

hisbossthatHooverpromotedhimtoAssistanttotheDirectoronJune10,1970,and

promotedCharlesBrennantohisformerpostasAssistantDirectorforDomestic

Security.19SullivanremainedconvincedoftheneedtoexpandtheFBI’ssurveillance

capacitiesinordertocombatleftistguerrillaviolence,however,andseizedFelt’smemo

asanopportunitytoadvancethisagenda.

Sullivan’seffortsparalleledthoseofWhiteHouseofficials.Amonthearlier,Tom

HustonhadurgedH.R.HaldemantoconvinceNixonandAttorneyGeneralMitchellto

reinstatehiseponymousPlan.“Atsomepoint,”HustoninsistedwithdisdainfortheFBI

19J.EdgarHooverlettertoallSpecialAgentsinCharge,“AssistanttotheDirector—Investigative,”June10,1971,andFBImemo,M.A.JonestoMr.Bishop,“DeLoachRetirement;SullivanandBrennanPromoted,”June19,1970,inWilliamC.SullivanFBIPersonnelFile(hereafterWCSFBI),Section7,availableonlineintheInternetArchive’sErnieLazarFOIACollection,https://archive.org/details/ernie1241_fbiemployees?&sort=-downloads&page=3.

171

Director’spowerandautonomy,“HooverneedstobetoldwhoisPresident.”20On

September18,1970,JohnDean—whohadtakenoverHuston’sroleastheprimary

Nixonadministrationofficialinchargeof“internalsecurity”mattersfollowinghisJuly

1970promotiontoWhiteHouseCouncil—offeredamodifiedversionofHuston’s

suggestion.DeanissuedamemotoMitchellrecommendingtheformationofan

interagencydomesticintelligenceunit,butwithouta“blanketremovalofrestrictions.”

21Instead,Deanproposedentrustingtheunittodetermine“thetypeofintelligencewe

need…andthentoproceedtoremovetherestraintsasnecessarytoobtainsuch

intelligence.”22

ItisuncertainwhetherornotFeltknewabouttheHustonPlan,butifhedid,itis

highlyunlikelythathewouldhaveworkedtoreinstatetheprogrambehindHoover’s

back.Instead,FeltprobablywrotethememoinanefforttoobtainHoover’swritten

approvalforliftingrestrictionsonstudentinformantsfollowingtheDirector’s

ambiguousAugust17memoinstructingallfieldofficesto“intensify”leftistguerrilla

investigations.AstheFBI’sChiefInspector,Feltwastheadministratortaskedwith

holdinglocalSpecialAgentsinCharge“personallyresponsible”forobtainingadvance

noticeofrevolutionaryviolence.Felt,whoregularlytravelledaroundthecountryto

inspectfieldoffices,indicatedinhismemothatmanylocalFBIofficials“informally

indicated…thattheirproductivitywouldbegreatlyenhancedbyaloweringoftheage

requirements”forinformants.23Felt’srequestrevealedthestressanduncertaintyFBI

20TomCharlesHustonmemotoH.R.Haldeman,“DomesticIntelligence,”August5,1970,HustonPlan,249.21JohnDeanmemotoJohnMitchell,September18,1970,HustonPlan,249.255.22Ibid.23FelttoTolson,September2,1970,HustonPlan,328.

172

agentsinthefieldexperiencedinthefaceofincreasedpressuretocombatguerrilla

violenceandunclearguidelinesforhowtodoso.InpartneringwithSullivantopetition

Hooverforaloweringoftheinformantagelimit,Feltforgedaconvenienttemporary

allianceinordertobolsterhisownefforts.Hisendeavorultimatelypannedout,as

Hooverapprovedthemeasure.24SixweeksafterHoovercompelledNixontoabandon

theHustonPlan,FeltandSullivanconvincedHoovertoimplementoneofthePlan’skey

elements.

“FallOffensive”

WhileSullivanandWhiteHousestaffworkedtorevivetheHustonPlan,andFeltsought

clarificationonHoover’sguidelinesfordomesticsecurityinvestigations,leftist

guerrillascarriedoutmoreattacks.OnSeptember15,1970,theWeatherUnderground

executeditsnextmajoroperation,helpingDr.TimothyLearyescapefromCalifornia’s

minimumsecuritySanLuisObispoPrison,wherethecounter-cultureiconandLSD

advocatewasservingaten-yearsentenceformarijuanapossession.Inacommuniqué

releasedtothemedia,theWeatherUndergroundreferredtoLearyasa“prisonerof

war”andpledgedtocontinuetheireffortstodestroyU.S.imperialism.25Inan

accompanyingletter,LearythankedtheWeatherUndergroundforhelpinghimescape,

andvowedto“stayhighandwagetherevolutionarywar.”Learyalsowarned

authoritiesthathewasarmedand“shouldbeconsidereddangeroustoanyonewho

24Ibid,329.25BernadineDohrn,“Dr.TimothyLeary,”September15,1970,inDohrn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,154.

173

threatensmylifeorfreedom.”26RobertL.Shackelford,thenewheadoftheFBI’s

InternalSecurityDivision,dulynotedLeary’sstatementinhisSeptember22,1970

reportontheescape.27

AweekafterLeary’sescape,guerrillasinMassachusettskilledapoliceofficer.

Thegroupofwhiterevolutionariesconsistedofex-convictsStanleyBond,William

Gilday,andRobertValeri,andstudentradicalsKatherinePowerandSusanSaxe.On

September23,GildayfiredfatalsubmachineroundsatWalterSchroeder,thefirstcop

toarriveonthesceneasthegroupheldupabankintheBostonsuburbofBrighton.The

groupthenescapedwith$26,000theyhopedtogivetotheBlackPanthers.Threedays

earlier,thegroupraidedaNationalGuardArmoryinnearbyNewburyport,wherethey

stoleatruck,militaryfiles,and400roundsofammunition,andthenfirebombedthe

facility,causingover$120,000indamage.WorkingonatipfromanFBIinformant,

policecaughtupwithBond,Gilday,andValeriafewdaysafterthebankrobbery.Saxe

andPower,however,vanishedintotherevolutionaryunderground.28

AnotherleftistguerrillaattackoccurredonOctober6,whentheWeather

UndergroundblewupChicago’sHaymarketpolicestatueforthesecondtime(thecity

hadrebuiltitafterthegroup’sfirstbombingayearearlier).LaterthatdayinNewYork

City,JerryRuben,“Chicago8”defendantandleaderoftheYouthInternationalParty26TimothyLearyletterquotedinFBImemo,R.L.ShackelfordtoC.D.Brennan,September22,1970,FBIWUOFile,Roll6,Section63.27Ibid.28AndrewF.Blake,“4Campus‘Radicals’HuntedinBostonPoliceSlaying,”WashingtonPost,September26,1970,A5;ArthurJones,“BlastRipsNewburyportArmory,”BostonGlobe,September21,1970,1;AndrewF.Blake,“InformantwasTalkingtoFBIMenduringBrightonMurder-Robbery,”BostonGlobe,October6,1970,1;BostonGlobe,“Ex-BrandeisCoedsAddedtoFBIMostWantedList,”October18,1970,1;PamLambert,“AliceDoesn’tLiveHereAnymore,”People40,No.14(April1993),61-62.DanielBurton-Rose,“AmazonUnderground?FemaleAntiwarFugitivesandFissuresofSolidarityintheWomen’sCommunity”(unpublishedpaper,May2009).Theinformantwasanacquaintanceofsomeofthegroups’memberswhovoluntarilyapproachedtheFBItowarnthemthatmembersofthegroupplannedtokillpoliceafterhearingoneofthembragginginaNewHampshirebar.

174

(otherwiseknownastheYippies)heldapressconferencealongwithJenniferDohrn,

fellowYippieandyoungersisterofBernadineDohrn,thenotoriousWeather

Undergroundfugitive.ThepairplayedataperecordingofBernadineDohrnannouncing

thestartof“afalloffensiveofyouthresistancethatwillspreadfromSantaBarbarato

Boston,backtoKentandKansas.”29BernadineflauntedtheWeatherUnderground’s

evasionoftheFBI,boasting,“J.Edgarhimselfadmittedthat‘undergroundradicals’were

thehardestgrouptoinfiltrate.”Furthermore,shewarned,“nextweekfamiliesandtribes

willattacktheenemyaroundthecountry.”30TheWeatherUndergroundfollowed-uptwo

dayslaterwithabombthatdestroyedacourtroomandrestroomintheMarinCounty

CivicCenter,whereJonathanJacksonandthreeothershaddiedtwomonthspreviously.

Apairofadditionalbombingsbyseparate,unaffiliatedgroupsalsotookplaceon

October8,oneinsidetheUniversityofWashington’sROTCbuilding,andanother

outsideaNationalGuardArmoryinSantaBarbara.31TheWeatherUndergroundcarried

outanotherbombingthenextday,blastingaholeinaLongIslandCitycourthousein

solidaritywithaprisonerrevoltintheQueensHouseofDetentionrecentlyquashedby

NewYorkpolice.32OnOctober12,fiveunclaimedbombingstookplaceinRochester,

alongwithtwoinNewYorkCityandoneinOrlando.33

TheFBIscoredabriefpublicrelationsvictoryinthemidstofthebombings.On

October13agentscapturedAngelaDavisinaNewYorkmotelroom.34Twodayslater,

29BernadineDohrn,JeffJones,andBillAyers,“FallOffensive,”October8,1970,inDohrn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,156-157.30Ibid,italicsinoriginal.31Dohrn,etal.,158;CrilPayne,DeepCover:AnFBIAgentInfiltratestheRadicalUnderground(NewYork:NewsweekBooks,1979),11.32Weatherman,“CriminalCourthouse,”October9,1970,inDohrn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,160.33WUR,35.34FreeAngelaDavisandAllPoliticalPrisoners,directedbySholaLynch,CodeblackFilms/Lionsgate,2013.

175

PresidentNixoncongratulatedtheFBIforcapturing“thedangerousterrorist,Angela

Davis,”ashesignedtheOmnibusCrimeBillof1970,whichexpandedtheBureau’s

jurisdictionoverbombingsoncollegecampuses.35Butthebombskeptexploding.On

October14,theWeatherUnderground’sallfemale“ProudEagleTribe”bombedthe

HarvardCenterforInternationalAffairstoprotesttheinstitution’scomplicityinthe

VietnamWar,claimingtheirattackinsolidaritywithDavis,whomleftiststhroughout

theworldviewedasthetargetofagovernmentframe-up.36Twodayslater,fakebomb

threats,someofthemattributedtotheWeatherUnderground,forced“theevacuationof

hospitalsinBoston,ofairportsinNewYorkandSt.Louis,andofasubwaystationin

HarvardSquareinCambridge,Mass.”37

AccordingtoLosAngelesSpecialAgentCrilPayne,DirectorHoover“wasina

rage”aftertheWeatherUnderground’s“FallOffensive”communiquéandsubsequent

bombings.PaynerecalledthatFBIagentsaroundthecountry“wereawareof[Hoover’s]

displeasure,”asFieldOfficephonesrang“offthewallwithcallsfromWashington

demandingathoroughandaggressiveinvestigationwithplentyofmanpower.”38“It

wasbadenoughforthese‘revolutionary-guerrillas,’astheDirectorcalledthem,toset

offafewbombs,”Paynewroteinhis1979memoir,“buttoannouncetheirintentionsto

theAmericanpeopleinadvance,andthenfulfillthem,wasunthinkabletoMr.Hoover.”

35Ibid;CarrollKirkpatrick,“NixonVows‘TotalWar’AgainstCrime,”WashingtonPost,October16,1970,A2.36Berger,OutlawsofAmerica,142-143;DayoF.Gore,introductiontoFreeAngelaDavisandAllPoliticalPrisoners!ATransnationalCampaignforLiberation,editedbyDayoF.GoreandBettinaAptheker(Alexandria,VA:AlexanderStreetPress,2014),E-Book.AjuryacquittedDavisofallchargesonJune2,1972.37WUR,35.38Payne,DeepCover,12.

176

TheDirector,Payneattested,worrieddearlythat“thepublicmightdecidetheFBIhad

lostcontrolofthesituation.”39

Hoover’sactionsseemtocorroboratePayne’sstatements.Immediatelyfollowing

Dohrn’s“FallOffensive”communiqué,Hooversenturgentteletypeswarningthe

President,theVicePresident,theSecretaryofState,theAttorneyGeneral,theArmy,the

AirForce,theSecretService,theDirectorsoftheCIA,DIA,andtheNavalIntelligence

Agency,andallFBIFieldOfficesofimpendingrevolutionary“terrorism.”40OnOctober

14,thedayoftheProudEagleTribe’sHarvardbombing,HooverplacedBernadine

DohrnontheFBI’sTenMostWantedlist.HeaddedPowerandSaxeafewdayslater,on

October17.41ThetotalnewadditionstotheMostWantedlistfor1970nownumbered

twelve,tenofthemleftistrevolutionaries,sevenofwhomremainedonthelam.42In

addition,HoovercirculatedanoticewarningU.S.governmentofficialstotake

precautionsagainstpotentialpoliticalkidnappingandassassinationbytheWeather

Underground,“blackextremists,”andotherguerrillas.Amongotherthings,theOctober

23bulletincautionedofficialstotravelonlyonmainthoroughfaresduringdaylight

hours,tospeakonlybeforefriendlyaudiences,tokeeptheirhomeofficenotifiedof

theirwhereaboutsatalltimes,andto“varythepatternofliving”inrespecttobusiness

39Ibid.40FBIteletype,DirectortoallSACs,October7,1970;andFBIcodedteletype,Director,FBItoPresident,VicePresident,SecretaryofState,Director,CIA,Director,DefenseIntelligenceAgency,DepartmentoftheArmy,DepartmentoftheAirForce,NavalInvestigativeService,U.S.SecretService,andAttorneyGeneral,October6,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section64.41WUR,36.42HartfordCourant,“MoreWomenonTopTen,”October18,1970,23A.

177

andsocialactivitiesinordertomakeitdifficultforpotentialkidnappersorassassinsto

predicttheirdailyroutine.43

Increasingleftistviolence,andofficials’incessantdesireforpreventative

intelligence,alsopromptedtheFBItodramaticallyexpanditssurveillanceofthe

abovegroundstudentantiwarandBlackPowermovements.OnNovember5,Acting

uponrecommendationsfromtheFBI’sExecutiveCouncil(whichincludedFeltand

Sullivan),HooverorderedhisFieldOfficestoopenfileson“allmembersofStudentsfor

aDemocraticSociety(SDS)andmembersofprocommunist,militantNewLeft-type

campusorganizationswhofollowSDSadvocacyofrevolutionandviolence.”44Hoover’s

ordercoveredautonomous,unaffiliatedcampusactivistgroupsaswellasSDSfactions

opposedtotheWeatherUnderground,includingRevolutionaryYouthMovementII

(RYMII),whichsplitfromWeathermanshortlyaftertheJune1969SDSNational

Convention,andtheBoston-basedProgressiveLaborParty-affiliatedWorker-Student

Alliance(WSA)faction,whichclaimedthemantleofSDSaftertheWeathermanfaction

disbandedtheorganizationfollowingtheDecember1969FlintWarCouncil.Despite

theirferventideologicaldifferences,andthefactthatboththeWSAandRYMIIopposed

urbanguerrillawarfare,Hooverwarnedthatthesegroupscollectivelyconstituted“a

breedinggroundforrevolutionaries,extremists,andterrorists.”45Hooveralso

mandatedsurveillanceofallmembersof“BlackStudentUnions”andotherAfrican

Americancampusgroups,aswellasmembersofpro-IndependencePuertoRican

43FBIbulletin,“KidnappingandAssaultsofUnitedStatesGovernmentOfficials,”October23,1970,GaleCengageLearningDeclassifiedDocumentsReferenceSystemonlinedatabase(hereafterDDRSdatabase).44FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,“SecurityInvestigationsofIndividualswhoareMembersoftheStudentsforaDemocraticSocietyandMilitantNewLeftCampusOrganizations,”November5,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section64.45Ibid.

178

studentgroups.Viewingright-wingnationalistbombersasanadditionalthreatto

internalsecurity,HooveralsoordersurveillanceoftheanticommunistJewishDefense

League,whomtheFBIsuspectedofinvolvementinaseriesofattacksonSoviet

embassiesandconsulates.46

Expandingdomesticsurveillancewasnoeasytask.Hoover’smeasuresrequired

fieldagentstoreopenover10,000filesonstudentactiviststhathadbeenfrozensincea

February1969moratorium.47Agentsweretodosoincrementally,completingthetask

byJune1971.48TheeffortswereHoover’slatesttoobtainpreventativeintelligence,or

advancedknowledgeofrevolutionaryviolence.Thegoal,heexplained,wasto“identify

potentialandactualextremists,revolutionariesandterroristsandtoassesstheirthreat

totheinternalsecurityoftheGovernment.”49

LeftistguerrillaviolencealsoencouragedtheFBItoreinstatemail-covers—

illegalandpreviouslyrestrictedsurveillanceofaddressesandreturnaddresseson

individuals’mail.Liketheuseofteenagedinformants,mail-covershadbeenacritical

tacticoutlineintheHustonPlan.InOctober1970,Hooverapprovedarecommendation

fromInternalSecurityDivisionChiefRobertL.ShackelfordtohissupervisorCharles

Brennan,grantingpermissiontoinitiatemailcoversintheFBI’sWeatherUnderground

investigation.TheFBItargetedYippieleadersJerryRubinandJenniferDohrn,whohad

exposedthemselvesaspotentialabovegroundcontactsfortheWeatherUnderground

46FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,“BlackStudentGroupsonCollegeCampuses,”November4,1970;andFBImemo,ExecutivesConferencetoTolson,“ProposedIntensificationofCertainInvestigationsintheSecurityField,”October29,1970,HustonPlan,323-324and317-320.TheFBIsuspectedtheJDL’sinvolvementinaseriesofbombingsofSovietembassiesandconsulates.47FBImemo,ExecutivesConferencetoTolson,“ProposedIntensificationofCertainInvestigationsintheSecurityField,”October29,1970,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section64.48Ibid.49Ibid.

179

withtheirOctober6pressreleasepublicizingBernadineDohrn’s“FallOffensive”

statement.InanOctober16memo,ShackelfordexpressedhisviewthattheFBI“should

undertakeeveryinvestigativetechniquepossibletolocate…Weathermanfugitives

[emphasisadded].”50Shackelford’scolleagueswouldhaveclearlyunderstoodthis

statementasareferencetomail-coversandotherrestrictedtactics.Specifically,in

responsetoRubinandDohrn’spublicacknowledgementofhavingreceivedthe

WeatherUnderground’stape-recordedcommuniquéinthemailattheNewYork’s

Yippieheadquarters,ShackelfordsuggestedtheFBI“makeconfidentialarrangements

throughtheOldChelseaStationPostOfficetogetthelistsofpostmarksandreturn

addressesonmailsenttoindividualsatYIPheadquartersaswellastotheorganization

itself.”51Hooverapprovedtherecommendationwithhischaracteristichandwritten

initialsandascribbled“OK.”52

TheFBIbeganexpandingitswarrantlesselectronicsurveillanceofthe

abovegroundleftinitseffortstothwartguerrillaviolenceaswell,thoughitdidsowith

AttorneyGeneralMitchell’sapproval.InlateOctober,forexample,theFBIbeganto

wiretapthetelephoneintheBostonWSA-affiliatedSDSHeadquarters,andthephones

ofsuspectedabovegroundWeatherUndergroundcontactsNancyKurshaninCleveland

andNancyFrappierinSanFrancisco.53TheFBIdirectedthegreatestshareofits

electronicsurveillancetowardstheBlackPantherParty.TheFBIsuspectedthat

membersofthePartyplannedtocarryoutguerrillaviolenceduetothefrequent

50FBImemo,R.L.ShackelfordtoC.D.Brennan,October,16,1970,FBIWUOFile,Roll6,Section64.51Ibid.52Ibid.53ChurchCommittee,BookIII,320;FBImemo,C.D.BrennantoW.R.Wannall,March29,1971,HustonPlan,270.

180

glorificationofkillingpoliceofficersintheirnewspaper,andbasedoninformationthey

receivedfrominformants.54Moreover,becausetheBlackPantherPartyremainedan

abovegroundorganization,theywereaneasiersurveillancetargetthantheclandestine

WeatherUnderground.ByMarch29,1971,theFBImaintainedtelephonesurveillance

onBPPofficesinChicago,LosAngeles,SanFrancisco,Oakland,NewHaven,andthe

Bronx,andmicrophonesurveillanceinsidetheSanFranciscopenthousesuiteofthe

organization’sleader,HueyNewton.55TheFBInowmaintainedthemostextensive

electronicsurveillanceoftheU.S.LeftsinceHooverlimitedthepracticein1965.56

Ironically,theFBI’ssurveillanceoftheU.S.Leftexpandedjustasmassradical

protestdeclined.Antiwardemonstrationscontinuedonuniversitycampusesduringthe

fall1970semester,butnotonthescaleofthepreviousspring,whenstudentsshut

downcampusesacrossthecountryinthewakeofNixon’sCambodiainvasionandthe

KentStatekillings.ThedisintegrationofSDSafterJune1969hadleftthemovement

withoutanationalorganizationcapableofmaintainingsuchmomentum.TheFBI’s

annualreportforfiscalyear1971nonethelessemphasizedthat“NewLeftextremism

posedaseriousdangertotheNation’sinternalsecurity,”andthat“oneofthekey

extremistgroupswastheWeatherman,theviolence-pronewingofthepre-June1969

54Forexample,inSeptember1970theFBInotedinaseriesofbulletinstootherpoliceagenciesthatarecentissueof“TheBlackPanther”newspaperincludedacartoon“showingaPantherleavingapolicestation,guninhand,withadeadpoliceofficerbehindhim,”andthataninformanthadindicatedthataleaderoftheNewYorkPanthersexpressedsupportforkidnappingAmericanpoliticalleadersinordertonegotiatethereleaseofChairmanBobbySealfromprison.FBIbulletin,“RacialSummary,WeekofSeptember21-27,1970,”September29,1970,andFBIbulletin,“RacialSummary,WeekofSeptember14-20,1970,”September22,1970,DDRSdatabase.55C.D.BrennantoW.R.Wannall,March29,1971,HustonPlan,270-271;ChurchCommittee,BookIII,319-320.TheFBIalsomaintainedtelephonesurveillanceoftheofficesoftheJuntaofMilitaryOrganizations(a“blackextremistorganization”)inTampa,theCommunistPartyUSAHeadquartersinNewYork,andtheanticommunistright-wingnationalistJewishDefenseLeagueHeadquartersinNewYork.56ChurchCommittee,BookIII,298-303.

181

StudentsforaDemocraticSociety.57TheBlackPantherPartywasalsoindisarray.In

JanuaryandFebruary1971,HueyNewtonexpelledGeronimoPrattandmostmembers

ofNewYork’sPantherTwenty-OnefromthePartyaftermembersalignedwithexiled

MinisterofCommunicationEldridgeCleaverpubliclycriticizedtheirleaderformoving

awayfromguerrillawarfareasarevolutionarystrategy.58TheFBInotedintheirannual

reportthattheBlackPantherParty’smembershiphad“dwindled”duringthefirsthalf

of1971amidtheNewton-Cleaversplit,whichtheBureauhadactivelyencouraged

throughitscounterintelligenceprogramagainsttheorganization.Nonetheless,the

Bureaumaintainedthat“blackextremistsgroups,”particularlytheBPP’sCleaver

faction,“continueasdangerstonationalsecurity.”59

TheFBIexpandeditssurveillanceoftheU.S.leftinthefallof1970notin

responsetomassprotestorfearsofCommunistsubversion,butinadesperateattempt

tothwartleftistguerrillaviolence.60Asinthepast,however,masssurveillancewould

nothelptheFBIreachitsintendedobjectives.Instead,itdamagedtheFBI,asHoover’s

zealouseffortstocombatrevolutionaryguerrillasledhimtooverstatethethreatposed

byleftistviolence.Indoingso,theDirectorsetoffaseriesofeventsthatwould

irreparablytarnishtheBureau’spublicimageandpopularlegitimacy.

57U.S.DepartmentofJustice,FederalBureauofInvestigation,AnnualReportforFiscalYear1971,October26,1971,21.58BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,358-362.59FBI,AnnualReportfor1971,24-25.60Revolutionaryviolencealsolargelyalienatedtheguerrillasfromtheincreasinglyfracturedabovegroundleft.

182

Overreach

TheFBI’sexpandingwarondomesticleftistguerrillaswasexpensive.OnNovember27,

1970,HooverappearedbeforetheSenateAppropriationsCommitteetorequestover

fourteenmilliondollarsinsupplementalfundingforitsoperationsagainstorganized

crime,airplanehijackers,and“blackmilitantsandNewLeftextremists”involvedin

“violentandterroristictactics,includingbombings.”61Citingatwenty-fivepercent

increaseintheFBI’sworkloadoverthepastyearduetotheexpansionofsuchillegal

activity,Hooversoughtthefundstoemploy1,000newagentsand702newclerks,and

topurchase500newautomobiles.62Hooverprovidedadetailedaccountofrecent

domesticleftistguerrillaviolenceinhistestimony,referencingWeatherUnderground

assaults,theMarinCountycourthouseraid,andtheSterlingHallbombingasprominent

examplesofthethousandsofpoliticallymotivatedattacks,mostofthembombingsand

arsons,thathadoccurredoverthepastyear,andwhichheimaginedwouldcontinue

intothenext.63Asusual,theDirectorsucceededinacquiringhisrequestedfunds.64But

aportionofHoover’stestimonyprovokedafirestormofcontroversy.

Inanefforttounderscorethedangerleftistviolenceposedtonationalsecurity,

HooverallegedthattheEastCoastConspiracytoSaveLives,adirectaction-oriented

pacifistgroupledbyCatholicpriestsandnuns,“plannedtoblowupunderground

conduitsandsteampipesservingtheWashingtonD.C.area”and“kidnapahighlyplaced

Governmentofficial.”65LeakstothepressfollowingthetestimonynamedSecretaryof

61J.EdgarHoovertestimony,SubcommitteeoftheCommitteeonAppropriations,“SupplementalAppropriationsforFiscalYear1971,”November27,1970,1079.62Ibid.63Ibid,1095-1100.64Medsger,TheBurglary,34.65Ibid,1100.

183

StateHenryKissingerastheofficialslatedforkidnapping.Theleadersofthisplot,

Hooverclaimed,werePhilipandDanielBerrigan,apairofbrothersandpacifistRoman

CatholicprieststhenservingfederalprisonsentencesinDanbury,Connecticutfor

helpingdestroySelectiveServicesrecordsinMarylandinanonviolentactofresistance

totheVietnamWarin1968.66Hoover’saccusationswerenotcompletelyunfounded.

Pakistani-AmericanscholarEqbalAhmadhadindeedfloatedtheideaofa“citizens’

arrest”ofKissingeroverdinnerwithsomeofhisCatholicpacifistcomradesinlate

1970,butthe“conspiracy”endedthatnightaftertheactivistsdeterminedthatthe

actionposedtoomuchriskofbloodshed.TheFBIlearnedofthis“plot”afterDanbury

prisonofficialsinterceptedaletterfromSisterElizabethMcAlistertoherhusband

PhilipBerriganthatdescribedthedinnerconversation.67

Hoover’saccusationpromptedwhathefearedmost:negativemediaattention

andchargesofFBIwrongdoing.TheBerriganbrothersandmembersoftheEastCoast

ConspiracytoSaveLivespubliclydeniedthecharges,whileprominentleftistattorney

WilliamKuntslerwarnedthatHoover’stestimonywaspartofanefforttoscarethe

AmericanpeopleintoacceptingincreasedFBIrepressionoftheAmericanLeft.68Ina

referencetotheGrandInquisitoroflatefifteenthcenturySpain,Kunstlerreferredto

Hooveras“America’sTorquemada.”69Kunstlermadethestatementduringaspeechat

YaleUniversity,whereleftiststudentswerethenhostingthousandsofactivistsfrom

aroundthecountrywhohadcometoNewHaventoprotestthetrialofBlackPanthers

66Ibid,1101;JustinJackson,“Kissinger’sKidnapper:EqbalAhmad,theU.S.NewLeft,andtheTransnationalRomanceofRevolutionaryWar,”JournalfortheStudyofRadicalism4,no.1(2010),97-9867Jackson,“Kissinger’sKidnapper,”97-98.68WashingtonPost,“WarFoesDenyHoover’sCharges,December1,1970;MarvinOlasky,“KunstlerPredictsmore‘Repression,’”BostonGlobe,December3,1970,15.69Olasky,“KunstlerPredictsmore‘Repression.’”

184

BobbySealeandErikaHuggins.Thepairfacedchargesconnectedtothemurderof

nineteen-year-oldParty-memberandaccusedinformantAlexRackley,whomlocal

Panthershadshottodeathaftertorturinghimforseveraldayswithacoathangerand

boilingwaterinasupposedefforttouncoverevidenceofpoliceinfiltrationofthe

organization.ComingontheheelsofchargesagainsttheChicagoEight,thePanther

Twenty-One,HueyNewton,AngelaDavis,andotherprominentradicals,manyinthe

U.S.LeftviewedthechargesagainstSealeandHugginsasthelatestroundofthe

government’seffortstocrushtheantiwarandBlackPowermovements.70Intheminds

ofKunstlerandotherleftists,Hoover’saccusationsagainsttheEastCoastConspiracyto

SaveLivesdemonstratedthattheNixonadministration’seffortstorepressdomestic

politicaldissentwerenotlimitedtoBlackPantherandSDSmilitants.“IfCatholicpriests

andnuns,sensitivereligiouspeople,canbeindictedforcrimespunishablebythedeath

penalty,”heasked,“whoissafe?”71

Hoover’sallegationsalsoturnedmembersofCongressagainsthim,particularly

thoseintheliberalwingoftheDemocraticParty.RepresentativeWilliamR.Anderson

(D-TN),anesteemedWorldWarIINavyveteranandself-described“lifelongadmirerof

Mr.Hoover,”respondedtothechargeswithwhatonereporterreferredtoas“the

sharpestcriticismofFBIDirectorJ.EdgarHoovereverheard”intheHouseof

Representatives.AccusingHooverofbeing“involvedinaprocessdestructiveofthe

institutionhehaslovedandservedwithsuchdedication,”Andersonaccusedthe

70BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,249-253.71KunstlerquotedinOlasky,“KunstlerPredictsmore‘Repression.”

185

Directorofutilizing“tacticsreminiscentofMcCarthyism.”72Thecontroversyerupted

onlydaysafterformerAttorneyGeneralRamseyClarkpubliclycriticizedtheFBIfor

wiretappingSenatorsandlobbyistsduringthemid-1960s.Hooverrespondedbycalling

hisformersuperiora“jellyfish”whowas“soft”oncriminals.73Inatelevision

appearance,SenatorBirchBayh(D-IN)describedHoover’scommentsas“very

unbecoming,”remarking,“thistypeofresponsewouldleadmetobelievehe’sforgotten

whathisjobisandperhapsweshouldfindsomeonewhohasabettermemory.”74

TheBerriganconspiracyblowoutmayhavebeenaproductoftheongoing

bureaucraticstruggleatthetopoftheFBIhierarchy.Inhis1979memoir,MarkFelt

insinuatedthatWilliamC.SullivanfedinformationabouttheBerriganconspiracyto

Hooverinanattempttounderminehim,knowingthattheDirectorwouldprovoke

damagingpublicbacklashifthemediapickeduphistestimony.75Sullivan,however,

insistedthathehadexplicitlywarnedHoovernottodiscussthecase.76Whicheverthe

case,theresultwasincreasedstrainontheFBI’spublicimage.Underpressuretojustify

hispublicstatement,HooverconvincedtheDepartmentofJusticetoconveneagrand

jury,whichindictedPhilipBerriganandsevenothersonconspiracychargesinearly

January1971.OnJanuary12,FBIagentsarrestedthesevennon-incarceratedactivists.

AlongwithPhilipBerrigan,theybecameknownasthe“HarrisburgEight,”afterthe

Pennsylvaniacitythathostedthegrandjury.Buttheindictmentbackfired.Hundredsof

72RichardL.Lyons,“Rep.AndersonAssailsHooverforAccusationsagainstBerrigans,”WashingtonPost,December11,1970,A8.AlsoseeMedsger,TheBurglary,35-37.73JackAnderson,“BuggingExposeisCausingJitters,”WashingtonPost,December5,1970;BostonGlobe,“BayhCriticizesHooverAttacks,”November29,1970,47.74BostonGlobe,“BayhCriticizesHooverAttacks.”75Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,89.76Sullivan,TheBureau,154-155.

186

protestersdemonstratedatthedefendants’courthearings,andtheHarrisburgEight

becameleftistcausescélèbreswithRamseyClarkservingastheirheadattorney.77

OutcryovertheHarrisburgEightindictmenteruptedatthesametimethatother

controversiesstainedtheFBI’simage.OnJanuary31,1971,SenatorGeorgeMcGovern

chargedHooverwith“vindictiveness”forfiringJackShaw,anFBIspecialagentwhohad

privatelycritiquedtheDirectorinapaperwrittenforacollegecriminaljusticecourse.

DaysafterShawfiledalawsuitagainsttheFBI,McGoverncalledforaSenate

investigationofthematter.78CitingHoover’sageofseventy-six,hiscareerspanning

overhalfadecade,andgrowingcontroversysurroundinghisleadershipandallegations

ofillegalsurveillance,prominentnewspapereditorsnowcalledupontheDirectorto

resign.79

PresidentNixonprivatelyconsideredfiringHooverduringthisperiodaswell,

butnotbecauseoftheDirector’sallegedcivilrightsviolations.Nixonremained

frustratedwiththepowerfulbureaucrat’srefusaltofollowhisorders.OnFebruary3,

1971,HooveronceagainblockedtheNixonadministration’sattempttoreviveaversion

oftheHustonPlan.InamemototheJusticeDepartment,heindicatedthattheFBI

would“notprovidepersonnel”fortheNixonadministration’sproposedinter-agency

IntelligenceEvaluationCommittee(IEC)oninternalsecurityheadedbyWhiteHouse

CouncilJohnDeanandAssistantAttorneyGeneralRobertMardian.80TheDirectorfailed

tomention,however,thattheFBIhadalreadybeguntoinstitutemanyoftheHuston77Jackson,“Kissinger’sKidnapper,”98-102.AjuryeventuallyacquittedthedefendantsofmostchargesonApril2,1972.78WashingtonPost,McGovernCallsHooverVindictive,”February1,1970,A2.79See,forexample,JudgeLawrenceG.Brooks,“It’sTimeforJ.EdgarHoovertoRetire,”BostonGlobe,January1,1971,17.80FBImemo,DirectortoAssistantAttorneyGeneralInternalSecurityDivision,“IntelligenceEvaluationCommittee,”February3,1971,HustonPlan,261.

187

Plansprovisionsonitsown.Hoover’ssnubcompelledtheIECtomoveforwardwithout

theFBI’sinvolvement,amovethatprefiguredNixon’sformationofthe“Plumbers”

severalmonthslater.81ThedayafterHooverissuedhismemototheJustice

Department,PresidentNixon,AttorneyGeneralMitchel,andChiefofStaffH.R.

