Jewish Artol'l prinrt

VOLUMESIXTEEN / SEVENTEEN

r990/91

rgr'&'*,liii i5* --,:..1),rl,t={ir,r.

"I aV4

Journal of the Center for J€wish ArtThe Hebrew University

Jerusalem

-

Th€ Awak€nins of Jewish National Art in Russia'r,

Mir jam Rajner

Tor a long time th(,natnc of Mar. Chasall \(as svn-onlt l )ous ( i rh m(xl({D Russian-l(v ish ar l- \ rcr) t (uworki deal ing iv i th Jcwish subjr . tsand.rearcd by rnhcravanr"garde Russiarr- .1( wish art isrs r \ ,crc known i | | lhfWcn. Ir was Avram K: 'npt 's pi(nv(r ing nf l i . lo " Ir l

Qr(st ot Jeh ish Sryk in rhc l : r : r o{ rhc Rrssi ,rn R(\ 'o lu-t ior, publ ishcd in l0?8. thnr pr(vnrd for t lx f i rstr imc a numlxr ot Jcwish r |1isrs a.t i \c dur ins rhcintcns( rclolutionar! txrnxl in Russia.r Asi(k fro'r( :ha$l l 's art . Kamt)f s imsl(d our Iewish rLorks bv srrhaf l isrs as Nathan Alrman, l : l i ( rcr l - issi | lk_v, Jostt tT(h:' ikov, Issachar Rybr( k, Boris AroDson ind R,)lxr rFalk. I t bccamc ck ar rh:r t t (n I l br i t t tx r in i ot r i rcthcscart i {s had joincd tor.cs, rDd whi lc b€ing t r t of th(broldcr Rr':rsian avanr-gaftk nx)vcmenr, had tikrl rodcvckl) a spe.ifi.rlly Jcwish alant-gardc. Bv usingJcwish rraditional and f(tL vn'r.es on thc onc hil||d.and a txtd, .ulxrfuturist sr-llco|| rheorher, they hotxrlio.r fatc a nciL, m(xtern lcwish af l which $ould lxstyl ist i<al ly atuned ro thc:rvanr-garde art .rcar(al b_v

' l h is r r (n k i \ b r *d on r Dr t r r ( i . l i \ .R l . t th . S . {on{ l I ' r . r r r .tn r r . l Scnr in2r o r J . r fnh | in jmr" r lm in Mr \ , 1988 I I irlnn. is aho dirtr\s.rl nr l.{srh ir mr M.A rhc\i\ "Ru\\irn

. t {s i \h Ad - 1862-1912, \u lnnnu l ro rh . D . r *nn l ro l I l i \ -!F ol An arTht Hebrcw trtrivBnrofJeftrsl.m.I Notr|(| lil. x]'h , l P 'o f Z i r " {m^h.n M wh r rh , . n \ m\ \ " t r ' r i y r .turi$rh Euid.d nr\ krL. dlonrd,red m\ re(tr h: Prt.Arnm Kampf, $ho* \*nnr$ on R6rian J.Nish rrr rirsr i'nc'.rn.d . thr fieldi .nd lotrdhrfl $'€in€r. nr! htrsLnnl, f{tdnnrs, onrhnrnr ondcnb, i'r(rcn and a'p|rd. $'irlrnrlthc i r hc lD rhG ar t i . l . { .u l l ' n ! h . r . lnn r f rn reD.

'Ih. Rusinn nrnslirodnD i\ r nr.iifi.d rirnr of rllLibr.r! of GDsk$ 5vn(ni. l-hL nn)n imponanr nrodifndnnrsnr r th . re rmin , rn f o l la ! n i 'nc \ $ i r l ' \ k \ " inneadof "sk i i . r l rr .nd$ inBot thchards isn l \ ' l r t rd rh .onrns iono l rhce f is isn'Ihr

names ofanisbaDd orh.rJ$ish tir$Mlnic\ rrho{ nrnt\nr. tr.ll kno(n in rht t{c{:trxl * Nullr lf,lled J(oftlnrs r,Yiddish rEnslnehrion or n..{ndins b crman or t_ror h \tr'll-nrs rr€ urd in rh. a{rprd ntrm. ..s., Chasdll (nor sh.sal).lloN.ro, rh. name ot rhc airisr ll\n Cinrsburs is$rnrd r.oiil

rheir Russian (ol l (asl(s, brr t s imulmncorrslv Dat ionalin content. By (( ,mbining lhese lwoelcmcnts, they elenholxd ro crcak a slxci t ical ly Jewish stylc." ,

In 1987, Ihc Is 'acl MuseLrm in Jcn'sale'D held ashow ent irk{ l "Tradir ion and Revohrt i ()n, thc JewishRenaisanct in Russian Avant-Gardc Art , l9 l2- 1928,"which contirtLrcd rhr' tllrrh srt b,! Kampf. The $hotr( lcmonsrrakd for thc f i rst t ime thetnssibi l i tv oldeal ingrLi th rh(v arr ists:rs a grnrt) ,crenamovcment. rhat had.rcarcd a stx\ i f i (al lv . l ($ish avanr.gardc af l in rhc1920s. This rais({ l thc ( tucsr ion: ( ,har wcrc the roors ofrhis movrmcnt and how t'xa(tly did ir brgiD?

If onc r tLrdirs rh, 'k.v(1., t )merrr ol Rrrssran avrnt.sardc art , ot |c vxn r(nl izcs that i t is ncarly i rngrssiblck, relate to tlx arr which dcvclopcd in Ru$$ia b€rwccnthf 1905 Rct l) lnt i ( , I | an( l tht r iscolSlal i rr as$omelhingl imited to.r stxr i f i ( t in lr span, $ i thour.onsidcr ing i rsorigins, $hich arc k) lx found in ninekrnth'centuryRussian art.t ArFl(Aous ro thai, ihc snrrces of thcRussian-Jcu. ish avant-gardc an arc to bc found in lhc

i ns kJ rh t Ru$ i rn rhn \ l i r$ i rn r ,n ron l (on tu \ i ,n s n l S .nnnI lo rn ( rnd Dn ln l ( ;nvburs .A. kmpf, In qucn of.l(\rish St\L in rh. Ern ol rhr RussinnRcmlurion, Jorrr{I o/./.u'rr,!rr 5 (1978), 18-75./b1., pp 62-66, nn. 2?. 17i litr n.idnnnnl In'nihri.r$ ol threrftrptr lm Aronvrl\ nlld R\br.t !rnnk'Di l'(s(Jr fo.l.rYiddishcr Mal.rci rtrd-lthaitor's b@l Slxlplrr. vi R./\ptr-Gabri€l (.d. ). trddirrcn trnd /ia'olution: Th. Itu,isl R.ndBnn .ia Rusion A,Mrt.G.rd. ttt, r912-?923 (J$u5alcdr Tlr lsrnrlMtrstrm, 198?). pp. 229, 231The r€senr.h nro Russirtr a\rnlpi.rde nrt b.Fann ir rh. .rrlrl960\, sr.\ ir tntnrl$iry durios thc 1970\,and iscxrxrnrrnrsar.Dii\san( nr olr o(n dry, dtr. ro the lixid ChnrEr" rxrli{.\.CimiUa Gra!. in h0r now $m.what ord3ted hrnill b$i.!udtDf Rrssian araDr.|5|nl{ rn, preftdrs b.r treaheDr oI rhr R usi.Dnranr Fnrdr mo\cm(nb \nh a bri€l dirtrssion ol rhd lar.'rinef(nr h{enrir f{rcrrtr!!.t\t Th. Rusion Exp.rimat in Art,1a6r-19?2 (Lrnll'r, 1962 and 19861.

-rhe imrDian( of rhc Rus-

tian an morcmcnrsof rhc Kond half of lhc nin.titrrh cnrnr(*F fur'ho {plon{ br \'r lk.nier i. h{ |xDt on Ru$ian Rrilisl

nineteenth cenlur] as kell, oreven more precis€ly dur-ing rhe brief liberal period ofAlexander ll's rule in rheearly 1860s. The Tsar's r€forms, among other thin8s,opened ne$ educational oppo unit i€s to Jews. Amongthe litsr to tak€ adrantage of these was MarkAnrokolsky.

Marh Antokokk\: The First Russian leuish Artist

Antokolsky (1843-1902) r'as the firsr Russian Jcu roemerge as a recognized aflist, the f(rus of conrrovers],b€tt'ern Jewsand R ssians. both of whom claimcd himupon his dealh as onc ol their own. His rise ro promi-nence was made possibleon rh€ one hand by his ral€nr.and on th€ other by hisrorical .ondirions. Born inVi lna, an important Jcwish cul(ural and spir i rual .en-rer, to an inn-kecp€r's family. Antokolsky ser a pr€.e,dent for lhe early development of.many future RussianJewish artislsi a modesr family background, a breakwilh the communal rrrr?l lifc. thc cncounrer wirh thcnon-J€wish, sccular \^,orld of rhe ciry.

In Vilna, Antokolsky acquired borh a r€ligiousanda secular edurat ion, showinB early his anisr i . talenr.With the help of the lo.al maecenas and art lover, theCovemor's wite, who admircd his (?rly work. in 1862Antokolsky enrolled ar rhe lmperial AcadcmyolArts inSl. Pel€nburg.t

h was only a year after Antokolsky's arrival ar rheArr A.ddemr thar hchad rheopponunity roexperionceand bc influcnced by rheformarionanddevelopmenr ofRussian realism. In November 186r, a group ot tour-le€n slud€nts organized a revolt "against the esrh€ticand p€dagogical stri.tur€s" of the Academy. They

ai,.nd 6rFi.llr bv Aowlr. *ho in his nxdy of Rossia\ Silr.rAsr litrled rhc late{inc'em'h.(n'urv n{iis wnh rhc autr!sad. a.ncnrnm: E.I'allmiq. S6rior n.dld rrt (N.w Y(trt,r9?? ); J.E. 8o$ fr. Tr,. sifd , c.: Rusi.n ,|rt ol th. Earlt Tu.n-ti.th C.ntun .nd th. " l4orl.1 o/ /r" Crorp (Nc$rnn i llc, I9?9).Finally,thtno.trft.nrnrrem bFsr.hrhraenGFinrdcsnxlsin Rlrsia\ older ai mormdrs hls lEd md. by ltmiiri 1'.Saabiano\, a Sor icr ari hinorian aDd rtAialir in ndl€rn Rus5ian lnd Sori.tA :Sarahianor, Rusidn Att: Ftotu N.o.lassi.itnto th. ,lwnt-C.t l., 1800-!9t7 ( Ns Yorl, l9S0).

