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Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2599956
The effects of culture on expatriates’ perceived image of the tourism
destination
Rachdi Amina
Researcher, PhD Student
University of Lille 1, Lille - France
Asma Baazaoui
Researcher, PhD Student
ISG; Tunis - Tunis
Tarek Abdellatif
Academic Member of ECGI
"The European Corporate Governance Institute"
Consultant, Expert in Marketing Strategy
A. 2.W. M, Vanves; France
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2599956
The effects of culture on expatriates’ perceived image of the tourism
destination
Abstract:
The opening of borders and the globalization have facilitated the transition of expatriate
employees in the tourism field. The appearance of this phenomenon has spawned several
consequences such as changing the level of perceived service quality; it has influenced also
the perceived image of the tourist destination. Since the choice of destination is large, this
needs more focus on factors that can influence it. The objective of this paper is to propose an
appropriate model, presenting the effects of culture expatriates on the choice of the
destination. Based on a quantitative survey of 400 Internet users; our results show that the
culture of expatriates influences the destination’s perceived image.
Keywords: expatriate, culture, perceived image, destination, tourism
1
Introduction:
Over the past few years, increasing attention has been paid to the management and marketing
of tourism and recreation, which have been widely recognized as being very important sectors
of the service economy (Hu et al, 2009).
With the globalization and the growth of the tourism sector, the phenomenon of expatriation
has become a reality that we cannot ignore. According to Wolton, globalization has
experienced three stages which begin with the creation of the United Nations; an international
order on the basis of respect of nations, cultures and religions. A second revolution has then
started with the Thirty Glorious Years and has concerned mainly the economy with the
opening of borders in order to extend to the whole world; the market economy and the model
of free trade. The third globalization is not only political or economic, but also cultural. The
latter concerns the cultural cohabitation on a global scale. In fact, the adaptation of the expatriate employee to his new environment is not quite simple.
The translation from one culture to another has some consequences on the host country. L.
Miao et al. (2011) have pointed out that the host environment is strongly influenced by the
expatriate executives in terms of values and beliefs ... As well, the culture of the expatriate
employee, his own expenditure as well as his principles and traditions, influence in one way
or another his behavior at work, this could have the impact, subsequently, on the perceived
quality of service. The culture seems to affect the behavior of the tourist, his orientations and
future choices. Although the field of the intercultural and its impact on the behavior of the
tourist and on the perceptions of benefits of service constitutes a field of interest which is
relatively new, it presents a huge potential when it comes to develop ideas in tourist services.
(Zhang and al,2008).
The researchers, governments, as well as the men of politics are interested in the degree of
influence of the expatriate employees’ culture on a country in the field of to the tourism and
more exactly in relation with the perceived image of the destination.
Indeed, a clarification is necessary to check if the culture of expatriates has an impact on the
perceived image of the destination. This problem leads us to ask the following central
question of the search: Does the culture of expatriate employees influence the perceived
quality of the destination?
To answer this question, we must first go through the following subsequent questions:
• Does the culture of expatriates influence the perceived quality of the accommodation
in a tourist destination? Does the culture have an impact on the perceived quality of
benefits in a tourist destination?
• In a tourist destination, what is the importance of the expatriate involvement?
• Does the perceived quality of the provision of tourist services have an impact on the
perceived image of the destination?
Our research will focus on the degree of influence of the culture of the expatriate employee
working in the tourism sector on the perceived quality of the tourist destination. There are
many researches in marketing tourism that have examined the role of the employee’s behavior
on the perceived quality of service of the tourist destination. However, what differentiates our
research in relation to the previous ones is the investigation in the field of expatriate as well as
the specific study of the expatriate employee and the influence of his culture on his behavior.
Moreover, this study deals also with the perceived service quality. The present study will be
limited to the role of the culture of the expatriate employee on the determination of the
perceived quality of the tourist destination. This relation will be examined through an
exploratory factor analysis.