Haldemanheldatwo-hourmeetingtodiscussHoover’sfateasFBIDirector.According

toHaldeman,thePresident“madeitclearthatHooverhasgottobereplacedbeforethe

endofNixon’sfirstterm.”82

ThoughhemanagedtostayinofficeandsafeguardtheFBI’sinstitutional

autonomy,Hoover’sproblemscontinuedtomount.Americans’viewsontheFBIgrew

increasinglypolarized,asleftistsandliberalsdecriedHoover’srepressionofleftwing

activists,whilegrowingnumbersofotherAmericansdemandedstepped-upeffortsto

captureleftistguerrillas.AtthesametimethatprominentDemocraticlawmakerssuch

asEdwardKennedyandHaleBoggscalledforHoover’sdismissal,forexample,theFBI

enduredcriticismfromtheInternationalAssociationofChiefsofPoliceandotherswho

questionedwhyleftistbomberfugitivescontinuedtoeludetheFBIdespitetheBureau

receiving“biggerandbigger”appropriationseveryyear.83

Ongoingleftistviolence,meanwhile,lentcredencetoHoover’swarningsthat

revolutionaryguerrillasposedaseriousdangertopublicsafetyandnationalsecurity.

OnMarch1,1971,intheirmostbrazenattacktodate,theWeatherUnderground

81Theoharis,SpyingonAmericans,37.82H.R.Haldeman,TheHaldemanDiaries:InsidetheNixonWhiteHouse(NewYork:G.PPutnam’s,1994),243.83BostonGlobe,“BoggsAttacksFBITactics,UrgesHoover’sDismissal,”April6,1971,8;JackNelsonandRonaldJ.Ostrow,“Kennedy:FBIChiefShouldQuit,”BostonGlobe,April8,1971;MarquisChilds,“FBISeenLagginginBombingCases,”WashingtonPost,March22,1971,A17.

188

bombedtheU.S.CapitolBuilding,causing$300,000indamage.84Thebombingfollowed

Weather’sDecember1970“NewMorning,ChangingWeather”communiqué,inwhich

BernadineDohrntoneddownherviolentrhetoric,renouncedtheorganization’s

previousrejectionofgrassrootsmovement-building,andpledgedthattheWeather

Undergroundwouldconsciouslyavoidcasualtiesinfuturebombingscarriedoutto

drawpublicattentiontoU.S.injustice.85TheFBItooknoteoftheWeather

Underground’snewlyarticulatedpolicy,butcontinuedtoviewtheorganizationasa

dangerousthreat.86HundredsofFBIagentsthroughoutthecountrycontinuedtheir

searchfortheorganization’sfugitivesaftertheCapitolbombing,asCongressional

leadersoffereda$100,000awardforinformationleadingtotheircapture.87

WhiletheCapitolbombingcausedgreatfrustrationfortheFBI,anonviolent

burglaryaweeklatercausedfarmoredamagetotheBureau.LateatnightonMarch8,

1971,whilemuchofthecountrywatchedJoeFrazier’stelevisedchampionshipboxing

boutwithMuhammadAli,theCitizens’CommitteetoInvestigatetheFBIcarriedout

theirheistofthousandsofclassifieddocumentsfromaResidentAgencyinMedia,

Pennsylvania.TheFBIdidnotknowitatthetime,buttheburglarswereagroupof

eightlocalpeaceactivistsledbyWilliamC.Davidon,aphysicsprofessorandmemberof

theHarrisburgEightindictedfortheKissingerkidnappingconspiracy.Infuriatedbythe

Harrisburgindictments,theCitizens’Committeecarriedouttheirburglaryinan

attempttofinddocumentaryevidencethattheFBIwasengagedincovertdisruptionof84UPI,“NoNewCluesFoundinCapitalBlast,”BostonGlobe,March3,1971;Dorhn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,169-170.TheWeatherUndergroundcarriedoutthisbombingtoprotesttheU.S.bombardmentofLaos.85BernadineDohrn,“NewMorning—ChangingWeather,”inDohrn,etal.,161-169.86FBImemo,R.L.ShackelfordtoC.D.Brennan,January5,1971,WUOFBI,Roll6,Sec.64.Shackelfordstated,“WhetherallWeathermanindividualswillfollowDohrn’sexampleremainstobeseen.”87WashingtonPost,“ReportHintsofBreakinHillBombing,”March19,1971,A21.

189

theU.S.Left.Theyweresuccessfulbeyondtheirgreatestexpectations.Theburglars

uncovereddocumentsdemonstratingtheFBI’sextensivesurveillanceofstudentand

Blackactivistorganizations;theiruseoflocalpolice,postalworkers,telephone

operators,andcampussecurityofficersinsurveillanceoperations;andtheirattempts

toinstillinactiviststheparanoidsensethattheywerebeingconstantlywatchedby“an

FBIagentbehindeverymailbox.”88Thegroupsecretlysentthedocumentsto

journalistsandmembersofCongress.DespiteFBIandJusticeDepartmentordersnotto

publish,theWashingtonPostandNewYorkTimesbeganrunningarticlesonthe

revelationsjustovertwoweekslater.89

AccordingtoMarkFelt,Hooverwas“enraged”whenhelearnedofthedocument

heist;anothersourcedescribedtheDirectoras“apoplectic.”90Hooverimmediately

launchedanenormousinvestigation,codenamedMEDBURG,whichrivaledtheWeather

Undergroundinvestigationinsizeandscope.MEDBURGconsumedvastBureau

resources,asHooverdispatchedover200agentstotheworkonthecaseinthe

Philadelphiaarea,wheretheysetuparound-the-clockphysicalsurveillanceof

Philadelphiapeaceactivists,andporedovermountainsofevidence,including,among

otherthings,overadecade’sworthofsurveillancephotosofantiwaractivists.Onmore

thanoneoccasion,FBIagentsbrokeintothehomesofPhiladelphiapeaceactivists

whomtheysuspectedofinvolvementintheMediaburglary.Otherinvestigators

followedleadsthroughoutthecountry,fromLosAngelestoNorthCarolinatoBoston.

StillmoreagentsdrewmassiveovertimepayforsecuritydutyafterHoover,fearfulof

88Medsger,TheBurglary,184.89Ibid,177-179.ThefirststorytoappearwasBettyMedsgerandKenClawson,“StolenDocumentsDescribeFBISurveillanceActivities,”WashingtonPost,March24,1971.90Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,92;Medsger,TheBurglary,129.

190

additionalburglaries,closed103oftheFBI’sremoteResidentAgenciesandrequired

agentstomaintaintwenty-fourhourguardattheBureau’smorethan400othersmall

offices.91TheFBI,however,wasunabletofindtheculprits.Aftermailingoffthe

documents,membersoftheCitizen’sCommissiontoInvestigatetheFBIpartedways,

agreeingtoneverspeaktooneanotheragainoutoffearthatdoingsowouldaidthe

Bureau’sinvestigation.Onememberofthegroup,JudiFeingold,movedtothewest

coastandwentunderground.TherestremainedabovegroundinthePhiladelphiaarea,

hidinginplainsight.92

TheMediaburglarypromptedanimportantchangeinFBIpractices.OnApril28,

1971,HooverquietlydiscontinuedallFBICOINTELPROs,thoughhereservedthe

prerogativetocarryoutsimilarprogramsinthefutureonan“ad-hocbasis.”93The

publichadnotyetlearnedoftheFBI’scounterintelligenceprograms,butHooverknew

itwasonlyamatteroftimebeforeactivistsandjournalistsbegantoinquireaboutthe

“COINTELPRO”codewordtypedintheheadingofadocumentstolenfromMedia.By

thispoint,however,theFBI’scounterintelligenceprogramswereoflittleuse.

COINTELPRO-NewLefthadneverbeenveryeffective,andwasofevenlesservaluenow

thatSDShaddisintegratedandmassantiwarprotesthadsignificantlydeclined.

COINTELPRO-BNHGhadsuccessfullyexploitedtheBlackPantherParty’sinternal

divisionsandviolenttendencies,butbyApril1971thePartywasessentiallydefunct

outsideofOakland.94Moreover,asFBIofficialshadacknowledgedforthepastyear,

91Medsger,TheBurglary,135-141,159,161.92BettyMedsger,“Breaking43YearsofSilence,theLastFBIBurglarTellstheStoryofherLifeintheUnderground,”TheNation,October6,2014.93FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,April28,1971.94BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,372-374.

191

counterintelligencewasnotaneffectivetacticforfightingclandestinerevolutionary

guerrillas.

FortheFBI,however,themostdamagingoutcomeoftheMediaburglarywasthe

damageitinflictedupontheBureau’spublicimage.Immediatelyfollowingthenews

storiesonthestolendocuments,publiccriticismoftheFBIsurged,particularlyamong

Americanliberals.EditorsoftheWashingtonPost,NewYorkTimes,Philadelphia

Inquirer,andothermajorpapersblastedtheFBI’stacticsandnotionofinternal

security.95ThePostcalledtheFBI’stactics“appropriate,perhapsforthesecretpoliceof

theSovietUnionbutwhollyinconsonantwiththeideaofaFederalBureauof

Investigation.”96DemocraticSenatorsEdmundMuskieofMaine,GaylordNelsonof

Wisconsin,MikeMansfieldofMontana,andJohnV.TunneyofCaliforniajoined

newspapereditorsincallsforCongressionalinvestigationsofFBIpractices.97

WilliamSullivanandJ.EdgarHooverdiscussedpubliccriticismoftheFBIinan

exchangeoflettersinApril1971.Sullivansoughttoconsolehisbossthrougha

sycophanticletter.“Itwouldbemisleadingtosaythattheattacksmadeonyou,theFBI,

andtherestofusarenotdamaging,”heconceeded.ButSullivanassuredHooverthat

thecontroversywouldpass.“YounotonlyhavethesupportandbackingofFBI

employeesbutoffargreatersignificancethebackingofpeoplethroughoutthecountry

onagrass-rootslevel,”hewrote.“Eventhecriticsadmitthisandpointoutthatyour

strengthistoogreatforanyonetoreplaceyou.”98Inhisreply,Hooveracknowledged

95Medsger,TheBurglary,184-186.96“CongressandtheFBI,”WashingtonPost,March25,1971;Medsger,TheBurglary,184.97Medsger,TheBurglary,187.98WilliamC.SullivantoJ.EdgarHoover,April5,1971,WCSFBI,Section7.

192

thatthepubliccriticismwasgreat,andthathewastakingitpersonally.Itwasalsoclear

thatHooverdidnotsuspectSullivan’sduplicity:

DearBill, ItwasindeedmostthoughtfulforyoutowriteyourmostencouragingletterofApril5commentingontheseriesofattacksonmeandtheBureau.Idonotthinkitispossibletoalwayscompletelyignoreorbeabletonotletsuchthingsgetunderone’sskin,butwhenonestopstoanalyzeit,thetruecharacterofthesources,whichisnothingbutapackofjackals,surfaces.Ihavealwaysbeenabletocountonyourstaunchsupport,loyalty,andassistance,notonlywhenthingsareblackest,butdayinanddayout,andIdidwanttothankyouandexpressmydeepappreciationtoyou.Ifeelcertainthatbyeachofuscarryingonanddoingthejobtothebestofourabilityandadheringtotherightprinciples,ourrecordwillspeakforitself. Thankyouforwritingasyoudid. Sincerely, J.E.H.99

ThedamageinflictedontheFBI,however,wasirreparable.AftertheMedia

burglaryrevelations,theFBI’simage,alongwithHoover’s,enteredadownwardspiral

fromwhichitwouldneverfullyrecover.GrowingnumbersofAmericansexpressed

theirdistrustoftheBureauanditsleaders,viewingtheFBI’spolitically-motivated

policingasafargreaterthreattotheirfreedomthantheviolentanticsofahandfulof

guerrillarevolutionaries.Consequently,FBIagentsnowpursuedleftistguerrillasamid

intensepublicscrutinyofBureauinvestigativetactics.

Conclusion

Whenjournalistsandnewspapereditorswroteaboutrevelationsuncoveredinthe

Mediaburglary,theyemphasizedthenegativeramificationsoftheFBI’sintrusioninto

thelivesoflaw-abidingactivists.Forinstance,theNewYorkTimeschargedtheBureau

withengagingin“politicalsurveillancewhichfarexceed[ed]legitimateeffortsto99J.EdgarHoovertoWilliamC.Sullivan,April7,1971,WCSFBI,Section7.

193

protectthenationalinterest,”whiletheWashingtonPostcondemned“thepoisonous

effectwhich[FBI]surveillance…hasuponthedemocraticprocessanduponthe

practiceoffreespeech.100Theyhadapoint.MostoftheFBI’ssurveillancetargeted

individualswhohadnoinvolvementinrevolutionaryviolence,andwereengagedin

legal,constitutionallyprotectedactivities,suchasorganizingantiwardemonstrations

andblackstudentactivistgroups.Therevelationswereparticularlyshockinggiventhe

factthatU.S.officialshadrepeatedlydeniedtheexistenceofsuchmasssurveillance.

ThedayaftertheMediaburglary,forexample,AssistantAttorneyGeneralWilliamH.

RehnquistsworetotheSenateSubcommitteeonConstitutionalRightsthatU.S.

intelligenceagenciesengagedinvirtuallynosurveillanceofAmericans.Acoupleweeks

later,whenthenewFBIrevelationsmadeheadlines,reportersmadeapointof

highlightingthefalsehoodofRehnquist’stestimony.101

Missingfromjournalisticaccounts,however,wasanexplanationforwhytheFBI

engagedinmasssurveillance.SomejournalistsreportedontheFBI’sresponsestothe

informationdisclosedinthestolendocuments.BettyMedsgerandKenClawson,for

example,notedintheWashingtonPostthatAttorneyGeneralMitchellaccusedthe

burglarsoftakingthedocumentsoutofcontext,andselectivelymailingtoCongressmen

andjournalistsonlythosethat“seemtodiscredittheFBI.”102Asanexample,Mitchell

arguedthatamemorevealingtheFBI’suseoflocalpolice,aneighbor,apostmaster,

campussecurity,andacampusswitchboardoperatortokeeptabsonaPhiladelphia

professoragentsdescribedasa“hippie”anda“radical”gavetheimpressionthatthe

100“PoliciesofParanoia,”NewYorkTimes,March29,1971;“WhatistheFBIUpTo?,”WashingtonPost,March25,1971;Medsger,TheBurglary,184-186.101Medsger,TheBurglary,141-143,186.102BettyMedsgerandKenClawson,“ThievesGotOver1,000Papers,”WashingtonPost,March25,1971.

194

FBIwaswatchingthemansolelybecauseofhispoliticalviews.Inreality,Mitchell

claimed,thedocumentwaspartofapacketontheSeptember1970killingof

MassachusettspoliceofficerWalterSchroeder,andtheFBIsuspectedthatTenMost

WantedguerrillafugitivesKatherinePowerandSusanSaxemightattempttocontact

theprofessor.103MedsgerandClawsonalsonotedthatMitchellwouldnotcommenton

thereleaseoftheFBI’sSeptember1970memoauthorizingemploymentofcampus

informantsagedeighteentotwenty-one.104Butthisorder,aswellasHoover’s

November1970directivesmassivelyexpandingcampussurveillance,wasundertaken

aspartoftheFBI’sdesperatehuntforleftistguerrillas.InthemediaandinCongress,

condemnationofFBImisdeedsandshockattheBureau’sduplicityovershadowed

discussionofleftistguerrillas’influenceupontheBureau’stactics.

AnunderstandingoftheFBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillas,however,is

crucialtocomprehendingtheBureau’slate-1970expansionofdomesticsurveillance,

theMediaburglary,andensuingcontroversyoverFBIoperations.Underintense

pressurefromtheNixonAdministrationafterthecollapseoftheHustonPlan,theFBI

liftedpreviousrestraintsondomesticsurveillanceinlate1970inanunsuccessfuleffort

tothwartleftistguerrillaviolence.Hoover’smassiveexpansionofsurveillanceonthe

studentantiwarandBlackPowermovements,reauthorizationofteenagedinformants,

andpressuringoffieldofficestoinformallypartakeinmail-covers,mail-opening,

warrantlesswiretaps,andbreak-inswasadirectresponsetoJonathanJackson’sbloody

MarinCountycourthouseattack,theNewYearsGang’sdeadlyUniversityofWisconsin

bombing,thekillingofOfficerWilliamSchroeder,andtheWeatherUnderground’s103Ibid.104Ibid.

195

October1970“FallOffensive.”Hoover’sloathingofleftistsundoubtedlyinfluencedthe

measuresaswell,butthisalonedoesnotexplaintheDirector’sactions.Hooverwould

nothaveliftedhisrestrictionsondomesticsurveillance,andriskedthepossibilityof

publicexposuretaintingtheFBI’simage,ifitwerenotforongoingleftistguerrilla

attacksandtheBureau’sinabilitytopreventthem.

Ultimately,Hoover’sworstfearmaterialized.TheAmericanpublicdidendup

learningaboutFBIdomesticsurveillance,andtheBureau’simagesufferedasaresult.

Thistoo,however,waspartiallyanoutcomeofguerrillaviolence.Inhiszealousattempt

tosecurefundingandsupportfortheFBI’swaronviolentrevolutionaries,Hoover

madeacalamitousmiscalculationwhenheaccusedtheBerriganbrothersandtheEast

CoastConspiracytoSaveLivesofconspiringtokidnapKissingerandlaunchanattack

onWashingtonD.C.’smunicipalinfrastructure.Inthewakeofgovernmenteffortsto

convictseveralotherprominentradicals,andamidcontinuouspoliceinfiltrationand

attacksonactivists,Americanleftists—includingthosewhowentontocarryoutthe

Mediaburglary—understandablyinterpretedtheHarrisburgEightindictmentaspartof

anFBI-ledassaultontheU.S.Left.Whenhelodgedhisfalseallegationsagainstthe

HarrisburgEight,HooverinadvertentlyprovokedtheMediaburglary.

Hoover’sexpansionofdomesticsurveillancedidnotimprovetheFBI’ssuccessin

preventingleftistguerrillaviolence.Instead,hisannouncementofthefar-fetched

KissingerkidnapconspiracybackfiredagainsttheFBI.Inhiszealtocombat

revolutionaryviolence,Hooverbadlyunderminedthepublic’strust.Agrowingnumber

ofAmericansnowsawtheFBI’spolitically-motivatedpolicingasafargreaterthreatto

theirfreedomthanahandfulofrevolutionaryguerrillas.Asaconsequence,theFBI’s

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pursuitofclandestinerevolutionariesbecamesignificantlymoredifficult,andHoover’s

conflictwithNixongrewevenmorecontentious.

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CHAPTER5

MOUNTINGCRISES:THEBLACKLIBERATIONARMY,THEPENTAGONPAPERS,

ANDILLEGALSURVEILLANCE

WaverlyJonesandJosephPiagentiniwerewalkingtheirbeatoutsideaHarlempublic

housingcomplexwhentheybecamethelatestcasualtiesinAmerica’sdomestic

guerrillawar.OntheeveningofMay21,1971,twogunmenambushedthepairofNew

YorkCitypoliceofficersfrombehind,riddlingtheunsuspectingpatrolmenwithbullets.

Jones,athirty-two-year-oldAfricanAmericanfatheroftwo,diedinstantlywhenthe

firstofnineroundsenteredhisbody.Piagentiniwasstillalivewhentheassassinsfled

onfoot,leavingthetwenty-eight-year-oldItalianAmericanbleedingonthesidewalk,

dyingslowlyfromtwelvebulletwounds.1Twodayslater,theBlackLiberationArmy

(BLA)tookcreditfortheattack.InacommuniquéissuedtotheNewYorkTimes,the

BLAdeclared,“Revolutionaryjusticehasbeenmetedoutagainbyrighteousbrothersof

theBlackLiberationArmywiththedeathoftwoGestapopigsgunneddownassomany

ofourbrothershavebeengunneddowninthepast.Butthistimenoracistclassjury

willacquite[sic]them.”2

TheJones-PiagentinikillingsinflamedtensionbetweentheFBIandtheNixon

administrationamidtheirongoinginstitutionalconflictoverhowtorespondto

revolutionaryviolence.TheFBI-WhiteHousefeudhadsurfacedayearearlierwhenJ.

EdgarHooversabotagedtheHustonPlan,theNixonadministration’sefforttocombat

“revolutionaryterrorism”byconsolidatingthenation’sintelligenceagenciesand1RobertTanenbaumandPhilipRosenberg,BadgeoftheAssassin(NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1979),1-2.2BLAcommuniquéquotedinibid,22-23.

198

overridingtheDirector’sbanonbreak-ins,mail-opening,warrantlesswiretapping,and

otherillegaldomesticsurveillancepractices.HooverandPresidentNixonsharedthe

viewthatthestateneededtocombatleftistviolencewithpunitivepolicingand

“preventative”surveillancemeasuresdesignedtoobtainadvancedwarningofguerrilla

attacks.Theyfiercelydisagreed,however,overwhatfederalofficeshouldleadthewar

onleftistguerrillasandwhattacticsshouldbeusedtodestroytherevolutionary

underground.WhileNixonsoughttoexercisedirectWhiteHousecontroloverfederal

intelligenceagenciesandbringbackillegalsurveillancetechniques,Hooveropposed

reauthorizingsuchtacticsinordertosafeguardtheFBI’sinstitutionalautonomyamid

growingpubliccriticism.InMay1971,twomonthsafterdocumentsstolenfromtheFBI

officeinMedia,PennsylvaniasparkedanationalcontroversyovertheBureau’s

domesticsurveillancepractices,apollrevealedthatforty-threepercentofAmericans

believedHoovershouldresignasFBIDirector.3Inthispoliticalclimate,Hoover

remainedunwillingtoriskapprovingillegaloperationsthatwouldunderminetheFBI’s

popularlegitimacyifeverrevealedtotheAmericanpeople.Nixonwasreticentto

providewrittenauthorizationforillegalsurveillancetacticsforsimilarreasons.Seeking

reelectionin1972,thePresidentalsowishedtoavoidauthorizingmeasuresthatcould

resultinascandal.NixonandHooverbothwantedtoexpandthestate’s“preventative”

surveillancecapacities,butneitherwaswillingtotakethepoliticalriskssuchefforts

entailed.

DuringtheyearlongperiodfromtheemergenceoftheBLAinMay1971to

Hoover’sdeathfromaheartattackonMay2,1972,threeimportantdevelopments

3Holland,Leak,13.

199

escalatedtheFBI’swarondomesticleftistguerrillasandtheDirector’sconflictwith

Nixon.First,theBLA’slethalattacksonpoliceofficersraisedalarmsinboththeWhite

HouseandFBIHeadquarters,promptingHoovertoinitiateanewroundof“intensified”

investigationsofleftistguerrillas.UnderHoover’sorders,theFBIlaunchedamassive

nationwideinvestigationintotheJones-Piagentiniassassinationscodenamed

NEWKILL,for“NewYorkkillings.”TheFBI’sNewYorkfieldofficeestablishedaspecial

squadofmorethaneightyagentsassignedtoNEWKILLandseveralothercases

involving“terroristacts”carriedoutbysuspectedblack“extremists,”anddeveloped

closeliaisonwiththeNewYorkPoliceDepartmentandotherlocalpoliceagencies.4

Secondly,afewweeksaftertheJones-Piagentinikillingsaleakofclassified

documentsontheU.SwarinVietnamprecipitatedtheworstfalloutbetweenthe

PresidentandtheFBIDirectorsincetheHustonPlan.OnJune13,1971,theNewYork

TimespublishedexcerptsofthePentagonPapers,acollectionofsecretgovernment

documentsthatrevealedapatternoffederalofficialslyingtotheAmericanpeople

aboutthewarinVietnamthroughouttheadministrationsofPresidentsHarryS.

Truman,DwightEisenhower,JohnF.Kennedy,andLyndonB.Johnson.WhenHoover

refusedtolaunchanaggressiveinvestigationofthePentagonPapersleakandthe

government’sprimesuspect,DanielEllsberg,aforty-year-oldformerRANDpolicy

analystandDefenseDepartmentaidewhohadturnedagainsttheU.S.wareffort,Nixon

andhisstaffformedtheirowncovertintelligenceunit.Nixonchargedhisnewsecret

SpecialInvestigationsUnit,betterknownasthe“Plumbers,”withstoppingleaksof

4FBINITEL,DirectortoNewYork,May25,1971,andFBIairtel,DirectortoSACNewark,August12,1971,DhorubaMooreFBIFile(hereafterMooreFBIFile),FBIInvestigationandSurveillanceRecordsSeries90,KennethO’ReillyResearchMaterials,Box19,Folder4,SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,RaynorMemorialLibraries,MarquetteUniversity,Milwaukee,Wisconsin.

200

declassifiedstatesecretsthatheviewedasathreattohispoliticalpowerandwar

effortsinSoutheastAsia.

Heightenedfearofleftistguerrillaviolence,coupledwithincreasedtensions

betweenHooverandNixon,ledtothethirddevelopment.AfterthePentagonPapers

leak,bothNixon’sPlumbersandtheFBIengagedinbreak-insandotherillegal

surveillancetechniquesrecommendedintheHustonPlan.OnSeptember3,1971,the

PlumbersbrokeintotheLosAngelesofficeofDanielEllsberg’spsychiatrist,Dr.LewisJ.

Fielding,inhopesoffindinginformationtheycouldusetodiscreditorconvictthe

PentagonPaperswhistleblower.Meanwhile,theFBIcontinuedtargetingsuspected

supportersoftheWeatherUndergroundwithbreak-ins,mail-opening,andwarrantless

electronicwiretapping.LocalFBIfieldofficeshadinformallyrevivedsuchillegal

surveillancetechniquesafterAugust1970,whenHooverordered“intensified”guerrilla

investigationsfollowingtheMarinCountycourthouseattackandtheUniversityof

Wisconsinbombing.Nixon’sformationofthePlumbersandHoover’scontinuedwink

andnodauthorizationofFBIbreak-inssetthestageforthescandalsthatwouldlater

upendthepresidencyandtheBureau.

MountingsurveillancecriseswithintheNixonadministrationandtheFBIsprung

fromofficials’unwillingnesstoaddresstherootcausesofviolentsocialconflict.As

longstandinganticommunistconservatives,NixonandHooverbothopposedleft-liberal

convictions—suchasthosepromotedinthe1968KernerReport—thatthebestwayto

reduceviolentcivildisorderwasthroughceasingoverseasmilitaryinterventionand

launchingambitiousstateinitiativestoeliminatepovertyandracialinequality.Instead,

thePresidentandFBIDirectordebatedillegal“preventative”surveillancetactics:When

201

weresuchtacticsappropriate?Whoshouldconductthem?Underwhoseauthority?

AfterthePentagonPapersleak,Nixonsoughttocovertlyundermineallofhisperceived

politicalopponents,whetherantiwaractivists,governmentwhistleblowers,orhis

DemocraticPartyrivals.Hooverencouragedhisagentstoutilizeillegalsurveillance

techniqueswiththemorelimitedobjectiveofpreemptingguerrillaviolence,thoughhe

didsoinformallysoastoavoidliabilityforhisagents’unlawfulactions.

However,theFBI’s“preventative”surveillanceeffortsdidnotpreemptguerrilla

attacksorhelpinvestigatorslocateclandestinerevolutionaryfugitives.Instead,BLA

andWeatherUndergroundmembersredoubledtheircommitmenttourbanguerrilla

warfareinthefaceofpoliceviolenceagainstAfricanAmericansandwhattheyviewed

asagovernmentconspiracytodestroytheBlackPowermovement.Forexample,the

August21,1971killingofBlackrevolutionaryprisonerGeorgeJacksonbyguardsin

California’sSanQuentinPrisonandtheslaughteroftwenty-ninestrikingprisonersin

AtticaStatePenitentiarythreeweekslatermotivatedbothgroupstolaunchretaliatory

guerrillaattacks.Bycondoningandevenapplaudingsuchinstancesofstateviolence,

PresidentNixonandtheFBIremainedpartiallyresponsibleforBLAandWeather

Undergroundviolence.DeadlyBLAattackscontinuedoverthecourseof1971andearly

1972,thoughthepolicemanagedtocapturemembersofthegrouponthescenesof

policeambushes,robberies,andotherhigh-riskactions.TheWeatherUnderground,

meanwhile,remainedatlargeaftercarryingoutfourbombingsduringthefallof1971.

Insteadofpreventingguerrillaviolence,illegalsurveillancetacticsgenerated

simmeringcriseswithinboththeNixonWhiteHouseandHoover’sFBI.TheNixon

administration’sturntobreak-insafterHooverrefusedtoaggressivelyinvestigatethe

202

PentagonPapersleakiswelldocumented.Historianshavewidelyacknowledgedthat

thetheformationofthePlumbers“synthesizedtheconcernoftheWhiteHousefor

controllinganddiscipliningthebureaucracy,aswellasitswillingnesstoutilizeillegal

methodsandabusesofpowerfordoingso.”5Untilnow,however,scholarshavenot

sufficientlyanalyzedtheFBI’sinformalresumptionofillegalsurveillancetacticsorhow

thisdevelopmentinfluencedtheBureau.AsthepublicturnedagainsttheFBIinlate

1971andearly1972,agents’moraleplummeted.Investigatorsinleftistguerrilla

squadssoughttopreventclandestinerevolutionaryviolencewithillegalsurveillance

techniques.Theydidsoanxiously,however,worriedaboutthefutureoftheircareers,

andunsureifHooverwouldsupportthemiftheyevergotcaughtbreakingthelawin

thenameofnationalsecurity.Guerrillaviolenceandillegalsurveillancetactics

establishedtheconditionsforthefully-fledgedcrisisoflegitimacythatwouldenvelop

theFBIafterHoover’sdeath.

PoliceKillingsandInstitutionalConflict

AyearafterHooversabotagedtheHustonPlan,theJones-Piagentinikillingsrenewed

tensionsbetweenNixon’sWhiteHouseandtheFBIovertheproblemofleftistguerrilla

violence.PresidentNixonconvenedaprivatemeetingonthekillingsonMay26,1971,

thesamedaythatthousandsofuniformedpoliceandsupportersgatheredinNewYork

fortheslainofficers’funerals.ThePresidentmetinWashington’sExecutiveOffice

BuildingwithJ.EdgarHoover,AttorneyGeneralJohnN.Mitchell,ChiefDomestic

AdvisorJohnD.Ehrlichman,andEhrlichman’sdeputy,Egil“Bud”KroghJr.Nixon

5Kutler,WarsofWatergate,112.

203

commencedthemeetingbyemphasizinghisdesireforastrongfederalresponsetothe

policemurders.“Goddamnit,”hedeclared,“we’vegottodosomething…otherthanjust

talkaboutthesepolicekillings.”6

JonesandPiagentiniwerenotthefirstpolicevictimsofaguerrillaambush.The

BlackLiberationArmycarriedoutitsfirstpublicizedattacktwodaysbeforetheJones-

Piagentinislayingwhenmembersofthegroupunloadeda.45calibermachineguninto

asquadcaroccupiedbyNewYorkpoliceofficersThomasCurryandNicholasBinetti.7

TheambushoccurredastheofficersstoodguardoutsidetheapartmentofDistrict

AttorneyFrankS.Hogan,headprosecutorofthePanther21,whosehometheWeather

Undergroundhadfirebombedayearearlier.Thoughcriticallywounded,both

patrolmensurvivedtheattack.ABLAcommuniquétookcredit,announcing,“Thearmed

goonsofthisracistgovernmentwillagainmeetthegunsofoppressedThirdWorld

peoplesaslongastheyoccupyourcommunityandmurderourbrothersandsistersin

thenameofAmericanlawandorder.Justasthefascistmarinesandarmy[who]occupy

VietnaminthenameofdemocracyandmurderVietnamesepeopleinthenameof

AmericanimperialismareconfrontedwiththegunsoftheVietnameseLiberationArmy,

thedomesticarmedforcesofracismandoppressionwillbeconfrontedwiththegunsof

6NixonWhiteHouseTapes,conversation253-23,May26,1971,4:11-5:20pm,ExecutiveOfficeBuilding.RichardNixon’spresidentialrecordingsareavailableindifferentformsinthreedifferentonlinearchives:RichardNixonPresidentialLibrarywebsite,WhiteHouseTapes,https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/forresearchers/find/tapes/index.php;Nixontapes.org;andTheMillerCenter,RichardNixonWhiteHouseRecordings,http://millercenter.org/presidentialrecordings/nixon.7TheBLAcarriedoutfourearlier,unclaimedattacksinCalifornia:anOctober1970bombingofaslainpoliceofficer’sfuneral,twoJanuary1971policeshootings,andanattemptedbombinginMarch1971.Muntaqim,OntheBlackLiberationArmy,5.

204

theBlackLiberationArmy”8TheBLA’stwopoliceambushesoccurredamidagrowing

numberofassaultsonNewYorkpoliceofficers.Twenty-eightotherNewYork

policemenhadbeenwoundedinthelineofdutysincethestartof1971,asignificant

increaseintherateofforty-fivewoundedtheentirepreviousyear.Fiveofficershad

died.EdwardJ.Kiernan,presidentofthePatrolmen’sBenevolentSociety,summedup

thefeelingsofmanyNewYorkpoliceofficersfollowingtheJones-Piagentinikillings

whenhedeclared,“We’reinawar…It’sopenseasononcopsinthiscity.”9

NixonconvenedhisMay26ExecutiveOfficeBuildingmeetingtopresshis

administration,theJusticeDepartment,andtheFBItotackletheproblemofpolice

assassinations.Inamemotypedimmediatelyafterthemeeting,Hooverinformedthe

FBI’stopsevendomesticsecurityofficialsthatthePresidentwas“veryconcernedabout

policeofficerskilled,particularlythetwoinNewYorkandinotherpartsofthecountry

andwearedevelopingakindofprogramtofocusattentiononthat.”10TheFBIhadbeen

trackingtheBlackPantherParty’sviolentrhetoricandadvocacyofguerrillawarfarefor

nearlythreeyears,butneithertheBureaunoranyoneelseoutsideofthemilitantleft

hadheardoftheBlackLiberationArmypriortotherecentNewYorkpoliceambushes.

Aftertheattacks,HooverorderedtheFBI’sNewYorkfieldofficetodetermineifthe

perpetratorswereBlackradicals,andto“maintaincloseliaison”withtheNewYorkCity

8Thecommuniqué’sreferenceofthe“VietnameseLiberationArmy”waslikelyamistakenreferencetoSouthVietnam’sCommunistNationalLiberationFront(NLF).BLAcommuniquéquotedinTanenbaumandRosenberg,BadgeoftheAssassin,11.9KiernanquotedinTanenbaumandRosenberg,BadgeoftheAssassin,9-10.10FBImemo,J.EdgarHoovertoTolson,Sullivan,Bishop,Brennan,Gale,Rosen,andCasper,May26,1971,5:34PM,FBIInvestigationandSurveillanceRecords,Series90,KennethO’ReillyResearchMaterials,TolsonFile,Box25,Folder2,SpecialCollectionsandUniversityArchives,RaynorMemorialLibraries,MarquetteUniversity,Milwaukee,Wisconsin.

205

PoliceDepartment.11Specifically,theDirectorinstructedNewYorkfieldagents“to

determinecompleteintelligencedataandtoidentifyblackextremistinfluenceor

participation”intheassaultsbyreviewing“appropriatefilesofblackextremist

organizations,includingthoseofso-calledThirdWorldgroups.”Healsoaskedagentsto

considerthepossibilitythattheattackswereactsof“revengetakenagainstNYCpolice

bytheBlackPantherParty”forthearrestofthePanther21inApril1969.12Despite

Hoover’squickresponse,thePresidentstressedhisconcernabouttheFBI’s

investigationofthepolicekillingsintwofollow-upphonecallstotheDirectorafterthe

May26meeting,thefirstlessthantwohourslater,andthesecondonMay28.13

Ingeneralphilosophicalterms,NixonandHooveragreedonhowthestate

shouldrespondtoleftistguerrillas.Theysharedthebeliefthatthebestwaytocombat

revolutionaryviolencewasnotbyaddressingthesourcesofradicalismthroughpolicy

initiativesaimedatreducingsocio-economicinequalityandstateviolence,butthrough

punitivepolicing.DuringtheirMay26phoneconversation,thepairmockedliberals

whomtheyspeculatedwouldattributetheBLA’spoliceambushestoenvironmental

conditions.Nixonmadenoeffortstoconcealhisresentmentwhenhesarcastically

quipped,“theNewYorkTimeswillprobablywriteanarticlesayingthemanwhoshot

[NewYorkpoliceofficerWaverlyJones]wasraisedinabadneighborhood.”“It’llbe

poverty,yes,”Hooverbitterlyreplied,“theslumsofNewYork,andhousing,andallthat

11FBINITEL,DirectortoNewYork,May25,1971,MooreFBIFile.12Ibid.13NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Conversation003-145,May26,1971,andConversation003-196a,May28,1971.