. Anrololsl(! searlv *orl,.ratd in vilna lxforchh.nrollmctri.lrh€ A.ad€mr, nklud€d head5 ot Chrirr and of rhcvhsin MaN.€ncd in ndtd, al'er t'an D_rd r fldg.llaria, €nsrarins. (\Dnrenra n, ftcGorrmoas*iI€.ommission.dam€dallbnand in$md $howinF rht Sariouls hmd wirh rhc.msn o{thorns:n Inrrbusr ol hd husband. C.ncnl Narimov. mad€ in i\rm: and rhrr€li.l ,u&r' (nr don. c. 1865. *ho rhc anii $as al@dr anudcn' a' 'hr A.ademr. s.e \'.V. stlev (.d.), Ma'l Mar,.a,i./'

JEWISH NATIONAL ART IN RIJSSIA 99

refused to depict the proposed theme "The Banquet ofthe Gods in Valhalla" for fieannual Gold Medal Com-p€tirion, "which rh€y considered to be totally irrelerantto the real needs ofarl and society. "s Th€ arti sts, led bythe painter Ivan Kramskoi, resigned from theAcademy.They organized an unofficial collective, which in 1870became rhe basis for the Sociery ot Wanderingfxhibitions.

The membcrs o[ the Socicrv. the so-called Wander-ers (Peiedvilhniki),5 bas€d (h€ir ar(istic ciedo on twoelemcnts: tirst, Nikolai Chemishevsky's social demo-cratic theoty, demanding radical change in Russianvxiery, and scrond, the derire to presrnr rheir move-men( to Westcrn Europ€ as an aulhentically Russian,national rhool of art.t

Thc true initialor and inncr moving power of theRussian Reali$t sch(xrl, however, wa$ thearchaeologistand an critic VladimirStasov(1824-1906). Originallyasupporter of officia I Academi( an, he firsr b€came inrer-esred h ihe socialgenrcduring the 1850s, following theEurolran rrend. ft wasafrer visiling rheThirdlnrema-tional Exhibition ir London in 1862 lhar Stasovd€fincd the elcmenrs of the "narirr Russian" school olpainting. This was rhc firsr Russian appearance at aWorld Exbibition. and Slasov, who was there as areporrcr, s€nl back a humiliating quotation wrilren byFranci$ Taylor, an English .ritic, who commented onrhe inlerior lcvel o[ rhe exhibited Russian art.r

A(cording ro Srasov. rhe only way to a(hieve ori8i-nalily, and thus appreciation, lay in "depicting dailylife in rhe city and countryside, lhe peasan( and mer-.hanr rypes, rhc unique Russian landscalx."e P€rson-ally acquaintcd wirh the id€as of rhe Russian SocialDemo.rars. Stasov appl ied rhem ro his arr . r i t i ( ism.

Antohoh^r,.Ao zhnn, tuor.ni'., ptraa i nory (St. P.iftsburg-Mov.w, 1905), pp- x.trd 923: Ant,kolslvt early $ortsar.rlsrcnfn'rd in D. Ma&<id, P@/.sot MoiL.hai b.n.M.tataht., rtolo&l, lW!M*, 189?), pl).2?-!0 and 48-,19. in HcbFs.Bowft, Stb.r,ts., p- 15.Thctuxr imDonanr wanded $.rvasil! Pcbr{ |8$-83),lenKEmrLoi (18!7-8?). Grisory Miaiocdor (1855-l9ll) and lltaReDii 11844-1910).Thc Wand€rers und.nkmd rhe Di.rurc as a '.lnnsmnr$ or rhrsnlrdnidl snutim ad pmblms, thus follosinFChdishc\ slv! mat.riatisr .oneDt ion of life and air. Th..im of aii s asro Gll a nor_v. and a. 'ht emerimelo(mmnron n,|odisplayan6silt r€.labl. meRe aGibl. ro and mpFh.nsibl. b!€rrvonc : Bo$lt. Sihrr .:lsr, p, l6iW.F, W*hrlin. Ci.mria.stti (C.mbridst, Mas., l97l), t,. 149.Quotd in vallcnier, A6ian R..list Art,p.5?,no.14.

IOO MIR]AM RAJNIR

r t r t . I / t - l ) t , , r y a t E t , , h l ' p , \ ' . t . a 4 , r n 4 D q ' , , t M t u , h ) p t u L 2 . r , t t l ? h , , . t : i 1 L ^ . M , \ ' t t r .

\rasily P.rov s Tea-Drink;ns at Mitichye ot 1862(Fig. | ) is an car lycxamplcot rhc nc$ ' r .a l is l s( nrc s ty lcwhidr $'as narional ir.luracrtr, and carricd a nrcssagc, ,1 r , r r r l r t i t i , r rn. PFror d. r , r re, l r IJr R' r \ \ r rn I r ' r , . ldr ink ing tea in f ronr of a l i l lage house. He is .om-pletely indifferent to tuo b€gears. a crippled man wear-ing a shabbv army toat and de.orations, whi.h idmrifyh i m . r \ . i s ! " n v l l r d , J ' r J J , h r l J . T h , h ' \ r r \ \ r r ' \ r , '\ r o p r h e m d ' r J r h u \ p ' i ' r , r I h ' 1 e r r * r . r h , t r r n r n q.karly cxprcsses n sharp criti( ism ot rlre.hurch and its

'" Thc Crim.an War lrtr'en Ru$ia and Tukev lalHl f.r rhreeveaF, bdreen l853and 1356. Ni.hola\I holxdtlexpa..l Rus\iatr

infleen.e tNrds rhe Balkars a rhe MnldF fan, bnr $ar

corruprion, reminding ar rhe same r ime of poverty andmis€ry imposed upon the Rusiians by rhe exhausrins

ADrokolsky's tirsr \orks at the Acadtmv follo$'cdrhe l ine ot rhis ne! ' ly toundcd r€l is l school: thcv.r i t i -cally rcpresented rhe life ot rhe people, bcins at onccrealistic and emotional. The earliesr known work isT he I euish TaiLor, a \looden bas-relief crcarcd in t861,during his summer va.at ion in Vi lna (Fis.2). ' r Thcsrulprure reprcsrrrls a traditional Jew, widt beard,sid€-

{oprxrl bv rhe ive{ Elror*an.ountries. The {ars(rc5Kl Ru55ia s Da(Lrranl.e\s !.d rbe deep will ,id tslnnal pn$lrd\,

IEWISH NATIONAI- ART IN RTISSIA IOI

fic. 2. Moth /lntoholshy, l.aish'rdib/, t864. RussinnMtscum, L.niqrud.

(ur ls and skulknp, kanins through rhc windoN in(,rdcr k) thrcad his ncc( i l ( . Nu|-roLrs detai ls str |ss hisp(x)r . i r .umsrar)(cs: his txxly is skinny, his. lorhl \s arclonr, and Ihc di lapidatcd win( l( ,w framc indi(ates rhcshnbb! houv.hcl i tcs in. I r isn ! i \ iddcpicr i , ,ni) f l i fc 'asir is," rhc l i f r . rhirr A ()kolsky knct! t rom his. l {y ishn(ishborho(xl.

The ncxt ycar, 1865, Antokolsly did rhe mut|rcrpartk 'The l .ush Tai lot ,The Miset (Fis.3). Ih ' l ) r 'shhis( hoi.e of a mor. solid afld expcnsir( marerinl - ilor!- the art in poiDrf .d our rh( di f f ( rcnr snrus and l ives ofthc lwo. Thc Jlrmc uindorv conrlnsirion is uscdi lhe

Fis. ). Mdtk Aitohokhy, Mis.t, t8tt.1. Russian Muvum,

miscr\ busr is f t pf ts€nred.ount ine moncy o hiswin-r l , ' $ r i l l . H . \ . ' i r r \ i r r h i , I r r e r r o i r r a r r d a r h a r a r r c r i s r i rRussian f ln har whi.h, alons with his broad fa.e andslnnt nos€. strcss his non-Jcwishness. A kcy is hanginson his chesr, ncxr ro his hean. ln.ontrast ro rhc tai lor\house, rhe miscr's home is bnilr from ynid.arvfd stonebl(rks. 1 'h( (nvxions in borh works arc uDd(r l inedwirh a drr ratir t)lay of lisht and shade, crealed by thefigures' busts protruding irr space from the dark back-ground. It pfa(d next to ea.lr.\her. T he I ?u ish Ta;lotand Tftr Mir.i ould be seen as a diprv(h.r?

Anrokolsky's rcliet! display rhe samc pri .iple as

r oIN oI Bsnini s -si. L,.r.rd, .nd \n'ft Anrololst! (rs shoNn n)his l3tl lrnd k, Srier) ui xallaquaidd kirh rhc sr'lpror's\rort, n is F\sihl.,rhar shil.voluinB th. hil{'r. h( h.d iD mn!.|&rnini 5 bun ot (;abricle Foncsc' of.. l6?5frcnr rlx,S. Lorenmin I 'n i " r , l ' u r h In R,nne In .d , l r r r i ' k ' r l r jmr l .d ro r r tx^ Ionof n aisure lc.nil'a rhroush n Rilrddr', the r{o wotks share afN l inA o l i nx { i , r r , o f r . r t ru id 'nompn ' , , , f ( r t r6 \ i r r ie*.nd morion, 6tF.iall! in il! rn{hmr of rhe fer aDd hands(Sra$r, ,nloltotrb, p. 1.10). Ihrnls ar. doe tt Prof. Zi$

Tb. ,ni\r \ ra*t ttr Th. l.urh latlor N.5 dcv'ihd tu hirrtrrobiosnlnr: fl, Sbh\. , rk idirlr, p.906. I'r 1837, Atrro,Lol\k\ publish'll his artobn,'{n'l)hr i'r rlp Rtr\\irn monrhlrn.qlDarrr r'.srril Eurol,y. 'cprnrrd in Stavnrs lrnk, Dlrtl09-956. Sn!. rhf o!isin:l rn li{rri{D or (he rlir \ rxr,bios,r.Dhr \as not Nril.blc to N. rh. t)rsc Du lrrt io shvr \tn,k$ill indiclc rhc rferenas ro irTh.', Jrc $rnr ,rl(ii r ionJl \^'r! A nr /\nrol,n\r\ r !.nnr"^'rkofa burt protudnrs from a rn dr.Snr(tlFH.r nns.hria

IO2 MIRJAM R JNTR

Perov's work in which rhe morals of rhepaintingresulrhom the confrontation ot "good" and "bad (corruptpriest contrasred with a oneleeged b€gBar). The poor,and rhus good, Jewish tailor is confronr€d wifi a rich,stinsy and thusbad non-Jewish miser.Sucha repr€sen-tation ot social problems, chamcteristic of ninete€nth-century Russia, teflects as well an awareness otChernishevsky's theory, and its impact on art. Anto'kolsky thus created a powerlul Jewish version of theRussian Realisr school at the very beginning of itsdevelopment. However, by portraying a poor Jcwishtailorjuxtaposed to a rich non-Jewish miler, rheJewishsculplor commented as well upon the traditional anti-semitic representation ot a Jewish miser and his poorChrisrian vicrim. By exchanging the roles, Antokolskyinrroduced for the firsr limea crilical approa€h rowardsChrislian society and ils an(i-semirism, the rheme towhich he would relurn in a number of his works.rt

In 1868, while on summer vacarion in his homc-rown, Antokolsky did anorher projecr wirh a Jewishthemet The Talmudic Dirpt,e. executing model.bustsof rwo typ€sotTalmudic s.holars, one who isiarfandone who is baAi (Fig.4). ' t Al though the sculpture wasnever complered, rhe models are naturalistic portrayalso{ contemfrorary rilell Jews thar the artist knew fromhis nariv€ Vi lna.