2
1. Review of the literature and state of the art:
1.1 The expatriation:
Due to globalization and the opening of the international trade, several researchers have
defined the expatriation according to their themes of investigation in different ways. An
expatriate can be defined as a person who has been temporarily or permanently transferred (
has moved) to another country with a different culture. The origin of the word comes from the
Latin word ex, which means on, and Patria, which means country" (Zelda Pieters, 2009)
expatriation has become more and more a reference to the status juridico social of a certain
category of individuals working abroad and taking advantages from some of taxe’s benefits
and salary.
1.1.2 The culture
Culture is like an iceberg, architecture, fashion and language ... it makes up the visible part of
phenomena. Moreover, we have to dig deeper to discover its court; values, style of
communication, perception of time or even its managerial practices. "It is important to try to
decode the culture, including the hidden part ", Laure Marcus, 2010.
Working in a multicultural environment is not a simple task, we asked the employee to accept
and to respect the cultures of others, and try to find common points that facilitate
their meeting, so that they can work together.
Symington (1983) advanced that culture is "a complex whole, which includes the knowledge,
beliefs, art, morals, customs, as well as all the skills and habits that a human being acquires as
a member of a company". For Barnouw (1963), it is "the way of life of a group of
individuals, the combination of all the models more or less stereotypes of learned behavior,
that each generation transmits at the next by means of language and the imitation" (Barnouw,
1963).
1.1.3 The Cultural difference:
An internal study conducted by Siebel System has indicated that all company acquisitions that
have failed are related to cultural conflicts.
Similarly, after the creation of Daimler Chrysler ( 1998), cultural differences between the
enterprise of American origin (Chrysler) and the company of German origin ( Daimler-Benz
) have created misunderstandings in labor relations. This leads us to generating conflicts
concerning the systems of compensation, the process of decision-making (at the level of
senior executives), the dress code as well as the work schedule (at the level of employees
located on hierarchical levels lowest).
Indeed, cultural elements influence the daily behaviors at work and alter interactions within
the company by calling into question the universalism perceived and assumed in management
practices.
1.1.4 The ignorance of cultural diversity:
Several research projects have studied the relationship between the difference of culture and
the cultural conflicts (A. J. Marsella, 2005; Bercovitch J,1996 ; Fry, D. , & Bjorkqvist,
K,1997). Moreover, the neglect of cultural diversity can lead to the failure of various
projects. However, this failure continues to exist, for various reasons which may include the
fact that the management does not have the necessary skills to recognize the cultural
diversity,who recognized this diversity, but it lacks the expertise for its management.
Accordingly, the recognition of cultural diversity can produce more serious problems than its
omission. The expected recognizing profits of cultural diversity do not justify the estimated
3
costs. The nature of the work does not offer the opportunity to obtain the benefits of the
exercise of the cultural diversity.
2. The cultural shock:
The anthropologist Oberg (1960) is known to be the pioneer to deal with the concept of
"cultural shock" and to introduce this expression, which become subsequently adopted in the
literature. This founding father presented the concept as the result of an anxiety coming out
from an individual who faced a foreign context which is different to his one. It can be
explained by the the resulted of losing his familiar signs and his social symbols. Indeed, these
signs may be words, gestures or facial expressions, expressed by individuals to identify and
check back signals which facilitate the movement of these later and which could contribute to
the appropriation of the popular space. (Grunlan and Mayers, 1998 ; Srivastava, 2005)
In sociology, the cultural shock is defined as the experienced situation that led us to refocus
on a new way of thought and behavior (ferrate, 2013). In fact, the behavioral and cultural
differences between the visited country and the country of origin such as the spoken language,
the food and the ways of management, the concept of personal space produced a stress which
is the main origin of the cultural shock.
2.2.1 The strategy of acculturation:
Camilleri has dedicated a large part of his work in the description of the psychological factors
which influence individuals in situation of acculturation (Camilleri&et al. , 1990). The threats
to individual identity are of two types: "offenses against the self-attribution of value" in
asymmetrical social relations challenge the self-image of demeaning; "offenses against the
unity of meaning" change the representations prescribed values and behaviors.When the
transposition in the social reception of codes is derived from an immigrant culture, this leads
to the inadequacy in rendering them inoperative. Individuals will be adapted by focusing on
either the "simple coherence ", or the "complex coherence ", or either by having recourse to a
strategy of moderation or code conflicts.