206

sortofthing.”“Butthat’snotthereason,”Nixonsaid,“Thesepeoplearebadpeople.”

Hooverconcurred.14

ThepresidentandtheFBIDirectordisagreed,however,overtactics.Indeed,

despiteaffirmingtheirsharedconservativelaw-and-orderideologies,Nixonand

Hoover’stelephoneconversationsaftertheJones-Piagentinikillingsrevealedthelimits

ofthePresident’sabilitytoinfluencetheFBI’ssurveillanceoperations.IntheirMay26

telephoneconversation,NixonseemedtoconveyhisdesirefortheFBItoengagein

illegalsurveillancepracticesthattheWhiteHousehadsoughttorevivethroughthe

HustonPlan.ReferringtotheJones-Piagentinikillings,Nixonstressed“sincethepeople

havenotbeenapprehended,thenationalsecurityinformationweseekisunlimited…

AndyoutelltheAttorneyGeneralthat’swhatIsuggested—wellordered—andyoudoit,

okay?”15Hooveragreed.“We’llgoalloutontheintelligenceonthisthing,”he

affirmed.16

GiventhatNixonhadpressedHoovertoreinstateillegalsurveillancepracticesat

leasttwiceduringthepreviousyear—inhisJune1970attempttoinstitutetheHuston

PlanandafterthedeadlyguerrillaattacksofAugust1970—Hooversurelymusthave

understoodNixon’srequestfor“unlimited”intelligenceasyetanothersuchorder.

Nixon,however,wasalsowellawareofHoover’sreticencetoutilizeillegalsurveillance

tacticswithoutwrittenauthorizationfromthePresidentorAttorneyGeneral.Nixon

implicitlyacknowledgedthisinhisMay28telephoneconversationwithHoover.

Speakingagaininvagueeuphemisms,thePresidentquestionedtheDirectorabout

14NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Conversation003-145,May26,1971.15Ibid.16Ibid.

207

possibilitiesforauthorizingrestrictedsurveillancepractices.NixonaskedHooverifhe

wouldbewillingtoordertheFBIto“goinwitheverythingyou’vegot,inotherwords

surveillance,electronicandeverything”incasesinvolving“attacksonlawenforcement

officials”when“thereisevidenceorsuspicion”thattheperpetratorswere“Panthers”or

otherideologicallymotivatedassailants.17

Hoover’sanswerdemonstratedhisupperhandintheFBI’sinstitutionalconflict

withtheWhiteHouse.TheDirectorconfidentlyinformedthePresidentofwhattheFBI

wasalreadydoingtoinvestigatetheNewYorkpolicekillingsandpreventsimilar

attacksinthefuture.HedescribedtheFBI’sNewYorkfieldoffice’sformationofa

specialsquadassignedtothecase,theBureau’scautionstoavoidajurisdictional

disputewiththeNYPD,andhisplanstomeetwithpolicechiefsfromaroundthe

countryduringthefollowingweekinordertoannouncethecreationofnewFBI

trainingprogramstohelplocalpolicedepartmentsinvestigatepolicekillings.Hoover

assuredNixonthattheFBIhadtheinvestigationundercontrol,andthathewould

informthePresidentifheneededfurtherassistancefromtheWhiteHouse.Healso

promisedtoprepareamemothatAttorneyJohnMitchellcouldusetoexplaintheFBI’s

handlingofthecasetothepress.18HooveravoidedNixon’svaguerequestsforthe

reinstatementofillegalsurveillancetacticswhileneglectingtomentionthattheFBIwas

alreadyusingsuchtechniquesonanunofficialbasis.AswasthecasewhenNixontried

17NixonstartedthecallbyvalidatedHoover’sreluctancetoinvolvetheFBIinmostpolicemurderinvestigations,affirminghisoppositiontoabillSenatorRichardSchweiker(R,PA)proposedaftertheNewYorkpoliceambushesthatwouldhavemandatedFBIinvolvementinallpolicekillings.HooveragreedthattheFBIshouldnotparticipateinthisformofwhathecalled“nationalpolicing,”notingthatinoverninety-sixpercentofpolicemurdercases,locallawenforcementagenciessuccessfullyapprehendedsuspectswithinthirtydays.NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Conversation003-196b,May28,1971.18Ibid.

208

toinstatetheHustonPlan,theDirectormaintainedfirmcontrolovertheFBIandits

leftistguerrillainvestigations.

TheBLAandtheFBI

ThoughmembersoftheBlackPantherPartyhadbeguntoformanunderground

infrastructureandprepareforurbanguerrillawarfareasearlyas1968,theBLAdidnot

begintocarryoutpublicizedarmedactionsuntilearly1971.19Duringthisperiod,

approximatelyfiftyPanthersloyaltoEldridgeCleaverformedBLAcellsinseveralcities

afterHueyNewtonexpelledCleaverandthePanther21fromtheParty.20Amidthe

BPP’simplosion,andongoingpoliceattacksonthegroup,NewYork’sCleaver-aligned

Panthersdeterminedthatthetimeforurbanguerrillawarhadcome.InanApril1971

interviewwithaleftistreporter,exiledPantherKathleenCleaverconveyedtheCleaver-

faction’sperspective:“Whatisnecessarynowisapartytoadvanceandexpeditethe

armedstruggle…There’sarevolutionarywargoingon.Thepeoplearereadyforareal

vanguard,formilitaryaction…Weneedapeople’sarmyandtheBlackPantherparty

vanguardwillbringthatabout.”21Therewaslittleevidence,however,that“thepeople”

ofAmericawerepreparedforamassrevolutionaryuprising.FortunatelyforHoover,

theBLA’sinvolvementinhigh-riskactionsenabledpolicetocaptureitsmembers

relativelyquickly,thoughtheguerrillasmanagedtoinflictseveralmorecasualtiesalong

theway.

19Umoja,“TheBlackLiberationArmy,”227,235.20Burrough,DaysofRage,200.21CleaverquotedinBloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,370.

209

WhileWeatherUnderground’spreferredactivityremainedplantingbombsin

emptybuildings,NewYorkCityBLAmemberscarriedoutaseriesarmedrobberies(or

astheycalledthem,“expropriations”)ofbanksandallegeddrugdealersinorderto

fundtheirundergroundinfrastructure.22TheBLAviewedtheirattacksondrugdealers

notonlyasafundraisingeffort,butaspartofastrategytofightbackagainstarecent

floodofheroinintoblackcommunities,whichtheyviewedaspartofagovernment

conspiracytoundermineAfricanAmericans’potentialforcollectiveresistanceto

racismandoppressivelivingconditions.23Raciallybiasedpoliceneglectseemedto

confirmtheBLA’stheory.FormerBLAmemberJamalJosephlaterrecalledobservinga

Harlemdrugden“wherefifty,maybeahundred,junkiesflittedaboutbuyingdrugsand

runningintotheshootinggalleriesinfullviewofthecommunity,withcopsavoidingthe

areaorignoringitastheyrodebyinsquadcars.”24AsfarasJosephandotherPanthers

whojoinedtheBLAwereconcerned,thedrugepidemichadbeen“broughton”withthe

“assistanceandencouragement”ofthesamegovernmentforcesthathadindictedthe

Chicago8,thePanther21,andvariousotherleftists;wagedimperialistwarinVietnam;

andkilledFredHamptonandcountlessAfricanAmericanactivistsandcommunity

members.25

Ironically,BLAmembersjustifiedtheiractionsalongsimilarlinesasthoseHoover

andNixonusedtorationalizepunitivepolicing:aggressivetactics,theyreasoned,were

necessarytofightaruthlesslyviolentenemy.TheemergenceoftheBLAmarkedthe22“SpringCameEarlyThisYear(AMessagetotheThirdWorldfromtheBlackLiberationArmy),”undatedBLApaper,ca.January1972,inTheBlackLiberationPartyandtheProgramofArmedStruggle,1970-1983(hereafterBLAFBIFile),Section1.3,GaleCengageLearningArchivesUnbounddigitaldatabase.23Umoja,“TheBlackLiberationArmy,”235.24Joseph,PantherBaby,197.25Ibid,196.

210

realizationofaguerrillafocostrategythatCleaverandotherPanthershadbeen

promotingforthepastthreeyears.Theturntoguerrillawarfarealsoreflectedthe

Cleaver-factionPanthers’conspiratorialviewofstateviolenceandthedrugscourge,

whichsawarmedstruggleastheonlywaytomaintainrevolutionaryresistanceina

timeofescalatingrepression.Themainmotivationunitingthegroup,however,wasa

visceraldeterminationtoretaliateforpoliceviolenceagainstblackactivistsand

communities.AsformerBLAmemberAssataShakurlaterrecalled,“Iunderstoodsome

ofmymoreimpatientsistersandbrothers.Iknewthatitwastemptingtosubstitute

militaryforpoliticalstruggle,especiallysinceallofourabovegroundorganizations

wereunderviciousattackbytheFBI,theCIA,andthelocalpoliceagencies.Allofus

whosawourleadersmurdered,ourpeopleshotdownincoldblood,feltaneed,adesire

tofightback.”26Accordingly,theBLAadopted“revolutionaryexecutions”ofpolice

officersastheirsecondmajortactic.27Justasleftistguerrillaviolenceprovokedheavy-

handedresponsesfromtheFBIandotherlawenforcementagencies,policeviolence

radicalizedtheBlackrevolutionaryunderground.

UnliketherigidlyhierarchicalWeatherUnderground,theBLAwasorganizedin

autonomouscellswhosemembersdecidedontheirownwhatactionstocarryout.This

structurewasaresultofCleaver’sbeliefthatindependentcellsofsixtotwelve

guerrillascouldevadepolicesurveillancemoresuccessfullythanacentralized

26AssataShakur,Assata:AnAutobiography,2nded.(Chicago:LawrenceHillBooks,2001),243.Shakur’sstatementalignswithsociologists’argumentthatmany1970sleftistradicalsadoptedclandestinearmedstrugglefor“affective”ratherthanpurelyideologicalreasons.SeeZwerman,etal.,“DisappearingSocialMovements,”89.27“SpringCameEarlythisYear,”BLAFBIFile.Indeed,theBLAplannedtheirfirstpublicizedattack,theMay19,1971ambushofofficersCurryandBinetti,afteranApril19shootoutbetweenpoliceandCleaver-factionPanthersthatresultedinthedeathoftwenty-one-year-oldPantherHaroldRussellandthewoundingoftwootherPanthersandtwopoliceofficers.SeeibidandBurrough,DaysofRage,191.

211

organizationthatcouldbeneutralizedthroughthearrestofitsleader.28Cleaver’s

decisionalsosprungfromhispersonaldesiretopubliclydistancehimselffromguerrilla

activityamidhisdeterioratingrelationshipwiththeAlgeriangovernment,whose

officialshadforbidhimusingtheircountryasabasetoorganizeactsofviolenceabroad.

Moreover,astheAlgeriangovernmentsoughttoimproveitsrelationswiththeUnited

Statesinhopesofincreasingoilexports,Cleaverworriedthathishostswouldclosethe

Pantherembassy.29

TheBLA’sinvolvementinhigh-riskguerrillaactionsreflecteditsmembers’social

positionsasworking-classAfricanAmericansaswellasthegroup’sad-hocstrategy.

Unlikethewhiteandlargelymiddle-classWeatherUnderground(withsomemembers

fromverywealthyfamilies),theBLAdidnothaveaccesstoinheritedmoney.Theywere

constantlyshortonfunds.NorcouldtheBLA’smemberseasilygetawaywith

shopliftingandcheck-fraud—asdidtheirwhiteWeatherUndergroundcounterparts—

inasocietythattendedtoviewallblacksaspotentialcriminals.TheWeather

Underground’spreferredtacticofplantinghomemadebombsequippedwithtiming

devicesingovernmentbuildingsandcorporateofficeswasalsolargelyoff-limitstothe

BLA,whoseblackmembershadfewhopesofenteringsuchestablishmentswithout

beingsubjectedtoracialprofiling.

Insteadofsparkingaguerrillauprising,theBLA’spoliceambushesprovoked

newpolicemobilization.NixonheldaWhiteHousemeetingwithpoliceofficialsonthe

Jones-PiagentinikillingsonJune3,1971,andfourdayslater,theFBIhosteda

conferenceonthematter“attendedbyonehundredtoplawenforcementofficialsfrom28Burrough,DaysofRage,193-194.29Ibid.

212

throughoutthecountry.”30WithBLAmembersinhiding,theFBIandotherpolice

agenciesdirectedmuchoftheirinvestigationatthedwindlingabovegroundBlack

PantherParty.TheBLA’slimitedabovegroundsupportdriedupasaresult.TheFBIand

NYPDmaintainedintensivesurveillanceofHarlem’ssmallCleaver-alignedBlack

Pantheroffice,wheremembersdistributedRightOn!,anewspaperpublishedwiththe

assistanceofwhiteWeatherUndergroundsupportersthatpromotedviolentattackson

policeofficers.31TheFBIalsomonitoredofficestaffers’internationalphonecallswith

Cleaver’sPantherEmbassyinAlgeria.InanFBI-monitoredcalltoAlgiersaftertheMay

attacks,PantherLumumbaShakur,whowasalsoasecretBLAmember,lamentedthat

policeharassmentwasscaringawaytheNewYorkBPPchapter’sremainingmembers.

“Theyallrunningandhidinginfear,”hecomplained.32

AswasthecaseinmostoftheirleadsintheBLAinvestigation,NewYorkpolice

madetheirfirstbreakbychance,onJune5,afterofficersintheBronxrespondedtothe

soundofgunfireinsidetheTripleOnightclub.Insidetheafter-hoursestablishment,

policearrestedBLAguerrillasandformerPanther21defendantsMooreandJoseph,

whohadbeenholding-uppatronsatgunpointalongwithtwoaccomplices.33Police

soonidentifieda.45calibermachine-gunseizedduringtheTripleOarrestsastheone

usedtoambushofficersCurryandBinetti.InJuly,NewYorkofficialsindictedMoore

andJosephwithaslewofchargesrelatedtoskippingbondinthePanther21case,the

30“ProposedReleasebytheWhiteHouse,”attachmenttoFBImemo,E.S.MillertoA.Rosen,November23,1971,inFBINEWKILLdocuments,downloadedfromthewebsiteofcurrentlyincarceratedformerBLAmemberJalilMuntaqim(formerlyAnthonyBottom):http://www.freejalil.com/newkilldocuments.html(hereafterFBINEWKILLdocuments).31Burrough,DaysofRage,197;BloomandMartin,BlackAgainstEmpire,369.32ShakurquotedinBurrough,DaysofRage,196.33Burrough,DaysofRage,197-198;Joseph,PantherBaby,210-212.

213

TripleOhold-up,theCurry-Binnettiambush,andtheMarch1971murderofNewton-

factionBlackPantherSamNapier.34

TheFBI’sleadsintheNEWKILLinvestigationtemporarilyrelievedtensions

betweenHooverandtheNixon’sWhiteHouse.NixonandHooverhaddiscussedthe

FBI’sinvestigationoftheNewYorkpolicekillingsinatelephoneconversationfourdays

priortoMoore’sarrest.HooverinformedthepresidentthattheFBIlaboratoryhad

identifiedfingerprintsfromtheBLAcommuniquéssenttotheNewYorkTimes

followingtheCurry-BinettiandJones-Piagentinipoliceambushes.“Good!”Nixon

exclaimedinapprovaloftheFBI’sapparentleadinitshigh-profileinvestigation.35One

setoffingerprints,itlaterturnedout,belongedtoMoore.ItappearedasthoughtheFBI

wasmakingsatisfactoryprogressinitsBLAinvestigation,aperceptionechoedinthe

press,andseeminglycorroboratedbythefactthattheBLAhadnotcarriedoutfurther

knownattacksonpolicesincetheJones-Piagentinikillings.HooverandNixon’s

relationship,however,wasabouttotakeanotherturnfortheworse.

BureaucraticConflictandNixon’sBreak-In

ThoughtheFBI’sleadsintheBLAinvestigationtemporarilyavertedanescalationin

Hoover’sinstitutionalconflictwiththeWhiteHouse,theNewYorkTimes’publicationof

excerptsfromthePentagonPapers—eightdaysafterpolicearrestedDhorubaMoore

andJamalJacob—renewedtheNixon-Hooverfeudwithavengeance.InaJuly1,1971

telephoneconversation,HooveradvisedNixonnottomakeapublicstatementabout

thepreviousday’sSupremeCourt’sruling,whichpermittedtheNewYorkTimesand34“BlackPantherHereisChargedintheShootingof2Policemen,”NewYorkTimes,July31,1971.35NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Conversation004-017,June1,1971.

214

WashingtonPosttocontinuepublishingexcerptsofthePentagonPapers.36Hooveralso

cautionedagainstanaggressiveinvestigationofDanielEllsberg.“Weoughtabeawful

carefulaboutwhatwedointhecaseofthismanEllsberg,”Hooversaid.Thepress

would“makeamartyr”outofEllsberg,theDirectorwarned,ifitseemedthatthe

governmentwaspersecutingthewhistleblower.Alwayssensitivetopublicperceptions,

HooverknewthatsuchascenariowouldunderminethecredibilityofboththeFBIand

theNixonadministration.“Idoubtwhetherwe’regoingtobeabletogetaconvictionof

him,”Hooverasserted,referringtotheJusticeDepartment’sindictmentofEllsberg

undertheEspionageActof1917.“Ihopeso,butIdoubtit.”37

NixonwasnotsatisfiedwithHoover’sstatementsonEllsberg.“WellI’dliketo

checksomeoftheotherpeoplearoundhim.Ithinkthere’saconspiracyinvolved,”he

said.38

HooverdodgedNixon’scomment.TheDirectorlaunchedintoarantcomplaining

aboutjournalistsattheTimesandPostbeforereturningtheconversationtothe

President’spressstrategy.39AshehaddoneamonthearlierinresponsetoNixon’s

suggestionthattheFBIutilizeillegalsurveillancetechniquesinitsBLAinvestigation,

HooverresistedNixon’seffortstoinfluencetheFBI’sinvestigationofthePentagon

Papers.

36NixonWhiteHousetapes,conversationnumber6-84,July1,1971.TheCourt’sdecisionoverruledaninjunctionalowercourthadfiledonthePresident’sbehalf.HoovercautionedthePresidentthat“theenemiesoftheadministration”were“tryingtobait”himintotakingastandagainstfreedomofthepressthatwoulddivertnegativeattentionawayfromKennedyandJohnson’sVietnampoliciestowardsNixon’swarefforts,whichthePentagonPapersdidnotcover.37Ibid.38Ibid.39Ibid.

215

Nixonflewintoarageafterthecall,interpretingHoover’sevasivenessasa

refusaltoinvestigatethePentagonPapersleakbeyondEllsberg.Nixoncomplainedto

ChiefofStaffH.R.Haldemanthenextday:“ItalkedtoHooverlastnightandHooveris

notgoingafterthiscaseasstrongasIwouldlike.There’ssomethingdragginghim.”40

Again,Nixonbroughtuphissuspicionofaconspiracy.“Iwanttogoaftereveryone.I’m

notsointerestedinEllsberg,”Nixonsaid,“butwehavetogoaftereverybodywho’sa

memberofthisconspiracy.”41Tomakemattersworse,NixonhadlearnedfromWilliam

SullivanthatHooverdidnotwanthisagentstointerviewEllsberg’sfather-in-lawLouis

Marx,awealthytoymanufacturerwhocontributedannuallytoaChristmascharityrun

bytheDirector.42

ThePentagonPapersleaksentNixon’sparanoiathroughtheroof.Thoughthe

PapersdealtonlywiththeadministrationsofLyndonJohnsonandpreviouspresidents,

Nixonandsomeofthisstaff—particularlyNationalSecurityadvisorHenryKissinger—

believedtheleaksunderminedthefederalgovernment’sauthorityandthreatenedtheir

administration’seffortstoachieveamilitaryvictoryinVietnam.43DanielEllsberg’s

explanationforwhyhedecidedtoleakthePentagonPapersstokedNixonand

Kissinger’sfears.InasecretlyrecordedtelevisioninterviewwithnewsanchorWalter

CronkiteairedonJune23,EllsbergannouncedthathehadchosentoleakthePapers

afterlearningfromcolleaguesclosetotheWhiteHousethatNixonplannedtoescalate

40NixonquotedinWeiner,Enemies,297.41Ibid,298.42Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,131;Nixon,RN,513;Powers,SecrecyandPower,469;Weiner,Enemies,296.43Kutler,WarsofWatergate,109-110;Nixon,RN,509,513.

216

U.S.aerialbombingofNorthVietnam,justasJohnsonhaddonein1964and1965with

disastrousconsequences.44

NixonbegandiscussingcovertoperationsinresponsetothePentagonPapers

leakevenbeforespeakingwithHoover.Notlongbeforehisphoneconversationwith

theDirectoronJuly1,NixonspokewithHaldemanabouthisbeliefthattheBrooking

Institution,aliberalWashingtonthinktank,mighthavefileslinkingEllsbergtoawider

conspiracytoleakclassifiedstatesecrets.45“We’reupagainstanenemy,aconspiracy…

We’regoingtouseanymeans!”heexclaimed.ThePresidentknockedonhisdeskwith

eachwordforemphasis.“IwanttheBrookingsInstitutesafecleanedout!”46

Ultimately,NixonformedthePlumbersbecauseofHoover’sunwillingnessto

aggressivelyinvestigatethePentagonPaperscase.AsNixonrecalledinhismemoir,“If

theFBIwasnotgoingtopursuethecase,thenwewouldhavetodoitourselves.”47The

PresidentputEhrlichmaninchargeofestablishingtheunit.OnJuly17,1971,

44LindaCharlton,“EllsbergBlamesU.S.for25YearsofWar,”NewYorkTimes,June24,1971.Nixon,RN,512.45Inhismemoir,NixonwrotethatunnamedsourcesinformedhimthatafriendofEllsbergwhowasa“formerDefenseDepartmentemployee”and“FellowattheBrookingsInstitution”hadtakensecretdocumentsfromthePentagonpertainingtoPresidentLyndonB.Johnson’slate-1968haltoftheU.S.airwarinVietnam.NixonrecalledthathewantedJohnson’sbombinghaltdocumentsaselectionyear“ammunitionagainsttheantiwarcritics,manyofwhomwerethesamemenwho,underKennedyandJohnson,hadledusintotheVietnammorassinthefirstplace.”Nixon,RN,512,515-516.46NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Conversation534-2(3),July1,1971.Nixonwroteinhismemoirthathefirstverballyexpressedapprovalforabreak-inattheBrookingsInstitutionduringaJune17,1971meetingwithKissinger,Haldeman,andEhrlichman.“Isawabsolutelynoreasonfor[thebombinghalt]reporttobeatBrookings,andIsaidIwanteditbackrightnow—evenifitmeanthavingtogetitsurreptitiously,”herecalled.Nixon,RN,512.Thereisnoevidence,however,thatanyoneevercarriedoutabreak-inattheBrookingsInstitution.AccordingtoEdwardMiller,whotookoverCharlesBrennan’sroleasAssistantDirectorinchargeoftheFBI’sDomesticSecurityDivisionandwaslaterconvictedforapprovingbreak-insagainstsuspectWeatherUndergroundassociatesintheyearafterHoover’sdeath,NixonhadbeeninspiredbyWilliamSullivantoinitiatebreak-ins.Millerrecalledinanoralhistory:“BecauseofSullivan’sinfluenceontheWhiteHouseandTomCharlesHuston.Theybecameenamoredwithsurreptitiousentriesasbeingagangbusterinvestigativetechnique.Andthat’swhentheWhiteHousedecidedtocreatetheirown,whattheycalledtheirPlumbersUnit.”EdwardS.Miller,oralhistoryinterviewbyStanleyA.PimentelonbehalfoftheSocietyofFormerSpecialAgentsoftheFBI,Inc.,May8,2008,123.47Nixon,RN,513.

217

EhrlichmanassignedKroghandKissinger’sformerNationalSecurityCouncilstaffer

DavidYoungtotakedirectcharge.Lackingintelligencetraining,KroghandYounghired

formerCIAinvestigatorE.HowardHuntandFBIveteranG.GordonLibbytoassist

them.48InlateAugust,Ehrlichmanapprovedtheunit’splanstobreakintoEllsberg’s

psychiatrist’sofficeononestipulation:“thatitisnottraceable.”49HuntandLibby

traveledtoLosAngelesandcarriedoutthebreak-inonSeptember3,1971withthe

assistanceofanti-CastroCubanoperativesBernardBarker,EugenioMartinez,and

FelipeDeDiego.50InsideDr.Fielding’soffice,thePlumbersusedacrowbartoopena

lockedmetalfilingcabinet,leavingitvisiblydented.51Intheirsearchforinformation

thatcoulddamageordiscreditEllsberg,however,theoperativescameupempty-

handed.52

WhileNixon’sstaffformedthePlumbers,conflictoverthePentagonPapers

promptedHoovertoreshuffletheFBIhierarchy.OnJuly1,1971,thesamedaythat

HooverspokewithNixonaboutthePentagonPapersinvestigation,theDirector

promotedW.MarkFelttothenewlycreatedpositionofDeputyAssociateDirector,

makinghimtheBureau’snewnumberthreeofficialbeneathagingAssociateDirector

ClydeTolson.AccordingtoFelt,Hooverinformedhimthatakeyrequirementofhisnew

jobwasto“controlSullivan,”whohadundergoneadefactodemotionasaresultofthe

formerInspector’snewappointment.53

48Ibid,414;MichaelA.Genovese,TheWatergateCrisis(Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress,1989),16;Kutler,TheWarsofWatergate,113.49Genovese,TheWatergateCrisis,1650Ibid.51Dr.Fielding’sfilingcabinettodaysitsattheSmithsonianNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory.52Kutler,WarsofWatergate,115.53Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,133.

218

HooverhadbeguntoquestionSullivan’sloyaltyinOctober1970,whenthe

AssociateDirectorpubliclyemphasizedguerrillaviolenceasagreaterthreatto

America’sdomesticsecuritythanCommunistsubversion.AftertheFBI’scaptureof

AngelaDavis,SullivanstatedatapressconferencethattheUnitedStateswouldbe

dealingwithrevolutionaryviolencefromradicalstudentsandBlackmilitants“toa

greaterorlesserextentiftheCommunistPartyinthiscountrydidn’texistatall.”54

HooversternlyrebukedSullivaninahandwrittennote,emphasizing“Wemustbemost

carefulnottodowngradetheactivitiesoftheC.P.,”whichtheDirectorinaccurately

describedas“arealcontinuingfactortoourunrest.”55SincethePentagonPapersleak,

HooverhadlearnedthatSullivanandBrennanwereundermininghisauthority,telling

NixonofficialsthattheirbosswasstallingtheEllsberginvestigation.Hooveralso

suspectedSullivanofleakinginformationthatWashingtonPostjournalistsRobert

NovakandRolandEvansusedtopublishaseriesofarticlesassertingthatinhisoldage,

theDirectorwasnolongerfittoruntheFBI.56MorethantwoyearsafterSullivanand

BrennanfirstwentbehindhisbacktocollaboratewithTomHuston,theDirectorhad

finallycometobelievethathistopDomesticSecurityofficialsweredisloyal.

InearlySeptember1971,HooverdemotedBrennan.57AtFelt’ssuggestion,the

DirectorpromotedEdwardMiller—aseasonedoperativewhohadparticipatedinblack

bagjobsagainstallegedCommunistsinthe1950sandworkedasabureaucratunder

54UPInewswire,October1970,attachedtoFBImemo,SullivantoTolson,October13,1970,WCSFBI,Section7.55HooverhandwrittennoteonFBImemo,W.C.SullivantoMr.Tolson,October13,1970,WCSFBI,Section7.FeltrecalledthisincidentinTheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,130.56Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,131;Weiner,Enemies,296.57HooverhadtriedtodemoteBrennantwomonthsearlieraftertheDomesticSecuritycheifinterviewedDanielEllsberg’sfather-in-lawLouisMarxagainsttheDirector’sexplicitorders.Hooverbackedoff,however,underpressurefromAttorneyGeneralJohnMitchell,whohadlearnedoftheincidentfromWilliamSullivan.SeeFelt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,131;andPowers,SecrecyandPower,469.

219

FeltintheInspectiondivision—tofilltheroleofAssistantDirectorofDomestic

Security.58OnSeptember30,HooverfiredSullivan,whohadgivencopiesoftheFBI’s

topsecret1969“KissingerWiretaps”toAssistantAttorneyGeneralandWatergate

conspiratorRobertMardian,inhopesofusingthetapestoblackmailtheFBIDirector.59

WhenFeltconfrontedSullivanoverthematter,thepairnearlygotintoafistfight.60

WhileHooverfireddisloyalFBIofficials,NixonattemptedtofireHoover.

SullivaninstigatedthePresident,possiblyinalastditchefforttowinapositionas

Hoover’ssuccessor.AccordingtoNixon,SullivantoldhimthatHoover“wastrappedin

outdatednotionsofthecommunistthreatandwasnotmovingwithflexibilityagainst

thenewviolence-proneradicals.”61OnSeptember20,1971,NixoninvitedHoovertoa

privatebreakfastinwhichhealmostaskedtheDirectorforhisresignation.The

Presidenttried“asgentlyandsubtly”ashecouldtoconvinceHoovertoresignonhis

ownaccord.NixonlaterrecalledtellingHoover“itwouldbeatragedyifheendedhis

careerwhileunderasustainedattackfromhislong-timecriticsinsteadofintheglowof

nationalrespectthathesorightlydeserved.”62ButthePresidentbackeddownafter

Hooverpulledaclassicbureaucraticpowermaneuver,informinghissuperiorthathe

wouldresignonlyunderdirectorders.“Morethananythingelse,Iwanttoseeyoure-

electedin1972,”Hooverreplied.“IfyoufeelthatmystayingonasheadoftheBureau

hurtsyourchancesforre-election,justletmeknow.”63Afraidofalienatingthe

Director’slargebaseofconservativesupportersaheadofthe1972election,Nixon

58Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,141.59Powers,SecrecyandPower,471-473;Kutler,WarsofWatergate,120..60Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,142.61Weiner,Enemies,298;Nixon,RN,596.62Nixon,RN,598.63Ibid.

220

ultimatelydecidedthatfiringHoover“wouldraisemorepoliticalproblemsthanit

wouldsolve.”64JustashehadmaintainedcontrolovertheFBIintheaftermathof

HustonPlan,theNewYorkpoliceshootings,andthePentagonPapersleak,Hooveronce

againblockedNixon’sefforttocontroltheFBI.

LeftistGuerrillasandHoover’sBreak-Ins

Nixon’sconflictwithHooverheatedupastheBureaumademodestprogressintheBLA

investigationbutremainingstymiedinitshuntforWeatherUndergroundfugitives.The

FBI’srelativesuccessinitsBLAinvestigationhadlittletodowithitspreventative

intelligenceefforts.Indeed,theFBIhadbeensteadilyincreasingitssurveillanceofBlack

Poweractivistssince1967,butdidnotlearnoftheBlackLiberationArmy’sexistence

untilthegrouptookcreditfortheMay1971NewYorkpoliceambushes.BLAand

WeatherUndergroundattackscontinuedduringthefallof1971followingtwomajor

incidentsofstateviolence:theAugust21,1971killingofblackrevolutionaryprisoner

GeorgeJacksonandthemassacreofforty-twoprisonersandguardsinNewYork’s

Atticaprisonthreeweekslater.TheFBIremainedunabletoinfiltratetheBLA’s

clandestinerevolutionaryundergroundorobtainadvancedwarningofguerrillaattacks.

However,withmillionsofdollarsinresourcesandman-hourspouredintoanti-guerrilla

investigations,FBIagentsdidmanagetoidentifyBLAsuspectsandtodistribute

photographsandotherinformationtopoliceagenciesaroundthecountry.Accordingly,

theFBI,NYPD,andotherpoliceagencieswerewellpreparedtocaptureorkillBLA

64Ibid,599.

221

memberswhentheguerrillasmadetacticalmistakes—includingbotchedrobberiesand

assassinationattempts—thatattractedtheattentionoflocalpolice.

TheFBI’sdifferingfortunesinitsrespectiveleftistguerrillainvestigationswere

largelyaresultofthetwoorganizations’disparatestructuresandtacticalrepertoires.

WhiletheBLA’sinvolvementindeadlyshootingattacks,robberies,andotherhigher-

riskactionsexposeditsmemberstopolicecapture,theWeatherUnderground’s

sophisticatedclandestineinfrastructureandengagementinperiodicnighttime

bombingsenableditsmemberstomaintainevasionoftheFBI’ssurveillancenetwork.

BetweentheNewYorkpoliceambushesofMay1971andHoover’sdeathonMay2,

1972,theFBIandotherpoliceagenciescapturedsixteenBLAmembersandkilledfour

duringshoot-outsthatoccurredinthemidstofpoliceeffortstoconductarrests.Along

theway,theBLAkilledtwomorecopsandataxidriver,andseriouslywoundedtwo

otherpoliceofficers.TheFBI’sbreak-ins,however,didnotresultinthecaptureof

WeatherUndergroundguerrillasorthepreventionofbombings.TheWeather

Undergroundpulledofffourbombingsduringthefallof1971.Themainreasontheydid

notcarryoutmorewasbecauseinternaldifferencesweretearingthegroupapartfrom

theinside,asmemberscontinuedtograpplewithanexistentialcrisisamidtheirfailure

toreviveadecliningU.S.left.TheFBIfacedamountinginternalcrisisaswell,as

Headquarterscontinuedpressuringfieldagentstocarryoutbreak-inswithoutthe

Director’sformalapproval.

ApairofbotchedBLAguerrillaactionsinAugust1971resultedinasecond

roundofbreakthroughsintheFBI’sinvestigationofthegroup.OnAugust4,police

surroundedataxithatBLAguerrillashadcommandeeredafterholdingupThelma’s

222

LoungeinHarlem.TeenagedBLAmemberTwymonMeyerstemporarilyheldoffthe

policewithmachinegunfireandmanagedtoescapebacktoaBLAsafehouse,butthe

clashresultedinthearrestofhisthreeaccomplicesandthedeathofthetaxidriver.65In

thesecondincident,onAugust27,SanFranciscopoliceofficerGeorgeKowalskiledthe

arrestofnineteen-year-oldAnthonyBottomandthirty-year-oldAlbert“Nuh”

Washingtonafterthepairattemptedtoassassinatehimwithamachinegun.Atthe

policestation,Bottombraggedtoacellmate—whowasworkingsecretlyasapolice

informant—thatheandotherBayAreaPantherswereresponsibleforastringof

unclaimedlocalbombingsandotherattacksoverthepreviousyear,includingan

ambushonapolicestationinSanFrancisco’sInglesideneighborhoodtwodaysafter

BottomandWashington’sarrestthatresultedinthedeathofSergeantJohnYoung

(Bottomhadcasedthestationfivedaysearlierwhilefilingaphonystolenbicycle

report).BottomalsoindicatedthathehadparticipatedinthekillingofNewYorkpolice

officersJonesandPiagentini.Policeofficers’discoveryofWaverlyJones’sservice

revolverinBottomandWashington’scarseemedtoverifythisclaim.66Bottom’sloose

talkprovidedpolicewithinformationthatenabledthemtoidentifyothersuspectsin

theJones-Pagentinicase,includingHermanBell,whohadgoneintohidinginNew

Orleans.67

65Burrough,DaysofRage,201.66TanenbaumandRosenberg,BadgeoftheAssassin,37-45;Burrough,DaysofRage,202-203.TheFBIandNYPDalsotracedtheBLAtotwoNewYorkCitybankrobberiesinJulyandAugustof1971.AccordingtojournalistsTanenbaumandRosenberg,whobasedtheirresearchprimarilyonNewYorkpolicereports,Bottombraggedabouthisexploitstoacellmatewhoworkedasaninformantforthepolice.67TanenbaumandRosenberg,BadgeoftheAssassin,84-89.TheothersuspectswereAlbert“Nuh”WashingtonandbrothersGabrielandFranciscoTorres,allofwhomhadloosetiestotheBlackPantherParty.HermanBellandAnthonyBottom,whochangedhisnametoJalilMuntaqim,todayremainincarceratedinNewYorkStatefortheirrolesintheJones-Piagentinikillings.AlbertWashingtondiedinprisononApril28,2000.