Historic"l evenls which parallel Antokolsky's earlyd€velopment provide a possible inlerpretation for thiswork. An tokolsky's work on the Talmud.ic DispuE par -alleled the activities of anoiherVilna resident- JacobBrafman, an apostateJew, who tumed against his peo-pl€. During the summer of 1868, the ofticial Vilnapa|€r, The Vilna Heraid, published a series o[ Braf-man's alarming, anti-s€miiic articles. By misquotinaTalmudic and rabbinical sourc€s, he "proved" lheJews' inrention of spreading rh€ir influence into rhe"Universal Community." The articles preceded rhepublication of Brafman's Book oJ KahaL a year lzrer,which crowned his efforts.''

The appearance of Bratman\ articles and bookretlecred theend ot Tsar Alexander's Iiberal period andthe beginning of (he reac(ionary one. Th€ intensifi€dRussian nat ional ism on one hand and growing ant i-semitism on the other became hallmarks of Russianpolicy. Since Antokolsky sculpted his Talmud.ic Dis-pli,? in the summer o[ 1868 in Vilna, it is possible toundersknd this workas the sculDtor's reaction to Braf-man's dangerous attack upon the Jews and their com-munal organizations. By choosing the theme andcharacters ofa Talmudic dispure, Antokolsky probablyrefened ro rhe dispure around Brafman s inrcrprera.r ions" of the Talmud.r6

crlrnnc in. pani.ular li€ld of rnxal law, $ho isahos.ll(tr.dinTarmudand rabbini. I irsra trft. Enrr.lop.dia Judricr,rol.4.D. l16 : vo l .7 . p , 13 t8 .

Jaoh BnfmaD.onrcncd in ordcr lo csapc @nsription duringthc l,i d.ys of Ni.hol.s L H€ prcIFFd ro th. aurhornirs fi.( , ,mp la . ibo l i , i .n . r Js ,ah(ommunr l a ( r i , i ' i 6 rnd@n\cB ionro Chrnrianny as rh€ only $lution. In 1866, Vilna s Gov€moFC€n€nl,ppoinred a ommhsion ro (h(l rh.hakrial @mpil.dbv Brafman. The .onmislioo in.luded *vcnl Jewhh €rFn3rho prorcstd agansr rbc barbamus propcak or the inlormer,blt lfl J.wish cfforts wcrc in !tin. B6Im^n s Booh ol th. Xdhdl,plbush.d in 1869 and arnin in 1871. b.€m. an instrum.nr uFdby th.sorrmm€nr a8ainst rheJ.ws-Th.y were..cu*d ofb€ins''Fpar.rhb andan "inn€renemy. Such ac.uerions smduallyled torards fie rencscd policy of poarcmsandan'i-J.wishm€asures. L Cohen. /ihd (Philad€lphia, l9l3), p, 28?; S, Dubnoy.Hnbry ol thc J.us i4 R6sia anl Polonl: Frca th. Earli.stTin.s UntiL th. P vnt Dd' (Philad.lphia, l9l8), rol. 2, pp-189- t90.Tne srbi€d of 'he Tdlnsdi. Dispurr.ontinued ro enFase Anb-kolsky elen afkr he had finished th€ buns. As la.e as t8?2 hecon5idrred rerumins to rhisworLbaddanolher.handerloit,,deal one, who Iollows rhe dirussion. L€(€r ro Staev, \/ilna, 2No!€mb.r 1872, in Shsr. ,{,lotoirt}. no,54. p,5t, Th€dirus'sion or 'his idfr followed 'he*ondedition or Bral@nt aooA otlr.(andl,Nhi.hwasrepublnh.dinVilmin t8?l,rh.y.arshi.hNihcssd th3 Odes posrom. "Thed€afone lhusmay.€pr*nrBrafman himFll. who de5 nor hear rhe Fal neuing of the

Anrish!i-M,ish for F ininrs o Bcrninis i'rflucn..on Ar(r,kolslt! rulicldurnrB hrr (nBc on Mrxlcm Icwirh Air.ln dditirD.cn'brr F irrsour rhar Sus! omtur.dAnrokolsk, scarly *orls!, Dukh gcnrc-soc |xintinsi LE. Crnbir. 6,orir. rusrtosoa* , r \ t r , . ro l . 10 , Px I I 'Movo$. 1966-h7 ' , p .230. I l r ' , , ,mt rD irion olr bx$ lcannrs rltroush ! windoN rpFatsin $,.h worls$

Jaob vd Oonancn s Ponrdi, o/,Mdn (1516),or Fcrdin.nd Bol sPorttuit ol d Lad, 11650). turh in rhe Hemirasel {dl(rnn.C,mFrerl ro B€mini, rhe] rft less rherriel, morc likc!! e\.ry.day B.nrs.Rft and rhur aF clorr k, An'dk.lsky's \uDjed and

Fmm Anbkolrhv\ autobiognphy n n als pcsibh to m.on'srrud a pcsonal clcmrnr pr.$nr in rhc rwo relieh. Anbtolsh.rriv.d in Sr. P.resbnrswirh a Romnendaridi iiom rlievilnaCorcn!r\ \ife, whi.h bcllld him bmroll ar rh€ A..demv. Atrhe sc,n. rimc he had.norhd ldrer, roa.cirain Mr,L., whoNrrcrp..t€d ro sire him f inan.ial nrprrr. To the ydunganistt gr..tdi Drrinrnent, iNrad of \uppon hc $as r.f.rr.n ro somcon.ehe, \ 'ho in rudre . .mn€rdedh imbarh i rdpar tv ,c i . .Th€ | [ in ,huniliation and mi$Eblc .ondnions in Nhich he li!€d Nere$mewhar easd whcD hc tinall! sor Baron Ginrburs\ monrhrvniFnd of 'sn rubl€s {Shso\, ,l,loiokt}. p.910). Thus Ii.

I ruish Toi lor and Thc M is.t €n also lr undenroodas.ncxpr.ysn ol Anrolohk!'s orly onfrcntarion Nirh hisosn misernble.ondirion and snh rhr mirrlin€$ ht en.ounrerd amors rb€rFoDlr $ho {ce tuptx'sed ro help hin.rtaril, mcanins sharp(i(red, efers toaTalmudi.sbolar knownfor in, i.n, nnd r*n prttrp, ommenh. Adti n J p.r$n po'-*inq

JEWISH NATIONAL ART IN RTJSSIA IO3

Talmtdic Disput., t868. Ruf;onThc Attock ol the Inquisition on

M .tm, L.ningtud.th. ].tus, 1868. Lotdtion lnknoun.

,:,

LlL:lIIti

The most important among Anlokolsky s earlyeorks dealing with Jewish rhemes is the tamorrs bas-relief The Auack ol the Inqx;sition on the leus, alsocrearcd h 1868 (Fig. 5). Thc ropic was mken "oul o[Jewish hislory," and represenrs a sc(rer celebration ofthe Passovcr Seder in tifreenrh-cenrury Spain, rvhich issuddenly interrupred bv rhe arrival oI agents of thcInquisition. Wriring about rhis eork, Anrokolsky givrsa dehiled desrriprion of a Sedcr and irs meanine andsvmbolism. He srresses the imF)runce ot treedom as

opposed ro slav€ry, and expla ins the parricular momen rin Jewish hisrory when " Marranos accepted Chrisrian-iry, but secretly remained Jewish. '?

The h4rrr;lion communicates on rwo levels, asdoAntokolsky s orher early worksr it parallel! rhedevelop-

Talmu.ji( dtpure, and int.rpr.c n in his own hamful sa!.For addiliotral inkrprerarions oI BEfman r inlhrna upon

Anbkohly s {ork * Z. Amishai-M,i$ls, TheJtuilhJ6us.'loutnat ol kdnh att 9 (t982t. 95_

" Sraer. ,J rroAobtr. p.927,

,J

I01 MIRJAM RAINER

ment ot the Russian Realists, otteringaJewish versionof their an, and it expresses the arlist's p€rsonal exp€-rience as a Jewish aflist in Russian societ-v.

Although Srasov's call for (hecrcalion ota Rursianschool of art by depic(ing "lite in rhecountrysideand inthe cities" was aimed ar prcsenr rimes, th€ hisroricalgenre'painters had already b€gun, in theearly 1860s, tosearch for appropriate themes in Russian hisrory to aidin rhedevelopment ofa narional school ofart.'sAmonsthe earliest examples ot this typ€ o[ painting were theworks of such Russian artists as Vyachesla! S(hwaflzand llya Repin. Both anists, in searching for "real"Russian arr, turned to the historical events o[ the six-teenth and seventeenth cenruries, and depicted thetragedy and heroism ot the Russian people and theirlcadcrs.',

The Russian search tor historical €xamples otnational courage, political and spiritual power, andmartyrdom in their own pasr probably encouragedAntokolsky to search lor the same qualiliei in the hi5-tory ot his own people, which he lound in lhecourageand maflyrdom otMarranoJews. Thus heagain ottereda J€wish version of rhe development of the Russianschool of painting. How€ver, the most impoflant dif'ference was rhat Russian anists lik€ S.hwartz anoRepin painted personalities who symbolized internalRussian conflicts, while Antokolsky chose ro presentrhe conflict berwccn Jcws and Christians.

If we turn at rhis point to the work "ChristianMartyrs in ihe Coloss€um" paini€d by rhe Russianart ist Konslant in D. Flavi tsky in 1862 (Fig.6), i t ispossible ro b€tter understand Antokolsky's message.Although Flavitsky's wotk do€s not tollow the princi-ples o[ the Russian Realist school anddoesnot portraya specifically Russian rheme, its main id€a, struggleand martyrdom for one's .onvictions, wasrypicalofthewanderer. . Anrokolsly expresred rhe same senrimenrson rhe Jewisb side: the Jews caughr b1 rhe lnquisir ionbecame mariyrs in the name of their united nationaland religious convictions, while Christians became

Even on the lormal level. Antokolsky's relief andFlavitsky's paintingdo havea certain similariry ofcom-posi tion: the arched, darkened interior is lit lhrough anelevated exir on (he lett. Such Caravagg€sque illumina-rion in.reases the drama ofborh works.,o Still, as in the.as€ of the Jduirh Tatlot, Miser and Tahnudic Dispute,rhe Inquisition also expresses Anrokolsky\ intimate{eelings, his sensitivity and reacrion 10 the immediateev€nrs affecr ina his l i fe as a Jewish art is l in Russia.