The purpose of these strategies is to moderate the internal conflicts on the subject. The
strategies of acculturation by the simple coherence are reflected on the elimination of one of
the subjective pure and simple terms of the contradiction.The subject chooses to overrate the
pragmatic concern and its adaptation at the environment in an opportunistic way, it overvalues
the ontological concern, which reflects the communalism. Avoidance strategies conflicts with
the simple consistency are the extreme poles of the typological continuum (Camilleri).
The acculturation strategies by the complex coherence can satisfy both types of the above
concerns. They are employed by the immigrants who are anxious to be adapted at the present
situation even there is a conflict with their cultural identity. There are also those which take
account of rational logic and those who are indifferent. The resolution of the conflict is then
subjective and not the subject of a clear and detailed argument. The individual is adapted
without taking account of personal contradictions as long as these contradictions are not
denounced by the community. The strategies involving the moderation of conflicts of code are
the most problematic one according to Camilleri. Thus, avoidance strategies are employed
when the individual is no longer able to solve the conflict. He resigns himself then in the
scotomisation of a part of the real and the denial. Finally, Camilleri stipulates that "this
typology obviously has nothing definitive (Camilleri, 1990, p. 110).
4
2.2.2 The relationship between tourism and the expatriation:
Our research will emphasize on the influence of expatriation on tourism because the
recruitment of employees from different countries of the world has an impact on the
environment, the style of service delivery, the tools of communication and behaviors with the
visitors.
This impact can influence positively and also negatively the choice of destination. An
important question arises at this stage; does the culture of expatriates have a positive impact
on the perceived quality of the accommodation?
2.2.3 The confrontation between the expatriate employee and the host country:
When a new expatriate arrives, a whole culture is being installing in the host country with a
legacy of traditions, customs and values (L. Miao et al, 2011). The latter will try to
disseminate in the professional and social environment of the expatriate, because certain level
of resistance is trying to persist before this change that he had during his visit.
This resistance will be introduced in the culture of the host country and change, even slightly,
the tools and the practices of the tourist actions, which directly influences the attractiveness of
the tourist destination and its interaction. "In the areas of service, when the consumer interacts
with the atmospheric variables and human service, this enables him to live an experience"
(Boulding et al, 1993 ; today and Bateson, 1991 ; Brakus, Schmitt and Zarantonello, 2009).
According to Schmitt (1999b), customers receive multiple types of stimuli and experiences
(for example, sensory, emotional, cognitive, behavioral or relational value) by the process of
the experience of the services or products (let us take the example of the observation and/or
direct participation in events). The experience refers to the way in which consumers perceive
the sensory qualities using the sight, hearing, taste and thinking, while the experience of the
"sensation" concentrates more on the emotional side, as the moods and emotions. The
experience is based on the "thinking" which engages the creative thinking at the convergence
of customers and the divergent thinking which are common to the new technologies.
On the other hand, the experience based on the "action" aims to physical experiments and
behavioral attitude of customers, which could enrich their lifestyles and their behaviors.
Finally, it is important to mention that the experience is based on the "approximation" which
refers to social experiences such as the connection with other persons and groups (Schmitt,
1999). By referring to Schmitt study, the consumption is increased from a mere consumption
of goods and services to the experience. Actually, the experiential consumption concentrates
more on the overall experience that the company creates for its customers (Schmitt, 1999a).
Table 1: The five experimental values
individual experience Shared Experience
- The direction
- The sensation
- The thought
- The action
- The approximation
5
This research will focus on the experience based on the "approximation" as well as the
"action" ; because what we are dealing with in the first stage is the influence of expatriate
employees on the interactivity and the brand image of the tourist destination.