223

Asalways,theleftistguerrillashadcarriedouttheirattacksinresponsetostate

violence.PolicearrestedBottomandWashingtonsixdaysafterguardsinSanQuentin

PrisonshotandkilledblackrevolutionaryiconGeorgeJackson,theoristofurban

guerrillawarfareandolderbrotherofthedeceasedJonathanJackson.Guardsshot

Jacksoninthemiddleoftheprisonyard,afterheandotherconvictsusedahandgunto

stagearebellioninwhichtheytookfiveothercorrectionalofficershostage—thelatest

episodeinatwo-yearcycleofdeadlyviolencebetweenguardsandrevolutionary

prisonersinCalifornia’sprisonsystem.SanQuentinofficialslaterclaimedthatJackson’s

attorneyStevenBinghamhadsmuggledthegunintotheprisonduringavisit,andthat

JacksonhadhiditunderawigcoveringhisAfro.68WiththeassassinationsofMedgar

Evers,MalcolmX,MartinLutherKingJr.,andFredHamptonfreshintheirmemories,

however,manyquestionedtheofficialSanQuentinstory.Formanyontheleft,Jackson’s

deathwasthelatestexampleofastateconspiracytoviolentlyrepressdissentin

America.LiteraryiconJamesBaldwinexpressedsuchsentimentwhenhequipped,“no

blackpersonwilleverbelieveGeorgeJacksondiedthewaytheysayhedid.”69Overtwo

thousandsupportersgatheredforJackson’sfuneralonAugust28,1971,spillingonto

thesidewalkoutsidetheovercrowdedSt.Augustine’sepiscopalChurchinOakland,

whereHueyNewtonandotherBlackPowerleadersgaveeulogies.70

68ThefactssurroundingJackson’sdeathremaindisputed.Foranoverview,seeBerger,CaptiveNation,135-138,152.Rebellingprisoners,ledbyJackson,killedthreeguardsandtwofellowprisoners.Guardsretaliatedbyseverelybeatingdozensofprisonerstheysuspectedofparticipatingintheuprising.Sixprisoners,whocametobeknownasthe“SanQuentinSix,”werelaterconvictedfortheirroleinthekillings.69BaldwinquotedinGeorgeJackson,SoledadBrother,2nded.(Chicago:LawrenceHillBooks,1994),x.FormoreonhowBaldwinandothersontheleftrespondedtoJackson’sdeath,seeBerger,CaptiveNation,152-165.70Berger,CaptiveNation,145.

224

Leftistguerrillasswiftlyretaliatedforthestate’skillingofarevolutionaryleader.

AfewhoursbeforeJackson’sfuneral,apairofWeatherUndergroundbombsexploded

inSacramentoandSanFrancisco,eachdamagingbuildingshousingofficesofthe

CaliforniaDepartmentofCorrections.InacommuniquéissuedtotheSanFrancisco

Examiner,theWeatherUndergroundexplainedtheirattackasretaliationforJackson’s

“assassination.”71Onceagain,theWeatherUndergroundarticulatedaconspiratorial

analysisofAmericanstateviolence,onethatgeneralizedstateactorsandtheirmotives,

conceivingeveryactofviolenceinflicteduponaleftistaspartofaconsciousplanto

crushdissent.AccordingtotheWeatherUnderground,Jackson’sdeathwaspartofa

broader“pattern”inAmerica’s“attemptstocontrolcolonialpeoples”throughthe

“periodicassassinationofmajorleaders”suchasPatriceLumumba—thesocialist

CongolesePresidentkilledbydomesticrivalsin1961withCIAbacking,andMalcolmX,

whomNOIgunmenmurderedin1965.72TheWeatherUndergrounddownplayed

Jackson’sviolentroleintheconflictatSanQuentin,assertingthathis“execution

representsamajorattemptatmasspropaganda—toconvincetheyouthwhoarenow

enteringtheFolsomsandtheQuentinsthatrebellionishopeless,thatthosewhoinspire

andleadwillpaythepriceofdeath.”73TheBLApromotedasimilarview.Ina

communiquétakingcreditfortheAugust29Inglesidepolicestationattack,theBLA’s

“GeorgeL.JacksonAssaultSquad”announcedthatithadkilledSergeantYoungto

71WeatherUnderground,“GeorgeJackson,”August30,1971,inDohrn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,175.72Ibid,177.73Ibid.

225

avengethe“intolerablepoliticalassassinationofComradeGeorgeJackson,inparticular,

andtheinhumanetortureofP.O.W.(PrisonerofWar)Campsingeneral.”74

GeorgeJackson’skillingunleashedanotherroundofbloodshed:morepolitical

rebellion,anothermajorincidentofstateviolenceagainstprisoners,andfurtherleftist

guerrillaretaliation.OnSeptember9,inNewYork’sAtticaStatePrison,asilentprotest

mourningJackson’sdeathescalatedintoafull-blownfour-dayuprisingasprisoners—

black,PuertoRican,andwhite—overtooktheinstitution’sDyard.Holdingforty-two

guardshostage,Attica’sprisonersignitinga24-hourtelevisionnewsdramaviewed

throughouttheworldastheyissuedalistofdemandsforbasicreformsinthe

institution’spolicies.“Wearemen,wearenotbeasts,andwedonotintendtobebeaten

ordrivenassuch,”theprisonersdeclared,explainingtheirrebellionasaresponseto

the“unmitigatedoppressionwroughtbytheracistadministrationnetworkofthis

prison.”GovernorNelsonRockefeller,however,refusedtonegotiate.Instead,hecalled

intheNewYorkStatePolice,whostormedtheprisoninhailofteargasandbullets,

killingtwenty-nineprisonersandtenhostages.75

Fourdayslater,aWeatherUndergroundbombexplodedinaninth-floor

women’sbathroomnexttotheofficesoftheNewYorkStateCommissionerof

CorrectionsinAlbany.“WemustcontinuetomaketheRockefellers,Oswalds,Reagans,

andNixonspayfortheircrimes,”thegroupstatedintheirsubsequentcommuniqué.

“WeonlywishwecoulddomoretoshowthecourageousprisonersatAttica,San

74BLAcommuniquéquotedinEricMann,ComradeGeorge:AnInvestigationintotheLife,PoliticalThought,andAssassinationofGeorgeJackson(NewYork:Harper&Row,1974),135.75ForacomprehensiveaccountoftheAtticauprisingandmassacre,aswellasitsbackgroundandaftermath,seeHeatherAnnThompson,BloodintheWater:TheAtticaUprisingof1971anditsLegacy(forthcoming,NewYork:Pantheon,2016).

226

Quentin,andtheother20thcenturyslaveshipsthattheyarenotaloneinthefightfor

therighttolive.”76

TheGeorgeJacksonkillingandAtticamassacrewerenotproductsofa

coordinatedstateconspiracy,astheWeatherUnderground,BLA,andothersonthe

militantleftinsinuated.Rather,theseincidentswerepartofalongstandingpatternof

federalofficialslookingtheotherway,orofferingencouragement,whilelocalpolice

andprisonguardsinflictedviolenceagainstpoliticaldissidentsandracialized

minorities.InsomeinstancesintheAmericanpast—suchaswheninternationaloutcry

overthe1964murderofMississippicivilrightsworkersJamesChaney,Andrew

Goodman,andMichaelSchwernercompelledPresidentJohnsontodemandthat

Hoover’sFBIcrackdownontheKlananditscollusionwithSouthernpoliceforces—

organizedleftistsocialmovementsmanagedtopressurethefederalgovernmenttotake

actionagainstlocalrepressivepoliceviolence.Suchfederalinterventionwasnot

forthcoming,however,amidthedisintegrationoftheU.S.leftandtheNixon

administration’slaw-and-orderresponsetocivildisorder,nationalsecurityleaks,and

leftistguerrillaviolence.

AftertheGeorgeJacksonkillingandAtticamassacre,NixonandHoover

condemnedleftistviolencewhilecondoningpoliceviolence.Inaphonecallafterthe

Atticaslaughter,NixonreassuredGovernorRockefeller.“Youdidtherightthing,”the

Presidentsaid.“It’satragedythosepoor[hostages]wereshot,butIjustwantyouto

knowthat’smyview,andI’vetoldthetroopsaroundherethey’retobackthattothe

76WeatherUnderground,“Attica,”September17,1971,inDorhn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,180.

227

hilt.”77InsteadofmandatinganFBIinvestigationoflawsbrokenbyNewYorkState

officialsintheAtticamassacre,thePresidentpraisedRockefeller’smasskillingof

prisonersandhostagestosuppresstheprisonerrebellion.Nixonaffirmedhisbeliefthat

ifRockefellerhadgrantedtheprisoners’requestforimmunityfromprosecutionfor

theiractions,“itwouldhavemeantthatyouwouldhaveprisonersinanuproarallover

thecountry.”“Thecourageyoushowed…itwasright,”NixontoldRockefeller,“andI

don’tcarewhatthehellthepapersoranybodyelsesays.”78

Meanwhile,Hoover’sFBIrespondedtoarequestfromtheJusticeDepartment’s

CivilRightsDivision,whofacedpressurefromliberalsinCongresstooverseeSan

Quentinguards’handlingoftheincidentsthatledtoGeorgeJackson’sdeath.Ina

memorandumtotheSanFranciscofieldoffice,Hooverrevealedhisclearsympathies

withtheprisonauthorities.TheDirectorexplicitlyinstructinghisagentstoinformSan

QuentinofficialsandstaffthattheFBIwasconductingtheinvestigationatthe“specific

request”ofDavidL.Norman,AssistantAttorneyGeneralinchargeoftheJustice

Department’sCivilRightsdivision.79ByrelayingsuchinformationtoSanQuentin

officials,FBIagentssignaledthattheirinvestigationwasamereformalityundertaken

begrudginglyonbehalfoftheJusticeDepartment.Afterconducinga“limited”three-day

investigationofGeorgeJackson’sdeathinOctober1971,FBIagentsdeterminedthat

77AudioandtranscriptsfromexcerptsofNixonandRockefeller’spost-AtticaconversationsareavailableonlineatDemocracyNow!,“40YearsAfterAtticaRebellion,NewTapesRevealNixon,RockefellerPraisedDeadlyCrackdown,”September16,2011,http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/16/40_years_after_attica_rebellion_new.AlsoseeSamRoberts,“RockefellerontheAtticaRaid,FromBoastfultoSubdued,”NewYorkTimes,September12,2011.78DemocracyNow!,“40YearsAfterAtticaRebellion.”79FBIairtel,DirectortoSAC,SanFrancisco,October5,1971,andFBIReport,“UNKNOWNSUBJECTS-GUARDS,SanQuentinPrison,SanQuentin(MarinCounty),GEORGELESTERJACKSON-VICTIM,”October15,1971,inGeorgeLesterJacksonFBIFile,Part4,FBIVaultonlinedatabase.

228

prisonstaffhadcommittednowrongdoing.80Meanwhile,CaliforniaGovernorRonald

Reaganwroteanop-edonGeorgeJacksonfortheNewYorkTimesthatsoundedasifit

couldhavebeenwrittenbyHooverorNixon.DefendingSanQuentinandAtticaofficials’

useofdeadlyforceagainstprisonerrebellions,ReaganinsistedthatallAmericans

would“becomeprisoners”ofdeadlychaosiftheyaccepted“thefalsehoodthatviolence,

terrorandcontemptforthemoralvaluesofoursocietyareacceptablemethodsof

seekingredressofgrievances.”81

FederalauthoritiesdidnotunanimouslysidewithRockefellerandReaganin

promotingrepressivestateviolenceasasolutiontosocialconflict.AftertheAttica

uprising,theU.S.CongressSelectCommitteeonCrimespenttwoyearsinvestigating

prisonrebellions,anddeterminedthatsuchoutbreakswereaproductofafailedprison

systemthatreinforcedsocialinequities.Inits1973report,theCommitteecalledfor

sweepingchangesinAmerica’scriminaljusticepractices,includingincreasedpublic

oversightofstateandfederalcorrectionalinstitutions;federally-mandatedtrainingof

correctionalstaff;increasedparoleopportunities,half-wayhouses,andworkand

educationalfurloughs;monetarycompensationforprisoners’work;andthe

substitutionofenormous,ruralprisonslikeAtticawithsmallerinstitutionslocated

withinurbancenterswherethefamiliesofmostprisonersresided.82“Thepainful

lessonsoftherecurrentwavesofprisonriots,”thereportconcluded,“isthatthe

presentsystemhascreatedandnurturesevenmoreseriousthreatstosecurityand

publicsafetycausedbythefrustrationanddesperationthatdrivesmentorebellion.

80FBIReport,“UNKNOWNSUBJECTS-GUARDS,”October15,1971.81RonaldReagan,“WeWillAllBecomePrisoners,”NewYorkTimes,October7,1971.82HouseofRepresentatives,SelectCommitteeonCrime,ReformofOurCorrectionalSystems:AReportbytheSelectCommitteeonCrime(1973),HR93-329,47-52.

229

Onlythroughadrasticrestructuringcanwehopetocorrectourcorrectionalsystem.”83

ToNixonandHoover,however,theviewsoftheCongressionalSelectCommitteeon

CrimewereasirrelevantasthefindingslaidoutintheKernerReportpublishedfive

yearsearlier.

Whilelocalstateofficialsandpoliceengagedinviolencewithimpunity,Hoover

assuredNixonandhisstaffthattheFBIwasmakingsignificantprogressinitsBLA

investigation.AfterthearrestsofBottomandWashington,theDirectorsentJohn

EhrlichmanseveralmemosoutliningtheBureau’sprogressduringthefallof1971.84In

aphonecallonNovember22,NixoninformedtheDirectorthathewas“justdelighted”

overtheFBI’ssuccesstrackingdownthefive“terrorists”responsiblefortheJones-

Piagentinikillings.“Besureyoulettheboysoverthere[intheFBI]knowIthinkit’sjust

great,”saidthePresident.85Thenextday,AssistantDirectorEdwardMillersentthe

WhiteHouseapreparedstatementforNixon’sPressSecretaryRonZeiglerthat

celebratedtheFBI’sachievementscombating“urbanguerrillawarfarewhichinvolves

attacksonpoliceandotherterroristactionsagainstcitizensofthiscountry.”86

DespitetheFBI’sbreakthroughsintheNEWKILLinvestigation,Hooverworried

thattheBLAhadmoreviolenceinstore.Accordingly,inOctober1971theDirector

providedFBIfieldofficeswithanewroundofambiguousordersthatsomeagentsmay

haveinterpretedasthelatestwinkandnodencouragementtocarryoutillegal

83Ibid,52.Otherreportscommissionedbygovernmentbodiesandnon-profitorganizationsduringthisperiodreachedsimilarconclusions,includingtheNewYorkStateSpecialCommissiontoinvestigatetheAtticarebellion.Foranoverview,seeDanielS.Chard,“SCAR’dTIMES:Maine’sPrisoners’RightsMovement,1971-1976,”(MAthesis,UniversityofMassachusettsAmherst,2011),9-11.84HoovermemostoEhrlichman,September8,September18,September28,andNovember5,1971,FBINEWKILLdocuments,.85NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Conversation15-106,November22,1971.86“ProposedReleasebytheWhiteHouse,”attachmenttoFBImemo,E.S.MillertoA.Rosen,November23,1971,FBINEWKILLdocuments.

230

surveillancepractices.“Duringthepastseveralmonths,”Hooverwrote,“theCleaver

factionoftheBlackPantherPartyhasmovedonacourseofincreasedviolence,

lawlessness,andterror…Althoughmanyofthesecriminalshavebeenarrestedfor

extremist-relatedactivity,asubstantialhardcoreoffanaticsremainshighlyactiveandI

considertheirpotentialforviolenceanddisruptiongreatertodaythaneverbefore.”87

Conveyinginformationgleanedfrompaidinformants,Hooverwarnedhisagentsthat

Cleaver-factionPantherswereconsideringkidnappingbusinessmenorpoliceofficersin

effortstobargainforthereleaseof“jailedextremists.”88Inordertopreventsuch

attacks,HooverinstructedhismentopursuetheBLA“withrenewedvigorand

imagination.”“Iconsidernoextremistinvestigationtoberoutine,”heemphasized.

“Investigationsmustbeofthehighestdegreeofthoroughnessandinformantcoverage

mustneverbeconsideredadequate.”89InanexceptiontohisApril1971banonsuch

activities,Hooveralsoencouragedhisagentstoproposecounterintelligenceoperations

againstabovegroundsupportersofguerrillaviolence,including“disruptiveeffortstobe

aimedattheCleaverFactionandsimilargroups”and“useofnewsandpublicitymedia

tocounterfrequentproextremistprograms.”90TheDirectorstressedthattheaimofFBI

operationswastopreventleftistguerrillaattacks.Surveillanceofsuspectedblack

“extremists,”heexplained,“musthavepreventativecapabilities,thatis,wemustknow

inadvance,whereverpossible,ofplansandpropensitiesforviolence.”91

87FBIairtel,DirectortoSACsCharlotte,Cincinnati,Detroit,LosAngeles,NewYork,Philadelphia,SanFrancisco,“BlackPantherParty—CleverFaction,ExtremistMatters,”September24,1971,FBIMooreFile.88Ibid.89Ibid.90Ibid.91Ibid.

231

HooverissuedthisdirectiveasagentsintheFBI’sWeatherUndergroundsquads

engagedinbreak-insandotherillegalsurveillancetacticsintendedtohelpthemlocate

clandestineguerrillas.Suchoperationshadbeenongoingforfourteenmonths,since

Hoover’sAugust1970ordersfor“intensified”guerrillainvestigationsfollowingthe

MarinCountycourthouseattackandtheUniversityofWisconsinbombing.Sources

documentingtheFBI’suseofillegalsurveillancepracticesarescarce.Sincethepractices

wereillegalandunauthorized,agentsintentionallykeptwrittenrecordsminimalsoas

toavoidself-incrimination.FBIagentsalsodestroyedmanysourcesdocumentingillegal

surveillancetacticsin1976asrumorsgatheredthattheJusticeDepartmentplannedto

indictBureaupersonnelinvolvedinillegalsurveillanceoperations.However,

documentsfromthelegalproceedingsofJohnKearny,L.PatrickGray,EdwardMiller,

andW.MarkFelt—FBIofficialswhofacedcriminalchargesinthelate1970sfortheir

involvementinsuchactivities—offeraglimpseintotheFBI’suseofillegalsurveillance

measuresinitsWeatherUndergroundinvestigation.

MostoftheFBI’ssurveillancetargetedabovegroundactivistsandfamily

membersofWeatherUndergroundguerrillaswhomagentshopedwouldleadthemto

therevolutionaryunderground.Forexample,theNewYorkFieldOffice’sWeather

Undergroundsquad,knownsimplyas“Squad47,”madewidespreaduseofillegalmail

surveillance.BetweenAugust1970andJune1972,undertheleadershipofSpecial

AgentJohnJ.Kearney,Squad47agentsacquiredkeystoNewYorkmailboxesbelonging

tosuspectedabovegroundsupportersoftheWeatherUnderground.Inapracticethey

informallyreferredtoas“mailruns,”agentswouldremovemailfromtheirtargets’

boxes,bringitbacktotheFBIofficeon201East69thStreet,andopentheenvelopes

232

usingaspecial“steamer”thatenabledthemavoidnoticeableevidenceoftampering.

Afterphotocopyingalloftheirtargets’mail,agentswouldresealtheenvelopesand

returnthemtothemailboxes.92

Squad47agentsalsocarriedoutillegal,warrantlesselectronicwiretapsof

suspectedWeatherUndergroundsupporters,aswellasindividualssuspectedof

shelteringTenMostWantedleftistfugitiveCameronBishop.Kearneyheldregular

meetingswithSquad47aboutwiretapping,andmaintainedascheduleofagents’shifts

monitoringsuspects’phoneconversationswiththeBureau’seavesdroppingequipment.

Kearneyalsokeptfilesofnoteshisagentscompileddescribingmonitoredphonecalls.

Squad47maintainedatleastelevenillegalwiretapsinNewYorkCitybetweenAugust

1970andJune1972,thoughtheremayhavebeenmore.93WeatherUnderground

squadsinothercitiesalsoutilizedillegalwiretaps.LosAngelesagentWesley

Swearingen,forexample,claimedtohaveinstalledovertwohundredunauthorized

wiretapsaspartoftheWeatherUndergroundinvestigation.94

WeatherUndergroundsquadsthroughoutthecountryalsocarriedout

unauthorizedillegalbreak-ins.Insomecases,FBIagentsmayhaveconducted

“surreptitiousentries”withtheverbalpermissionofJusticeDepartmentofficials.

SpecialAgentinChargeRobertKunkel,whosupervisedtheFBIWashingtonFieldOffice

recalledthathisagentsbroke-intotheresidenceofa“memberoftheso-calledNewLeft

element”inordertoinvestigateallegationsthattheindividualpossesseddynamitethat

92U.S.DistrictCourtfortheSouthernDistrictofNewYork,U.S.v.JohnJ.Kearny,grandjuryindictment,April7,1977,FreedomArchivesOnlineDatabase,COINTELPROCollection,http://search.freedomarchives.org/search.php?view_collection=150.93Ibid.94Swearingen,FBISecrets,72-73.

233

heplannedtouseinabombing.AccordingtoKunkel,hisagentscarriedouttheirblack

bagjobwithpermissionfromAssistantAttorneyGeneralWilliamRehnquist,who

verballyauthorizedarequestfromtheFBI’sthenAssistantDirectorWilliamSullivan.

Kunkelrecalledthathisofficekeptnowrittenrecordofthebreak-in.95

Forthemostpart,however,localFBIFieldOfficesapprovedbreak-inswithout

authorizationfromtheJusticeDepartmentorFBIHeadquarters.Inearly1972,for

example,agentsfromtheFBI’sPhoenixWeatherUndergroundsquadcarriedouttwo

blackbagjobsinTucson,Arizona.OnMarch28,1972,aPhoenixagenttook

approximatelytwentyphotographsofdocumentsinsidetheTucsonapartmentofa

suspectedWeatherUndergroundsupporter.Twoweekslater,anFBIagentstoleasmall

pieceofyellowpaperthatappearedtocontainahandwrittenkeytoasecret

communicationscodefromaTucsonapartment.96Intheirpaperwork,Phoenixagents

referredtothebreak-inasan“anonymoussource,”usinglanguagesimilartothe

terminologyW.MarkFeltandEdwardMillerwouldlateradoptintheirmemos

authorizingbreak-insintheyearfollowingHoover’sdeath.97Afterforgingaduplicate

versionofthepaperandreturningittoa“smallboxcontainingseveraloldlettersand

otheritems”locatedintheapartment,Phoenixagentsforwardedtheoriginalpaperto

theFBIHeadquartersinWashingtonforfingerprintidentificationandcryptanalysis.98

FormerFBIagentM.WesleySwearingenalsorecalledconductingbreak-ins

withoutapprovalfromHeadquarters.Inhismemoir,Swearingenwrotethatheand95FBImemo,LeeColwelltoDirector,“U.S.v.W.MarkFelt,etal;DiscoveryProcedures,”September5,1979,LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045-Section8Serial1.96FrancisJ.MartintoPaulV.Daly,“[Redacted]BagJob,”November3,1978,LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045-Section8Serial1.97FBIreport,“PhoenixReview,”September10,1976,LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045-Section8Serial1.98FBIairtel,SACPhoenixtoDirector(Attn:FBILaboratory),“WEATHFUG,”April24,1972.

234

othermembersoftheLosAngelesWeatherUndergroundsquad(Squad19)carriedout

atleastsevenblackbagjobs.Amongthetargetsweretwoleftistattorneyswhohad

defendedSDSactivists.99NewYork’sSquad47agentsalsocarriedoutunauthorized

blackbagjobsandprovidedintelligencegatheredfromtheiractionstoFBI

Headquarters.Presumably,liketheirPhoenixcounterparts,Squad47agentsdisguised

theirsourcesintheirmemorandaas“anonymous,”thoughnoneofthesedocuments

survivedtheBureau’spurgingofsuchsourcesin1976.100AccordingtoSwearingen,

noneoftheFBI’sillegalbreak-inshelpedpreventviolenceorcaptureWeather

Undergroundfugitives.101

ItisunknownwhetherornotFBIagentsactedonHoover’sOctober1971callfor

“imaginative”and“intensified”investigationsofCleaver-factionBlackPanthersby

incorporatingillegalcounterintelligenceoperationsorsurveillancetacticsintotheir

BLAinvestigation.However,policemanagedtocaptureorkillmanyBLAmembersin

late1971andearly1972,astheBLAunleashedahaphazardcrescendoofbloody

violence.InOctober,NewYorkpolicecapturedH.RapBrownafterwoundinghimina

gunbattleinablacksocialclubthatfugitiveontheFBI’sTenMostWantedlisthadbeen

tryingtorob.102OnNovember3,TwymonMeyersandFreddieHiltonassassinated

policeofficerJamesGreeneinAtlanta,whereNewYorkBLAguerrillashadgoneto

escapetheNYPD’smanhunt.Fivedayslater,AtlantapolicearrestedBLAmembers

AndrewJackson,SamuelCooper,andRonaldAndersonoutsideaconveniencestore

99Swearingen,FBISecrets,77-78.100FBI,8/24/1976,untitledsummaryofinterviewwithDetroitspecialagent.101Swearingen,FBISecrets,78.102ItisunclearifBrownwaspartoftheBLA,butthewordonthestreetwasthattherobberyforwhichhewasarrestedwasoneofseveralBLA-stylerobberiestargetingdrugdealersthathehadparticipatedinwhileunderground.Thelwell,“H.RapBrown/JamilAl-Amin,”xxiv-xxv.

235

afternoticingthatthemenwerecarryingfirearms(theywereontheirwaytocarryout

anotherpoliceambush).OnNovember11,afirefightbrokeoutaspoliceattemptedto

pulloveracarloadofBLAmembersinCatawbaCounty,NorthCarolina,resultinginthe

arrestoffourguerrillasandtheparalyzingofsheriff’sdeputyTedElmore.103On

December21,BLAmembersrolledanM-26fragmentationgrenadeunderanNYPD

squadcartopreventpolicefromchasingthemafterabankrobbery;thetwoofficers

insidemiraculouslysurvivedtheexplosionunscathed(theBLA’s“AtticaBrigade”later

tookcreditfortheassault,warning,“Wehavemoregrenades,andwewillbeback”).104

FBIagentsarrestedBLAmemberJohnThomasandshotdeadfellowguerrillaFrank

FieldstendayslateroutsideahotelinOdessa,Floridaafteranemployeephonedthe

policetoreportsuspiciousactivity.105OnJanuary19,1972,policearrestedMarkHolder

andoneotherBLAmemberinPhiladelphiawithasuitcasefullofguns.106TheBLA

assassinatedtwomoreNewYorkpolicemenonJanuary27,gunningdownofficers

GregoryFosterandRoccoLaurieastheywalkedtheirbeatintheEastVillage.107BLA

guerrillasinvolvedintheFosterandLauriekillingsfledtoSt.Louis,wherepolicepulled

themoverontheeveningofFebruary16astheydroveinagreen1967Oldsmobilewith

cardboardMichiganlicenseplates.Afirefighterupted,followedbyahigh-speedchase,

thenasecondgunbattle.Whenitwasoffer,apoliceofficerwascriticallywounded,BLA

memberRonnieCarterwasdead,andguerrillasThomas“Blood”McCrearyandHenry

“ShaSha”Brownwereinpolicecustody.OneBLAguerrilla,TwymonMeyers,managed

103Burrough,DaysofRage,205-206.104Ibid,209.105Ibid,206-207.106Ibid,207.107Ibid,210-211.

236

tofleeonfoot.St.LouispoliceuncoveredNewYorkOfficerRoccoLaurie’spistolinthe

Oldsmobile.108TheFBI,NYPD,andotherpoliceagenciescontinuedtheirinvestigations

oftheBLAaftertheSt.Louisarrests,butforthetimebeing,thegrouphadbeenseverely

damaged.TheBLAwouldnotlaunchanotherattackuntilnearlyayearlater.

AmidthespikeinBLAviolence,theWeatherUnderground’sguerrillaoffensive

begantorecede.AfterabombingattheMassachusettsInstituteforTechnologyon

October15,1971targetingtheofficesofformerCIAanalystandVietnamWaradvisor

WilliamBundy,itwouldbeanothereightmonthsbeforetheWeatherUnderground

launchedanotherattack.109TheFBIdidnotrealizeit,buttheWeatherUnderground

wasshrinkingasitsmembersconcludedthattheirbombingshaddonelittletoreverse

theU.S.left’ssteadydecline.During1971,theWeatherUnderground’sleadership

orderedseveralofitslesser-knownmemberstosurfaceandrejoinsocietywiththe

sameaimofreestablishingleftistcontactsandbuildinganabovegroundrevolutionary

socialistorganization.Othermembersdriftedawayfromtheradicalpoliticsall

together,includingMarkRudd,wholefttheorganizationandtookrefugeinSantaFe

withhisgirlfriend.Bythemiddleof1971,theWeatherUndergroundonlyhadabout

fifteenactiveclandestinemembers.110

108Ibid,215-217.109TheWeatherUnderground’sMITbombexplodedbehindaceilingpanelinawomen’sbathroom,causingminordamagetoBundy’sadjacentoffice.ThegroupexplainedtheirattackasretaliationforBundy’sroleintheVietnamWar.Ibid,224.110Ibid,218-219.Althoughagentsdidnotknowit,theFBI’smassiveinvestigationhadplayedaroleinweakeningthegroup.TheFBImadeabreakinitsWeatherUndergroundinvestigationinlate1970andearly1971.OnDecember16,1970,FBIagentsarrestedWeatherguerrillaJudyClarkataManhattanmovietheaterafterrecognizingherbychancefromawantedposter.Clark’sfakeid,forgedwiththeidentityofaninfantnamedYvetteKirbywhohaddiedinthe1940s,helpedagentsfigureouttheWeatherUnderground’smethodsfordevelopingfalseidentification.Withinsixweeks,agentsinSanFranciscohaddeterminedthatthelocalDepartmentofMotorVehicleshadrecentlyissuedeighteenlicensestoindividualsusingthenamesoflong-deceasedinfants,allofwhomtheysuspectedtobeWeatherUndergroundfugitives,includingKathyBoudin,MarkRudd,JeffJones,andBernadineDohrn.Ashorttime

237

WhiletheslowedpaceoftheWeatherUnderground’sbombingsreducedpublic

concernoverthegroup,theFBI’sinvestigationwascontributingtoamountingcrisis

withintheBureau.By1972,membersofSquad47andotherWeatherUnderground

unitsbegantoquestionwhetherthegroupcontinuedtowarrantalargeshareofthe

FBI’sresources.Squad47agentsjokinglyreferredtotheWeatherUndergroundas“the

terribletoiletbombers,”sincethegroup’smainactivityconsistedofperiodically

plantingbombsinrestrooms.Moreover,agentsgrewincreasinglyanxiousasHoover

pressuredthemtowinthewaragainstleftistguerrillas,usingunsanctionedillegal

surveillancetacticsasnecessary.Agentsconveyedtheiranxietyinthetermtheycoined

forunauthorizedwarrantlesswiretaps:“suicidebugs.”AccordingtoaDetroit

investigator,agentsusedthistermbecause“ifyougotcaught”utilizingillegalwiretaps,

“youwereonyourown.”111Inotherwords,agentswereuncertainwhetherornot

Headquarterswouldsupportthem,orprotectthemfromafelonyindictment,ifthey

evergotcaughtinstallingillegalwiretaps.Burdenedwiththedualresponsibilityof

preventingleftistguerrillaviolenceandavoidingprosecutionfortheiruseofillegal

surveillancetechniques,agentsworriedabouttheirprofessionalvulnerability.

later,inMarch1971,SanFranciscoFBIagentsnarrowlymissedanopportunitytoapprehendJonesandDohrn.ThepairescapedanFBIdragnetafterJonespickedupaWesternUnionmoneytransferfromanabovegroundsupporterinChicagowhomtheBureauhadplacedundersurveillance.IntheSanFranciscoWesternUnionoffice,JonescorrectlysuspectedthatagroupofmenhangingoutinthelobbywereundercoverFBIagents;theagentsdidnotarrestJonesonthespotbecausetheywereunsurewhetherornottheyhadfoundtheirsuspect.Afterdepartingtheoffice,JoneshoppedintoacardrivenbyDohrn,whomadeaseriesofquickturnsandmanagedtoshakeofftheagentswhofollowedherinablacksedan.TheWeatherUnderground’sSanFranciscocellimmediatelyfledthecity,worriedthattheirlocalsafehousecouldbecompromised.TheFBIfoundthegroup’sabandonedapartmentaweeklaterafterreceivingacallfromthelandlord.Inside,agentsdiscoveredpilesofleftistliterature,disguises,andbomb-makingequipment.TheWeatherUnderground’sNewYorkcellalsoabandonedtheirsafehouseaftertheclosecallinSanFrancisco.ByforcingtheWeatherUndergroundtoestablishnewsafehousesandIDs,thisdisruptioncontributedtothegroup’sshrinkingsizeandreducedpaceofbombings.Seeibid,162-168.111FBI,8/24/1976,untitledsummaryofinterviewwithanonymous(nameredacted)Detroitspecialagent,LPGFBI,FileNumber1222537-0-62-118045,Section8,Serial1

238

Conclusion

IfanyoneatFBIHeadquartersunderstoodfieldagents’anxietiesaroundleftistguerrilla

investigationsandillegalsurveillancetactics,itwasW.MarkFelt.BeforeHoover

promotedhimtoDeputyAssociateDirectorinJune1971,Felthadworkedfornearlysix

yearsastheFBI’sChiefInspector,visitingfieldofficesthroughoutthecountryfor

annualinspectionsofagents’investigativework,includingthatcarriedoutbythe

DomesticSecurityDivision.Yearslater,whilefacingfederalindictmentsforapproving

break-insagainstWeatherUndergroundsupportersafterHoover’sdeath,Feltwould

publiclyclaimthathehadnoknowledgeofagents’involvementinblackbagjobsprior

tohisreauthorizingthepracticeinSeptember1972.Duringhis1979trial,however,

Felt’sdefenseteamintroducedHoover’sAugust17,1970memocallingfor

“intensification”ofleftistguerrillainvestigationsasevidencethathis1972decisionto

officiallyreauthorizebreak-insmerelyformalizedapracticethatagentshadbegun

practicingtwoyearsearlieratthelateDirector’srequest.Moreover,Feltwasawareof

agents’anxietiesoverrestrictedsurveillancepracticesinSeptember1970,whenhe

successfullyconvincedHoovertolowertheFBI’sminimuminformantagefromtwenty-

onetoeighteeninordertohelpagentspreventleftist“terroristviolence.”112Edward

MillerwasalsolikelyawareofthecrisisbrewingwithintheFBIduringthelastyearof

Hoover’slife.AsAssistantDirectorinchargeoftheDomesticSecurityDivisionfollowing

WilliamSullivan’sousterinOctober1970,MillerreceivedreportsfromWeather

UndergroundsquadsinNewYork,Phoenix,andothermajorcitiesthatrelayed

112SeeChapter3forfurtherdiscussion.