Divided belween rwo worlds, Antokolsky probablyfel( partly a stranger in both of them; in St. Perersburg,ac.epted as an art srudent and a young intellectual, hestressed his Jewishness, while in vilna, among fellolr

Jews, he stress€d his newly gained education and artis-t i. ski I ls.r' T,frr /n4 risition expresses th is dua I iden ti ty,

(rnlc$ rimcs). rhc Friod many otR.pinl.onr€m|Fnri6 id€n-

Thc Di.r uresqrc .h.m.rer ot Anrokohky srlirf*ns rhe Esuh ofrh€ lishr.onins imm rhe uDt*rlen.omer, whcrc rhestrluoracrurlly piftcd rhcrclief i'i ordcr ro gcl rhc drsiFd rfltrr- whrnpla..d in lmnr or.lishr.sur.r, rhelishr Fnetrarinsrhroush thed@r .reaks an ill$nn oi drprh mu.h grealer rhan rhc adualrclief. The conrrasr lxrBeD rhe darh aras undcr rhr Ie, ar.hrdeiliisrnd rhc figur.ssh.rpl! Iir fmm rhr l.fr and honr (Rar€s a\ iridn6s morc .ham.rrrisri. of th€ar€r ias€-drsisn rhan ol rulp.ttrrc. The.n.losv ro a iasr is h'rrher itnsthe.ed by rhe frime.wh i.h matrs rhe whdle q ork 16l lik. a rcnidl ly-.u ar.hnd uF

In rhc laic 1860s, durinsa laorion in hnhomerown.Anrololstybchicndsd ltL'lf yakor l6,i.h Barl, 'he son oI a ri.h jetreu4 ofvilna. Bv rhen ai olfidall) reogni?ed youngarrisr, Anbkolsky,despire hn humble f,mil_1, b,.lqrcund, r,in€d Bar€l s admira-rion. Ar rhc em€ time. Barel r€m€mb€rs rhar Anrokolshy arired\carins an Aod€mv uniform.oar on *hi(h Ner embroideredrhe Hebr( lttrers "AlAh (foi ADrdkolsky) and Mcm (rorMarl). His .eonish.d lrimd asken him {hr he had ro shorLe\dyhld_r rhat hc wasJeNish, and Anrotohkv replied "!@nsidermvscll honoured 'o b€ a Jewl I am pilud oI rhar, and $ante\?rvdy ro kno{ rhar I am Jekh r Sraev,,!n,oloirl}, pp.

The *ar.h lor rhc |lsr \ns rcauy r rir.h fn Rtrssian n! riry.tlow.rcr, Rnssian hi sorians and tri nrds (j(r{l rhc cishrccn rh...nn'ry cn of Pcrcr and(l(lrrin. rlEcrcar, whi.h wrsmarkdbv r hc Enl ightcnm.nr ,nd W6trnDirion otRussia,andtridro '.\nr rhs 'rrne Russian sr)nn .hak.'eris(n ol rlc crrli.t

Dre'Pcrrine I*ri.xl. Ahltoush lusi{ ally roma nrn in .h,n.tcr, rhnr.end rinultaneoud! Dro\ id.d rhc b,$ foru Arowins poliri..l

S.hwarL, wbo \as a hisbrirn br rr.inins, c.me in rhe.ourrofhn nudics ol hisrorv ro rhe ider of rcrnins rhe Ix{ (ltroush

t'inrins. Inspn€d bv rhe hhkrirns Tjbtli and Sa\wrkn,S.hsrnz paid Iaithf!l ar.nrion torh.crad d.rails ol sixr{nr h.rnd f l .n ' t rn rh" .n r I t ,o { Im" \ . . rh rh 'u r " , I rn re ' ! r \Amone hh carliet wo.Ls {ere tlr illunrarions for Alcx.i (.

T{nrdi \ lrl l(nt,rS.t.Drrdnri (In. Stl,cr Prtn.?)ot 1863, anu.(.unr of Russi,n litc undcr lr.n rhe Terrible in the fom of ahisbri.al novsf. f n 1864 , S(hwan p inlcd tu^n th. 1'.rtibl. uithth. Bod, oJ hn Mudd.d Son and b(ame rhelirn Rlss'an artsrro p r . \ rn r 'hF rnsr rh"m' I l \ . Ren,n 'h ,^ .cd rn in r f l , v inhisroriGl rxinri.sasf!rl{as 1866.HndE*nrsE pllsio,oIllr.va'upolihn F'lavt dcpnh i .ontre\fl,idl mom.nr in$rcnrmnrb-(ntN Rtrssian hisrorv. Fedor Nitni.h Romanor(1554 1633). koown by hG nonann D,ne lilarct, Unk.n 'h.varihi(h and Romano! dvnastics, and plav€d a.rucial role inthe stabiUsation of rhs resime dudns rhe r-lniGl nn6r olrhclat. sixrenrh cenruR, known in Rus5ian as raulnot. dznrd

JEWISH NATIONAL ART IN RTISSIA IO5

Fig. 6. Kornantnt D. Flalitsht, Chttsttdn llttttts in thc Crlolr.un, 1862. Russian Mn.un, L.nngrad.

which obviously didnor fol low soeasi ly rhcearlyHas-kalah tormula of "bcing a man wh(n you goour anda

JeN in yo'rr home.",,'rhc rersion and tear ot b.i'rgdircovcrcd by rhose shoare our" \r'hilc b€ing a Jcrrin your home" is in this work broughr to the lullcslrealir:ridr of expected disasLer; rhe mcmbers of rhchrquisiti(nr are descendiDg the stairs, whilc the frighr'ened Marnno Jews aI( tryins ro escaF. Finall-v, Tl'rInquisition, sculpted in 1868, parallcls rhe ralaudi.D,sprlc in bcina conlemprancous with rhc publica-rion of Bralman s slanderous articles in Vilna s lcalnewspaper. The lcar and danger of rhc rene$'ed saveofanti-semitism can be fclt in Anrokolsky's relief-

Thconlychardcrer io Antokolsky s/n4rrrilio, \'hormdin\ (alm wh(n rhc memher\ ot rh( Inqui\ i r io lbursr in, is a b.ard€d, sumpruously dressed figure,

n Y.L. Codrn. 'AEakr Mv PcoDlc, lS{il (t!n)..1 tf,ner x'srer. Rd€,3l Mar(h t373,inSa$r,,rnrololrb.no.

srandine wirh his head rhoughrfully bowed bchind rh€rabl€ ar thc lcft. Antokolsky rcFared th€ figur€ in Romein 1873 in thc form ofa bust. id€nrifying ir in a lener roStasov as Natban the Wisr."?! fh€ rulptor's r€think-ina of thelnq!;it;o, relief, and his return loonrof ilsprotagonisrs - now repre$entcd as an eighteenth-.entury lirerarycharacter who wasa symbol ofrelisioustolernnce and universal humaDism - initiates Anto-kolsky's sear.h tor wavs ot rcconciliarion b€tween twooppos€d ltides in his work and in himsell. This s€archwill becomc charactedstic of his later works.

The /n4!ij;tion was €xhibited by Antokolsky ashistinal exam project for the school year 1867/68. But hishigh rxpecralions were bi(erly disappointed. Hisreachers publicly.riticizrd him for b€ing stubbom,doing things the way he wanred, not listening to his

63.D 7\. Nathnn th. Win., drama srnren b,_ C.E, lxs5ins in1773. \os, propher ot r€lianrs blennc.

106 MIRJAM RAJNER

prclessors; they queltioned whether he should be at theAcademyatall.lt s€ems that th is unexpected blow cameas a relult of his originaliry in dealing with the compo-sition and the unconventional lighting.,t The choiceand the critique of rhe theme were, curiously enouAh,not mentioned. However, it was the last time thatAnto-kolsky dealt with a Jewish subjecr in an €xpli.it way.Dekrmined to succ€€d, he turned in l87l to Russianhistorical subjects and sculpted a ponrait of lvan theTerrible which brought him the r€cosnirion and famehe desired.?' I t was a t th is rurn ing poin t in An tokolsky'scareer rhar Srasov discovered him.

Stasor and Jeuish Art

As Valkenier poinled out, Stasov's inir ia l au€mprs rolorm the Russian national rhool ot art were "an inte'gral parl ol lhe liberals' campaign to bring enlighten-ment, legalily and public participarion into Russianlite."'l6 He was, as was Antokolsky, "fie child ot the1860s," forming his ideas "in the tradirion otWesterniz'ing reformers." Thus, although he promoted rhe n€€dto be differenr and oriBinal, and to go ro hisown peoplein order ro develop a national school, Stasov was not anal ional is l in chauvinist ic terms. Whereas popul istideas, characleri?-ed by rhe veneration ol the "commonfolk as the source of poetic and moral values," devel-oped during rhe 1870s inro inolerance rowards any-thing non-Russian,,7 Stasov saw "rhe.ommon folk" as"Ruisia's backwardness," and sought lor ways tochange and transform them in ordcr tr: improve rhewhole of Russian society.

Upon meeting Antokolsky, Stasov applied rhis lib-eral democrati. form ot nalionalism to theaflist'searlyworks, and saw in rhem examples ot a new Jewishnational school in art. Antokolsky b€came his prot€g6,and, throughour the arrist's career, Srasov encourag€d

him ro work on Jewish themes and tbus conlribute torhe cause of Jewish arr. Still, due to growing anti-semitism durins the 1870s and especially the 1880s, itwas€asiertorStasov asa Christian to express suchviewsrhan for Antokolsky, as a Jew, to put th€m inlo

It was Stasov who addressed the broader Jewishcommunity in Russia as well, spreading rb€.onceptolnarional arr. It seems that rhe members of rhe Jewishcommunity showed an interest in Stasov's ideasasearlyas l87l. In response to his supportive article on Anto-kofsky's earfy works, the J eoish Tailor and the Inquisi"/ion,?t Srasov was offered an honorary membership inrhe Sr. Pet€rsburg Society for the Promorion ofCultureamong the Jews, and invited to b€ a memberota com-mirtee for building the capital's new synagogue.

St. Petersburg's Jews had be€n planning to build anew synagogue since 1869. They wanred to tollow thenew Westem style, which included an organ and achoir. In 1872, Stasov published an article in the maga-zine &)reishara biblioteka, in which he called on St.Petersburg's Jews to build theirsynagogue inan "Arab-Moorish" style.lo To support his suggestion, Stasovbrought examples ol synagogues erected in (hisstyleby

rhe n€wly re.ruired Jewish architec$ o[ WesrernEurope, among which the most prais€d example wasthe synagogue in Berlin, built by Knoblauch in 1866.stasov, in rhe tradition of nineteen$-century histori-cism. consider€d the "Arab'Moorish" style to be theonemost suited ro the Jews' "eastern and semitic" origin.According to Rachel Wischnirzer, "Stasov was proba-bly rhe only p€rson to link rhe Moorish revival in thesynagogue archirecrure wilh the medieval synagoguesin Spain. ' ! l

Hor'€ver, rhe synagosue was really planned onlyinrhc 1880s and - due to the delaying bctics of theaulht,r i r ics, who lound rheproiecr roo ambir ious - nolcomplet€d until 1893 (Fig. 7). hs openly "Jewish"

Airer hh prof€s$F refi'*d ().onte aM $ehis qort, Anrotolslrinr ired rht G.ad Du(hess Mari! Nikolac\Da, whoN.s presidenloi rhe Addeml. Shc in runr invitd th. EmFror Alexander IIqbo, inpr6s.n, .ommissioned the srarue for rhr Hemiksen\*cum. Thc Tert approval made AnrokoLkv orernish' a {?le-bEkd Russian rnlpror. Ho{erer, i$r a }ear latt, Antokokk!lrlr Russia forRode,due bill bealtb.'Ihorghhc,lwarsdrcam€dof morins lE(lq he.Dnrinu.d ro Inr abroad unril hisdearh. fnnnr lralt and larsr in Parn. risnins Rn$ia onlv dcd\ionrllt. Lcinbburs. in E"r.6Aala.nrstAloprdia, rol.2, pp. 788-789.\ralkenier, Eusian R.aln,,,trl, p. 5?.