3. The influence of expatriates ‘culture on the perceived image of the destination:
Customers develop their own images which are all based on their behavior, preferences,
thoughts, personal characteristics and culture. In fact, the confrontation between the client and
the expatriate employee at the time of the delivery of service will create an image of
satisfaction among the clients. The level of the perceived image is a result of a certain mix of
culture of countries intended with its expatriate employees
The culture of the tourist destination is in contrast with the culture of the expatriate employee
working in the delivery of service. As it was already mentioned, the expatriate is a person
who did not necessarily have the same culture as the host country, or of course, his behavior
will always have a link with its own culture. This will influences systematically the perceived
quality of tourism service.
The tourist will point out that there is a lag between its main arguments on which it is
supported at the time of the choice of this tourist destination and the quality of service as
perceived at the time of arrival. This offset can be positive or negative.
If the perceived quality of service of the expatriate employee is higher in the hold of
tourist; we are going to find a perfectly satisfied customer. But in the reverse case, the result
will be negative with an unsatisfied customer and a tourist wrong destination.
The understanding of the quality of the image is a means to develop a competitive image on
the market. A positive image of the tourist destination is considered as one of the factors that
attract visitors to a destination. However, there are several types of factors influencing the
tourists in choosing a destination. As a result we can mention the personal factors, as well as
the psychological characteristics that influence the image of a destination. In addition, the
cultural values of tourists and previous experiences are also important factors that influence
the behavior.
3.1 The quality of service of tourist providers
The meeting of the service provider has a relational role which allows creating the success of
sales. During the service process, there is a face-to-face interaction between the consumer and
the provider of services (Solomon et al, 1985).
To succeed the issuance of the service, it is essential to proceed with the appropriate treatment
for the meeting of service (Normann and Ramirez, 1993).
Hutton and Richardson(1995) have also shown that the physical environment in a place of
business can have an impact on the perceptions of the quality, the satisfaction as well as the
intention to purchase among consumers. Oumlil (2000) found that the environment variables
(for example, social, cultural) and psychological factors are precursors in the purchase
decision. Baker and al. (2002) showed that environmental factors have a direct effect on the
consumer perception, and cause subjective judgments. Smith and Wheeler (2002) have noted
that the attitude of the staff is regarded as a very important factor for customers. If an
organization can provide a good working environment, employees will exert themselves to
provide a better service to customers; and as a result are participating to live a good
experience. Parasuraman et al. (1985) "it has three relevant factors in interaction with the
client: the client himself, the organization of services and the service staff". According to
6
Lockwood (1994) "the meeting of service involves interaction hum seniors, but also of the
tangible and intangible factors just as the service personnel and the environment".
In these studies, the meeting of service is the period of time during which customers interact
directly with the service. According to Shostack (1985); "all aspects of the service, including
the customers; employees, and their interactions with the environment and other tangible
factors» are not limited to the human gathering, but covers everything that happens during
human interaction. In addition, services include people management, the management of
objects, the management of attitudes and the management of information.
McCallum(1985) noted that the meeting of service is one of the oldest and most important
social gatherings. Research on the meetings of service should concentrate on the clients and
the service providers themselves.
According to Solomon et al. (1985) the face-to-face meeting between the customer and the
service provider can be explored using three descriptions of the social psychology: the
meetings of service which are dyadic; of human interactions and encounters of service which
are the performance of role. Then, is it possible to check if the culture has a positive impact on the perceived quality of
tourist facilities?
3.3.1 The image of destination:
Tourists are identifiable to the image of quality of the destination, even if this later stagnates
through time, and no longer represents a real image of the place. After 30 years, the World
Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has stated the importance of positive images in a country
(WTO, 1979).
Hunt (1975) was the first researcher who tried to point out the importance of "the image of the
destination" which increased the number of tourists visiting the materials and gains which
may subsequently acquire.. In addition, some authors (Hunt, 1975; Gunn, 1988) have shown
that the image of the destination is a key factor in the process of the selection of destinations
for tourists. It is also possible to distinguish a destination from another using the same relation
and by improving its competitiveness. It is for this reason that the image of the destination
which is one of the common questions in the attractiveness. The following question: Does the
perceived quality of the accommodation have a positive impact on the image of the
destination?