239

informationgleanedfromso-called“anonymoussources,”aeuphemismforillegal

break-insthatheandFeltwouldadoptintheirmemosafterreauthorizingthepractice.

ThoughHooverhadnowayofrealizingitatthetime,hisdecisiontopromote

FeltandMilleramidtheFBI’sinstitutionalconflictwiththeNixonadministrationwasa

fatefulone.AfterHoover’sdeath,Feltwouldfurtherescalateboththehostilitieswith

NixonandtheFBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillas.Inhisroleas“DeepThroat,”

FeltwouldsecretlyleakdocumentsfromtheFBI’sWatergateinvestigationtothepress

andhelptoppletheNixonpresidency,whileatthesametimecolludingwithMillerto

officiallyreinstitutetheFBI’suseofbreak-insfor“terrorism”investigations.Inthe

meantime,afinalbattlebetweenHoover’sFBIandtheWhiteHousepiquedFelt’s

resentmenttowardsNixon.

InMarch1972,NixonsoughttoenlisttheFBI’sassistanceincoveringupa

controversyinvolvingtheITTCorporationanditslobbyist,DitaBeard.ColumnistJack

AndersonhadprintedastoryonFebruary19onaleakedmemoinwhichBeard

allegedlyboastedtoheremployerthatAttorneyGeneralMitchellagreedtoquashan

antitrustcaseagainstthecompanyinexchangefora$400,000contributiontothe

RepublicanPartyforthe1972nationalconvention.Beardclaimedthememowas

forged,however,andNixon’sstaffsentthedocumenttotheFBILaboratoryto

corroboratethelobbyist’sclaim.113TheNixonadministration’srequestcamedirectlyto

FeltonMarch10,1972fromL.PatrickGray,aformerWorldWarIINavysubmarine

captainandlongtimeNixonsupporterwhohadassumedthepositionofAssistant

AttorneyGeneralalittlemorethanaweekearlier(GrayhadtakentheplaceofRichard

113Powers,SecrecyandPower,475-476;Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,165-167.

240

Kleindienst,whohadbecomeAttorneyGeneral-designateafterMitchellsteppeddown

onMarch1todirectNixon’sreelectioncampaign).114AccordingtoFelt,Assistant

AttorneyGeneralGray,AssistantAttorneyGeneralRobertMardian,andWhiteHouse

counselJohnDeanrepeatedlyinterferedwiththeFBILab’sanalysisoverthecourseof

thefollowingweekinanattempttopressuretheBureautofindthattheBeard

documentwasaforgery.115TheFBILabdeterminedthatBeard’smemowasauthentic,

however,andNixonwasfuriouswhenheheardthatHooverandFeltstoodbehindthe

analysis.116AsfarasFeltwasconcerned,theDitaBeardincidentwasthelatestexample

ofNixon’sattemptstoexertcontrolovertheFBIinordertoadvanceapartisanpolitical

agenda.“Lookingback,”Feltlaterwrote,“IamgladthattheFBIwasabletoresistWhite

Housepressuretotakepartinacover-upwhichinsomewayswasapreludeto

Watergate.”117

Lessthansixweekslater,Hooverdiedunexpectedlyinhissleep.Feltfully

expectedthatNixonwouldappointhimoranothertopFBIofficialtoserveasthe

longtimeDirector’ssuccessor.Nixonhadotherplans,however.ThePresident

appointedL.PatrickGraytoserveastheFBI’sActingDirector,promisingtoappointa

fulltimeDirectoraftertheNovemberelection.GraywassurprisedasanyonebyNixon’s

choice.Indeed,whenhereceivednoticethatthePresidentwantedtospeakwithhim,

GrayassumedthatNixonwantedtodiscussadevelopmentintheITTcontroversy.To

114Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,167.115Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,167-174.116Powers,SecrecyandPower,146.117Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,174.

241

Felt,thePresident’schoiceforHoover’ssuccessorsentaclearsignal:Nixonwanted“his

man”tocontroltheFBI.118

NixonconveyedhisvisionforthefutureoftheFBIatHoover’sfuneral.Inhis

eulogy,deliveredbeforealivenationaltelevisionbroadcast,thePresidentrevealed

nothingofhisconflictwiththeDirectoroverthepastthree-and-a-halfyears.Instead,he

praisedHooverandhisforty-eightyearcareeras“theinvincibleandincorruptible

defenderofeveryAmerican’spreciousrighttobefreefromfear.”119Moreover,amidst

increasingpubliccontroversyoverFBIdomesticsurveillance,Nixonpromisedto

upholdratherthanalterHoover’spolicingpractices.“Thereisabeliefthatthechanging

oftheguardwillalsomeanachangingoftherules,”Nixondeclared.“WithJ.Edgar

Hooverthiswillnothappen.TheFBIwillcarryoninthefuture,truetoitsfinest

traditionsinthepast.”120

NixonfullysupportedtheFBI’smasssurveillanceofAmerica’santiwarandBlack

Powermovements,especiallywhencarriedoutinanefforttopreventleftistguerrilla

attacks.Now,withHoovergoneatlast,thePresidentsoughttoexertdirectWhite

HouseinfluenceovertheBureau.Nixon’sinstitutionalconflictwithHoover’sFBIhad

entereditsfinalphase.

118Ibid,208.119RichardNixon,“EulogyDeliveredatFuneralServicesforJ.EdgarHoover,”May4,1972,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3397.120Nixon,“EulogyDeliveredatFuneralServicesforJ.EdgarHoover.”

242

CHAPTER6

DEEPTHROAT’SSECRETWARS:BREAK-INS,ANTI-TERRORISM,ANDTHEROAD

TOWATERGATE

FourmonthsintoL.PatrickGray’stermasActingDirectoroftheFBI,aguerrillaattack

halfwayaroundtheglobepromptedanurgentnewroundofBureauandWhiteHouse

effortstocombat“terrorism.”InthepredawnhoursofSeptember5,1972,eight

commandosfromthePalestiniannationalistBlackSeptemberOrganizationstormedan

apartmentunitonthesiteofthe20thSummerOlympicGamesinMunich,West

Germany.InsideslepttheIsraeliOlympicteam.Afterkillingtwoteammemberswho

resistedthesiege,theheavilyarmedguerrillasheldnineathletesandcoacheshostage.

Themilitantssoughttoexchangetheircaptivesforthefreedomof234Palestinian

prisonersheldinIsraeliprisonsaswellastwoRedArmyFactionguerrillasimprisoned

inWestGermany.AstelevisioncrewscoveringtheOlympicsshiftedtheirfocustothe

hostagecrisis,theMunichsiegebecameaninternationalmediasensation.Foreighteen

hours,anestimated900millionviewersthroughouttheworldwatchedtheunfolding

drama:asWestGermanofficialsnegotiatedwiththehostage-takers;asIsraeliPrime

MinisterGoldaMeirannouncedhergovernment’srefusaltomeettheguerrillas’

demands;andasWestGermanpolicebungledarescuemissionthatresultedinthe

deathsofapoliceofficer,fiveBlackSeptemberguerrillas,andalloftheIsraeli

hostages.1

1TherescueattemptoccurredattheMunichAirport,whereWestGermanpolicetransportedtheBlackSeptembermilitantsandtheirhostagesinahelicopterwithapromisetodeliverthembyairlinertoanunspecifiedArabcountry.WestGermanpolicecapturedthethreesurvivingBlackSeptembermilitantsin

243

AnumberofscholarshavewrittenabouttheMunichsiege,explainingthebloody

incidentasawatershedmomentinthehistoryofthePalestiniannationaliststruggle,

anti-Arabracism,andstateeffortstocombattheproblemof“internationalterrorism.”2

SomeofthesescholarsalsoanalyzedPresidentNixon’sresponsetotheMunichattack,

focusingonhisadministration’sformationoftheCabinetCommitteetoCombat

Terrorism(CCCT),agroupcomprisedofSecretaryofStateHenryKissinger,FBIActing

DirectorGray,andseveralotherExecutiveBranchofficialswhomthePresidentcharged

withestablishingmeanstopreventdomesticandinternationalterrorism.3Thischapter,

however,isthefirstacademicworktoexplainhowtheMunichattackinfluencedthe

FBIinthemidstoftheWatergateScandal.4

TheMunichattackwasaturningpointinthehistoryoftheFBIanditseffortsto

combatinsurgentviolence.AfterMunich,theFBIofficiallyreauthorizedtheuseof

illegalbreak-ins,knowninBureaulingoas“surreptitiousentries”or“blackbagjobs,”

forthefirsttimesinceDirectorJ.EdgarHooverbannedthepracticein1966.On

September7,twodaysaftertheMunichbloodbath,theFBI’ssecondandthird-ranked

officialsAssociateDirectorW.MarkFeltandAssistantDirectorEdwardMiller

authorizedarequestfromtheBureau’sDallasfieldofficeforabreak-intotheofficeof

thesiege,butreleasedthemonOctober29,1972,afterPalestinianmilitantshijackedLufthansaFlight615fromDamascustoFrankfurt,andthreatenedtoblowuptheplane.PaulThomasChamberlin,TheGlobalOffensive:TheUnitedStates,thePalestinianLiberationOrganization,andtheMakingofthePost-ColdWarOrder(Cambridge:OxfordUniversityPress,2012),142-143,161-167.AlsoseeOneDayinSeptember,directedbyKevinMcDonald,PassionPictures,1999.2Chamberlin,TheGlobalOffensive,142-143,161-174;MelaniMcAlister,EpicEncounters:Culture,Media,andU.S.InterestsintheMiddleEastsince1945,2nded.(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2005),178-181;Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,21-27;Naftali,BlindSpot,54-55.3Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,27-28;Naftali,BlindSpot,59-61.AlsoseetheCCCT’sfoundingdocument,WhiteHousememorandum,NixontoKissinger,“ActiontoCombatTerrorism,”September25,1972,DigitalNationalSecurityArchive,http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com(hereafterDNSA).4Forabrief,journalisticnarrativethatmakesconnectionsbetweenleftistguerrillasandWatergate,seeWeiner,Enemies,307-319.

244

theArabInformationCenter,apublicrelationsoutfitaffiliatedwiththeArabLeague.5

FBIagentsstoleabriefcasefromtheofficecontainingalistofninety-fourArabsand

ArabAmericanslivingintheUnitedStates.Allegingthattheindividualsonthelistwere

involvedinaconspiracytocommitterroristattacks,FBIagentsthroughoutthecountry

visited,interrogated,andharassedallofthem.TwoweeksaftertheDallasbreak-in,

GrayverballyinformedtopFBIofficialsthathehadreinstitutedtheBureau’suseof

blackbagjobs,andchargedFeltandMillerwithauthorizingallfieldofficerequeststo

utilizethetechnique.FeltandMillersubsequentlyapprovedatleasttwelvemoreFBI

break-ins,twoofthemtargetingArabsandsevenofthemfocusedonsuspected

associatesoftheWeatherUnderground.6

TheFBI’sresponsetoMunichhelpsansweracriticalquestionthathaseluded

Watergatescholarssince2005,whenMarkFeltcameforwardas“DeepThroat,”the

confidentialsourcewhosedisclosuresenabledWashingtonPostjournalistsBob

WoodwardandCarlBernsteintoexposeNixonCabinetmembers’involvementinthe

notoriousJune17,1972break-intoheadquartersoftheDemocraticNational

CommitteeinWashington’sWatergateofficecomplex.Felt’sactivitiesasDeepThroat

helpedsparktheWatergateScandalthatculminatedinPresidentRichardNixon’s

August1974resignation.Felt’sconfessionledseveralscholarstorebuttheclaims

WoodwardandBernsteinmadeintheirbestselling1973bookAllthePresidents’Men—

that“DeepThroat”actedinaprincipledefforttodefendtheU.S.Constitutionandthe5NicholasM.Horrock,“NewSenatePanelMayStudyF.B.I.DriveonArabTerrorism,”NewYorkTimes,February13,1975;L.PatrickGrayIII,InNixon’sWeb:AYearintheCrosshairsofWatergate,withEdGray(NewYork:TimesBooks,2008),114;FBImemo,E.S.MillertoMr.Felt,“AlFatah;InternalSecurity—MiddleEast,”September7,1972,LPGFBI,FileNo.1222537-0-62-118045,Section8,Serial1.6Gray,InNixon’sWeb,120-122;Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromInside,326.FeltandMillerauthorizedtheremainingthreebreak-insaspartforeignespionageinvestigations.Thememosdocumentingthesebreak-insareavailableinLPGFBI,FileNo.1222537-0-62-118045,Section8,Serial1.

245

AmericanpresidencyfromNixon’sunlawfulabusesofexecutivepower.7Historian

BeverlyGagedemonstrated,forinstance,thatFeltactednotsomuchoutofloftyideals,

butinacalculatedattempttopreservetheFBI’sinstitutionalautonomyfromwhathe

perceivedasNixon’seffortstoexertWhiteHousecontrolovertheBureau.8Inaddition,

journalistMaxHollandhasunderscoredFelt’sdeepresentmentoverNixon’s

appointmentofGray,alongtimecampaignsupporterandFBIoutsider,asActing

DirectorfollowingthedeathofDirectorJ.EdgarHooveronMay2,1972.9NeitherGage

norHolland,however,explainFelt’sauthorizationoftheWeatherUndergroundbreak-

ins,whichbroughttheformerAssociateDirectorintothenationalspotlightduringthe

late1970s,asheandEdwardMillerfacedfederalindictmentsandeventualfelony

convictionsfortheiractions.10Thesescholarsleaveakeyquestionunanswered:why

didFeltleakinformationontheNixonAdministration’suseofillegalbreak-inswhileat

thesametimeauthorizingsimilarbreak-insfortheFBI’sWeatherUnderground

investigation?

Felt,Miller,andGray’spost-Munichdecisionstoreauthorizeillegalbreak-ins

werecriticalepisodesintheFBI’sinstitutionalconflictwiththeNixonadministration,a

7CarlBernsteinandBobWoodward,AllthePresident’sMen(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1974),243.8Gage,“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”176.AlsoseeWoodward,TheSecretMan,104-105;andW.MarkFeltandJohnO’Connor,AG-Man’sLife:TheFBI,Being‘DeepThroat,’andtheStruggleforHonorinWashington(NewYork:PublicAffairs,2006).9Holland,Leak,9-11.HollandarguesthatFelt’sdisclosurestoWoodwardandotherreporterswerepartofacoverteffortaimednottotakedownNixon,buttodiscreditGray,sothatthePresidentwouldappointhimtothepositionofFBIDirector.Thoughhisbookisotherwisewellresearched,andprovidesimportantnewinsightsintoFelt’sDeepThroatactivity,HollanddoesnotprovideenoughsourcestoprovehistheorythatFelt’saimwastoundermineGrayaspartofa“warofFBIsuccession.”GageandHollandbothpublishedtheirworksaroundthesametime;neitherengageswithoneanother’sarguments.10TheCarterJusticeDepartmentindictedbothmen,alongwithGray,inApril1978.AjudgesoonthrewoutchargesagainstGray,however,becauseprosecutorswereunabletoprovidedocumentaryproofthattheformerActingDirectorverballyinstructedFeltandMillertoreauthorizebreak-insfortheWeatherUndergroundinvestigation.FeltandMillerwereconvictedinNovember1979,butPresidentRonaldReaganpardonedbothmenfivemonthslater,shortlyaftertakingoffice.

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conflicttriggeredthreeyearsearlierbyAmerica’sdomesticrevolutionaryinsurgency.

AfterHoover’sdeathandNixon’sappointmentofGray,Feltemergedasaleadingactor

inthisconflict.Feltdidnotobjecttoillegalbreak-insperse.Rather,heopposedNixon’s

useofthetacticsforpurelypartisanobjectives,aswellasthepresident’seffortsto

imposeWhiteHousecontrolovertheBureau.Accordingly,FeltexploitedtheWatergate

break-in,andhisroleoverseeingtheFBI’sinvestigationoftheburglary,inaneffortto

underminebothNixonandGray.11Atthesametime,MillerandSpecialAgentsin

Chargethroughoutthecountry,withFelt’ssupport,urgedActingDirectorGrayto

reauthorizebreak-ins,warrantlesswiretapping,andmailopening.Theseofficials

believedsuchtacticswerenecessarytolocateguerrillafugitivesandpreventfuture

attacks,andthatofficialauthorizationwouldassureagentstheywouldnotbe

sanctionedfortheirinvolvementinillegaloperations.TheypetitionedGraywhile

concealingthefactthatFBIagentshadbeencarryingoutsuchillegalsurveillance

tacticsonaninformalbasissinceAugust1970inresponsetoHoover’sinstructionsto

intensifyleftistguerrillainvestigations.Graywasreluctanttoagree,butafterthe

September1972Munichattackpromptedfearsofasimilarbloodyincidentinsidethe

UnitedStates,FeltandMillerauthorizedtheDallasbreak-inontheirown,and

convincedtheirbosstoofficiallyreauthorizeblackbagjobsfor“terrorism”

investigations.

TheFBIandNixonadministrationrespondedtotheMunichattackinthecontext

oftheirongoinginstitutionalconflictandstruggletocombatguerrillaviolenceinthe

UnitedStates.JustasheexploitedtheWatergateburglaryinordertoundermineGray11SomeresearchershaveassertedthatFeltdidnotactasDeepThroatalone.SeeGray,InNixon’sWeb,291-302;Holland,Leak,40-41.

247

andNixon,FeltseizedMunichasanopportunitytoreinstatebreak-insasaformof

surveillancethatheandotherFBIofficialshopedcouldbeusedtobothlocateWeather

Undergroundfugitivesandobtainadvanced,preventativewarningofguerrillaattacks.

Meanwhile,NixonformedoftheCCCTafterfouryearsofpoliticaldebateand

institutionalconflictovertheproblemof“revolutionaryterrorism.”Intheaftermathof

theabortedHustonPlan,andamidgrowingpublicscrutinyofhisCabinet’sinvolvement

intheWatergatebreak-inandcover-up,however,Nixondidnotmakeanotherattempt

toconsolidateAmerica’sfederalintelligenceagencies.Instead,inamovethatshielded

theWhiteHouseandallotherfederalagenciesfromtheliabilitiesofcombating

clandestinepoliticalviolenceinsidetheUnitedStates,NixongrantedtheFBIsole

jurisdictionoverrespondingto“terrorist”attacksonAmericansoil.Nixon’sformation

oftheCCCT,coupledwithgrowingcallsforreforminthewakeofHoover’sdeath,

promptedGraytoreducedomesticsurveillanceofAmericanleftistsinordertoredirect

theFBI’sresourcestowardscombating“terrorism.”

TheFBI’spost-Munichoperations,however,didlittle,ifanything,toprevent

guerrillaviolence.RatherthanpreemptinganidentifiablePalestiniannationalist

guerrillaattackinsidetheUnitedStates,theFBIrespondedtoMunichbyfrantically

chasingfalseleadsandharassinginnocentpeople,whiletheWeatherUnderground

remainedonthelam.TheWatergateScandalalsodidnotshieldtheBureaufrom

governmentoversight.Instead,Felt’ssecretwaragainstNixonandGraybackfired.

WatergateledtothedownfallofGray,Nixon,andFelt,andwasamajorimpetusforthe

Senate“ChurchCommittee’s”massive1975investigationsofFBIoperations.Moreover,

by1980mostWeatherUndergroundmembersemergedfromtherevolutionary

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undergroundandreintegratedintoAmericansocietywithminimallegalconsequences,

whileFeltandMillerwereconvictedoffelonies.

TheWeatherUndergroundandWatergate

L.PatrickGrayfacedmultiplechallengesuponsteppingintohisroleastheFBI’sActing

Director.Forone,NixondemandedthatGrayassuretheFBI’sfidelitytotheWhite

House.Accordingtoamemopennedbyhisaide,NixoninstructedGrayduringtheirfirst

meeting,immediatelyafterHoover’sfuneralonMay4,1972,“toconsolidatecontrolof

theFBI,makingsuchchangesasarenecessarytoassureitscompleteloyaltytothe

Administration.”12AsGrayrecalledtheOvalOfficeencounter,Nixoncalledfora

“housecleaning”oftheFBIaftertheBureau’stopofficialshadtimetomournHoover’s

death.13Atthesametime,GrayfelttremendouspressurefrommembersofCongress,

thepress,andtheAmericanpublictoreformtheFBI’sadministrativeanddomestic

surveillancepractices,whichhadcomeunderincreasingscrutinyduringHoover’sfinal

yearinoffice.ThesetwinpressuresgrewincreasinglydifficultforGraytomanageafter

theJune17,1973Watergatebreak-in,whichputhimintheawkwardpositionof

overseeingtheFBI’sinvestigationofNixon’sCabinetmembers.WasGraysupposedto

maintainloyaltytohissuperiororcarryoutanimpartialinvestigationastheAmerican

peopleexpected?Atthesametime,GrayalsoinheritedHoover’swarondomesticleftist

guerrillas.Whileleftistattackshaddecreasedsignificantlyoverthepastyear,the

WeatherUndergroundremainedatlarge,andinoneoftheirmostbrazenactions,the

12Ehrlichman,MemorandumforthePresident,May3,1972,quotedinGage,“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”171.13Gray,InNixon’sWeb,33.

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groupbombedthePentagontwoweeksafterGraytookoffice.Moreover,despitethe

declineindomesticrevolutionaryviolence,aseriesofdeadlyPalestiniannationalist

guerrillaattacksoncommercialairlinersflyingovertheMiddleEastandEuroperoused

fearsovertheproblemofinternationalterrorism,andthepotentialthreatitposedto

America’snationalsecurity.

Graygrappledwiththesechallengeswhilenaïvetothedepthsoftheinstitutional

conflictbetweenHoover’sFBIandtheNixonWhiteHousethatproceededhisentryinto

theBureau.TheActingDirectorwasparticularlyunawarethathisnumbertwoofficial

W.MarkFelt,whoeffectivelyrantheFBIonhisownwhileGraytraveledthecountry

makingspeechesandvisitingfieldoffices,wasactivelyworkingtounderminehim.Felt

exploitedtheWatergatebreak-in,andhisroleoverseeingtheFBI’sinvestigationofthe

burglary,towagea“privatecounterintelligenceprogram”againstGrayandNixon,

disclosingclassifiedinformationtothepressinanefforttoundermineanddiscredit

bothmen.14AtthesametimethatheleakedinformationonNixonCabinetmembers’

utilizationofillegalbreak-ins,hesupportedotherFBIofficials’effortstopersuadeGray

toreauthorizetheuseofblackbagjobsfortheBureau’sWeatherUnderground

investigation.Meanwhile,GrayprovidedtheNixonadministrationwithpolitical

intelligencelinkingtheVietnamVeteransAgainsttheWar(VVAW),anantiwar

organizationcomprisedofcombatveterans,tothecampaignof1972Democratic

presidentialcandidateGeorgeMcGovern.TheActingDirectoralsoagreedtoprovide

WhiteHouseCounselJohnDeanwithclassifiedinformationfromtheWatergate

investigationanddestroyedanenvelopecontainingtopsecretdocumentsfrom

14Holland,Leak,25.

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WatergateburglarHowardHunt’ssafe.Theseactionswouldlaterraisesuspicionsof

Gray’scomplicityintheNixonadministration’sWatergatecover-up,andunderminehis

chancesofapermanentappointmentasFBIDirector.

UponassuminghispositionasFBI’sActingDirector,Grayfelt“appalledtolearn”

thatdespiteoneofthemostintensemanhuntsinitshistory,theBureauhadcaptured

onlythreeWeatherUndergroundfugitives.15Indeed,intheapproximatelytwoyears

sincetheMarch6,1970GreenwichVillagetownhousebombing,theFBI’snationwide

WeatherUndergroundinvestigation(“WEATHFUG”)hadgeneratedmorethanninety

thousandpagesofdocuments,focusingon280individualsthroughoutthecountry.This

includedtwenty-sixfugitivesandfortyotherindividuals,whereaboutsunknown,whom

theFBIsuspectedofWeatherUndergroundmembership.InareportontheWEATHFUG

investigationissuedfivedaysafterGray’sappointment,FBIInternalSecurityChiefR.L.

Shackelfordnoted,“onlyafewfugitiveshavebeenapprehended”while“thekey

Weathermanleadersremainatlarge.”16MorethantwoyearsafterHooverinitiatedthe

FBI’sWeatherUndergroundinvestigation,themassiveWEATHFUGoperationremained

largelyfruitless.

AsiftotaunttheFBI’snewActingDirector,theWeatherUndergroundbombed

thePentagonelevendaysafterShackelfordreleasedhisreport—onMay19,1972,Ho

ChiMinh’sbirthday.Theguerrillasoutlinedthereasonsforthebombinginanerudite,

six-pagecommuniqué,explainingtheirattackasameanstoprotestPresidentNixon’s

15GrayactuallystatedinhismemoirthattheFBIhadnotyetcapturedanyWeatherUndergroundfugitives,butinreality,agentshadcapturedJudithClarkinFebruary1970andLindaEvansandDianneDongiinApril1970.Gray,InNixon’sWeb,120;W.MarkFelt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside(NewYork:J.P.Putnam’sSons,1979),326.16QuotedinIvanGreenberg,TheDangersofDissent:TheFBIandCivilLibertiessince1965(Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2010),78.

251

recentordersfortheminingofNorthVietnameseharborsandintensifiedaerial

bombardmentofbothNorthandSouthVietnam.“Ithasbecomecleartoeveryonethat

the[SouthVietnamese]ThieuregimeandtheArmyoftheRepublicofVietNamwould

collapsewithinamatterofdayswithoutU.S.airandnavalpower,”theWeather

Undergroundwrote.“TherisktakenbytheVietnameseatthistimeistofacethatU.S.

militarymightinafighttoregaintheirhomeland.”17ViewingNixon’smilitaryescalation

ascruelandpointless,theWeatherUndergroundurgedNixontoaccepttheProvisional

RevolutionaryGovernmentofSouthVietnam’srecentpeaceproposal.18TheWeather

Underground’sbomb,detonatedat12:53aminafourthfloorwomen’srestroom,

causedminordamage.19However,theorganization’sabilitytostrikethesymbolic

centerofAmericanmilitarypowerunderscoreditsmembers’continuedevasionofFBI

surveillance.TheheadlineofaWashingtonPostarticleonthebombingemphasizedthis

point:“WhoAreWeatherPeople—AskFBI.”20

WhiletheWeatherUndergroundandotherdomesticguerrillasremainedat

large,attacksbyPalestinianmilitantsandtheiralliesinWesternEuropeandIsrael

promptedgrowingconcernthroughouttheworld,includingwithintheFBI,overthe

problemofinternationalterrorism.OnFebruary22,1971,Palestiniannationalist

guerrillasgainedfivemilliondollarsinransomafterhijackingaLufthansaairliner

departedfromDelhiwiththeaimoffreeingPalestiniancaptivesheldinWest

17WeatherUnderground,“TheBombingofthePentagon,”May19,1972,inDohrn,etal.,SingaBattleSong,18118Ibid.Nixon’sintensifiedbombings,calculatedasameanstoforcetheVietnamesetoacceptU.S.termstoapeacedeal,includedbombardmentofHanoiandcriticalcivilianinfrastructureincludingportsanddikes.19BartBarnes,“BombingFailstoDisruptPentagon,”WashingtonPost,May20,1971,A1.20BettyMedsgerandB.D.Coien,“WhoareWeatherPeople?—AskFBI,”WashingtonPost,May20,1972,A12.ThearticledidnotciteanyrecentFBIsources.

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Germany.21OnMay8,militantsfromtheBlackSeptemberOrganization—afaction

withinthelargerPalestinianLiberationOrganization(PLO)—hijackedaBelgianSabena

passengerjetenroutefromViennatoTelAviv,seekingtoswaptheplane’spassengers

inexchangeforthereleaseofahundredPalestiniansheldinIsraeliprisons.Aftera

twenty-threehourstandoff,Israelicommandosstormedthejet;twohijackersanda

passengerperishedintheensuinggunbattle.22Anevenbloodierincidentoccurredon

May30,whenthreeJapaneseRedArmyguerrillasworkingunderthecommandofthe

PopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine(PFLP),aMarxist-LeninistPLOfaction,

firedmachinegunsandhurledhandgrenadesintoacrowdatTelAviv’sLodAirport,

killingtwenty-sixandinjuringseventy-eight.23AccordingtohistorianPaulThomas

Chamberlin,afterthisseriesofattacks“thePalestinianarmedstruggle…emergedasthe

firstglobalresistancemovement,andthePLOwouldsoonbelabeledasthefirstgroup

toemployinternationalterrortactics.”24ActingDirectorGraylaterrecalledtheperiod

aftertheLodAirportmassacre,whichoccurredlessthanamonthafterhetookoffice,as

“atimeofgreatuneaseamongalltheresponsibleagenciesinthefederalgovernment,”

when“internationalterrorismwasanewandfast-growingphenomenon.”25

Inadditiontotheproblemofguerrilla“terrorism,”L.PatrickGrayalsofaced

growingpublicconcernovertheFBI’sroleinAmericansociety.TheFBI’spublicimage

hadtakenaseriousbeatingsincejournalists’disclosureofdeclassifiedsurveillance

documentsfromtheMarch1971Media,Pennsylvaniaburglary.InthewakeofJ.Edgar21Chamberlin,TheGlobalOffensive,153.22FiveotherpassengerswerewoundedandIsraeliforcescapturedtwoguerrillas.Ibid.23SeventeenofthedeadwerePuertoRicansonpilgrimagetotheHolyLand.TwooftheJapaneseRedArmyguerrillasalsodiedintheattack,whilethethird,KozoOkamoto,wasbadlywoundedandarrested.Ibid,154-156.24Ibid,153.25Gray,InNixon’sWeb,116.

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Hoover’sdeath,Americansfromacrossthepoliticalspectrumpubliclyquestionedthe

FBI’sintegrityandcompetency,andcalledformajorreforms,particularlyintheareaof

domesticsurveillance.DeterminedtorestoretheFBI’spopularlegitimacy,Gray

institutedhistoricreformsimmediatelyaftertakingoffice.Hesignedanorderallowing

womentobecomeFBIagentsforthefirsttimeintheBureau’shistory,formedanEqual

Opportunityboardtoexploreavenuesforrecruitingmoreminorityspecialagents,and

enactedanewdress-codepolicypermittingmaleagentstogrowlongerhairand

mustachesinkeepingwithearly1970s’fashiontrends.26AMay15,1972Washington

PosteditorialconveyedthepressureGrayfacedasHoover’ssuccessor,ascritics

demandedtheActingDirectormovequicklyanddecisivelytodemonstratetheFBI’s

commitmenttosafeguardingAmericans’civilliberties.Whiletheeditorialapplauded

Gray’shiringanddresscodereforms,callingthem“pleasantlysurprisingand

remarkablydaring,”italsocalleduponNixontoappointa“PresidentialCommissionto

StudytheFBI”todeterminewhethertheFBIrequiredoversightfromCongressor

anotherarmoftheExecutiveBranch.27

GrayrespondedtotheFBI’sflaggingimagewithapublicrelationscampaign.The

ActingDirectorspentmuchofhisone-yeartermontheroad,visitingfieldofficesand

givingpublicaddressesthroughoutthecountry.Outinthefield,manyspecialagents

welcomedGray’sreforms,especiallythoseoftheyoungergeneration,whoreportedly

receivedhisvisitstolocalfieldofficeswithstandingovations.28LosAngeles-based

26L.PatrickGray,FBIMemorandum4-27,“MemorandumtoAllSpecialAgentsinCharge,”June7,1972,GrayFBIFile,No.1222537-0-62-118045,Section1,Serial1.27WashingtonPost,“TheGovernanceoftheFBI,”May15,1972.28EdwardS.Miller,oralhistoryinterviewbyStanleyA.PimentelonbehalfoftheSocietyofFormerSpecialAgentsoftheFBI,Inc.,May28,2008,160.

254

specialagentCrilPayne,whowasthirty-years-oldatthetime,laterrecalledthinkingin

June1972,

ItwasamazinghowtheentiretoneoftheorganizationhadchangedsincePatGrayhadbecomeActingDirector.Agentswerenowallowedtosportmustaches,sideburns,andlongerhair.Whiteshirtsandconservativedarksuitswerenolongerderigueur.WomenwerefinallybeingacceptedforSpecialAgentpositions.Virtuallyallthearchaicrulesandregulationswerebeingreevaluated,andlong-overduechangeswerebeinginstituteddaily.29

ButnoteveryonewelcomedGray’sentranceintotheFBI.ManyseniorFBI

officialsviewedGrayasaninterloperandNixonlackeywhollyunqualifiedforhis

position.Indeed,ajournalistclosetotheFBIreported,“sotenuouswerethelinks

betweensomeoftheFBI’skeypersonnelandtheJusticeDepartmentthatinthe24

hoursfollowingthedeathofHoover…severalassistantdirectorsofthebureau

seriouslyconsideredresigning.”30GrayavertedamutinybymeetingwithHoover’s

fifteentopassistantslessthantwohoursafterhisappointment,andensuringthemthat

bothheandNixonintendedto“maintaintheFBIasaninstitution.”31Duringthis

meeting,GraymadeacriticalalliancewithFelt,whomhepromotedtoAssociate

DirectorandchargedwiththetaskofrunningtheFBI’s“day-to-day”operationswhile

hetravelledthecountry.32Afterthemeeting,FeltassuredthepressthatGrayhad

“madeadeepimpressiononthemen,”andthattheofficialshadreconsideredtheir

planstoresign.33

FeltshoulderedmuchoftheActingDirectors’responsibilitiesthroughoutGray’s

one-yearterm.Thoughhetreatedhissuperiorwithcourtesyandprofessionalismin

29Payne,DeepCover,44.30SanfordJ.Ungar,“NixonMovesQuicklytoGetControlofFBI,”WashingtonPost,May5,1972,A1.31GrayquotedinUngar,“NixonMovesQuicklytoGetControlofFBI.”32Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,12.33Ungar,“NixonMovesQuicklytoGetControlofFBI.”

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person,Feltprivatelyresentedtakingordersfromsomeonewidelyperceivedas“a

neophytenotonlytotheFBI,buttotheprofessionoflawenforcement.”34Likemanyof

hiscolleagues,FeltalsoperceivedGray’sappointmentaspolitical,anattemptbyNixon

toexertaninfluenceovertheFBIthathecouldneveryieldoverHoover,despitehis

manyattempts.“RichardNixon,”Feltasserted,“wantedsomeonefromtheoutsidewho

wouldbehisman,someonewithnotiesandnofirstloyaltiestotheFBI.”35Moreover,as

theFBI’snumberthreeofficialunderHooverandtheaging,sicklyClydeTolson,Felt

believedthathe,ratherthanGray,wasHoover’slogicalsuccessor.AsFeltrecalled,“I

wasnextinline,myFBIrecordwasverygood,and…Iwasbothlikedandrespectedby

therankandfile.”36

FeltseizedtheFBI’sWatergateinvestigationasanopportunitytoundermine

bothGrayandNixon.Nixon’s“Plumbers”HowardHuntandGordonLiddybrokeinto

theDemocraticNationalCommitteeheadquartersinWashingtonD.C.’sWatergateoffice

complexonMay28,1972,successfullyinstallingahiddenmicrophoneinaneffortto

findoutwhetherDNCChairmanLarryO’Brienpossessedinformationthatcould

damageNixon’sreelectioncampaign.37However,themicrophonedidnotwork,soon

June17JamesMcCord,FrankSturgis,BernardBarker,EugenioMartinez,andVergilio

Gonzalezmadeasecondbreak-in.Thistimetheoperationwentsour.Washington

policearrestedthemeninsidetheDNCheadquartersandconfiscatedtheoperatives’

cameras,eavesdroppingequipment,andlargesumofcash,whichincludedthirteennew

34Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,12.35Ibid,208.36FeltbelievedthattheotherlogicalcandidateforthepositionwasJohnP.Mohr,AssistanttotheDirectorinchargeofadministrativeoperations.Ibid,208.MohralsobelievedNixonwouldchoosehim.37Inparticular,thePlumbersworriedthatO’BrienknewofaloanthatbusinesstycoonHowardHughesmadetoNixon’sgoodfriendBebeRebozo.Genovese,TheWatergateCrisis,27.