AlthotrFh mrhusiasricauv srpponits Susrt idca, Anrokolsly.t rhis IFin' ki€d 'o junifv his un(ilUnFncss ro de\orr himsellcr.lusn?lv 'o narionalJeRnh rhcmcs, asStasr expded ofhin,b€muy hc al$ tboughr abour "Rtr$ia in s€neral. r'here he r*rrcsni*d ool lf,.aur ot his rrqznt,ton, but rarher doe |o his/,ar rl. r.rttrl.. S€.I€n€rroSh$r.Rome.30S.Ptcnbcr I873.insbsr. ,rnroAobly, no.88, pp. 99-100.Shsr,,rntrloarlr, p. 908.Eu.nrdrd .ntsihlop.dio lst. Perdsbu.s, 1906- 1913), \ol. I4, pp.560-61; \,.\'. Susv, 'Po polodtr pcrroiki sinasosi y S,-Per€rburs, Evniriala birltot.td 2 |la72),'153 474.R. Wi5.hnirai, rl. ,rr.nir?.ture ol the Eutupca, srndAogues(Philadrlphia. lgd), pp. 208 209.

JEWIS}I NATIONAI. ART IN RI ISSIA I07

Fis.7. Chordl S}'rdeoeu., lntish.d 189), l..iDte/ad.

kDkq parall( lcd St. Pdcr\burg's (lhurcb ot rhc Rcsur-f t rr ion, whi( h rras bui l r in rh( Russian nco{rar i( ' ral is lstvlc b€tt ! ((n 1883 and 190? ar rh( pla.r 'of Alcxa dcrI I s assassi i , t ion (Fis. 8). tol lowins rhc pr in( iplcs otrhe Russiar) t |co-nat iol ln l i* st l le in al l t i rc(rurc, rhcChurch of thc R(surre.t i (n) drew irs iDspirar ion tronrs€\cnrccnrh<qrtur_v Mus(()r itc archir({1urc. Throughrhcir histor i(al styles, b(nh Sr. Petersburs s Choral S) n-aK)sur and rhr Chur.h ot the Resurrcction wantcd tosrrcss their non-Europcan, l:asrern orisin bur also ()

emphasize a. l1nr narional idcnrirv: lcwish or Russia -Io l8?3, St.rso! conrinucd to publish in E1l/erlala

6rr l 'dr" tn. , v r ic\ofal i ( k \( l iq u\r ins rh( I rc\ , ntar iot '

'I !_or rhe mixrtrrc oI Mdrinr "lttnlRnigs ( iril., p. 209.!r \'.\r. Sravn. r]\Fistoi. Dl.trrir r $rdari,ll .\n,Fiskoso

nr!\sni, lir.irl,ra bibliot.^d 3 tla1l), 2${'-j2?: 5 {18?5),3 l -73 i 6 (1878) , l9 -61 .

,. Eu.iskav .ntsihlop.aia, rol, ll, p. 561; 1'.1' srrvn. Po\lr\\.mirnoi qMrki, E/r.nla}'n , ir ltolcld 7 (llt79),2t7-28l.Thrjo*ph Sh.u$ (olhdion of 1udai..€xhibnd rh(Tuaderc.rrhc Parn world Exbibnidn ol1373 r'rs rncliB' bisrxhibnnri ol

Jsirh (rnurial ai'.Thit.rhibirnnm6url*.{ rlF€s'ablish.menr oI J.\rish mu*rms x nrmber oa fnft)tr.rD .n'rs -

ric. E. R.sua.dioa Church, 188) 1 7, L.ninctod.

oI rhe imasrs otJe$s in l .uroFan works ofart .$ Attrrrhc Paris world Exhibiri()n in l8?8, Stasov inlormedrhr Russian-Jc\rish rcdcrs in derail alnur thc famousSrrauss .olkrrion of Judai(a, adding ro the anicledrae inss ( ' f !ar ious J.wish (cremonial obje.rs.3! I r wasirr rhis art i (k thar hr proved mosr conviDcingly rhccxisren((.r , f lcNish nnt i(m.r l an and the need I i r :

whar rhc anist is k)rn r ' r ' i rh. . . . the imt)ressionsandimagos thar al$'ays slrrounded him, among whnlrhe gr(w k) nlanhonl. Iowhich hisclcand soul wereri!et({ - onl-! rhar (1ur he render $irhdeepexpres-sion. $i th tn| lh and genuine for(c.r5

\ r i .nn i (18 !5 /9?) , f r rn l i r r r (1901) ,Pr .suc(1906) ,dc . i E . t .L Iprdid ladrno, rol. 12, p.538. Shsr Ntrrr alxni 'he J.s'$mx*un rs srll, rhu5 diqu\sins rhe pmblcm rt rhercn b.atrlnins ol ifs rp|xaranr. ni rlr we\t: tut ishdto dtsihlop.dia. \ol.I l , D . 5 d l .

$ L Ghrslnns. "Jiidi\.hc N.tionnlkunn, Ot ltd rv.rl5, no. l0(19o5) ,70 l i f ronsr :$ r , Pdr l r \smnno i rw i !k i . TheF.ns l i rhrBisb' nrr wxs rakcn hom Knnpl, ln Qucn of J.\'nh s'vlc. D,.19.

IO8 MIRJAM RAJNER

The nat ional element in a was rhus narural" inborn,and sas to b€ underst@d "as rhe individualily in rhe

Thc parli.ipation of Wesrern Jews in such tields asart, cra[t, induitry, m usic and arch i recrure, representedat the World Exhibirion, encouraa€d Srasov to claimthe existence of Jewish arr as thc an of rhe Jewishnal ion. I r \ denial he blalant l ) \ . t dosn lo anri-semitism, and to the weakness of rhe Jewish tightagiinst it. With rhe same vigor wi1h which h€ had.allcd for the establishment of a Russian nauona'school of art atrer rhe London World Exhibirion in1862, he now saw hims€lt as a forcrunner ol rhe Jewishnarional s.hool:

Though I myself am nor Jewish, I still find irinrercsting and important, ro.oncern Imys€lfj wirhthe righls and obligarions of the Jewish Fople. Itscems to me lha( someon€ from among the Genrilesshouldo.(upy himsel l wirh i t , ara r imewhenJewsthemselves do not do what they should.s?

Final ly, Stasov.oncluded his art ic le bycal l ing on Jew-ish artists to abandon non-Jewish rhemes and expresstheir identity by turning to their history as their mainrhemari. source- Howevcr, in order ro prolecl hir

impartialiiy, Stasov stressed rhar his inleresr in rheschool of Jewish na tional art was not uniq u€, bur rarherequal ro rhe interesl he had in various orher nadonalschools - Spanish, Hungarian, Polish, Tyrolian,Sw€dish. American - and above all, Russian.!3

B€sides his need to prove his rheory about rheexisr-ence ofnational schools ofar(, Stasov\ inierest in Jewshad other sources as well. As a genuine admirer and astudent of the Bible, he saw in it a Jewish gifr roChris-r ianirv and ro rhe Weslern World. At the same l ime,Smsov was also an archaeologisr. He was wellacquainted with the excavations carried our since the1840s, which had shed new lighton theancient culruresof Egypr, India, Assyria, Asia Minor and Palesrine.These archa€ological discoveries gave a hisroricaldim€nsion to Biblical sources which Stasov eagerlyaccepted as an important prootof the exisrence ot Jew-ish art s ince anriqui ty. t ,

An important proj€ct that derived from thecollabo-ration between Stasov and Baron David Ginzburg, aJewish scholar,to was a porrlolio enritled L'Otncm.nlH;breu. The portfolio mostly consisred of pagescopiedfrom illuminar€d Hebrew manuscriptsol the renrhandeleventh cenruries, found in the famous Cairo genirahand kept at theSt. Petersburg Imperial Library.t'C,om-pi led a lready in I 886, the porttol io was publ ished on ly

(;inrsbu4j, ",liirlish. NarnD.lkuDi, p. 7Ol,Shvtr. Pd\lc \ \ch i.noi vyin\ ki, pp.280-8liSovN i'r Ci'r$burF . J i idn .h . Nar i { r r r tkxDn. no l l , p . 778r n l$ Sr .s (^ , 'PoInvrxlL' pGroiki sinrgogc vS,.P(1dlnq, pp 453-,173. A(,rd.ins b sra$v. Anblolskr did nor$rffn.i$rh erp$s hhJcwnh.ncss in his sorks. Thr.rni.likcl 'o icDnrd rht KultrorolhhJ.\ish orisin, as sho*i itr rhe .ired quorarionr "Ldk h.F.,.wha( is rhe ide ol.allnrs tolr*lf Mark? C.ininl! norhnrg. Arcto! anranRlofvouro\n Mordc.hail I \imDly(annor xDd.rMDdir. Wh.rc is )olrnrri,)nal pridc in bcinA, Jcwt Cao vou nor se,rhr m.anifi..nr bilJli(al splcndor, rhc nobiliry of rlar'Mor{le.hni ? Ycs,ycs, tou sh.uld f{,rser Mark.nd b..omc pr.u.l.I ),ou.an.ienr nrnro.r.ri.Io'cfarher Mod(hai.The 9.,r Mordc(hailL.s. Da*idovic?, Th. Cold.n TuAiti.rn kuih Lik tndTnoncht ih Ea .m Europ. (Ne\ York. 1967), p, 328. Srn$\exDre$ed ihG.rsu'ncDr ut-r! brins inrrodn.rd bvAnrololslr !,Yuli (Joel ) Dim nrieri.h [nscl, on rhfeveoIRusian E.icr, n]1897 ( t r i l . ) .Suvn \ad ivnvasa. r i r i candtorc f , rhero lnarnnra lism in an ale sprad nno (he field of musi. H. wrorc on Inumbd oI ocmsions abotrr Ru\sian narional musi., and s't!rxtrrdl srh vouns .ompo$r\ as Muytrsskv nnd Rimsky-K.nakov, Hralso influen.cdJdl Engel aod mcounscdhim inhn irrde{ ir Je{ish folk musi.. J. Wcinlf,rs, "Jftl Ensel:Champion o{ J.wish Mu\i(, in Darlidovi.,, Trndition, p?.327-331.In nddirion to rhose aliead) nenrioned, Shso! wrore ani.lesihn ! J t ' s \ Judrhm ind Jn* i .h J r i .n n numt f , ' o t e , r . ion . .'Th . \