A tourist destination may be designed as a supermarket, and this offers him an assortment of
an unlimited variety emanating from a wealth of heritage. The destination is not a product, but
a case of consumption, subject to the flow of attendance, and positioned within its various
catchment areas (Cornu, 2003). According to many studies, the relationship between the
provision of service and the image of the destination, influence the perceived quality of
the tourism delivery. What we are trying to check in the result of this research is the nature of
the impact of this influence. This audit allows you to wonder if the perceived quality of
tourist facilities has a positive impact on the image of the destination or not.
4. Conceptual Framework and hypotheses:
4.1 The conceptual model:
7
4.2 The assumptions:
H1: The culture of expatriates has a positive impact on the perceived quality of the
accommodation
H2: The culture has a positive impact on the perceived quality of tourist facilities
H3: The implications of expatriates moderate the relationship between culture and expatriate
the perceived quality of the accommodation
H4: The implications of expatriates moderate the relationship between the culture of
expatriates and the perceived quality of the tourist Benefits
H5: The perceived quality of the accommodation has a positive impact on the image of the
destination
H6 : The perceived quality of tourist facilities has a positive impact on the image of the
destination
4.3 The measurement scales:
4.3.1 The quality of perceived service:
Several research projects have focused on the quality of service and more specifically on the
measurement of the built and its consequences such as the satisfaction and loyalty. In fact, the
quality of the service should begin from the needs of the customer and extends to the
satisfaction of the final customer (Canny and Hidayat, 2012).
The culture of expatriates Perceived Quality of the
accommodation
Perceived Quality of
tourist facilities
Perceived Image of the
destination
Implications of expatriates
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H3
H6
8
However, the consumers and service providers have a significant influence on consumers’
decision-making process. Because of this, the service is then defined, according to Kvist and
Klefsjö (2006), as being the creation and delivery of heterogeneous services as well.
Moreover, Kang and James, 2004, define the quality of service as the judgment of a consumer
on the excellence or the superiority of the quality in whole by report to its expectations.
However, a complete definition of this concept according to Lovelock and Wright (2002),
consists on a cognitive assessment of the services delivery from a company. The latter claims
that the customers have already certain standards of service in their minds before the
consumption on which are based on assess the actual benefits.(Liu, and Yen, 2010; Zeithaml,
IT, Gremler, 2009; Brady and Cronin, 2001). Thus, the level of satisfaction is reached, if the
expected service is equal to the perceived service. The customers will be more satisfied if the
gap between the expected service and perceived service is reduced.
Description of the scale of the quality of service as perceived: three elements are supposed to
measure the degree to which a consumer believes that the quality of the service provided by a
designated company is excellent.
The origin of the scale: the scale was construted by Taylor and Baker (1994) and Bansal,
Taylor and James (2005),
The measurement of perceived quality: the confirmation process postulates that the customer
has a set of expectations prior to the service experience. After this experience, the client
compares the performance of the service rendered to his expectations. These expectations are
confirmed or not, if the perceived performance on an element that is greater than or equal to
the expected performance, will increase the level of customer satisfaction. If it is lower, it will
diminish the level of satisfaction (Bansal, Harvir , Shirley. Taylor. And Yannik St James,
2005; Taylor, Steven A. and Thomas and Baker, 1994)
4.3.2 The Culture:
The treatment of culture: among the most frequently used approaches to study cultural
differences, are those of Hofstede (1980) and that of Hall (1959). The approach of Hofstede
suggests that cultural values influence a wide range of behaviors in business as well as
marketing. Hofstede has discovered that cultures vary according to four dimensions:
individualism, hierarchical distance, control uncertainty and masculinity, while Hall (1983)
considers that cultures differ from the point of view of their perceptions of time.
Why have we adopted the model of Hofstede?