256

onehundreddollarbillswiththeirserialnumbersinsequence.TheWatergatebreak-in

didnotinitiallymakemajornewsheadlines,buttheFBIimmediatelybeganto

investigatethematter.38Uponhearingnewsofthebreak-inwhileinCalifornia,Gray

calledFelt,whoprovidedasummaryofwhattheFBIthenknewaboutthearrests.Gray,

unawareoftheNixonadministration’sroleintheoperation,orderedhisAssociate

DirectortoinvestigatetheWatergatebreak-in“tothehilt.”39

Feltbeganleakingclassifiedinformationtothepresstwodaysafterthe

Watergatearrests.Inmid-June,WashingtonPostreporterBobWoodwardphonedFelt

lookingforinformationonHowardHunt,whosenameappearedontwoaddressbooks

foundontheWatergateburglars.WoodwardfiguredoutthatHuntwasaformerCIA

agentandworkedattheWhiteHousewithSpecialCouncilCharlesW.Colson,buthe

soughtfurtherconfirmationbeforepublishingastoryconnectingtheNixonstafferto

thebreak-in.FeltgaveWoodwardtheconfirmationhewaslookingfor.TheFBIhad

foundacheckbearingHunt’snameintheWatergateburglars’hotelroom,andFelt

informedWoodwardthattheFBIconsideredtheformerCIAoperativea“prime

suspect”initsinvestigation.ThetipenabledWoodwardtopublishhisfirstmajorstory

ontheWatergatebreak-inonJune26,1972.40CircumstantialevidencealsotiesFeltto

twomoreJune1972leakspertainingtotheWatergateinvestigation,onetoTime

journalistSandySmithandthesecondtoWashingtonDailyPostreporterPatrick

Collins.41

38Ibid,20-21,26-27.39Gray,InNixon’sWeb,60.40Holland,Leak,29-30;BobWoodwardandE.J.Bachinski,“WhiteHouseConsultantTiedtoBuggingFigure,”WashingtonPost,June20,1972,A1.41Holland,Leak,32-35,37-38.

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WhileFeltsimultaneouslyoversawtheFBI’sWatergateinvestigationandleaked

informationtothepress,NixonofficialsquicklymovedtostalltheBureau’sefforts.The

dayaftertheWatergatebreak-inarrests,Nixon’sChiefDomesticAdvisorJohn

EhrlichmanputWhiteHouseCounselJohnDeaninchargeofhandlingthecover-up.

PresidentNixondirectlyinvolvedhimselfinthecover-uponJune23,afterlearningthat

FBIinvestigatorswereclosetotracingtheonehundreddollarbillsdiscoveredonthe

WatergateburglarstofundsfromaNixonreelectioncampaigndonationlaundered

throughaMexicanbank.Inarecordedconversationthatwouldlaterbecomeknownas

the“smokinggun”tapethatbroughtdownhispresidency,NixoninstructedhisChiefof

StaffH.R.HaldemantohaveCIADirectorRichardHelmsaskGraytolimittheFBI’s

WatergateinvestigationonthepremisethatfollowingtheMexicanleadwoulduncover

informationontheCIA’stopsecretcovertroleinthebotched1961invasionofCuba’s

BayofPigs.HaldemanandEhrichmansubsequentlymetwithHelmsandCIADeputy

DirectorVernonWalters,whothereaftercalledGray.42

AftermeetingwithWalters,thenoviceActingDirectoragreedtolimitthe

investigationtothesevenarrestedmen.Graywaveredseveraltimesoverthenext

week,however,underpressuretopleasetheWhiteHouseononehand,andFeltand

otherFBIofficialsontheother,whileavoidinggivingtheimpressiontothepressthat

theBureauwascoveringuptheWatergateinvestigation.Grayfirstreversedhis

decisionattherequestofFeltandAssistantDirectorCharlesBates,andthenagain

limitedtheinvestigationunderordersfromDean,beforedecidingtomoveforward

withafullinvestigationonJuly5aftertheFBI’sWatergatecaseagentAngeloLano

42Ibid,45-46.

258

wroteateletypecomplainingthatHeadquarterswasdelayinghisefforts.43Grayalso

agreedtoprovideDeanwithdocumentspertainingtotheFBI’sWatergateinvestigation,

andacquiescedtoDean’srequestthathedestroyanenvelopeofclassifieddocuments

removedfromthesafeofWatergateburglarandCommitteetoReelectthePresident

(CREEP)memberHowardHunt.44

Felt’spersonalmotivescanonlybeinferred.Bythetimehecameforwardas

DeepThroatin2005,dementiahadsetin,forgoinganypossibilitythattheformer

professionalexpertindeceptioncouldprovideanhonestaccountingofhismotives.Itis

clear,however,thatFeltdidnotleakinformationfromtheFBI’sWatergate

investigationbecausehemorallyobjectedtoillegalbreak-ins.ItisalsoevidentthatFelt

carriedouthisactionsinthecontextoftheFBI’songoinginstitutionalconflictwiththe

NixonWhiteHouse.AsWoodwardrecalledinhis2005accountofhisrelationshipwith

theFBI’sformerAssociateDirector,Felt“neverreallyvoicedpure,rawoutragetome

aboutWatergate.”“Thecrimesandabuseswerebackgroundmusic,”Woodwardwrote.

“NixonwastryingtosubvertnotonlythelawbuttheBureau.WatergatebecameFelt’s

instrumenttoreasserttheBureau’sindependenceandthusitssupremacy.”45Felt’s

remarksonthetelevisionnewsprogramFacetheNation,spokenin1976amidrumors

ofanimpendingfederalindictmentforhisauthorizationoftheWeatherUnderground

break-ins,confirmWoodward’sassertionregardingFelt’sbeliefs.Feltdeniedthathe

wasDeepThroat,thoughhestated,“hewouldn’tbeashamedtobe.”“Ithinkthat

43Ibid,50-52.44Ibid,36-37.GrayheldontotheenvelopeuntilNovember,whenheburnedthesecretdocumentsinanincineratorbehindhishouseinNewLondon,Connecticut.SeeGray,InNixon’sWeb,138-139.45Woodward,TheSecretMan,214.AlsoseeGage,“DeepThroat,Watergate,andtheBureaucraticPoliticsoftheFBI,”175-176.

259

whoeverhelpedWoodwardhelpedthecountry,”heexplained.Moreover,Feltprofessed

abeliefsimilartothatheldbyHoover,thattheFBIfunctionedbestwhenautonomous

fromtheinfluenceofpartisanpolitics.“IthinkthattheJusticeDepartmentshouldbea

completelyindependentdepartment,completelyremovedfrompolitics,”heargued.

“Thepositionsshouldallbecareerpositions,thentheFBIandtheotherBureausinthe

DepartmentofJusticewouldbeunderacareertypeindividualandnotundera

politician.”46

WhateverFelt’spersonalmotives,hisleaksdemonstratedtobothGrayandthe

NixonadministrationthattheActingDirectorhadlittlecontrolovertheFBI.

ThroughoutthesummerJohnDeanrepeatedlycomplainedtobothGrayandFeltabout

informationreportedinthepressthathebelievedcamefromtheFBI.Meanwhileinthe

WhiteHouse,NixonandhistopaidesquestionedGray’sabilitytoexertcontroloverthe

FBI.OnAugust1,inaconversationwithHaldeman,Nixonexpressedhisdoubtsabout

Gray’sabilitytoleadtheFBI.AtthispointNixonandhisaideswereconfidentthata

seriesofbribesandotherobstructionshadsuccessfullylimitedtheFBI’sinvestigation

totheWatergateburglars,andthattheirtrialwouldnottakeplaceuntilafterthe

Novemberelection.However,thePresidentworriedthatGraywasunabletocontrolthe

FBI.“Idon’tbelievethatweoughtahaveGrayinthatjob,”hetoldhisChiefofStaff.47

GraystruggledtomanagetheWatergateinvestigationwhileunawareofFelt’s

resentmentsandduplicitousactivities.Atthesametime,topofficialswithintheFBI

urgedtheActingDirectortoreauthorizeillegalsurveillancetacticstocombatleftist

46W.MarkFeltinterview,“FacetheNation,”CBS,August29,1976,C-SPANDigitalVideoLibrary,http://www.c-span.org/video/?187059-1/w-mark-felt-interview(accessedSeptember16,2015).47NixonquotedinHolland,Leak,63.

260

violence.DuringGray’sfirsttwoweeksinoffice,forexample,AssistantDirectorfor

DomesticSecurityEdwardS.Milleraskedhissuperiortoreinstitutewiretaps,

microphones,andmailcovers.Miller,aHooverloyalistwhoparticipatedinblackbag

jobsagainstCommunistPartymembersduringthe1950s,confirmedtoGraythatthe

FBImaintainedeightwarrantlesswiretapsonindividualssuspectedofinvolvementin

revolutionaryviolence,allofthemtargetingeithertheBlackPantherPartyoralleged

WeatherUndergroundassociates.FBIagentsinNewYorkwerealsoopeningand

trackingthemailofindividualssuspectedofprovidingabovegroundsupporttothe

WeatherUnderground.AccordingtoGray,MillerwantedtodrasticallyexpandtheFBI’s

usageofrestrictedsurveillancetechniques.“Icouldusesixty-fivetaps,thirty-three

microphones,andseventymailcovers,”Millersupposedlysaid.48

MillersoughtadditionalsurveillanceaheadoftheDemocraticandRepublican

NationalConventions,scheduledforJuneandAugust1972,respectfully,bothofthem

bookedtotakeplaceinMiami.Afterviolencemarredthe1968DemocraticNational

ConventioninChicago,FBIofficialswereanxioustopreventarepeatscenarioateither

party’s1972Convention,particularlytheRepublican’s,whichMillerpredictedwould

drawmore“powerandfire”duetopopularoppositiontoNixon’sprolongingofthewar

inVietnam.49MillerinformedGraythateightpercentoftheFBI’s2,100“domestic

security”informantswouldbeattendingtheRepublicanConvention.Inkeepingwith

longstandingpractices,theFBIfocusedonpreventingviolencebyprotesterswhile

implicitlycondoningpoliceviolencethroughtheirsilenceonthematter.Miller

especiallywantedsurveillanceonVVAW,whichoverthepastyearhadbecomeatop48Gray,InNixon’sWeb,56.49Ibid.

261

targetoftheFBI’sdomesticsurveillancetargetsunderthe“InternalSecurity—

RevolutionaryActivities”category,designatedforgroupstheBureaudeemedproneto

violence.50

GraydeclinedtoapproveMiller’srequestforelectronicandmailsurveillance

afterspeakingwithAssistantAttorneyGeneralHenryPeterson,whoadvisedthatsucha

requestwouldneverholdupincourt.51Thoughhesoughttopreventrevolutionary

violence,GraywasalsosensitivetopopularscrutinyofFBIsurveillancepractices,and

reluctanttoapprovetacticsthatcoulddamagetheBureau’slegitimacyifrevealedtothe

public.TheActingDirectordid,however,approveMiller’srequesttoorderL.A.

undercoveragentswhohadinfiltratedVVAWtoparticipateinacross-countrycaravan

ofactivistsheadingtothesummer1972DemocraticandRepublicanConventions.52

Noneofthelonghaired,beardedagentswhomtheLosAngelesfieldofficehad

unofficiallysentundercoverapproximatelytwoyearsearlierhadyetinfiltratedan

undergroundguerrillacellorpreventedrevolutionaryviolence.Norhadthey

uncoveredevidenceofVVAWmembersplottingviolentattacks.Nonetheless,Gray

viewedtheuseofundercoveragentsaspromising,andlackedHoover’saversiontothe

tacticongroundsthatitviolatedtheFBI’straditionaldresscodeandputagentsin

harmsway.

50Ibid,57.Accordingtoa1975FBIlettertotheChurchCommittee,theFBIopeneditsinvestigationofVVAWinAugust1971inorderto“determinetheextentofcontroloverVVAWbysubversivegroupsand/orviolence-proneelementsintheantiwarmovement.”ChurchCommittee,BookIII,239,footnote33.51GraywroteinhismemoirthatMilleridentifiedtheVVAWas“veryanti-governmentandterroristic,”andoneofmanyleftistorganizationssecretly“shelteringterroristsandrevolutionaries.”HealsorecalledthatPeterson’sfeedback“helpedreinforcemyownpreferenceforincreasedliveinformantandundercoverspecialagentactivityinthedomesticterrorismarena.”ContemporaryFBIdocuments,however,didnotfrequentlyusethetermterroristinreferringtoVVAWanditsmembers.Moretypically,theFBIidentifiedVVAWmembersas“violenceprone”and“extremists.”Gray,InNixon’sWeb,57.52Payne,DeepCover,44.

262

Gray’sauthorizationoftheFBI’ssurveillanceofVVAWwasnotmerelyforthe

purportedaimofpreventingviolence.Evidencefromoralhistories,contemporary

newspaperarticles,andsworntestimoniesindicatesthattheBureauthoroughly

infiltratedVVAWchaptersthroughoutthecountrywithpaidinformants,someofwhom

acted—eitherindependentlyorattheurgingoftheirhandlers—asagentprovocateurs,

attemptingtoconvinceothersinthegrouptopartakeinactsofrevolutionary

violence.53VVAWmembersthroughoutthecountryalsoenduredregularsurveillance

byplainclothesofficersandarrestsbylocalpoliceonquestionablepretexts.54In

addition,VVAWwasatargetoftheCommitteetoReelectthePresident(CREEP),a

groupwhosemembersJohnMitchell,JebStuartMagruder,G.GordonLibby,andE.

HowardHuntlaterservedprisonsentencesfortheirinvolvementintheWatergate

Scandal.Priortothe1972RepublicanConvention,LiddyandMagruderdiscussedideas

forcovertlydisruptingVVAWorusingthegrouptopubliclyembarrasstheMcGovern

campaign.PabloManuelFernandez,apaidinformantwithlinkstoWatergateburglary

mastermindHowardHunt,alsoattemptedtosellhandgrenades,machine-guns,and

otherweaponstoVVAWmembersaheadoftheMiamiconvention,thoughtheantiwar

veteransturnedhimdown.55

ThefactthatVVAWmembersdeclinedFernandez’sweaponsofferseemsto

confirmanaccountfromCrilPayne,oneoftheLosAngeles“deepcover”agentswho

infiltratedthegroupduringitscross-countrycaravantotheMiamiRepublican

Convention.PaynecontentedthatcontrarytoFBIofficials’claims,VVAWmembers

53AndrewE.Hunt,TheTurning:AHistoryofVietnamVeteransAgainsttheWar(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,1999),149.54Ibid,150.55Ibid,151.

263

werenotviolenceprone.“Aftereating,sleeping,rapping,andtravelingwiththese

veterans,whatwasmycolleagues’collectiveimpression?ItwasnotwhatIexpected,”

Paynerecalled.“Accordingtotheagents,whoseopinionsIhighlyrespected,theVVAW

memberstheyhadtraveledwithhadnointentionofpromotingviolentconfrontations.

Myfriendshadreachedtheconclusion,basedontheirpersonalexperiences,thatthe

Bureauwastotallywronginitsassessmentofthisgroup.”56

Moreresearchinthemorethan20,000pagesofFBIfilesonVVAWisneededin

ordertodeterminethemotivesandnatureoftheBureau’sinvestigationofthegroup.57

Itisclear,however,thatGray’sreasonsforinvestigatingVVAWwentbeyondsupposed

violenceprevention.OnMay31,1972,lessthanamonthintohisterm,Grayprovided

PresidentNixonwithintelligenceonlinksbetweenVVAWandtheMcGoverncampaign.

GraywroteconfidentialmemostoAssistanttothePresidentH.R.Haldemanand

AttorneyGeneralMitchellstatingthatanunnamedrepresentativeoftheMcGovern

campaignhadattendedaVVAWmeetinginLosAngelesandagreedtolendastation

wagonleasedbyMcGovern’scampaigncommitteetoVVAWmembersforthepurpose

of“barnstorming”Californiacollegecampusesto“voiceoppositiontotheVietnam

War.”58Thoughthedocumentdidnotexplicitlysay,thisinformationlikelycamefrom

theBureau’sundercoveragentsinVVAW.59Byprovidingthepresidentwith

56Payne,DeepCover,84.57TheVVAWFBIfilesarecurrentlyavailableelectronicallyonawebsitemaintainedbyopponentsoftheorganizationanditsformermemberJohnKerry:http://www.wintersoldier.com/staticpages/index.php?page=20040518192545112(accessedOctober23,2015).Amongotherthings,moreinformationisneededontherelationshipbetweentheFBI’sinvestigationandoperationscarriedoutbylocalpolice,CREEP,andotherfederalintelligenceagencies.58FBIliaison,L.PatrickGraytoH.R.Haldeman,May31,1972;LBGFBI,FileNo.1222537-0-62-118045,Section1,Serial1.59TheBureauhidtheexistenceofitstop-secretundercoveroperationsagainstVVAWbyreferringtoitsundercoveragentsasinformantswithinitsmemos.

264

informationthatcouldbeusedtosmearanelectionopponent,Graydemonstratedhis

willingnesstouseFBIsurveillanceintheserviceofNixon’spartisanpoliticalobjectives.

TopFBIofficialsalsourgedGraytoreauthorizebreak-insduringhisfirstfour

monthsinoffice.Inhismemoir,Grayacknowledged,“peoplebothinsidetheBureau

andfromotheragencies…urgedmetoreinstatethecapabilityfor[theFBI’sblackbag

job]useinnondomesticoperations.”60MillerlaterrecalledthatGrayalsodiscussedthe

optionofusingblackbagjobsindomesticoperationsagainsttheWeatherUnderground

andsimilargroups.MillerclaimedtohaveinformedGrayearlyonthatbreak-ins,in

additiontoundercoveroperations,werethebesthopeforlocatingandcapturing

clandestineWeatherUndergroundfugitives.Inaddition,MillersaidthatSpecialAgents

inChargeofthefieldofficesaroundthecountrywhomGrayvisitedduringhisfirst

monthsinofficealsoimploredtheActingDirectortoreauthorizesurreptitious

entries.61NeitherMillernorFelt,however,informedGraythatagentsinNewYork,Los

Angeles,Seattle,SanFrancisco,Portland,andPhoenixhadalreadybeenconducting

unauthorizedbreak-insinsearchofleadsintheWEATHFUGinvestigation.62

Meanwhile,fieldagentsinvestigatingtheWeatherUndergroundandotherleftist

guerrillagroupsfelttremendouspressuretoapprehendrevolutionaryfugitivesusing60Gray,InNixon’sWeb,115.61Milleroralhistory,May28,2008,159-160.62FBI,8/24/1976,untitledsummaryofinterviewwithanonymous(nameredacted)Detroitspecialagent,GrayFBIFile,FileNumber1222537-0-62-118045,Section8,Serial1;Gray,InNixon’sWeb,114-115;Milleroralhistoryinterview,161.AssociateDirectorW.MarkFeltclaimedthatGrayverballyauthorizedbreak-inspriortotheSeptember1972Munichmassacre.Inhis1979memoir,FeltassertedthatonJuly18,1972,theActingDirectorwrotehimanoteregardingtheWeatherUndergroundinvestigationthatstated,“HunttoExhaustion.NoHoldsBarred.”Feltalsoclaimedthatinasecondnotewrittenashorttimelater,Graysaid“IwantnoholdsbarredandIwanttohuntWeathermanandsimilargroupstoexhaustion.”Furthermore,Feltassertedthataroundthissametime,GrayorderedtopFBIofficialsto“surveythefeasibilityofreinstitutingFBIparticipation”insurreptitiousentries.FeltpurportedtobelievethatGraymadetheseordersunderthedirectionoftheNixonWhiteHouse,whichheclaimedwantedthenewActingDirectorto“implementportionsoftheHustonPlan.”NootherevidencesupportsFelt’sclaims,however.SeeFelt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,324,326.

265

anymeansattheirdisposal.Millerrecalledthatmanyfieldofficersandtheiragents

interpretedGray’srepeatedordersthatagentshuntleftistguerrillas“toexhaustion”as

signalstocontinueuseofsuchtactics.63AspecialagentwhoheadedtheWeather

UndergroundinvestigationintheFBI’sDetroitofficeconfirmedMiller’sassertion.In

August1972,WEATHFUGagentsfromaroundthecountrymetinWashingtonfora

“WeathermanIn-Service”todiscussandcoordinatetheirnationwideinvestigation.64In

theFBIdocumentdescribingtheconference,thenameoftheDetroitagentisredacted,

buthistestimonynonethelessatteststotheclimateofpressureanduncertaintythat

pervadedtheWEATHFUGinvestigationduringGray’sfirstfourmonthsinoffice.65

AccordingtotheDetroitagent,investigatorsattheconferencediscussedthefactthat

agentsfromseveralfieldofficeswereengaginginbreak-ins,butdisagreedover

whetherornotthetacticshouldbeused,andsoughtapprovalforthetacticfromFBI

headquarters.Theagentalsorecalledthatsomeagentsonleftistguerrillaassignments

resortedtousing“suicidebugs”—warrantlesselectronicwiretapsorhidden

microphonesappliedwithoutauthorization,forwhich“ifyougotcaughtyouwereon

yourown.”66UnderintensepressurefromFBIheadquarterstoapprehendguerrilla

fugitives,butlackingclearguidelinesonhowtodoso,localSpecialAgentsinCharge

andtheirfieldagentsweighedtheadvantagesanddrawbacksofutilizingillegal

surveillancepracticesinregardtoefficacy,ethics,legality,andtheirfuturecareers.

63Milleroralhistory,160-161.64Payne,DeepCover,138.65FBI,8/24/1976,untitledsummaryofinterviewwithDetroitspecialagent.FBIagentsgatheredthisindividual’stestimonyin1976astheJusticeDepartmentpreparedindictmentsagainstGray,Felt,MillerandotherBureauofficialsandagentsinvolvedinbreak-insandotherillegalsurveillancetacticsduringtheWeatherUndergroundinvestigation.66FBI,8/24/1976,untitledsummaryofinterviewwithDetroitspecialagent.

266

GrayavoidedreauthorizingblackbagjobspriortotheMunichattacksforthe

samereasonthatHooverrefusedtoreinstitutethepractice:hebelievedthepotential

negativeramificationsofthepubliclearningabouttheFBI’suseoftheillegaltactic

outweighedanyinvestigativebenefitstobegainedthroughitsuse.TheSupreme

Court’sJune19,1972decisionintheKeithcase—deliveredtwodaysafterthesecond

Watergatebreak-in—playedintoGray’scalculation.ThecasecamefromEastern

Michigan,wherefederaldistrictJudgeDamonKeithruledthatAttorneyGeneralJohn

MitchellcouldnotwithholdevidenceofFBIwarrantlesswiretapsinthefederal

government’scaseagainstLawrence“Pun”Plamondon,theformerWhitePanther

leaderandTenMostWantedfugitivechargedwithdynamitinganAnnArborCIAoffice

in1968.Initsfirsteverdecisiononwarrantlesswiretapping,theSupremeCourt

unanimouslyrebukedMitchell’sargumentthathisapprovalofwarrantlessFBItapson

Plamondon’sphonewerelegalundertheOmnibusCrimeBillof1968onthegrounds

thatthesurveillance“gather[ed]intelligenceinformationdeemednecessarytoprotect

thenationfromattemptsofdomesticorganizationstoattackandsubverttheexisting

formofGovernment.”67RecentNixonappointeeJusticeLewisPowelldeliveredthe

Court’sdecision.“Theissuebeforeusinanimportantoneforourpeopleandtheir

Government,”hewrote.“ItinvolvesthedelicatequestionofthePresident’spower,

actingthroughtheAttorneyGeneral,toauthorizeelectronicsurveillanceininternal

securitymeasureswithoutpriorjudicialapproval.”68Powellannouncedthatsuch

authority,whichAttorneysGeneralhadauthorizedwithoutCongressionalorjudicial

oversightsincetheRooseveltadministration,wasillegalundertheFourthAmendment67UnitedStatesv.U.S.DistrictCourt(alsoknownastheKeithcase),407U.S.297(1972).68Ibid.

267

oftheConstitution,whichoutlawedwarrantlesssearchesandseizures.69Inhismemoir,

GraywrotethatAttorneyGeneralKleindeinstorderedtheFBItodropfourwarrantless

wiretapsandtwomicrophonestargetingtheBlackPanthersandsuspectedWeather

UndergroundassociatesthreedaysaftertheCourt’sdecision.70WhydidGraynotseeka

warrantforthewiretaps?Hedidnotsay,butitcouldbethattheFBIeitherlackedsolid

evidenceorhadgaineditsevidencethroughbreak-insorotherillegalsurveillance

tactics.

PriortotheMunichattack,Gray’smostsignificantnewmeasuretocombat

guerrillaviolencewashisauthorizationofundercoveragents,afirstinFBIhistory.On

July24,1972,inacodedteletypesenttoseventeenfieldoffices,Graystressedtheextra

secrecyand“extremeimportance”ofundercoveroperationsaimedatleftistguerilla

groups:

IexpectWeathermanandsimilargroupstobehuntedtoexhaustion.Thiscanonlybedonebyutilizationofsufficientmanpowerandpenetrationintotheundergroundbyinformantsandagentswherewarranted.Youareremindedofthetwoobjectivestobeachievedinthesecases:one,short-range,theimmediateapprehensionofthefugitivesandtwo,long-range,penetrationandneutralizationoftheundergroundapparatus.71

Acoupleweekslater,FBIHeadquartershostedanationalconferenceforagents

workingtheWEATHFUGinvestigation(participantsinformallycalledthemeetingthe

“WeathermenIn-Service”),inwhichtheDomesticSecurityDivisionannouncedthe

formationofthetopsecretSpecialTargetInformantDevelopmentProgram(SPECTAR)

dedicatedtodevelopingundercoveragentsandnewinformantscapableofinfiltrating

69Ibid.70Gray,InNixon’sWeb,62.71FBIteletypeprintedinPayne,DeepCover,76.

268

theclandestineWeatherUnderground.72SPECTARformalizedapracticethathadbeen

goingonsinceAugust1970,includinginLosAngeles,where“deepcover”agentshad

infiltratedVVAW.Inhismemoir,Grayrecalledthatheauthorized“carefullyselected

youngspecialagents”togoundercoveronafulltimebasis,“tolivewiththesepeople

[leftistguerrillas],tosleepwiththesepeople,tomakelovetowomenifnecessary,to

smokemarijuanaifnecessary.”73NoneoftheFBI’sdeepcoveragentseverinfiltrateda

leftistguerrillacell,however,despitefullyadoptingthecounterculturelifestyleand

affinityformarijuanaandLSD.74

DuringGray’sfirstfourmonthsinoffice,theKeithdecision,alongwith

heightenedpublicconcernsovercivillibertiesandFBIsurveillancepracticesprompted

theActingDirectortoresistMillerandotherBureauofficials’callstoreinstituteillegal

surveillancetechniques.Graylateracknowledgedthathis“preferenceforincreasedlive

informantandundercoverspecialagentactivityinthedomesticterrorismarena”was

basedpartiallyonconcernsthattheFBI’suseofwarrantlesswiretappingandother

illegalsurveillancetacticswouldnotstandincourt.75Gray’spositionchanged,however,

afterMunich.

TheMunichSiegeandFBIBreak-Ins

TheMunichOlympicsattackwasacriticalmomentinFBIAssociateDirectorW.Mark

Felt’ssimultaneouswaronleftistguerrillasandcovertcampaigntoundermineL.

PatrickGrayandtheNixonadministration.TheatmosphereofpanicwroughtbyBlack

72Payne,DeepCover,141.73Gray,InNixon’sWeb,121.74Ibid.75Ibid,57.

269

September’ssiegeprovidedFeltandMillerwithanopportunitytoauthorizetheDallas

ArabInformationCenterbreak-inontheirown,withoutGray’sknowledge.Twoweeks

later,theNixonadministrationformedtheCabinetCommitteetoCombatTerrorism

(CCCT),anddesignatedtheFBIasthesolefederalagencyresponsibleforrespondingto

terroristattacksinsidetheUnitedStates.UnderintenseWhiteHousepressureto

preventterrorism,GraywasforcedtorespondtoFelt’smaneuver.Graycouldhave

chosentosanctionFeltandMillerforbreakingthelawwithouthisapproval.However,

suchamovewouldhaverevealedhislackofcontrolovertheFBI’sdailyoperations,and

riskedundermininghisstandingwithbothNixonandhisFBIagents.Instead,Gray

choseanoptionthatallowedhimtosaveface,maintainingafaçadeofleadershipwhile

FelteffectivelyrantheBureau.ImmediatelyafterhisfirstmeetingwiththeCCCT,Gray

retroactivelyreauthorizedtheFBI’suseofblackbagjobsfor“terrorism”investigations

andtookfullcreditforthedecision.

TheFBI’sArabInformationCenterbreak-inshaveneverreceivedthetypeof

scrutinyaffordedtotheWeatherUndergroundblackbagjobs,primarilybecausethe

JusticeDepartmentneverindictedGray,Felt,orMillerforauthorizingthem.76Thefew

popularaccountsoftheFBI’spost-MunichoperationsagainstArabtargetscamefrom

GrayandFelt,whobothpubliclyclaimedthattheDallasbreak-inandsubsequent

76OnereasontheJusticeDepartmentdidnotchargetheFBIofficialsinrelationtotheseoperationsisbecauseofficialsconsideredtheArabInformationCenterbreak-intobetargetinga“foreign”source(asopposedtothedomesticWeatherUnderground),sotheillegalityoftheoperationseemedlessegregious.Moreover,theWeatherUndergroundblack-bagjobindictmentscamepartiallyinresponsetolawsuitsfromindividualstargetedbythebreak-ins;ArabsandArabAmericanstargetedbytheFBIlaunchednosuchsuits.TheJusticeDepartmentofficialsalsomayhavetakenFBI’saccountoftheoperationatfacevalue.IftheydidquestiontheFBI,AttorneyGeneralGriffinBellandhisstaffmayhavechosetofocusontheWeatherUnderground-relatedindictmentsbecauseprosecutingontheArabInformationCenterbreak-inwouldhavepotentiallyrequireddifficultdiscoveryhearingsinvolvingclassifiedintelligencereportson“foreignterrorists,”andcouldhaveriskedgreaterpublicbacklash.Racistanti-ArabfearsmayhavealsoplayedintotheJusticeDepartment’sdecision.

270

operationswerecrucialtothwartingabloodyPalestiniannationalistterroristattackin

theUnitedStates.BothmenunapologeticallyarguedthatalthoughtheFBI’stactics

wereillegal,theywerejustifiedbecausetheyprotectedAmericancitizensandnational

securityfromforeignterroristviolence.Inhis1976“FacetheNation”interview,Felt

justifiedtheWeatherUndergroundbreak-insbypointingtothesupposedsuccessofthe

Dallasoperation.“ThePalestinianLiberationOrganization,”Feltclaimed,was“planning

onallsortsofterrorismintheUnitedStates,andIthinkwestoppedthembecausewe

tookthataction.”77Feltmadesuchclaimsagaininhis1979memoir,contendingthatthe

FBI’sDallasblack-bagjobandsubsequentcampaignofinterviewing,fingerprinting,and

photographingthemenonthelistuncoveredinthebreak-inconvinced“foreign

terrorists”that“theFBIwasall-knowingandever-present,”and“endedthePalestinian

terroristthreatofhijacking,massacres,andbombingsintheUnitedStates.”78Similarly,

Grayclaimedinhis2005memoirthattheFBI“harassed…dozensofAlFatah

assassins…outofthecountrybyknockingontheirdoorsandsayingwewantedto

fingerprintthem.”“Thoughitwasclearlyillegal,”hewrote,“thenicetiesofdueprocess

weren’tapplied;nobodyintheintelligencecommunity,theJusticeDepartment,orthe

WhiteHousewaswillingtoriskthetimethatmightallowoneofthemtoslipfreeand

committheatrocityhewasherefor.”79

Manydetailssurroundingthepost-MunichFBIbreak-insandGray’s

reauthorizationofthepracticeremainunknown.DidGrayverballyapprovedbreak-ins

solelyforuseagainstsupposedArab“terrorists,”ordidhealsoapprovethemeasures

77Felt,“FacetheNation.”78Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromInside,325-326.79Gray,InNixon’sWeb,114-115.

271

foruseintheWeatherUndergroundinvestigation?AndwhatpromptedtheDallasfield

officetoinitiatetheArabInformationCenterbreak-in?DidFBIHeadquarterssenda

messagetofieldofficesaftertheMunichsiegecallingformeasurestopreemptthe

possibilityofasimilardeadlyattackintheU.S.?Thesequestionsremainunanswered

partlybecauseFBIpersonneldeliberatelykeptwrittenrecordsofthebreak-ins

minimal,limitingmostoftheircommunicationonthemattertoverbalexchangesin

ordertoavoidself-incrimination.Tomakemattersworse,FBIagentsdestroyedmostof

thedocumentationthatdidexistin1976whentheJusticeDepartmentbeganto

investigatetheFBI’sinvolvementinthepractice.Moreover,Gray,Felt,andMillerallleft

differing,contradictoryaccountsofwhoauthorizedthebreak-ins,when,andunder

whatconditions,notsurprisingsinceallthreemenfacedlegalconsequencesfortheir

actions.In1978,theJusticeDepartmentindictedthetrioforauthorizingtheillegal

WeatherUndergroundbreak-ins.AfederaljuryconvictedFeltandMillerin1980,buta

judgedroppedthechargesagainstGray,whomaintainedthathehadauthorizedthe

blackbagjobstargetingforeign“Arabterrorists,”butnottheoperationstargetingthe

domesticWeatherUnderground.FeltandMillernonethelessinsistedthatGrayhad

verballyauthorizedbreak-insagainstbothtargets.80

Despitelingeringquestions,acarefulside-by-sidereadingofGray,Felt,and

Miller’smemoirsandinterviewscastslightontheroleeachmanplayedin

reauthorizingthebreak-ins.Thesepersonalaccountsareespeciallyilluminatingwhen

analyzedinconjunctionwithaseriesofthirteenshortmemosMillerwrotetoFelt

authorizingbreak-insinthemonthsaftertheMunichattack,sourcesthatareavailable

80Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromInside,326;Milleroralhistory,160.

272

inGray’sFBIDirector’sfileamidotherdocumentsreleasedtohisattorneysthroughthe

discoveryprocessduringhislate1970slegalbattle.81Millerwrotethememosaspartof

asystemheandFeltdevisedaftertheMunichMassacre,inwhichMillerkeptarecordof

break-insthatFeltverballyauthorized.Pursuanttotheirsecretagreement,Miller

referredtothebreak-insinwritingas“contactwithananonymoussource”andmarked

thememoswitha“DoNotFile”captionremindingFelttostorethedocumentsina

secretlocationoutsidetheFBI’sofficialfilingsystem.82OnSeptember7,1972,Miller

captionedthefirstofthesememos“AlFatah;IS–MiddleEast,”indicatingthatthe

operationwaspartofanFBIinternalsecurityinvestigationofFatah,thelargestfaction

ofthePLO,ledbyYasirArafat,fromwhichtheBlackSeptemberOrganizationhad

recentlysplit.83TheSeptember7memodemonstratesthatFeltandMillerapprovedthe

Dallasbreak-intwoweeksbeforeGraymetwithNixon’sCCCTandverbally

reauthorizedtheFBI’suseofblackbagjobs.However,thereisnoevidencethatthe

FBI’suseofthisillegalsurveillancetacticthwartedaPalestiniannationalistattackin

theUnitedStates.