ser r l {h lFhcn monh i r I r , . i \Ld)okbhot tn0 . rm g l l in.nrnl.dRdd.r.lnd ni hh.ollecr€dsorks:V.V.Susov,sormntrdntrunti, \ols. l-8(Sr, Perersburs, l87l-18a6).rol.l,(1906).H€

dirrscd s,.h topi.sntJudaisn i Exqr. r h. Russian tEnsla-rion ol t-rssinAsNduan rtu l/*r0rubl, 1875). 'hr,.r.sSaEhB.tnh..dt. the M.rchdnt ol ,cai.., e\.. E khhata .ntsihlop..tid,rol. 14, p,561. On Susvand hisonuibulion lorhedertlopm.nrol Jctrish oa'nnrrlan h Rxssia. sfr,ko B. Nart<iss. Inrroduc.rion ro rbc Ncw tdi rion, in ll hninations hon H.brtu BibLs olt.ntrsr.d. orisinally publishrd bt Bamn David Gunuhrsand\'lxdimn Slassif. nnKludion.nd nrw dcsriprions by BealelN,rkiss (Jcn&lcm, r990), pp. I I -17.An cxampl. oI rh.appliotioD of ar.haeoloRical snres ro on,rrmrxlrarv Rxssian art will b. diru$cd belo*,Bar.n Darid Ginzhurs (1857-1910), thc $n of 6aron Hok.Ginzburs, is naitrly known as a rholarolJudaic and odrnral$trdics. H. w.s a menb€rofa famons Ru$ian-J€$ish lamily oIbank€rs. Dh ilan rhropists ,nd ommlnal work€B. Thrft s€noa-rions of the Ianily. livins dnrins rh€ s@nd halfof rh€ nrne|en rhand rhr b.sinnin8 of rhe r*enrierh ennris. br€m. known as*mi of f i.ial repr*nrariv6 ot rh. Rusian-Jewish.omnunny rorheTerin aurho.iries. trsinsrh€irinflrcnm, $e! trird ro @*.hehardships ol pogmms and anri'*mnic polni.s. Thc St. Pe@$b' re hom. o f Baron H^a eGrn /burs ( 1853 lc09 ,Na.dmfr r inApla.e for libcBl rholan, aurhos, aninsandorh€r inrell(ruals-He awarded scholaships ro rh. arr ist AD|olols!y, Ilya Oin6hursand Chagdll, helpins rhrm in rhe €arlv iaFss oI rheir.a@$.Etr.ishard .nLsiilop.did, rol. 3, oo, 5tl-5t2. En.\cloq.didIu.laico, vol. 1 , DD. 96o-62t Hcdtdr 6 ( 1958), ?7- 178, in H€bra ,The ponfoli. was published asain by Prcf. Beal€l Narkiss, whoaddcd a na inrbdu.rionandd€{riprion oI rh€plares;tlllni"a-tio$ Jron H.brtu aibL! ol Zcnagtad (Jeru*lcm, 1990),

in lm5, in Berlin, possiblvdue to the Russian aurhori-ties retusal to allow its publication.r, Although"severely criri.ized and tully refuted on scholarlygrounds," as poinred our by Kampt,r! the portfolio, likerhe r€cent archaeological excavations in Palesune, wasproof of the exisrence and continuation of Jewish a .Even more imponanr wasrh€fact rhar theportfoliowasused as an inspiration and model forendenvors ro.rearea modem Jewish arl.

The first use of this marerial, i.e...opicsof rhe pagesbrarinB mo\rlv micrographi.. florJl and geome'ricdesigns $as durine Anrokolsly s funeral in 1902. Thcd€signs u ere ls€d to de( orarr the columns o[Sr. P€rerli-burg' \ nc$ svnagogrF drr ing thc funeral prme\\ ionand servi.e. An cnrhusiasric journalisr corering rhcfuneral reportcd:

Some of thrse decomrions showed thc Shiekl olDavid," sa.r€d ro rhe Jews, orhers - planrs nndvarious symbol i . f igures, in sumpruous.ok)rs gl i r 'ter ins with sold and si lver. . . Sr ' .h Jcwish orna'm€nts havc never lxen seen anywhere in Er'rctxunl i l th is t ime.. .r t

In his introducrory text, wriuen in 19ft, Baron DavidGinzburg lisred orher applicarions of rhe L'Orn.m?nlH;rrcL ponfolio, which undcrline irs impoflan.e lorSr. Perersburg's Jewish communiryr15 a plarr ofl('red roTsar Alexander III in 188,1, on rhc o.casion ot thcanniversary ot his coronat ion; a " lamp" placcd in rhcsynagogue in 1888 to.ommcmoralc the rrain a..idenrat Borki and €xpr€s! hrppincss lor those saved;r6 a

Ain brrq, L Om.n.nt I libr.u, lt. ? .vsmpt , ' ln Qu€n o t Jcs ish Sr r l . , p . 51 , t r . 13 .Alrhouah uu(oann.d h Rnsir \in( hisl!.r ll.?.ribi.rMol.ena(ached br rheanti.s.miri( pas. Anbtolslr had asr. i-oe tuneql. Amotrs rht nunrlxr o( arir$,.rni6 and a( lo\.rsEcr Fpm*nr r 'nc \ " f r lF t r raJ ' r n rnrmrbr rn a ' r ' rn 'mfnh n 'Rusria and rhe lc.dos of rhc lcsinr narn,nal re\n.1. Th. pn$cDc of Mamort{^ (N6}Nrr iDnrlisrr) ard Dilshiln (rh. Worldof An snp) rcIlc.trl Rtrssin s ftn.\rd opcnn.s x,wrnh rhcWctandnsa :Ank lko ls lv ,whov vu l t t t rnswrenwa 'd . r lb t rrunbtrofrhe A.demi6 nt Wctcnt Euro'x, b€.am.rncxrnrtt.

" l an a ' rn r t rh i ' nk r ' ldd i r r rh . wcn Jcq^h ru r ' ! i t ' r r in t r

indn"pd a n€* narnnaldwnRncss. Durins dr Risns of Al.x.and.r lll (1881-139,1) lnd Ni.holas ll ( l89l-1917), Insbmrnndanri-Fmni. mcasnrs lR n.rn inr€sral pan ofTerisr F n!.A! a 'w ion ro n n J.qi5h naridnalisr nor€mnr d.lrroFd.*hi.h ifrluded Ja nh ai ar an imporranr diriplin . Fd JeNirhrDii.ipatrrs Anblolstr lxrim atr enrlr r.ptMhrnrol s!.h6.learou6. Novorti, 6 J nlr 1902, ii Srag^.,rnroloirly.DD.l hi.Ci ur9 Lomn.tt Habr.u.lt.6.On l? O.rcb€r l338 rlF imtxrial r6in ni shi.h rlFTerandhir

JEWISH NATIONAL ART IN R(ISSIA IOg

mcgilldh donared ro rhe sculptor Antokolsky for his50thjubil€€; andaTorah Arkcurtain used inSt. Percrs-burg's new 'Temple" for theHigh Holidays, decoratedwirh rhe omam€nrs bormwed trom rh€ portfolio.

Althongh we do not knola' whar lhes€obi€cts lookedlike, it is interesting to note that both a mrgiurft(at th€Iower center)and a rNrnorah (c€nrerrishr), possibly the"lamp" mentioned by Cinzbuig, appear on thelrontis-piece of the porttolio (Fis. 9). Th€ trontispiece wasdesigned by the Russian archit€.t Ivan Rop€t, whos€name app€ars at the lower right com€r, surmundingthc flow€r. Rop€t, rhe representative of th€ RussianNeo-Narionalist school in archirecture, was mosr prob-ably invited by Stasov to create this desian. AlrhoughRopet did borrow' f rom the r)r iginal i l luminat ions,rhe design ollers an imaginative and eclectic mixture.The Jewish symbols he depicred include the Star ofDavid; possibly rhe rable of showbr€ad (Exodus 25:23){lankcd by lcaves rhat r€mind on€ot spoons torfrankin-censelT rhe n rrora,h and the rnegillah, pulled out fromirs.ase. The stylized lcuering imitates Hebrew script,while tloral and geometric patiems include examplescopied lrom the portfolio s pla tes bu t a lso heart-shapedand tloral motifs characteristic of Russian folk art.

'Ihc porttolio was again us€dasa sourcein 1905.St.Petcrsburs's Jewish community decided toadda srillegatc to rhe Choml Synagogue (Fig. l0). On Stasov'sadvi( e, the Jewish communi ty commissioned the archi-tcds Ivan Roper and A.D. Schwarrzman, who us€d theclemcnts from Rolxt's hontiripiece: the Slar of Daviddccoraud with flowers, the gable and quatrefoil, andsimilar tbr?l and heafl-shaped patterns.r3

an'nilr wtr tarrlins hadr Inhl n( nttrt Frr rh.rillaa.otBeli.Althoush a number of Fqte werc nrjurd. $m€otrhm fabll!,'hc nrdbcEol tht imrFriil finilr s.rc s\'.d. Th.Ter ss in itr'1niD.lc and 1lr fi.lgtr.{ Gxl shi.h t$idrcd ro him rh.wnr h Nhi.h Rusianrishi lre\slfom W6tcm rcfomsli.e.,nr rhiscasc, rheraihdd nrdush)aDdhnnrshr ba.k inro rhefoldo tord i r iona lRus\ ianonhdoxv , ln t t t i r i .a l rems,nmmnt rhc{ru)arhcninF oI Chrk$ rytinc aDd ot Jud@phobia. Dnbnor,Hislor), \d. 2, p. r78. Thc 'm(mortul l.mp ini,ll.d in rheryong.guc k,onmemohrc th. ri('nnsof rh.a(idmr wasana.'rtl)nrlor 'he a\sinila'd Sr. Pr'chburyJ.\'s.

it Th. llblc of lbo*bFad is lr'ally rcDrcscntrd sirh r$rhe l@l-Ut.Iorms arnn*d in omtDnmentsof sir (c.8,, Bible, Pari5, BNMs. htbr. 7, Perpisnan. Anron 12S9. Iol- l2r. in J. Cut@u,H.btd Monuvript Pointina, tandon, 1979, p. 5r). In Rop.r'sd6ian. $.r. are r*o..nlanmcnk, ca.h *ith t$€hr.ids. H€misht alo hare b.€n thinlinF ot rh. Hish Pri6fs bEastplak

I L Cinrsburs, Osnda u thoralnoi siraFogi r S.-Pe@bnrs.N,'/rt Zorlrrod, no. 10, 1910, pp.25-26.

I l0 MIRJAM RA.I^" I :R

fie. 9. I- Orn?nt.nt H(bt.u, St. P.t.tsbrry. 1886-8.tlit.IelJ, honttspi?.e l?sillncd br llnn Rotet.