We have retained the cultural dimensions of Hofstede for our work for several reasons. First
of all, its results have been widely used and validated. This made his work a reference of the
most cited in different areas of the social sciences. In addition, the work of Hofstede
highlights the role of culture as an underlying component which influences the development
of different systems which are present in a society (the social, political, and economic
systems). It is the goals of this research.
The components of culture according to Hofestede:
The hierarchical distance :
It is the determination of the relationship’s nature between the supervisor and the executors,
which found vertical relationships as well as horizontal relationships.
Individualism refers to the degree to which people belong to a given culture prefer to
act as individuals rather than as a member of a group.
9
Masculinity refers to the degree which is characterized by the material success, the
ambition and the progress (masculinity) versus the mutual assistance, the modesty, the
comfort and the interpersonal relations (femininity).
The control uncertainty: refers to the manner in which members of a society address
uncertain or unknown situations.
4.3.3 Scale of Measurement of the Implications of Employees:
h venet (1992) argues that more than one individual is implied , more than it is capable of
taking decisions independently in an uncertain environment. The involvement corresponds, at
a very specific and fairly complex relationship resulting in an investment pushed by multiple
aspects of the person h venet, 1992). The involvement therefore takes the form of a
commitment combining calculations and identification.
Several theorizing have been made around the concept. For Mowday et al (1979) is "a strong
belief and acceptance of the goals and values of the organization, the want to make
considerable efforts in favor of the organization, and a strong desire to remain a member "
.Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993) have elaborate a three-dimensional model of the concept of
the organizational commitment which is composed of three dimensions: emotional
involvement, the normative involvement and the continued involvement.
4.3.4 The measurement of variables:
Table 2: The measurement scales used
Variables Scale used Number of items
The perceived service quality Taylor and Baker (1994) 3
The culture
• The individualism
• The hierarchical
distance
• The masculinity
• The control uncertainty
Hofstede (2000)
4
4
4
4
The implications of expatriate
employees
Meyer, Allen and Smith,
(1993)
9
To test the conceptual model of this research, a conducted quantitative study via a
questionnaire has been created and administered online (Google Drive). The corresponding
link has been administered on several platforms of the web such as that of the communities of
the travel agencies and groups linked to various tourist destinations. The various respondents
have a center of common interest which is linked to the love of travel and discoveries. During
10
this period, 400 people responded to the survey (80% of women, 85.9% of respondents are
aged between 25 and 45 years).
5. Data analysis and presentation of results:
5.1 Principal Component Analysis
A reliability test and an exploratory factor analysis have been carried out with the SPSS
software 20. The reliability has been evaluated for each concept using the Cronbach’s Alpha,
which is the most widely, used measure of reliability among researchers (Nunnally, 1978).
The values of Cronbach's Alpha for the factors of the present study were between 0,749 (The
motivation sports with 2 items) and 0,974 (the intention of revisits with 4 items) (see table 2).
The alpha is standardized and the worldwide assumes that all items have the same
importance.
It is regarded as being the most recommended to assess the reliability or internal consistency
of all the items also called the coefficient alpha. (Cronbach’s, 1951)
According to Peterson, 1994, the Cronbach’s Alpha varies between 0.60 and 0.99 with an
average of 0.77 and a median of 0.79 . In this sense, all of the concepts in our study have a
value of Cronbach's greater than 0.7 . OF or the reliability of our items.
The variables The Items
The sport motivation 0,749
The intention of revisits
0,974
Table 3 : Measure of the reliability
The ladders Cronbach's
Alpha
Scale to measure the quality of service as perceived: Taylor and Baker (1994) 0.793
Scale of measurement of culture: Hofstede (2000)
The individualisme 0.752
The masculinity 0.7009
The hierarchical distance 0.826
11
The control uncertainty 0.788
Scale of measurement of the implications of expatriate employees: Meyer,
Allen and Smith (1993) 0.792
Before testing the hypotheses, a principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on all the
items of the proposed model. Thus the multi-dimensionality of the scale of the motivation of
travel has been verified. The number of retained dimensions confirmed the existence of four
factors, namely the social dimension, relaxation, sports and intellectual with a variance equal
to 71 %. THE dimensionality of the other scales is also confirmed with the KMOS
satisfactory which varies between 0.641 (quality of service) and 0.847 (perceived quality of
accommodation).