TheFBIconductedtheDallasArabInformationCenterbreak-innotbecausethey

possessedevidenceofanimpendingterroristattackintheUnitedStates,butasanact

ofpreventativesurveillanceintendedtopreemptthepossibilityofsuchanevent.As

Feltwroteinhis1979memoir,heandMillerauthorizedtheDallassupervisor’srequest

for“permissiontomakeasurreptitiousentryintotheofficesofasuspectedPalestinian81AllthirteenoftheMillertoFeltbreak-inmemosareavailableintheLPGFBI,FileNo.1222537-0-62-118045,Section8,Serial1.82MillertoFelt,“AlFatah;InternalSecurity—MiddleEast,”September7,1972,GrayFBIFile.GrayexplainedFeltandMiller’scommunicationandfilingarrangementinInNixon’sWeb,121;Millerofferedadditionalexplanationinhisoralhistory,161,163.83MillertoFelt,“AlFatah;InternalSecurity—MiddleEast,”September7,1972.OnBlackSeptember’ssplitfromFatah,seeChamberlin,TheGlobalOffensive,149.

273

terroristgrouptolearnofanyterroristplansfortheUnitedStatesandtoidentifyany

possibleterroristswhowereresidinghere.”84Felt’saccountisconsistentwiththe

Miller’sSeptember7memo,whichstated,

On9/7/72SecuritySupervisor[nameredacted]DallasOffice,telephonicallycontactedBureauSupervisor[nameredacted]andrequestedauthorizationtocontactananonymoussourceinconnectionwithcaptionedmatter[AlFatah]attheArabInformationCenter,Suite1302,HartfordBuilding,400NorthSt.Paul,Dallas,Texas.Heassuredthatsuchcontactcouldbeaccomplishedwithfullsecurity.IwasadvisedoftheDallasrequestduringthecourseofthistelephonecallbySupervisorMcDonnellandauthorizedthecontactofananonymoussourceprovidedfullsecuritywasassured.85

DallasFBIagentsdeterminedtheycouldbreak-intotheArabInformationCenter

withoutgettingcaughtbecausetheorganization’sdirector,Dr.SeifEl-WadiRamahi,

wasoutofthecountryonhishoneymoon.86BecauselocalFBIofficesrarelyinitiated

unusualactionsindependently,itislikelythattheDallasfieldofficerequested

permissiontoconductthebreak-ininresponsetoarequestfromFBIHeadquarters,

whetheradirectrequestforspecificinformationontheArabInformationCenter,ora

generalrequesttomultiplefieldofficesforintelligenceonpossibleterroristattacks.

Thereisnodocumentaryevidencetodeterminethis,thoughajournalistwithsources

ontheChurchCommitteereportedin1975thattheFBIhadactedattherequestofthe

84Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromInside,325.Felt’saccountoftheArabInformationCenteroperation,despiteexplainingthemotivesbehindtheDallasfieldoffice’sbreak-inrequest,containsanimportantinaccuracy.Feltcontendedthatalower-levelDomesticSecurityDivisionofficialatFBIHeadquartersauthorizedtheDallassupervisor’srequest,andthathe,Miller,andGrayonlylearnedoftheoperationafteritwasa“faitaccompli.”Miller’sSeptember7,1972memotoFeltbeliesthisclaim,however,demonstratingthatbothmenauthorizedtheDallasfieldofficerequest.FeltlikelymadethisclaiminhismemoiraspartofhiseffortstoresisttheJusticeDepartment’seffortstoconvicthimforhisroleinauthorizingtheWeatherUndergroundbreak-ins.85MillertoFelt,“AlFatah;InternalSecurity—MiddleEast,”September7,1972.86Horrock,“NewSenatePanelMayStudyF.B.I.DriveonArabTerrorism.”

274

CIA,whichwas“followinguponintelligencereceivedfromforeigngovernments,”likely

Israel.87

Regardlessofwhoinitiatedthepost-Munichpursuitofpreventativeintelligence

onArabsintheUnitedStates,theDallasfieldofficeissuedtheirrequestinthecontextof

theFBI’songoingwarwithdomesticleftistguerrillas.FBIHeadquartershadbeen

pressuringfieldofficestopreemptguerrillaattacksforovertwoyears.Bypromptinga

globalpanicaboutthethreatofPalestinianterrorism,andcreatinganinternational

embarrassmentforWestGermansecurityforces,theMunichMassacreputevenmore

pressureonFBIfieldoffices.Inthisclimate,theDallasfieldoffice’sdomesticsecurity

supervisormusthavefeltmorallyandprofessionallycompelledtoseekapreemptive

break-inintotheArabInformationCenteroffice,evenifhehadnosolidevidence

linkingtheofficetoAl-Fatah.TheDallasSpecialAgentinChargemadehisdecision

knowingthatifagrouplikeBlackSeptembercarriedoutadeadlyattackintheU.S.and

itwaslaterdeterminedthattheFBIhadforegoneanopportunitytopreventit,he

wouldbeheldpersonallyresponsiblebyFBIHeadquarters,theWhiteHouse,andthe

Americanpeople.Byofficiallyauthorizingthebreak-in,however,FeltandMiller

87Ibid.GrayallegedinhismemoirthatFeltcalledhiminSeattle“withindaysofthe[Munich]massacre,”informinghimthattheCIAhadpassedalonginformationfromtheU.S.embassyinTelAvivindicatingthatFatahplannedtocarryoutanattackonanairportintheEasternUnitedStates,andthataBlackPantherinformantinLosAngeleshadcorroboratedthestory.Supposedly,theinformantindicatedthatL.A.PanthershaddiscussedtheideaofreceivingtrainingfromAlFatahguerrillasinAlgeriawhowereincontactwithexiledPantherEldridgeCleaverinordertocarryoutpoliticalkidnappingsintheUnitedStates.NumeroussourcescontradictGray’sclaim,however.FBIdocumentsinGray’sDirector’sFile,thoughheavilyredacted,revealthattheunnamedLA.Pantherinformant’swarningsofapossiblekidnappingattackintheU.S.“weretotallyunrelated”totheMunichsiege.Moreover,documentsfromtheFBI’sBlackSeptemberFileindicatethatagentsinvestigatedaBlackSeptemberplottobombanairliner,butthatthisinvestigationoccurredtwoweeksaftertheMunichattack,andwasbasedonarumor.ItcouldbethatFeltfedGraymisleadinginformation,andthatGrayrepeatedthisclaiminhismemoirinanefforttoredeemhisactions.Gray,InNixon’sWeb,111;U.S.GovernmentMemorandum,FrancisJ.MartintoPaulV.Daly,“LosAngelesInformant,”March5,1979,LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045-Section6Serial1.

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departedfromFBIHeadquarters’practiceofinformallyencouragingblackbagjobs,and

providedtheDallassupervisorandhisagentsassurancethatBureauofficialssupported

theaction,andwouldtakeresponsibilityforitscriminalnatureifnecessary.

PresidentNixonalsoworriedaboutaPalestiniannationalistattackoccurringin

theUnitedStates.ShortlyaftertheMunichsiege,JeanDixon,anallegedpsychicwitha

popularsyndicatedcolumn,predictedthatBlackSeptemberwouldcarryoutaterrorist

attackintheUnitedStatestargetingYitzhakRabin,Israeli’sambassadortotheUnited

States.OnSeptember21,afterhissecretaryRoseMaryWoodstoldhimaboutDixon’s

prediction,NixonspokewithKissingerabouthisconcerns.“Suppose[BlackSeptember]

kidnap[s]Rabin,Henry,anddemand[s]thatwereleaseallblackswhoareprisoners

aroundtheUnitedStates,andwedidn’tandtheyshoothim?…Wehavegottohavea

plan,”heinsisted.“Wehavegottohavecontingencyplansforhijacking,forkidnapping,

forallsortsofthingsthat[could]happenaroundhere.”88Nixonmadehiscommenta

fewdaysafterPalestinianmilitantsbasedinAmsterdamsentletterbombstoIsraeli

targetsinmultiplecountries,stokingfurtherpost-Munichhysteriaoverthethreatof

internationalterrorism.OneoftheexplosiveskilledanIsraelidiplomatinLondon,

thoughofficialsinterceptedtheremainingbombsinBrussels,Geneva,Paris,Jerusalem,

Montreal,Ottawa,andNewYork.89

Inordertoaddresstheproblemof“terrorism,”NixonformedtheCCCTon

September25,threedaysaftersharinghisfearswithKissinger.Grayattendedthe

88NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Tape784-7,September21,1972;Naftali,BlindSpot,59.89LawrenceVanGelder,“BombsMailedtoManyIsraeliOfficials,”NewYorkTimes,September21,1972,A1.

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Committee’sfirstmeetingthesameday.90IntheaftermathoftheHustonPlanthat

Nixonabortedtwoyearsearlier,theCCCT,formedatKissinger’ssuggestion,was“the

firstofficialU.S.governmentbodychargedwithfocusingontheterrorismproblem.”91

TheCCCT’sauthoritywasextremelylimited,however.WhiletheHustonPlanattempted

toconsolidateandexpandthesurveillancepowersofallU.S.intelligenceagencies

underthedirectcommandoftheWhiteHouse,themainpurposeoftheCCCTwasto

providepolicyanalysis,mostofwhichwouldbeundertakenbythecommittee’s

separateWorkingGroup.92InthemidstoftheescalatingWatergateScandal,Nixondid

notriskanotherHustonPlan-likeattempttoseizecontrolofthenation’sintelligence

agencies.Instead,thePresidentchargedtheFBI,ratherthantheCIAorState

Department,with“fullresponsibilityforcombattingforeignterroristsinsidetheUnited

States.”93Nixon’sAssistantJohnEhrlichmanconveyedthisnewsduringtheCCCT’s

inauguralmeeting.Grayrecalledthattheotherintelligenceofficialsintheroomwere

relievedbyEhrlichman’spronouncement.They“washedtheirhandslikePontius

Pilate,”hewrote.AccordingtoGray,“nobodythere,thesecretaryofdefenseortherest

ofthem,wantedtotakeresponsibilityfortheseAlFatahguerrillasandothertypesthat

werecomingin.”94Graydidnotprovideadirectexplanationforthis,butitislikelythat

otherintelligenceofficialsknewthatpreventingattacksbyclandestineguerrilla

organizationswasinherentlydifficult,ifnotimpossible.Indeed,itisdifficulttoimagine

90WhiteHousememorandum,NixontoKissinger,“ActiontoCombatTerrorism,”September25,1972.91Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,27.StampnitzkyanalyzeshowCCCT-fundedresearchledtotheriseofterrorismexpertsandthe“inventionofterrorism,”butdoesnotmentiontheHustonPlan.92Thecommitteeitselfconvenedonlyafewtimes,thoughitsworkinggroupmetregularlyfrom1972to1977,providingtheWhiteHousewithanti-terrorismpolicyadvice,sponsoringanumberofconferencesonterrorism,andfundingseveralresearchprojects.93Gray,InNixon’sWeb,117.94Ibid.

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thatanyintelligenceofficialinhisrightmindwouldenvytheFBI’sburdensomedutyto

preventguerrillaattacksinsidetheUnitedStatesamidCongress’increasedscrutinyof

intelligenceagenciesononehandandtheAmericanpublic’srisingfearsofterrorismon

theother.

BecausetheminutestothefirstCCCTmeetingareclassified,itisunknown

whetherornotEhrlichmanorderedGraytoreinstitutebreak-ins.However,theWhite

HousehadbeenpressuringtheFBIreinstitutethepracticesinceshortlyafterNixon

cameintooffice.Moreover,theCCCTmeetingtookplaceinWashingtononthevery

samedaythatFeltconvenedaconferenceofSpecialAgentsinChargefromaroundthe

country.95Inhis2008oralhistory,MillerstatedthatGrayverballyinformedhimin

personinSeptember1972thathehaddecidedtoreauthorizesurreptitiousentriesfor

boththeAl-FatahandWeatherUndergroundinvestigations,andinstructedFeltto

organizetheconferenceinordertoinformthemoftheFBI’snewpolicyofpermitting

break-insforterrorisminvestigations.MillerrecalledthatGraymadeanappearance

duringFelt’smeeting,whereheemphasizedtotheSpecialAgentsinCharge,“Iwantyou

tomakedamnsurethatyoudon’tdoanyofthese[break-ins]withouttheBureau’s

authority!”96FeltalsorecollectedGray’sstatement,addinginhis1979memoirthatthe

ActingDirector“orderedanall-outefforttopreventterrorismintheUnitedStates.”97In

alllikelihood,GrayaddressedtheFBIfieldsupervisors’conferenceafterhavingjustleft

theCCCTmeeting.WhetherornotEhrlichmanexplicitlydirectedGraytoreinstitute

95Noauthorindicated,“Conference,SpecialAgentsinCharge,WashingtonD.C.,September25-26,1972,”LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045EBF212x1,Section1,Serial1.96Milleroralhistory,162.97Feltalsorecalledthatinaseparateone-on-oneconversation,GrayspecificallygaveMillerpermissiontoauthorizeblackbagjobsagainstWeatherUndergroundtargets.Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,326.

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blackbagjobs,theActingDirectormadehisordersunderintensepressurefromNixon

andtheAmericanpublictopreventabloodyMunich-likeguerrillaattackinsidethe

UnitedStates.

TheFBIandAnti-TerrorismafterMunich

AftertheMunichattackandtheFBI’sreauthorizationofblackbagjobs,theBureau’s

warwithleftistguerrillasunfoldedinwaysthatnoonecouldhaveanticipated.Thereis

noevidencetosupportGrayandFelt’sclaimsthattheFBI’spost-Munichoperations

thwartedaBlackSeptemberterrorismconspiracyintheUnitedStates.TheFBInever

arrestedanyoneonchargesrelatedtothissupposedplot,whichtheycouldhavedone

hadtheypossessedsoundevidence.NorhastheFBIhaseverdeclassifieddocuments

corroboratingtheseassertions.98Instead,availableevidencedemonstratesthattheFBI

respondedtotheMunichattackbyillegallyharassinginnocentpeopleandchasingfalse

leads.Atthesametime,theCCCT’smandate,coupledwithincreasingpublicscrutinyof

FBIoperations,promptedGraytosignificantlyreorganizetheBureau’sdomestic

surveillancepractices.WhileFBIagentscarriedoutbreak-instargetingtheWeather

Underground,theArabInformationCenter,andothertargets,Graycurbedspyingon

theU.S.leftinordertomorecarefullyfocuspreventativeintelligenceeffortsongroups

andindividualstheFBIdeemedpronetorevolutionaryviolence.Grayalsoredirected

98CircumstantialevidencesuggeststhattheFBIwasconcernedinmid-October1972overintelligencefromanunknownsourceindicatingthat“Al-Fatah”plannedtoassassinateRabinorSargentShriver,GeorgeMcGovern’svicepresidentialcandidate,priortotheNovemberelection.JohnEhrlichmandiscussedthissupposedplotwithNixononOctober18,1972,indicatingthathehadreceivedtheinformationfromDavidR.Young,theWatergateconspiratorwhoworkedwithEhrlichman’sdeputyEgilKroughandservedasaCabinetrepresentativeontheCCCTworkinggroup.EhrlichmanmentionedthesupposedintelligencewhileconveyingGray’sdesireforanofficialWhiteHousepolicyoutliningtheFBI’sresponsibilitiesinthecaseofaterroristattackintheUnitedStates.NixonWhiteHouseTapes,Tape804,October18,1972.AlsoseeNaftali,BlindSpot,60-61.

279

Bureauresourcestowardsapprehendingguerrillafugitivesanddevelopingcontingency

plansforrespondingtodomesticandinternational“terrorist”attacksinsidetheUnited

States.

Noneoftheseeffortspreventedguerrillaviolence,however.TheWeather

Undergroundremainedatlarge.AnddespitetheStateDepartment’s“Operation

Boulder,”apost-MunichefforttocloselyscrutinizeallArabandMiddleEastern

applicantsforU.S.visas,PLO-affiliatedIraqimilitantKhalidDuhhanAl-Jawaryandtwo

otherguerrillasenteredtheU.S.inearly1973.99Thecellplannedtodetonatethreecar

bombsoutsideIsraelibanksandtheElAlterminalatKennedyAirportinNewYork

duringPrimeMinisterGoldaMeir’svisittotheUnitedNations.Theplotfailed,however,

onlybecauseoftheattackers’mistakes—faultydesignpreventedthehand-madebombs

fromdetonating.100Meanwhile,controversyoverWatergateandFBIsurveillance

practicescontinuedtowearawayattheBureau’spopularlegitimacy.

TheFBIdidinfactharassArabsandArab-AmericansaftertheMunichattackand

theDallasbreak-in.However,accountsfromindividualstargetedbytheFBIchallenge

GrayandFelt’sassertionsthatthesepeoplewereforeign“assassins”and“terrorists,”

andthattheBureausuccessfully“harassed”them“outofthecountry.”101TheDallas

ArabInformationCenter’sdirectorDr.Ramahi,aPalestinianwithadegreefrom

99OnDecember7,1972,CCCTWorkingGroupmemberArminH.MeyeroftheStateDepartmentwrote,“asaresultofFBIdeftaction,theringleaderofFatahintheUnitedStates,whocleverlyby-passedOperationBoulder,wasapprehendedandpersuadedtoleavetheUnitedStatesvoluntarilyonDecember6.”Itisunclearifthisclaimistrue,however,andifso,whethertheFBIlocatedthisindividualasaresultoftheDallasbreak-in.SeeDepartmentofStatememo,ArminH.MeyertoMembersoftheWorkingGroupCabinetCommitteetoCombatTerrorism,“MinutesoftheTenthMeetingoftheWorkingGroup,”December6,1972,3,NixonPresidentialMaterialsProject,WhiteHouseSpecialFiles,StaffMemberandOfficeFiles,RichardC.Tufaro,SubjectFiles,Box1,CCCTWorkingGroup[1],RichardNixonLibrary.OnAl-Jawary,seeWeiner,Enemies,320.100Weiner,Enemies,321-322.101Felt,TheFBIPyramidfromtheInside,325-326;Gray,InNixon’sWeb,114-115.

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SouthernIllinoisUniversity,didnotfleetheUnitedStates.Onthecontrary,U.S.

authoritiesdeniedhimareturnvisawhenhesoughttocomebacktoTexasafterhis

honeymoon.102Ramahi’ssuccessorattheArabInformationCenterwasDr.Munir

Bayoud,anAmericanofPalestinianheritage.BayoudinsistedthatRamahihadno

connectionstoterrorism,andthatthedocumentFBIagentsstolefromtheformer

director’sbriefcasewasnotalistofterrorists,butamailinglistcontainingnamesof

studentsandotherpeopleofArabdescentlivingintheUnitedStates.103Bayoudalso

revealedthatFBIagentsinterrogatedhimaftertheMunichmassacre,andmadehim

feelsothreatenedthathesoughtoutanattorney.104Althoughtheidentitiesandstories

oftheotherninety-twoindividualstheFBIharassedaspartofitspost-Munich

Palestinian“terrorism”investigationremainunknownoutsideoftheBureau,itisclear

thatBayoud,incontrasttoFeltandGray’sclaims,wasneitheraterroristnora

foreigner.AndalthoughFBIagentsfrightenedBayoud,theydidnotdrivehimoutofhis

homecountry.

FearsofaMunich-styleterroristattackintheUnitedStatessowedconfusion

withintheFBI.DeclassifiedFBIdocumentsindicatethatonSeptember12,1972,aweek

aftertheMunichattack,specialagentsmobilizedthroughouttheeasternUnitedStates

inresponsetoinformationfromanundeterminedsourcewarningthatBlackSeptember

militantssoughttoblowupairlinersatanEastCoastairportpriortothecloseofthe

MunichOlympics,whichOlympicofficialshadresumedafterabriefsuspensionto

102RamahiwentontotakeapositionastheUnitedArabEmirates’chargéd'affairesinLibya.Horrock,“NewSenatePanelMayStudyF.B.I.DriveonArabTerrorism.”103Horrock,“NewSenatePanelMayStudyF.B.I.DriveonArabTerrorism.”104LisaBelkin,“ForManyArab-Americans,F.B.I.ScrutinyRenewsFears,”NewYorkTimes,January12,1991.

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mournthemurderedIsraeliathletes.105FBIagentsfromBostontoSanJuanspent

approximatelyforty-eighthourswarninglocalairportsecurityagenciesofpossible

violenceandsearchingfortheoriginsoftheintelligencebeforetheNewYorkFBIoffice

determinedthattheinvestigationwas“theoutgrowthofarumorrunningrampantthe

lastseveraldaysandhasnovaliditywhatsoever.”106TheFBIdroppedtheinvestigation

andtheattacknevermaterialized.Similarly,onNovember24,1972,onehundredand

sixtyarmedFBIagentsconvergedonChicago’sO’Hareinternationalairportinresponse

toinformationthatterroristswereplanninga“Lod-style”massacre.107Thoughthe

threatprovedtobeafalsealarm,GrayconsideredtheFBI’sresponsetobe“anexcellent

fieldtestforevaluatingouremergencyproceduresfordealingwiththreatenedterrorist

attacks.”108

TheFBIcarriedoutitsoperationsunderthebeliefthattheMunichattackshad

signaledanescalationinitswarwithdomesticleftistguerrillasthatnecessitatedthe

Bureau’sfurtheradaptationtothethreatof“terrorism.”AftertheChicagoscare,Gray

conveyedhisthoughtsonthemattertoEdwardMiller:

Weareinanageofterrorism.ApotentialattackofthesortwhichoccurredatLodAirportorwhichoccurredatthetimeoftheMunichmassacrecouldhappenintheU.S.Thetacticoftheurbanguerrilla,oftenusedinLatinAmerican,Algeria,theMiddleEastandelsewhereintheworld,wasintroducedintotheU.S.about

105FBIteletype,SACBaltimoretoActingDirectorandSACNewark,“ThreatbyAllegedBlackSeptemberGrouponSeptemberTwelve,Seventy-TwotoBombJumboJetatEastCoastAirportinNextFewDays,”September13,1972,FBIBlackSeptemberFile,FBIVault.Grayfalselyclaimedinhismemoirthatevidenceofthisplotsurfaced“withindays”oftheMunichattack,thattheplotwasauthentic,andthattheFBIthwarteditusinginformationobtainedfromtheDallasbreak-in.Gray,InNixon’sWeb,111.106FBIteletype,NewYorktoActingDirector,Atlanta,Newark,andSanJuan,“ThreatbyAllegedBlackSeptemberGrouptoBombJumboJetatEastCoastAirportinNextFewDays,”September14,1972,11:45pm,FBIBlackSeptemberFile.107WilliamP.Rogers,“MemorandumforthePresident,”December27,1972,2,NixonPresidentialMaterialsProject,WhiteHouseSpecialFiles,StaffMemberandOfficeFiles,RichardC.Tufaro,SubjectFiles,Box1,CCCTWorkingGroup[1],RichardNixonLibrary.108FBIairtel,ActingDirectortoAllSACS,“ContingencyPlanforHandlingTerroristAttacks,”1/9/1973,LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045EBF212x1-Section1Serial1.

282

fiveyearsagoandwehaveseenampleevidenceofitintheformofambushedpoliceofficersandterroristbombingswhichhaveincludedtheU.S.CapitolandthePentagon.Wenowaccepttheexistenceofurbanguerrillaterrorismandthefactthattheurbanguerrilla’sphilosophyofterrorismhasmadeitnecessaryforlawenforcementtoadoptnewstandardsandadapttotheconstantthreatofterroristattack.WerecognizethatFBIpersonnelhavebeentargetedforassaultorassassination.109

GrayfurtherarguedthattheterroristthreatrequiredmajorFBIfieldofficestoacquire

cachesofbodyarmor,shotguns,gasmasks,bullhorns,andotherequipmentleftover

fromtheArmy’suseinVietnam.

ThereisalsonoevidencetosupportFeltandGray’sclaimsthatblackbagjobs

wereaneffectivetacticforpreventingguerrillaattacks.InthecaseoftheWeather

Undergroundinvestigation,blackbagjobswerenotonlyineffective,butalso

counterproductive.FeltandMillerauthorizedthefirstpost-MunichWeather

Undergroundbreak-inonOctober24,1972,targetingaleftistprintshopinEugene,

Oregonrunbysupportersoftheguerrillaorganization.FeltandMillerauthorizedsix

moreWeatherUndergroundbreak-insoverthenextsixmonths,mostoftheminthe

NewYorkmetroarea.110Noneoftheseoperations,however,uncoveredinformation

leadingtothecaptureoftheorganization’smembers.InOctober1973,withtheFBI’s

investigationstillunsuccessful,theJusticeDepartmentdroppedtheirchargesagainst

WeatherUndergroundfugitives.AccordingtoanFBImemo,theJusticeDepartmenthad

prepareditsindictmentsusingillegalsurveillanceby“anothergovernmentagency”—

probablytheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)orNationalSecurityAgency(NSA).111

109L.PatrickGray,“MemorandumtoE.S.Miller,RE:ContingencyPlansforHandlingTerroristAttacks,”undated(ca.January1973),LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045EBF212x1-Section1Serial1.110SeeMillertoFeltmemosinLPGFBI,Number1222537-0-62-118045,Section8,Serial1.111FBImemoquotedinVaron,BringingtheWarHome,296;WUR,132.TheJusticeDepartmentfiledanewconspiracyindictmentagainstWeatherUndergroundmembersonDecember7,1972,which

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GiventhattheWeatherUndergroundhadonlycarriedoutonebombingduringthepast

year,JusticeDepartmentofficialscalculatedthatbringingattentiontoillegalFBI

surveillanceactivitiesinthemidstoftheWatergateScandalwasnotworththe

additionaldamagethismightcausetothereputationofAmerica’spoliticalinstitutions.

Inadditiontoreauthorizingbreak-insafterMunich,Grayalsoreducedthescale

oftheFBI’sdomesticsurveillanceoperations.Duringthe1973fiscalyear,which

roughlycoveredtheperiodofGray’stenure,theFBIreduceditsuseofinformantsin

“extremist”investigationsbyapproximatelytwentypercent.112Muchofthisreduction

wasduetoGray’seliminationoftheFBI’s“ghettoinformant”program,whichHoover

establishedin1967inanattempttogainadvancewarningofpopularrebellionsin

AfricanAmericaninner-citycommunities.AmongFBIpersonnel,theghettoinformant

programwaswidelyregardedasafarce,inwhichfieldagentsregularlycontrived

fictitious“paperinformants”andfalseintelligenceinordertomeetFBIheadquarters’

monthlyreportdeadline.113Grayalso“drasticallyreduced”thenumberofAmericanson

theFBI’sAdministrativeIndex(ADEX),whichlistedindividuals,deemedathreatto

nationalsecurity.ThoughtheprecisenumberofindividualsontheADEXunderGray’s

droppedchargesagainsttwodefendantsfromthe1970Detroitindictment,butaddedchargesagainstfourmore.112GAO,FBIDomesticIntelligenceOperations,133-135.TheGAOreportpublishedchangesinthepercentageoftheFBI’sdomesticsecurityinvestigationsanduseofinformants,butdidnotpublishtheactualnumberoftheFBI’sinvestigations.DespiteareductioninthenumberoftheFBI’s“extremist”investigationsfromtheirpeakinFY1971,whenextremistinvestigationswere161%higherthanin1965,“extremist”investigationsinFY1973remained122%higherthanin1965.ThenumberofdomesticsecurityinformantsutilizedbytheFBIunderGray’stenurelikelyexceeded2,000andpaymentstoinformantslikelycostover$6million.AccordingtotheFBI,duringGray’stenuretheFBIincreaseditsfocusontheAmericanIndianMovement,whichcarriedoutanumberofhighprofiledisruptiveprotestsduringlate1972andearly1973,whileatthesamedecreasingitsfocusonthedisintegratingBlackPantherParty.113Ibid;FBIreport,anonymousauthor,“ChangesinOperationofIntelligenceDivisionSinceMay3,1972,”March12,1973,GrayFBIFile1222537-0-62-118045EBF212x1-Section1Serial1;AuthortelephoneinterviewwithformerFBISpecialAgentJackRyan,June2,2014.

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tenureisunavailable,hiseffortscontributedtoareductionofnamesonthelistfrom

over12,000inNovember1971to1,250inNovember1975.114

Grayreduceddomesticsurveillancepartiallyforstrategicreasons,inaneffortto

refocusBureauresourcesoncombatingrevolutionaryviolence.However,theActing

Directorwasalsorespondingtoeconomic,legal,andpoliticalrestraintsontheBureau’s

surveillancepowers.PublicscrutinyoverFBIsurveillancepracticesunleashedbythe

April1971Media,PennsylvaniaburglaryonlyintensifiedastheWatergateScandal

unfoldedinlate1972andearly1973.OnJanuary31,1973,forexample,NBCtelevision

journalistCarlSternsuedtheJusticeDepartmentandFBIundertheFreedomof

InformationActforaccesstofilesrelatedtotheCOINTELPRO-NewLeftprogram

referencedinadocumentuncoveredthroughtheMediaburglary.Overthenextthree

years,Stern’slawsuitledtothedeclassificationoftheFBI’sCOINTELPROdocuments

andmassiveinvestigationsoftheFBIandotherfederalintelligenceagenciesbythe

Senate’s“ChurchCommittee”andtheHouse’s“PikeCommittee,”which,forthefirst

time,providedtheAmericanpublicwithafullpictureoftheHooverFBI’scovert

operationsandsurveillanceofAmericandissidents.115Moreover,theFBI’smassive

Watergate,WeatherUnderground,BlackLiberationArmy,andMEDBURG

investigations,eachofwhichinvolvedinvestigatorsinthemajorityoftheFBI’s59field

offices,utilizedamassiveamountofFBIresources.Nixon’smandatethroughtheCCCT

thattheFBItakeresponsibilityforallterroristattacksintheUnitedStatesrequiredstill

moreBureauresources,asofficialsrapidlyworkedtodeveloptrainingandoperational

114GAO,“FBIDomesticIntelligenceOperations,”134;FBIReport,“ChangesinOperationofIntelligenceDivisionSinceMay3,1972.”115Medsger,TheBurglary,332-333.

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protocolsforhostagenegotiationandarmedstandoffsituations,bothofwhichrequired

coordinationwithadditionalpoliceandmilitaryagencies.116

AccordingtoGray,Nixon’sCCCTdirectiveresultedintheFBIleadingthe

government’sresponsetotheAmericanIndianMovement’sFebruary27,1973armed

seizureofWoundedKnee,SouthDakota,siteoftheU.S.Army’smassacreofmorethan

twohundredLakotaSiouxeighty-threeyearsearlier.117Lasting71daysandgarnering

internationalmediacoverage,theWoundedKneesiegepitafewhundredAmerican

IndianmilitantsfortifiedbehindsandbagsandtrenchesagainstFBIagents,U.S.

Marshals,andIndianvigilantesalliedwithDickWilson,PresidentofthePineRidge

Lakotareservation.Thousandsofbulletswerefiredinthestand-off,whichresultedin

thedeathofanFBIagent,aU.S.Marshall,andtwoIndianactivists.TheWoundedKnee

siegefurtherdamagedtheFBI’spublicreputation,aspublicopinionlargelyfavored

AIMandOglalaSiouxelders,whodemandedtheU.S.upholditsbrokentreatieswiththe

Lakota.118InoneofthemostpublicdisplaysofsupportfortheNativeAmerican

activists,actorMarlonBrandoboycottedtheMarch27,1973OscarAwards.Onlive

television,ApacheactorandactivistSacheenLittlefeatheracceptedBrando’sawardfor

BestActorinthefilmTheGodfather,andafterwardsreadtothepressafifteen-page

speechBrandohadwritteninsupportoftheIndiansatWoundedKnee.119

116“SOPForRespondingtoInternationalTerroristActsOccurringWithintheUnitedStates,”noauthorordateindicated(ca.September1972),NixonPresidentialMaterialsProject,WhiteHouseSpecialFiles,StaffMemberandOfficeFiles,RichardC.Tufaro,SubjectFiles,Box1,SecretAttachments[Folder#1],RichardNixonLibrary.117Gray,InNixon’sWeb,198,204.118PaulChaatSmithandRobertAllenWarrior,LikeaHurricane:TheIndianMovementfromAlcatraztoWoundedKnee(NewYork:NewPress,1999).ForanFBIagent’sself-publishedperspective,seeJosephH.TrimbachandJohnM.Trimbach,AmericanIndianMafia:AnFBIAgent’sTrueStoryaboutWoundedKnee,LeonardPeltier,andtheAmericanIndianMovement(OutskirtsPress,2007).119SmithandWarrior,LikeaHurricane,236.

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Meanwhile,asGrayjuggledguerrillainvestigationsandgrowingpublicscrutiny

ofFBIoperations,theWatergateScandalcontinuedtounderminehiscareerprospects.

OnJanuary8,1973,NixonagaintoldhisstaffthathedidnotwantGraytostayonasthe

FBI’spermanentDirector.“Graycan’tcutit,”hetoldHaldeman.Withinthenextthree

weeks,however,Hunt,thefiveWatergateburglars,andLiddyandMcCordalltook

guiltypleas.TheyconcealedinformationaboutNixonCabinetofficials’connectionsto

theburglaryinexchangeforhundredsofthousandsofdollarstakenfromCREEP’s

coffers,butonFebruary2JudgeJohnSiricaannouncedhisbeliefthatthefullWatergate

storyhadyettoberevealed,andfivedayslatertheSenatevotedunanimouslyto

establishabipartisancommitteetoinvestigatethescandal.RealizingthatGraywould

likelygetcalledtotestifybeforethenewSenatecommittee,Nixoncalculatedthatit

wouldbebesttomaintainGrayasFBIDirector.Thepresidentsoughttoavoidthe

appearanceofattemptingtocover-uptheWatergateinvestigation,andcalculatedthatif

GraywasgoingtotestifyaboutWatergate,itwouldbebetterforhimtodosoduringhis

confirmationhearings,asaloyalallytotheWhiteHouse,thanasanadversaryinthe

SenateWatergateinvestigation.Itwastoolate,however,forNixontoundothechainof

eventsthatFelt’sdisclosureshadtriggered.

Conclusion

Inearly1973,theFBI’swarondomesticleftistguerrillasyieldedthemostunintended

ofconsequences.AstheWatergatecover-upunraveled,theleadershipofboththe

BureauandtheNixonadministrationbegantocrumblebeneaththeweightofthe

institutionalconflictspawnedfouryearsearlierbyrevolutionaryinsurgencyagainst

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warandracism.Nixonhopedthathecoulddefendthefederalgovernment’s

prerogativetoengageinillegalsurveillancebycitingthethreatofguerrilla“terrorism.”

ThepresidentconveyedhisfeelingsonFebruary16,1973,whenheinformedGraythat

heplannedtonominatehimforthepermanentpositionofFBIDirector.