Staso! s(a l l f rn the( \ t r l , l ishnxr | lo fn. lc$ ish narnr ta lschool of art hrd, as sh(,rvn, x tx)sitivc r( sponse am(nrgthc lead(rs ot Sr . Per( . r s l )urg s l .s ish commLrni rv rD(r ,csrrd in Jer{ ish nat i (nrr l r . \ ' i !a l . Anrokolsk! 's {nrhworks - r he ./rrl ir/r Tn i Lor , Tabnudi( l)isplttc ^nd tltt1868 ,n./ u trili(,n - sct irr cxa'npl(. Srill, rhc! had lxri'creard lather rs Jewish vrrsi()ns oI rhe Wander€rs anrhan as cxample, ot a Jcs ish nar ionnlaf l . Anrokolskv,n lcB, sp l i r h r$een nnt i -se l ] r i r i . a l la(ks o h is worksnnd h is ambi !a lenceas rcgards h is own J€t ! ish idenr ih- ,had d i f f icL ' l t i ( s in fo lk)* ingSra$t ssugs.sr ion. I roni -.a l ly , i l $ 'as rhc Chr is t ian arr is ts , uho d id nor fa. { lhesamc problems. l lho were abk roanss€rSraso\"s(r l lf in rh" ,ed ' i ,nr o l a l ( s i ,b r r iu ' ) r l ! h ,x , l .

As menr io edabovc, thcar(haeolos i .a ldryovencs,(aserl! follo$cd b!Srasov, salea hisrorical dimensi(ntk, Bib l r . i r l \or ' , r , . or t , whr 'h hF d i ( ( t ' red a i i rn imt ! r -

rq. 10. htan Rop.t, Chotul Synngogtr's ga!., I9Ot,

r .rn ' t r , 'of , , f thc e\ ist(rr , e of J.wr\h drr s ince anriquiry.Th{ Bibl i .a l lcw thusbecamra r€alhistor ical f igure-a rcprcrentat i lc of th( an. icnt J?wish narion, and norrn imaginary, myrhi( al .h!rra.ter.

Onc of thc carli(sr cxamples of this approach wasthe otxra " lud;tn, bnsd on the bok ol Judirh andwrirl( n by an assimilatcd, hall-Jewish compos€r, Alex-andcr Serov.'I he olx ra $as txrformed for rhetirsr rimein St. Petersbrrrg in 1863. Folk,l ingStasov sadvice, thest and costume dcsigner N. Nabokov turned to themosr :r.curarc sour.c in ordrr ro create an,aurhenricambnrce tor Scrvo's ot)cra: rheAssyrian rcliels trom rhes€venrh cenrury B.(1.,,'fbe rcli€fs sere dirovered in1845 iu Assurbanipal's pala.c in Nineveh and taken roLondon, rlhere Staso! may hale sern lhem while visit-i s thr World Exhibirion in 1863. Nabokov probablysaw dra{ings bascd on these relieti in HermannWeiss's

,, Gnlltr. /J,orira 16rA,g0 nt!$rva, vol,9, pan 2, Op. 152-53.

JEWISFI NATIONAL ART IN RTISSIA I I I

f iS. 1 1 . N . N oboko!, tl oloktncs, ( . I 86). OonLtup d.sign lot Ale hsander Seto! t opetu J Ltltt h. Bnhh/tushin T heakl

Fis . 12. ,4ssr tbahipt l . Nint th,7th tut r ry B.A. Br i t ish 14uvum, London.Fis. 17. /lsslrian, ilLuntutitn in thamanr w.ns, llinory ol (i^tunc,1ol. I, SttLtt!:art, 1860, lig. I 17 n, b.

History ol Costume, a book rvhidr Staso! clcarl], alsokncw and t)robably rc(.)mmcDdcd ro Naboko!.50 Hol(!ferncs' costumc was (arclully (opicd lrom rhc dnlwit|sof the rel i r t publ ished in Wciss's b(x)k ( l ' iss. I I , I2 t t dl 3 ) . 5 '

Ilya Rcpir, in his Chrirt Rair;ng vair's DalLghter

Itom the Dead lt87tt Mark 5:22, 35-13; F'is. 1,1), (on-r inued thc scarch f . )r thc "hist()r i (al authcnt i( i ly" otthis New Testament sccnc. The tact that Yair rvas thccareraker of rhe (lapemaum synasoguc cnablcd Rcpirlto add several Jewish clcmcnrs t() the lxinli s: thcthree-branched mrno'ah above the sirl s hcad is a(om-mon Sabba th .andclabrum i 1o tht lcft of i r on thc$'all isan a(a(hcd $'all-hansins Dith (hc ins.ribcd Hebresword Mtzrai (lasr)J, r., thc rishr o{ thc Mizral sisn isaniche in thc wall s'ith books. Thcir pk ximirr t.r theMiz'ah sign srsscsts thal thcsr arc rclisiol's books. Allrhese detai ls stnss thr lc{ ish.hara. l rrotYarfsho re.

Finallv, thc imne( of Yair himsrlf is based on ancasily ft.ogni:r€d !isual sour.e, adding to the "hisrori-.nl" .rcdibi l i ty dcmanded by Sksov and the Wanderers.Y:'ir's bcardcd hcad and (mnd hat, his lolded handsandI 'v ' r I 'ar arc r i miniscf l f l , ' ( rh( rw,, l fw5 wfar ing 5im.i lar hats, depi. td in Rcmbrandt 's etching Thd Stn-aso.q1!e (1618, t'is. l5). In addition, Repin added an"oriental lou.h': rhe striped band around Yair's hara d the ri.hly decorated long shin panially visibleunder his overcoat underline rhe Eastern characrer of

Although e(lectic in nature, such "historicalaurhenricity" and rhe search tor ir was chara.teristic otrhe Real ist school ot Russian paint ingi i t to l lowedChernishevsky's aesthetic dicrum that "that an wasbeautiful which depicred realily as it is." In religiouspainting, thir premise led towardsan increa sed i n rerestin and research of lewish life and surroundings, in

Hermrnn Wei*,,(,r/u.m&rnd., Lrdnabt.h d.r C.s.ht.ht.,.telTrt.ht, d.\ Bon.s und d.s C. ith.s rlet vt'lk.r des Altettrnt,2rols. (Srutellr, 1860). Thc txn\ orfcldt d.hil,rl. iln,ntrt{l dc\.ripri.rn ha{d on rkhr@logi.al cx.avrri{tn. hinornrl vrr..{. rn . l r . r rc l 'F ' . . I ' d l - Jnr , " .d n r J RrA. i in L 'nnJrn 'nRcpin als rsed Weisls illusrrarion of Altvrian.o{nmc td rhelEintins lob and Hi Fri.nds oI 1869. G. Sr.niD. rl). R.pt,(If,ninsrad, 1935), ris. 1.

The M'!',i risn i\ rradirnniallv pla.tdon rh. errcrn $aU oI rbchou\e k, nrark (he orientarion dtrrinA pny€rs tosards J.ruelcm.Th. contise ltuish Enq.Lopedid. p. 37 4.Yairt ri.h shii, rnibl€ und€rhhoverrcar. probably de.iresi.onWeiss s H6ton ol costumes.l he riribl€, lo\tr eds€ oI rhc shirlFd ds oDe oI rhc deonrior found on rh. .lorhine of rhe weu'b.do an.icnr H€breus (5( Fis. l3).

I I2 MIRJAM RAJNER

fig. I.l. IIta R.pit, Cht;st Raising ydn\ Ddusht.l hon th. D.d.l. 1871. Russian Mus.un, L.hinqrdd.

ordcr ro provide rhe correcr se(ing for Eibli.al s.cncs,cspc(ially for s.enes from Chrisr's lite. However. for rhcChrisrian a isr it was ditticuh ro cany su.h anapproach to i(s logica I con sequence - toprcvrtChrislhimself in a 'historically corr€cr" rvay, i.(., a$ a Jew.

The artist who was capable of doina i( was Anto-kolsky. 6rc, Homo lchtist Belorc the Peoplcj vt^ss.u\ncd in Rome in \ATZ/74, ̂nd is onc of rhc mos(img)rtan( figures among the unir€rsal worksAnro-kolsky turned to alter leaving Russia (Fis. l6).5a Mrrchhas already been said abour rhe Jewishness of An tokol-sky s Jesus.55 He is shown standina, drcsyd in simpleBiblical garb, with a skullcap and Jcwish facial fea-

! Lnnra abr@d and Kn b! ron-Rusriar\ ai a Ru$ian, Md b!RNsians as n Jr$, Anrotohk! onrinuouslt sii hd lir a lnrl-ancc ltrwen his Russian rErriorism and his sultcrnrs .l.,sishidorriry, Tni! *ap. already indiGFd in his tnquirttor (l8li8),hflrtr{rd a nlmb.r oI his Boits d€aredabn{d. Bv.h@sins k}s utt $nh.ham.r€r as Chrisr (diffcienr !e^n,ns l87T-74, 1886and 1889), S(rrar6 (18?,1 77), John rhc Baptisr (1878), Spnnrr(1882). and 'o E'um !l 'he 'hrmeof rhe lnquisirion ro$rrdr rh.cnd oI hn lilc (1902), Anrololslr idenritied wnh .n in4. ol'tishhnfri.rims whoF rhouahb$renot otrdcBtlixl nnd Nho

FiA. lt. Rmbrdndt, Th. Stnagogu., t648. (laltobRos.nb.q, R.mbtund\ Lil. and wotl, London, t9t51,lis.2W.)

st putrirh.d tor rhcir idc.s. l. Cnnshqa, inEur.tila},tr.nljt-Alop.dt , rol.2. pp. ?18-796.

ir Tlr norion oI a Jrsnh Jen6 deri\cs fem Amhhai"Mai*ls."TheJewish Je$E, pp. 8,1- 104. Ir ih ir nri iclr Am ishai-Man.hdirusres in de'ail 'hc norion ol J.$N Chri$fs J€r'ish orisinahi.h $as deklop€d during rhreiShtcnlh entury by rhe md{impodanr fiaur€s ol rhc Gcrmdn EtrliAhhm.nr. Anrokolsktrulpred his J€sus on th. basis of rhis r(ntly d.rdoFdopinion,*hi(h he.onld a.quire diRtlv lron lrssins, as$?s rh.dr$nhthe idea lor hisNariatr lr. tyi. bust,

j l lWISH NAT()Nr\L ART Ihr RISSIA l l5

l-ig. 17. B.tlount, i116kationol Costu,t.. rol. I, Stiuel ,

n H.rman" W.i$. H ktott

f ie . t6 . Moth 4 i tohokh\ , l : t t . Hon lo , 187] t74 . ' t ia \ahbr

tume.56 Anxnrg rhc i lhsrmri(n)s thar Antokolsky mosr

t)rolxrbh l(x)kcd ar in Wciss s lxx)k nrc th.oncsdepicr-i"g B({ktr ' in\ (Fis. l7). As wciss tx) inr({ l our, robesrit]rilar tl) tlx)sc rvorn by llcdouin rrilx.s urrr worn byBibl icr l tx) t) lxrs and apost lcs,r? whi(h nrndc rhcmapt)ropriar( tor rhc in)aK ot Chrisr tts wcll. B€douiirdrcss (o sisrs o[ a knrg shi tird around the waist andrclc '{d wirh a broad. sui txd cloaL.tr lkal an arbas.Both rhi f l r rnd.bak arc nradc from wrxr l orcanrclhair .