The reliability allows you to assess the stability of each measure across multiple sources of
information.
5.1.1 Regression Analysis
The AFC provides criteria for assessing the quality of our conceptual model of measurement
and validity of the convergent and discriminant. This aims to affirm or deny our assumption.
We, therefore, have chosen to go by the regression analysis.
A linear regression analysis was adopted to test the hypotheses (table 2) the dimensions of the
perceived quality of the accommodation and the quality of service which influence positively
the quality of the tourist destination, thus supporting the hypotheses H1, H2 and H4.
No significant effect of the dimension of individualism on the image of the perceived quality
of accommodation H1 (p=0.131 ) could not be found.
By contrast, the implications of expatriate employees have a positive and significant impact
on the perceived quality of the service provided. Therefore, H4 is chosen.
The image of the tourist destination is judged positively and significantly influenced by the
perceived quality of tourist facilities, therefore H5 is supported.
To test the moderating effect of the distance shown in our research model, we have adopted
the approach of Hayes (2013) using. Overall distance has a moderating effect positive and
significant on the relationship between the employee’s culture and the perceived quality of
accommodation (R²= 0.1112, p= 0.000), the culture of expatriates and the perceived quality of
tourist facilities (R²= 0.1289, p= 0.000).
Table 4: Analysis of the Linear regressions
Assumptions Indicators Comments Validation / reversal
H1: the culture of R²= 0.039 There is a positive Validated
12
expatriates has a positive
impact on the perceived
quality of the
accommodation
Β²= 0.0
Sig=0,000
relationship between the
culture of expatriates and the
perceived quality of the
accommodation
H2: The culture has a
positive impact on the
perceived quality of
tourist facilities
R²= 0.033
Β²= 0.0
0.000 Sig=
There is a positive
relationship between culture
and the perceived quality of
tourist facilities
Validated
H5: The perceived
quality of the
accommodation has an
impact on the image of
the destination
R²= 0.029
Β²= 0.0
0.000 Sig=
There is a positive
relationship between the
perceived quality of the
accommodation and the
image of the destination
Validated
H6 : The perceived
quality of tourist
facilities has a positive
impact on the image of
the destination
R²= 0.032
Β²= 0.0
0.000 Sig=
There is a relationship
between the perceived
quality of tourist facilities
and the image of the
destination
Validated
5.1.2 Study of the moderation of the distance:
According to Baron and Kenny (1986) «a moderating variable is a variable qualitative or
quantitative which affects the direction and/or strength of the relationship between an
independent variable or predictive and a dependent variable or criterion". In this model, the
distance is the moderating variable. An analysis of the moderation by the process Hayes has been
used in order to measure these relationships.
The results of the moderation of the distance are shown in the table below:
13
Table 5 : Result of the effect of the restraint of the distance
Assumptions Indicators Comments
Validation /
Reversal
H3: The implications of
expatriate employees
moderate the relationship
between the culture of
expatriates and the
perceived quality of the
accommodation
R²=0.1112
P=0.000
There is a moderating
relationship between the
culture of expatriates and the
perceived quality of the
accommodation
Validated
H4: The implications of
expatriates moderate the
relationship between the
culture of expatriates and
the perceived quality of
tourism benefits
R²=0.1024
P=0.000
There is a relationship of
moderation between the
culture of expatriates and the
perceived quality of tourist
facilities
Validated
6. Discussions:
Our research deals with a subject that is very little discussed in the literature of tourism. Very
little effort has been devoted to the study of the effects that has influenced the culture of the
individual. In our case, this individual is the employee who is at the service of the tourist,
expatriate on the host society. The studies made on the influence of the culture of the
expatriate employee on the perceived quality of the destination. Moreover, the
accommodation by tourists seems to be rare. To full this vacuum, researcher has tried to study
the impact of the culture of this expatriate employee in order to answer our research
questions. The results obtained by the SPSS software 20, have allowed us to validate all the
assumptions proposed at the outset of our research.