InwhatwasonlytheirsecondOvalOfficemeetingsincetheActingDirector

assumedofficeninemonthsearlier,NixonorderedGraytocitethethreatof“terrorism”

asjustificationforBureausurveillancemeasuresduringhisupcomingconfirmation

hearingsbeforetheSenateJudiciaryCommittee.NixonspecificallyorderedGrayto

asserttheFBI’sneedtoengageinwarrantlesswiretapping.“There’sthisviolentJewish

committeethatwantstokilltheArabs,andtheArabswanttokilltheJews…Hijacking

isanotherthing,”thepresidentexclaimed.“Someofthatrequireswiretapping.It’syour

responsibilitytodothis,andyourauthority.Ijustdon’tthinkthatweshouldbe

defensive…Wemustnotbedeniedtheuseoftheweapon.Theideathatwe’re

wiretappingalotofpoliticalgroupsisbullshit.”120

NixonalsodemandedthatGrayeliminatetheinformationleakshebelievedwere

comingfromwithintheFBI,specificallyfromMarkFelt.“Youhaven’tbeenabletodo

anything—orhaveyou?—abouttheleakingcomingoutoftheBureau,”thePresident

stated.“Thelinesleadverydirectlyto[Felt],”headded.121Grayinsistedthathehadthe

FBIundercontrol,andthattheleakswerecomingfromoutsidetheBureau.TheActing

DirectorstillbelievedFelt’srepeatedpersonalavowalsthathewasnotinvolvedinthe

leaks.Graycouldhardlygetawordin,however,asNixonventedhisfrustrationsover

120NixonWhiteHouseTapes,February16,1973,Tape858,ConversationNumber2;Gray,InNixon’sWeb,156.121NixonWhiteHouseTapes,February16,1973,Tape858,ConversationNumber2;Gray,InNixon’sWeb,158,163.

288

theunfoldingWatergateScandal.Ironically,amiddeepeningcrisis,thepresidentlonged

fortheleadershipofhiserstwhilefriend,J.EdgarHoover.Privately,thedeceased

formerFBIDirectorhadbeenamajorsourceoffrustrationforNixon,butHoover

alwaysmaintaineddisciplinewithintheFBI,andinpublicheneverhesitatedtosupport

thepresident’scallsforlaw-and-orderpolicinginresponsetocivildisorder,

revolutionaryviolence,andleaksofclassifiedinformation.“Thisstuffdidn’tleakwhen

Hooverwasthere,”Nixondeclared.FBIpersonnel,thepresidentinsisted,need“tofear

themanatthetop,andyou’vegottogetthatagain.”“YourememberinWorldWarII,”

hecontinued,“theGermans,iftheywentthroughatownandoneoftheirsoldierswas

hitbyasniper,they’dlineupthewholegoddamnedtownandsay,‘Untilyoutalkevery

oneofyouisgoingtobeshot.’Ireallythinkthat’swhathastobedone.Imean,Idon’t

thinkyoucanbeMr.NiceGuyoverthere.”122

Afewweekslater,however,whenitcametimeforhisconfirmationhearings,

GraydidnottowtheNixonline.Duringthehearings,whichlastedfromFebruary28to

March22,1973,membersoftheJudiciaryCommitteeandastringofexpertwitnesses

hammeredGrayonhisroleintheITT-DitaBeardcontroversyasAssistantAttorney

General,onHoover’ssecretfilesonAmericanpoliticians,onwarrantlesswiretaps,on

theFBI’ssharingofVVAWsurveillancewiththeNixonadministration,onhislong

periodsoftimespentawayfromBureauHeadquarters,andonhissharingofWatergate

investigationfileswithJohnDean.123Inthefaceofsuchscrutiny,theActingDirector

122NixonWhiteHouseTapes,February16,1973,Tape858,ConversationNumber2;Gray,InNixon’sWeb,166-167.123U.S.Senate,CommitteeontheJudiciary,HearingsontheNominationofLouisPatrickGrayIIIofConnecticuttobetheDirectoroftheFederalBureauofInvestigation,February28,March1,6,7,8,9,12,20,21,22,1973,93rdCong.,1stsess.

289

attemptedtodemonstratehisindependencefromtheNixonadministrationbysharing

withtheSenateJudiciaryCommitteetheFBI’sclassifiedfilesontheWatergate

investigation.AtthispointGrayknewthattheFBI’sinvestigationwasmovinginon

Nixon’sCabinet,buthedidnotrealizethatthepresidentandhistopadvisors,including

Ehrlichman,Haldeman,andMitchell,hadallconspiredtoobstructtheFBI.

Inadvertently,GrayhadprovidedtheCommitteewithevidencethatwouldleadtoboth

Nixon’sdownfallandhisown.

AftersiftingthroughtheFBI’sWatergateinvestigationdocuments,membersof

theJudiciaryCommitteeconcludedthatJohnDeanhadliedtotheBureaubyconcealing

thecontentsofHowardHunt’ssafe.OnMarch22,whenSenatorRobertByrdasked

GrayifDeanhadliedtotheFBI,theActingDirectorrepliedintheaffirmative.“Iwould

havetoconcludethatthatprobablyiscorrect,”Graystated.124Graydidnotmentionthe

factthathehaddestroyedclassifieddocumentsfromHunt’ssafeatDean’srequest,but

hewouldbecompelledtodososoon.Meanwhile,asGrayturnedagainsttheWhite

House,andtheJudiciaryCommitteeturnedagainsttheActingDirector,Nixondecided

toseekanewFBIchief,andwithdrewGray’snomination.125

Itwastoolate,however,foreitherNixonorGraytopreventthedemiseoftheir

careers.InearlyApril,facingafederalindictment,JohnDeanbeganconfessinghis

Watergatecrimestoagrandjury,includinghishandingofthesecretHuntdocumentsto

Gray.OnApril27,1973,GrayresignedfromhispositionasActingDirector,cryptically

citing“seriousallegationsconcerningcertainactsofmyownduringtheongoing

124Ibid,March22,1973,671.125Holland,Leak,136;Weiner,Enemies,324.

290

Watergateinvestigation.”126Threedayslater,Haldeman,Ehrlichman,andKleindienst

resignedfromtheirCabinetposts,andNixonfiredDean.Feltcontinuedtojockeyfora

positionasHoover’ssuccessor,threateningNixon’snewappointeeforActingDirector,

formerEnvironmentProtectionAgencyDirectorWilliamD.Ruckelshaus,withamutiny

ofmorethan70FBIofficials.127OnMay14,however,atNixon’surging,Ruckelshaus

accusedFeltofleakingclassifiedinformationtothepress,andforcedFelttoresign.128

ItwouldstillbeanotheryearbeforeNixon’sAugust4,1974resignation,butby

thesummerof1973,conflictbetweentheHooverFBIandNixonWhiteHousehad

alreadybroughtaboutthedownfallofbothinstitutions.Meanwhile,theprime

organizationresponsibleforpromptingtheFBI-Nixonfeud—theWeather

Underground—continuedtoeludelawenforcement.Bythispoint,theWeather

Undergroundwasfallingapartaswell.Ithadbecomeclear,withthewaningofmass

streetprotestsincethespringof1970,thattheirbombingshadfailedtoignitetheir

longed-formassrevolutionaryuprising.Facingapoliticalandexistentialcrisis,

membersofthegroupspentmoretimearguing,readingMarx,andreassessingtheir

strategythancarryingoutbombings.Despitetheirinternalfeud,theorganization

wouldmanagetoplantafewmorebombs,andpublishtheir1975book-length

manifestoPrairieFire:ThePoliticsofRevolutionaryAnti-Imperialism,beforedisbanding

in1976.129

WhattheWeatherUnderground’sguerrillasdidnotrealize,however,wasthat

theyhadhelpedignitethegreatestpoliticalscandalinUnitedStateshistory.Without

126GrayquotedinKelleyandDavis,145.127Holland,Leak,141.128Ibid,7.129Varon,BringingtheWarHome,291-298.

291

theWeatherUndergroundandotherdomesticleftistguerrillas,itisunlikelythat

institutionalconflictbetweenHoover’sFBIandtheNixonadministrationwouldhave

culminatedintheWatergateScandal.TherewouldhavebeennoHustonPlan;nomass

expansionofdomesticsurveillancein1970;noMedia,Pennsylvaniaburglary,no

COINTELPROcontroversy;norevivalofblackbagjobs.PerhapsHooverwouldhavestill

refusedtogoafterDanielEllsberg,andNixon’sCabinetwouldhavestillformedthe

Plumbers.Butwithoutthebitternessengenderedbyinstitutionalconflictover

“revolutionaryterrorism,”itisunlikelythatMarkFeltwouldhavetakenonhisDeep

ThroatoperationsandexposedNixon’sWatergatecover-uptotheworld.TheWeather

Underground’sbombingshadfailedtosparkasocialistrevolutionoroverthrowthe

state.Butinadvertentlyandindirectly,theyhadtakendownanAmericanpresidentand

irreparablytarnishedthelegacyofJ.EdgarHoover’sFBI.

292

EPILOGUE

THEPOLITICSOFTERRORISM

U.S.officialsdidnotalwaysrefertoinsurgentviolenceas“terrorism.”FBIdocuments

fromthelate1960sandearly1970salsodescribedleftistviolenceastheworkof

“militants,”“extremists,”“radicals,”“revolutionaries,”“guerrillas,”or“anarchists.”Over

thecourseoftheFBI’swarwithdomesticleftistguerrillas,however,authoritiesframed

guerrillaviolenceas“terrorism”withgrowingfrequency.Reflectingonhisexperiences

investigatingtheWeatherUndergroundandotherleftistguerrillagroupsfrom1969

throughthe1980s,FBISpecialAgentWilliamE.Dyson,Jr.recalledthischange.The

“peoplewho[were]doingthesebombingsoncampuses,theseanti-VietnamWar

people,peoplethat[were]tryingtooverthrowourGovernmentandgetridofthe

Capitalistsystem,”Dysonrecollected,were“called,well,militants…revolutionaries,

radicals,Commies,Pinkos,weirdos,beatniks…Imeanthere’sallsortsofterms.”1Itwas

notuntil“theearly1970s,”heexplained,that“thewordterrorismcreepsintoour

vocabulary.”Indeed,Dysonreflectedthathewas“workingterrorismbeforeterrorism

[was]acceptedasatermforthisformofviolence.”2

Declassifiedstatedocumentstraceauthorities’increasinguseoftheterm

“terrorism”duringthelate1960sandearly1970s.InSeptember1968DirectorJ.Edgar

HooversentasecretmemotopoliceagenciesaroundthecountrywarningthatNew

Left“militantextremists”plannedto“launchawidespreadattackoneducational

institutions”duringthecomingautumn.“Itwouldbefoolhardy,”hecautioned,“for1Dysonoralhistory,33.2Ibid,33-34.

293

educators,publicofficials,andlawenforcementofficerstoignoreordismisslightlythe

revolutionaryterrorisminvadingcollegecampuses.”3Hooverusedsimilarlanguagein

October1969,whenheinformedhisagentsthatSDS’sWeathermanfaction“wasgoing

undergroundandformingcommando-typeunitswhichwillengageinterroristicacts,

includingbombings,arsonsandassassinations.”4FBIandWhiteHouseofficialsutilized

thetermtodescribeleftistviolencewithincreasingfrequencyaftertheWeather

Underground’sdeadlyMarch6,1970GreenwichVillagetownhouseexplosion,which

precipitatedtheHustonPlan,theUnitedStatesfirstproposedfederalinstitution

explicitlydedicatedtocombating“terrorism.”

Whatwerethereasonsforthisshiftinterminology?DidIsraeliandEuropean

officials’increasinguseoftheterm“terrorism”todescribePalestiniannationalist

militants’hijackingofinternationalpassengerjetsinfluenceFBIandWhiteHouse

officials?5WhataboutSouthAfrican,SouthAmerican,andSouthVietnamese

authorities’useofthetermtocharacterizedomesticleft-wingguerrillainsurgencies?

Moreresearchisneededtodeterminetheanswers,butitisclearthatBlack

September’sbloodyattackattheSeptember1972MunichGameswasacriticalturning

point,afterwhichPresidentRichardNixonformedtheCabinetCommitteetoCombat

Terrorism(CCCT),theUnitedNationsheldaseriesofhearingson“terrorism,”andstate

3FBIbulletin,“MessagetofromtheDirector:ToAllLawEnforcementOfficials,”September1,1968,FBIVault,COINTELPRO-NewLeft,BostonFile.Hooverprovidednoevidenceinhisbulletintocorroboratetheseclaims.4FBIairtel,DirectortoSACAlbany,October23,1969,FBIWUO,Roll6,Section,57.5ThePopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestinecarriedoutitsfirsthijackingofaninternationalcommercialairlineronJuly22,1968,targetinganIsraeliElAlflightfromTelAvivtoRome.TerroristexpertBruceHoffmanarguedthatthisincidentmarked“theadventofwhatisconsideredmodern,internationalterrorism.”BruceHoffman,InsideTerrorism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2006),63.

294

officialsintheU.S.andthroughouttheglobeformedtheworld’sfirstinternational

treaties,laws,andprotocolsdedicatedtocombatingthisnewlyconstitutedproblem.6

FourmonthsaftertheMunichattacksandNixon’sfoundingoftheCCCT,FBI

ActingDirectorL.PatrickGraypubliclyconveyedhisimpressionsontheBureau’s

responsibilitiesinthefightagainstterrorism.Grayaddressedanaudienceofpoliceand

intelligenceagentsonJanuary16,1973,ataNationalSymposiumonTerrorismheldat

theFBIAcademyinQuantico,Virginia.“Theterrorist,”theActingDirectorproclaimed,

“isanoutlaw,awildanimal,ajunglekiller!”“Howtheterroristgotthatwayisnot

important,”hecontinued,“We’renotinterestedinthepsychological,philosophical,

sociologicalfactorsontheterroristscene.”Thepriorityoflawenforcement,Gray

asserted,wasnottounderstand“terrorists”andtheirmotives,buttoforciblyprevent

themfromkilling“innocents.”7

FBIDirectorClarenceM.Kelleymadesimilarpubliccommentsaboutterrorists

threemonthsaftertakinghispositionasJ.EdgarHoover’sfirstpermanentsuccessor.

SworninonJuly9,1973,KelleytookthereignsoftheBureauamidswirling

controversiesoverWatergate,FBIcivillibertiesviolations,andanewwaveofleftist

guerrillaviolenceledbyCalifornia’seccentricSymbioneseLiberationArmy(SLA),a

mix-genderedclandestineguerrillaorganizationcomprisedofwhiteVietnamveterans

andformerstudentactivistsandledbyescapedradicalblackconvictDonald“Cinque”

DeFreeze.TheSLAburstintoAmericanconsciousnessinearly1974afterassassinating

6Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,21-48;Naftali,BlindSpot,54-77;BernhardBlumenau,TheUnitedNationsandTerrorism:Germany,Multilateralism,andAntiterrorismEffortsinthe1970s(Basingtoke:PalgraveMacmillan,2014).7L.PatrickGray,AddressbeforetheNationalSymposiumonTerrorism,FBIAcademy,Quantico,Virginia,January16,1976,4,LPGFBI,1222537-0-62-118045EBF212x1.

295

AfricanAmericanOaklandSchoolSuperintendentMarcusFosterandkidnappingthe

youngwhitenewspaperheiressPattyHearst,whoinabizarreturnofevents,

denouncedherwealthyparentsas“pigs”inatape-recordedcommuniquéandjoined

thegroupinaseriesofhigh-profilearmedbankrobberies.Duringthelastfourmonths

ofNixon’spresidency,newsoftheSLAandtheFBI’snationwidesearchforPattyHearst

competedwithWatergatefornationalheadlines.8Speakingbeforeagroupofmilitary

veteransonNovember11,1974,DirectorKelleyassertedthatleftistguerrilla

“terrorists”actednotinresponsetounderstandablepoliticalgrievances,butbecauseof

theirirrational“hatred.”“Urbanterrorists,”hedeclared,“shareacommon

denominator—thatis,hatredofAmerica,freegovernmentandotherconstitutional

liberties.”9Inanotherspeech,KelleyupheldtheFBI’sprerogativetoengagein

“anticipatory”intelligenceoperationsinorderdefendsocietyfroma“malignantcancer”

of“terrorismandextremism”practicedintheU.S.by“guerrilla-typegroups.”10“The

FBI,”Kelleyinsisted,“simplycannotwaituntiltheterroristorextremist—theindividual

whoseallegianceistoviolence—strikesbeforeweact.”11

GrayandKelley’scommentsspeaktothegreatestlegacyoftheFBI’swarwith

domesticleftistguerrillas:intelligenceofficials’framingof“terrorism”asaproblemthat

wasnottobeunderstoodbutfought,specifically,through“preventative”surveillance,

covertoperations,policeraids,andhigh-securityincarceration.LisaStampnitzkyhas

describedthetypeofframeworkGrayandKelleyusedtodiscussterrorismasa“politics8WilliamGraebner,Patty’sGotaGun:PatriciaHearstin1970sAmerica(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008),1.9KelleyquotedinHartfordCourant,“TerroristsCalledThreat,”November12,1974.10ClarenceM.Kelley,“TheFBI’sRoleinProtectingAmerica,”addressattheUniversityofKansas,Lawrence,Kansas,March29,1974,4,inClarenceM.KelleyFBIDirector’sFile,FreedomofInformationActdisclosure,section9,disk1.11Ibid,5.

296

ofanti-knowledge.”12PortendinghowPresidentGeorgeW.BushandotherU.S.political

leaderswoulddiscussterrorismaftertheattacksofSeptember11,2001,Grayand

Kelleyengagedin“activerefusalofexplanationitself,”removingconsiderationof

attackers’motives“fromtherealmofpoliticaldebate.”13GrayandKelley’s“politicsof

anti-knowledge”drewuponHoover’ssimilar,earliercharacterizationofCommunistsas

“deranged”andurbanriotersassenseless“criminals”;fromNixon’sattemptstostamp

outsocialconflictthrough“lawandorder”policingratherthanthroughstateinitiatives

toeliminateracism,militarism,andeconomicexploitation;andfromearlyFBIofficials’

effortsduringtheearly1970stocounterleftistguerrillasthrough“preventative”

surveillanceoperations.

Despitetheongoingproblemofguerrillaviolence,publicconcernsover

governmentabuseofauthorityandviolationofAmericans’civillibertiesprevailedin

the1970soverfearsofterrorism.ToamajorityofAmericans,thecrimesofWatergate

overshadowedtheemergenceofnewdomesticleftistguerrillagroupssuchastheNew

York-basedPuertoRicannationalistFuerzasArmadasdeLiberaciónNacional(FALN),

theBayArea’sNewWorldLiberationFront(NWLF),Seattle’sGeorgeJacksonBrigade,

andNewEngland’sSamMelville-JonathanJacksonUnit,aswellasPalestinianmilitants’

continuedinternationalbombings,kidnappings,andhijackings.SomeU.S.political

leaderssoughttoemphasizethethreat“terrorism”posedtoU.S.nationalsecurity.

FormersegregationistandlogtimeanticommunistSenatorStromThurmond(R,SC),for

example,presidedovermorethanadozenhearingson“terroristicactivity”and

politicalviolencefrom1974to1976aschairoftheSenateJudiciaryCommittee’s12Stampnitzky,DiscipliningTerror,18713Ibid,187-188.

297

InternalSecuritySubcommittee.Gatheringtestimoniesfrompolice,intelligence

officials,andacademicexperts,ThurmondrevivedtheInternalSecuritySubcommittee,

aninstitutionliberalstypicallydismissedasarelicoftheMcCarthy-era,toinvestigate

groupssuchastheWeatherUnderground,theSLA,andtheFALN.14WhileThurmond’s

effortshadlittleinfluenceonfederalpolicy,investigationsoffederalintelligence

agenciesconductedbytheChurchCommitteeandothergovernmentbodiesledto

substantialnewlimitsonthestate’ssurveillancepowers.TheForeignIntelligence

SurveillanceActof1978,forexample,establishedaspecialcourttooverseenewlimits

onCIAandNSAinternationalsurveillance,andin1976,AttorneyGeneralEdwardLevi

issuednewguidelinesforFBIdomesticsecurityinvestigationsthatrequiredtheBureau

tobaseinvestigationsofAmericancitizenson“specificandarticulablefactsgiving

reasontobelievethatanindividualorgroupisormaybeengagedinactivitieswhich

involveorwillinvolvetheuseofforceorviolenceandwhichinvolveorwillinvolvethe

violationoffederallaw.”15

America’sprevailingviewsonterrorismchangeddramatically,however,

followingthe1980electionofPresidentRonaldReagan.Duringthe1980s,notionsof

stateoverreachandrepressiondidnotangerAmericansnearlyasmuchasconcerns

thatthefederalgovernmentwasfailingtoprotectthemfromterrorism.Reagancameto

powerafterCarter’spresidencybecameboggeddowninthe444-day-longIranian

hostagecrisis,inwhichagroupofIranianstudentrevolutionariesstormedtheU.S.

embassyinTehranandheld90peoplecaptive;thenightlyABCtelevisionnews

14SenateInternalSecuritySubcommittee,HearingsonTerroristicActivity,Parts1-9,September1974-September1976,93rdCong.,2ndSess.-95thCong.2ndSess.15Theoharis,TheFBIandAmericanDemocracy,146,158.

298

program“AmericaHeldHostage”servedasanightlyreminderoftheCarter

administration’sinabilitytoresolvetheconflict.Inwhatsomehavesuspectedwasthe

resultofasecretdealbetweentheincomingReaganadministrationandtheIranian

revolutionaries,theAmericanhostagesinTehrangainedtheirfreedomonJanuary20,

1981,thedayofthenewPresident’sinauguration.16AweeklaterReaganproclaimed:

Lettheterroristsbewarethatwhentherulesofinternationalbehaviorareviolated,ourpolicywillbeoneofswiftandeffectiveretribution.Wehearitsaidthatweliveinaneraoflimitstoourpowers.Well,letitalsobeunderstood,therearelimitstoourpatience.17

Theconservative“Reaganrevolution”wasadvantageousforStromThurmond

andotherswhosoughttoreviveU.S.intelligenceagencies’“preventative”intelligence

capacitiesinthenameoffightingterrorism.ReaganappointedThurmondtotakefellow

ex-segregationistSenatorJamesO.Eastland’slong-heldpositionaschairoftheSenate

JudiciaryCommittee.Inthiscapacity,ThurmondestablishedthenewSubcommitteeon

TerrorismandSecurity.FreshmanSouthernconservativesdominatedthenew

Subcommittee,includingchairmanSenatorJeremiahDenton(R,AL),andJohnP.East

(R,NC).AninfluentialmemberofEast’sstaffnamedSamuelT.Francishadpublisheda

reportonU.S.intelligenceagenciesinMandateforLeadership,the1,093-page

publicationoftheconservativeHeritageFoundationthink-tankthatbecametheReagan

administration’spolicyBible.18

16DavidFarber,TakenHostage:TheIranHostageCrisisandAmerica’sFirstEncounterwithRadicalIslam(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2005).17ReaganquotedinDavidC.Wills,TheFirstWaronTerrorism:Counter-TerrorismPolicyDuringtheReaganEra(Landham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,2003),1.18SamuelT.Francis,“TheIntelligenceCommunity,”inMandateforLeadership:PolicyManagementinaConservativeAdministration,editedbyCharlesL.Heatherly(Washington:HeritageFoundation,1981),903-953.

299

SeekingfederalsurveillancecapabilitiessimilartothoseoutlinedintheHuston

Plan,FranciscalledinhisreportforanoverhaulofAttorneyGeneralLevi’sDomestic

SecurityGuidelines;greatercooperationbetweenintelligenceagenciesandlocalpolice

departments;reinstitutionoftheMcCarthy-eraAttorneyGeneral’sListofSubversive

Organizations;FBIexemptionfromtheFreedomofInformationAct;andarevivalof

break-ins,mail-covers,andwarrantlesswiretapping.Arguingthatintelligenceagencies

neededtodetectterroristplotsinadvance,Francisasserted,“authoritiesmustkeep

extremistmovementunderatleastmoderatesurveillance,becomefamiliarwiththe

publicpositionsandmembersaswellastheirunstatedgoals,adherents,andfringe

elements,andbepreparedtoescalatesurveillanceofwhatevergroupsseemlikelyto

engageinmoreextremeactivities.”19FromFebruary1982toMarch1983,Francis

playedakeyroleinfilingreportsanddraftingpolicyrecommendationsfortheInternal

SecuritySubcommittee’shearingsontheAttorneyGeneralDomesticSecurity

GuidelinesandinshapingAttorneyGeneralWilliamFrenchSmith’snewGuidelinesfor

DomesticSecurity/Terrorism.20ThenewSmithGuidelineslimitedJusticeDepartment

oversightoverFBIoperationsandremovedtherequirementthatBureauobtain

evidenceofillegalactivitybeforeopeninganinvestigation,empoweringagentsto

“anticipateorpreventcrime”byinitiatingsurveillancewhenever“factsof

circumstancesreasonablyindicatethattwoormorepersonsareengagedinnan

19Ibid,940.20SenateSubcommitteeonSecurityandTerrorism,HearingonAttorneyGeneral’sGuidelinesforDomesticSecurityInvestigations(SmithGuidelines),98thCong.1stsess.,March25,1983.

300

enterprise[tofurther]politicalorsocialgoalswhollyorinpartthroughactivitiesthat

involveforceorviolence.”21

AdeadlyleftistguerrillaattackcarriedoutbyremnantsoftheWeather

UndergroundandBlackLiberationArmyhelpcreatethepoliticalclimatenecessaryfor

theSmithGuidelines’expansionofFBIsurveillancepowers.TheRevolutionaryArmed

TaskForce’sbotchedOctober20,1981robberyofanarmoredBrinkstruckinNyack,

NewYorklefttwosecurityguardsdead,andledtothearrestsofseveralguerrillas,

includingformerWeatherUndergroundmembersKathyBoudinandDavidGilbertand

BLAmembersSekouOdinga,KuwasiBalagoon,andMutuluShakur.22TheNyack

robberyandaseriesofotherattacksbyleftistguerrillasalsopromptedtheformationof

theUnitedStatesfirstFBI-ledinteragencyJointTerrorismTaskForces(JTTF),formed

inNewYork,Chicago,andBostonfrom1980to1983.23

DespitedefeatingtheLeviGuidelines,manyconservativescontinuedtobemoan

post-ChurchCommitteeintelligencereforms,especiallyaftertheFBIfailedtoprevent

theattacksofSeptember11,2001(9/11),whenmembersoftheIslamicfundamentalist

al-QaidaorganizationflewhijackedairlinersintothePentagonandNewYorkCity’s

WorldTradeCenterskyscrapers,killing2,973people.Thedayafter9/11,former

SecretaryofStateJamesBaker(whoservedintheCabinetsofPresidentsReaganand

GeorgeH.W.Bush)claimedinatelevisionnewsinterviewthattheChurchCommittee

hearingshadcausedtheUnitedStatesto“unilaterallydisarmintermsofour

21Theoharis,TheFBIandAmericanDemocracy,163.22SenateSubcommitteeonSecurityandTerrorism,HearingonAttorneyGeneral’sGuidelinesforDomesticSecurityInvestigations,4;GildaZwerman,“DomesticCounterterrorism:USGovernmentResponsestoPoliticalViolenceontheLeftintheReaganEra,”SocialJusticeVol.16,No.2(1989),44-45.23Dysonoralhistoryinterview,66;RichardConnolly,“TaskForcehadRoleinHaltingHoldup,”BostonGlobe,May20,1984.

301

intelligencecapabilities.”24SpeakingonFoxNews’rightwingtalkshowO’ReillyFactor,

spynovelistTomClancycharged,“TheCIAwasguttedbypeopleonthepoliticalleft

whodon’tlikeintelligenceoperations…Andasaresultofthat,asanindirectresultof

that,we’velost5,000citizensthisweek.”25FBIDirectorMuelleraffirmed,“Weneeda

differentapproachthatputspreventionaboveallelse.”FBIHeadquarters,heasserted,

neededthe“capabilitytoanticipateattacks.”26

Withinsevenweeksof9/11,PresidentGeorgeW.BushsignedtheUSAPATRIOT

Act,thegreatestexpansionof“preventative”surveillancepowerssincetheHustonPlan.

UnderthePATRIOTAct,U.S.intelligenceagenciesseekingtoprevent“terrorism”could

engageinwarrantlesswiretapsandcomputersearches;enterhomeswithoutwarrants;

seizelibrary,internet,andbusinessrecords;anddetainresidentalienswithoutcharges

forsevendaystosixweeks.ThenewrulesalsoempoweredFBIagentstorecruit

informantsandconductothersurveillancewithoutapprovalfromBureau

headquarters.27Moreover,afterSeptember11,2001,theFBIexpandeditsnumberof

JTTFs—institutionsinitiallyformedtocombatdomesticclandestineleftistguerrillas—

fromthirty-fivetooveronehundred,includingoneineveryoneofitsfifty-sixfield

offices.28

FederalagentsbegantocarryoutpreemptivearrestsevenbeforetheBush’s

signingoftheUSAPATRIOTAct,however.Intheweeksfollowing9/11,authorities

24BakerquotedinRussellA.Miller,ed.,U.S.NationalSecurity,Intelligence,andDemocracy:FromtheChurchCommitteetotheWaronTerror(NewYork:Routledge,2008),2.25Clancyquotedinibid.AtthetimeClancymadethisquote,policehadoverestimatedthenumberofcasualtiesat5,000.26MuellerquotedinTheoharis,TheFBIandAmericanDemocracy,159.27Ibid,158-159.28FBIwebsite,JointTerrorismTaskForcespage,http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/terrorism/terrorism_jttfs.

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roundedupanddetainedover1,000immigrants,mostlyofMiddleEasterndescent,and

transferredanunknownnumberofArab,Arab-American,andMuslimfederalprisoners

tosegregationunits,wheretheywereheldinsolitaryconfinement.Immediately

followingthe9/11attacks,federalprisonauthoritiesalsotransferredseveral

incarceratedformerleftistguerrillasintosolitaryconfinement,includingRichard

Williams,TomManning,andRaymondLucLevasseuroftheUnitedFreedomFront;

AntonioCamanchoNegrónandCarlosTorresoftheFALN;SundiataAcolioftheBlack

LiberationArmy;andwhiteBLAsupporterMarilynBuck.29Thedocumentsthat

orderedthisround-upofincarcerateddissidentsremainclassified,buttheyappearto

havecomefromtheofficeofAttorneyGeneralJohnAshcroft,whoonOctober26,2001

signednewfederalrulesauthorizing“specialadministrativemeasureswithrespectto

specifiedinmates.”OutlinedinadocumentpublishedintheFederalRegisterentitled,

“NationalSecurity:PreventionofActsofViolenceandTerrorism,”therulesenablethe

DepartmentofJusticetoholdprisonersdeemeda“threattonationalsecurity”

incommunicadoforuptoayearanddenythemtherighttoattorney-clientprivilege.30

29PeaceactivistPhilBerriganalsoenduredsuchtreatment,asdidYuKikumura,aprisoneraccusedofmembershipintheJapaneseRedArmy.Anne-MarieCusac,“You’reintheHole:ACrackdownonDissidentPrisoners,”TheProgressive,December2001,andNoraK.Wallace,“InmateQuestionsPost-Sept.11Treatment:RichardWilliams,atLompocfor10Years,hasbeenSegregatedsinceAttacks,”SantaBarbaraNews-Press,July1,2002,reprintedinInterfaithPrisonersofConscienceProject(IPCP),TheyNeverCrushedhisSpirit:ATributetoRichardWilliams(Montreal:Kersplebedeb,2006),48-56,57-59;J.SoffiyahElijah,“PoliticalPrisonersand9/11:TheRealityofPoliticalPrisonersintheUnitedStates:WhatSeptember11TaughtUsAboutDefendingThem,”originallypublishedinHarvardBlackLetterLawJournal18(2002),reprintedinLetFreedomRing:ACollectionofDocumentsfromtheMovementstoFreeU.S.PoliticalPrisoners,editedbyMattMeyer(Oakland:PMPress,2008),675.30PrisonsBureau,“NationalSecurity:PreventionofActsofViolenceandTerrorism,”FederalRegister:TheDailyJournaloftheUnitedStatesGovernment,66FR55062(WashingtonD.C.,October31,2001),https://federalregister.gov/a/01-27472.TheseruleswerelastupdatedinSeptember2004,andremaininplacetoday.Theyhavebeenassailedbyanumberoflegalrightsorganizations,includingtheNationalLawyersGuild,theCenterforConstitutionalRights,andAmnestyInternational.SeeCusacinIPCP,50-51.

303

Intheireffortstoprevent“terrorism”throughsurveillanceandpolicing,theFBI

andNixonadministrationestablishedalegacyasequallyprofoundasWatergate,the

ChurchCommitteereports,andthesubsequentpopulardisillusionmentthatPresident

JimmyCarterfamouslyidentifiedasanational“crisisofconfidence”inAmerican

politicalinstitutions.31BywagingAmerica’sfirstwaron“terrorism,”NixonandtheFBI

puttheUnitedStatesonapathtowardspermanentwar.Despiteshort-lived

surveillancereformsinstitutedaftertheChurchCommitteehearings,U.S.officials

employedmasssurveillance,covertoperations,policeraids,incarceration,andmilitary

interventioninthenameoffighting“terrorism”athomeandthroughouttheglobe

throughoutthe1980sand1990s.Suchactivityincreasedexponentiallyafter9/11,

whichledtowarsinAfghanistanandIraq;covertoperationsanddronewarsin

Pakistan,Yemen,Somalia,Libya,andSyria;theU.S.prisonfor“terrorists”at

GuantanamoBay,Cuba;CIAwater-boarding;theNSA’sexpansivebulkelectronicdata

collectionprograms;andnumerousFBIarrestsofallegedMuslimandanarchist

“terrorists”thatseemtobeexamplesofentrapmentratherthanpreemptionof

authenticterroristsplots.32

InkeepingwithaprecedentestablishedduringtheNixonadministration,

Americanwarsonterrorism—foughttopreemptinsurgentviolencecarriedoutin

responsetoU.S.stateviolence—haveprovedlargelyineffective,ifnot

counterproductive.Sure,policeraids,militaryoperations,anddronestrikeshave31CarterquotedinWilliamGraebner,“America’sPoseidonAdventure:ANationinExistentialDespair,”inAmericainthe1970s,editedbyBethBaileyandDavidFarber(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2004),157.32HumanRightsWatch,“U.S.:TerrorismProsecutionsOftenanIllusion:Investigations,TrialsofAmericanMuslimsRifewithAbuse,”HumanRightsWatchwebsite,July21,2014,https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/07/21/us-terrorism-prosecutions-often-illusion(accessedJune1,2016).

304

occasionallyresultedinthecaptureorextrajudicialexecutionofkeyterrorists.ButU.S.

military,police,andintelligenceagencies’involvementincountlessciviliandeaths,

arrests,detainments,andtorturesessions,alongwiththedestabilizationofIraqandthe

greaterMiddleEast,havealsoinspirednew“terrorist”organizations.Witnesstherise

oftheIslamicStateinIraq,Syria,andLibya.AreAmerica’slatest“terrorist”enemies,to

borrowL.PatrickGray’sterminology,“wildanimals”and“junglekillers”whosemotives

arebeyondcomprehension?OraretheIslamicState’sterrifyinginsurgents,withallof

theirhorriblemurderanddestruction,productsofunderstandablehistorical

circumstances?Untilenoughofusgainthecouragetoanswerthelatterquestioninthe

affirmative,andfindcreativewaystoovercometheconditionsofstateviolenceand

globalinequalitythatfosterviolentinsurgency,self-perpetuatingwarsonterrorism

willremainapermanentfixtureinU.S.andinternationalpolitics.

305

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VideoRecordings

1971.DirectedbyJohannaHamilton.MaximumPicturesandForkFilms,2014.

EyesonthePrize,America’sCivilRightsMovement1954-1985.DirectedbyHenryHampton.FilmsMediaGroup,1994

FreeAngelaDavisandAllPoliticalPrisoners.DirectedbySholaLynch.CodeblackFilms/Lionsgate,2013.

OneDayinSeptember.DirectedbyKevinMcDonald.PassionPictures,1999.

WhyWeFight.DirectedbyEugeneJarecki.SonyPicturesClassics,2006