In this study, the culture presented through the individualism, the hierarchical distance,
masculinity and finally the control of uncertainty, seems to have a positive impact on the
perceived quality of tourist facilities. Hofstede (2000) highlighted the quality of service of the
expatriate employee as well as his involvement also, as influencing the choice of destination
of tourists (Taylor and Baker, 1994 ; Meyer, Allen and Smith, 1993)
14
This article has helped to reveal the real relationship between the culture of the expatriate
employee and the choice of the tourist destination of the host country.
7. Conclusion:
This article aims first to explore the relationship between the culture of the expatriate
employee and the perceived image of the destination. It has also referred to the
accommodation, the perceived quality of the destination, the benefits and finally the
importance of the involvement of the expatriate employee on the choice of destination by the
tourist. To achieve this aim, we have adopted a quantitative study with the aid of a
questionnaire, administered in line with a sample of convenience of 400 respondents that 80%
of them are women, with the majority a bin level+5 and 89.9 per cent of respondents are aged
between 25 and 45 years. To measure the validity of the model, and study the various
relationships that exist between the variables and thus test the research hypotheses proposed,
the linear regression analysis has shown that the culture of the expatriate employee is an
important determinant of the perceived image and the choice of destination. The results
obtained have shown that the implications of expatriates moderate the relationship between
the culture of the expatriate and the perceived quality of the accommodation and that the
implications of expatriates moderate the relationship between this culture and the perceived
quality of tourist facilities. The present work provides, thanks to the results obtained by the
questionnaire, that the perceived quality of the accommodation has a positive impact on the
image of the destination and that this perceived quality of tourist facilities has a positive
impact on the image of the destination.
This research led to two inputs. On the theoretical level, it contributes to the existing research
in consumer behavior by studing a model representing the impact of the culture of the
expatriate employee on the perceived image of the tourist destination. It also provides
additional guidance on the moderating role of perceived risk on the relationship between the
image seen on the destination, the individualism, the hierarchical distance, control uncertainty
and finally the masculinity, which represents the culture according to Hofstede, (1980).
On the managerial plan, this research could be very useful for managers and tourism
marketing organizations. It will allow them to better understand how tourists can evaluate and
choose their destination. This can be done after taking into account the characteristics of the
expatriate employee, and more specifically, the culture of the latter. The quality of delivery of
the expatriate employee is taken as a reference. This helps to develop marketing strategies and
solid long-term; in order to stay competitive in a market characterized by an increased
competition.
This work, like any other, has limitations that may provide guidance for future research. The
researchers believe that this analysis is not sufficient to retain a model of measurement and
that the confirmatory factor analysis is a necessary complement. This study has not examined
the effect of the demographic characteristics of the travelers on the choice of their destination
and the report with the culture of the expatriate employee. In this case the method of structural
equation (MY), will allow obtaining more detailed results in the presence of other variables.
Our research highlights the influence of the culture of expatriate employees working in the
field of tourism on the quality image of the destination. It has also dealt with the quality of the
accommodation and the quality of service as perceived by the customer.
This research is limited in the explanation of the impact of the expatriate employee’s culture
on the quality of service of host country; but we also need other studies that will be able to
determine the result to what degree the host country defends its own culture before this
indirect influence of the expatriate employee’s culture on its reputation. From a Professional
15
point of view, it is necessary that the expatriate employees follows properly the specific
standards and demands the quality of service of the hotel; either at the level of the quality of
accommodation or at the level of the quality of service delivery without any influence of their
own cultures.
Our sample is limited to 400 people with 80% of women and 85.9 per cent are aged between
25 and 45 years. This features which do not necessarily represent all the tourists traveling
abroad. This can make other investigations to explain the factors guiding the choice of the
tourist to his destination selection.
The culture of the employee is mentioned in this research, other studies may be conducted on
the culture of the company that hired this employee and on the influence of the latter on the
company.
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