Ar)r( ,kolskv fol lowtd in (rmsidcrabk dctai l Wciss'sBedouin costurne. His ( lhr isr has a knrs shir t r i (da(mnd th. $r isr and (^r ' f td $irh n. l (Hk. He er"nadd.lC th(.ltlra(teristi( srritx,s, repres(ntit|a thcm byalt{nitira vD(x)rh n d roLrah \r'rri.al nrarbk surfa(rs| l ) crcatc th( iDagcol thc I lcdouin s str i lxr ickrth. How-r!{r , rhc hcad cov.r i rs is a skul lcap si i lar ro rhat\Lonr bv (otrl( mrDrar\' ()r'h(xlox JeBs.-rhe "lorislr Jesrrs, as grinrcd our by Amishai-Mrisels, (r(r ted 'nu(h;rnser among borh Christ iansJ d JFt l \ . 'q S,, , lp 'ed b1 .r l r i .h s, , l tn"r in r r imc{hcn srosins ant i-semir i . and r€a.t ionary pol i t ics

lrrad rn Rrrsia, i t r at t rnl . r mesragl to hrth r ommuni.r ies. Anrokolskv hrncs: onlv du. ins rhis momcnt.ould He (nnd ortlv He) say, 'I forsive them, for thcy

t r lDd. , p . l l ! l .W. iss lo l lossB ih l i .a l i lev r i lnnn t ro lDrophec rnd,{rrxrlrs r lrrhcs.onsnt ins of nranr l.s mad. lro s.Mr'shanan.lkn,sh t.rrik5 (laiah 20:2: Zdh. l5: l: Man. 3:l).

5. Ani\hnaMri*lr. 'J.snh.l{sr5, p. 99, n.6!.

rures, in.lxling side.urls :rnd a beard. ri( (l r idr a roBaround his nnns and Naisr. As explaincd b_v the s.ulp'ror, in ord( r toa.hiele histori(al accura.\,. hcalso usedas a souK f(n rhis s.ulpture Weiss s Hirlory o/ Cos

r " I x r te r t ' KnnNko i , Rony,23 la .u :n (9 l i l tm i r ) 1371. n rSrawn. , r '& , lo ls l r , no .8 t . t , t l2 . ' l h . t r '6o lWrnsr l ln /o4 ,o /c,!!a. rhnr nn.icsr.n Ank'l,n:tr\rrreinrol l: Dir Hebr;nr(und Ph, rnn ic r ) ,pD.315 351.and D i r A .n l { . , Dp l13 158.

I I ' I I IRJANT RAJN!:R

kno$ nol whal rhev do. "5 'gThis por t r a-v. t l o l Chr is l as a

Icr ' , bcrause "He was rnx l d i ( { as a Ic$, to l oudr and

br1)rherhood,'!i folkNrd thc icltas of the German

Enl ishknrncnr . a id id rheear l i ( rNal lan l lc ty i rc . bu(

a lso cxpressecl the arr isr 's responsc to thc l87l Odessa

pogrom and t l re ant i semit i . a l la .kson h isown wor l .6 l

I sp i r ( o f Antokol rky s r roubkd rxp( I icn(e \ ! i th

h is i r lagr o l a Bib l i (a l lew. Repin k 1r f ree t1r dcvclop

rh. id(a tuf lher . I lorh Yair 's rcsJnblar) ( ( ( ) Renr

brarx l t s J(s s and Antokol rkr 's nv o l r sknlkap tot h is

Jesus sugg(sr thr t lbe rurh.Dr i . i ty vrut ih l b ! lh tsc

nrr is ts sas k) bc lound in cont .nr lxr rat -v soutr ts . As a

c lose t r i r r : r l o f Antokr l rk ! s and h is roomD)r tc dut ing. r x l ' 1 r ' 1 . , \ ' . R , 1 , i t r r , , r l i - " 1 t h . r r r l , ' . r r r l ! r l k \ , , u t r ,

f .n h is rc l is i rn 's s( ( l |cs I r ty amrDg cont t rn lxr tat .v Rus-

\ ian. lcws, d.vuxlar) ts ot rhc i f l l ib l i ( r1 aD.csr( ) rs . Ik

\Lrr ! Din inrcr .skr l i r r . , rnrrx i r l i i r ,a t r lx rht i r nr is(mbk

srr ia lcr r r t l i t ions. as lnr i ) to ls t \ ( l ( l iD h is /4, ; ' / i 7n i l '' , ' . l i , I r . , r l ! | i ' r u ' i r r t l I r , . , . , n . , u r l , i 1 , r i . ! i u t i ,' lhc

n(xk l ' r ( r rcst to I r r t ( l was ADft )kr ' lsk-v h i r t )sc l t .' l

hrcc ( ' t Rct) i r 's s lnk\ f ( r r r t1 ' h is . l rL ish h i ( i t ( l i r ) th(

r ( , lc i ) f a I l ib l i . i ' l ( ha ' r . r ( l . I l l l l l { ; ( j , Rcl r iD d i ( l r tx t r tu i t( ) f Anr( 'k( ' lsky nt I ) ra-vet ( I r i ! : l8) Al th(nruhthcecsrur l( ) t thc amr . ' r l I is r o ' r thc ( h( s t r r t ( ' .hr rm.rct isr i ( { ) t lhe

Y.m KiP;r r r Prr -vrrs , h is hcad is . (^1r( l 'v i th r B ib l i r r l

manr l ( , r r rher rhrn r t r r -v . rsh:rwl . Ih . fo l ( l { ' ( l ( l ( } rh

rcniDcls onc of thc hradi ! ' ! ( ' r i rs iD thc skcr(h [ . r ' th(

npost l f . la . in) of . . 1870-71, r lonc in ln j , r r r r i r r r n , r thc

Rais i , |g o lva;r 's l )auehlct (F ig. l { ) ) . Anrokolsk, r asr in

scr lcd hcrc as a nr l ( ,1 .6: lhc rh i t l l r im(. hc was txn 't ra_v( ,d b_v R. t ) i r r rs r sr (n)c( l I t r ) l ) lx r iD rh. l U1)0 i lhrst t r -

t ion t ( r Lcnror) l (^ s lx)em. 'Th( Pro lnt1. 61

Pot t t i t o l a Old Jcu,

R , r r l r . ' n d ' . t ! h , ^ , , r , ' r r 1 , l , R . f i t r t , ' l l , x r , l i r 1 ' ' t t t . l -ing Anokolsk\ as r Bib l i ( r l (hatr | .kr , k d thc Ru5\ i rn

6 ' t -drcr n Srann. R, ' i r 3 l Ntn.h (12 Ap' i l ) l87 l t . ! r sr . t^ ./ rnro lotAy, no.63. pp. 70-71.

f ie . ! l t . ILr t R(pnt , ,4 i lohoLs, ' r a t I ' tu let , 1866.W h. tc thar ts ,n knoun.

afr is t hDr l t r r t ( )sar( l$ thc Ix t r rayalo l a conlcmpolat 'y

R' rs \ iur loL rs s" .h. ID Rcpir ) s 187. i ) pai l r r i r )ur r i t led

l "u at I ' layt (F i ! r .20) , thc Bib lnal Jew was t rans-

f . r rn(( l i r to rn o ld, Ihsr-Errro lx r r ) Jer ! $ 'earrnga r l re, -

' rs l , wi rh r t ) rny( I shar lo ler h is shoulders Theolcra l l

Ix)s i t ion, Ia .c , bcard and fo ldcd hands aIe rcminis .enr

ot Rctnbllrndr's old Man in an Armc hair ol lti51. \"thi.h

R. l ) i r r Probabl-v sa$ in the Hermi tasc 's lar ! {ecol le . r ion

ot Rembmtldr 's pai r ing i (F is . 2 l ) . Repin s pajnr ins

l*longt n) r Jew. I would L {omDlcrcll in...or{ \firh rhrt, ir I.oukl fin(l Drxn thar x.or.\'irh nrh r shaF.rn lFl,ntsk'r iknr f i rh h ish drr l i r \ [ i .c . . Jc$r t l ,er re. t , Rq,nr , Sr . Pcrc ' !brF,28 Sqrc b.r 1871. nr s N G,ldsl,rnr krl.), ,r,,, Nilo,aa,t.nKtanshai, pstnn, rdry lM,Nor{, 1965), \ol. I. no. 196. DD.2t;9 70.

i! O r,\r\rov\bva. r.t. ft.ptr (Mos.o\f. 1962). p 302.6r ] \ . Prranr ' r^ , / /y , r / t , / r i r r . t . R.pt rQ (Mon1'$, I952) ;Mi thr i l

Lenno.r.l\ .omplete \orrs \'.rt' publish.d in Mosrcw inl8!0 9l ro malk (he 50rh r..ncMr\ of rhc rcr s dearh. Thcilh6hrnr* $.rt, {onnnilsioncd br rhe Dubli5h.r rtotrt MiklMil\rrulxl lNt. (;uon[n, tt!/lftdrl I/r!Del, l-ennrFr]d. 1935, pp.215.23j) lr *.nx. howe\.r, rhar the r.jrblnrtion of LcrmDntotinrlJncd Repnr r\ rfell

II

, r ;d Fornr f t ,L r r i l .dquotd i . \o tAnk ,ko lsk \ \ r . \ rd i {u \ \ inah is ( ih rnr nxn ' . o f 1873 71 *eAn lnhr i -Mn i r ' l s , J r \ i \1 , I . !n ,

A f t . r harh . !nn i \m o l r l r .1 rqL t r r ro , r t ' l n ' f , Anb l .h l r .g r ! r.n .o t r r (eRd r r r i * .n i r i . r .n ,k \ a lxn ' r l r i \ \o r l \hen . rh ib i ling rlr {rruc ol P.r.r / n, Mov.\ iI 1872. Tht Ru\\iai lrnrNN Gc.h ind rhar P . t r rh .Gr r . r snoe\a \ " jd fnh (sher .

, r , roAo, rA) . p 71 , r .2 ) . Anrons thehr6he{ { r i rn i . tE . . .Ho ' , ,r r rs h is .o l leas f t . h rn ( rxnx lo i . ] \ \n le l ro . r { r i rn h ins Jcnss.o\cKl hed. KtuiNkoi ro Nr\ rirherd b\ rhc iatue\ novNhen he \Li(t.i "rhc rip of the.o\e ns linlc bir too borfHl, trxt.

thrn i\ n.dd, but the nen,v cndnrs n of .aure re^ nahntrl rnd

. l [ \ \ r rs l I NATION,\ I_ AR r IN RtTSSIA l t5

$h,n)) hr por t raved as a JeL. Hor le!€r , Repin s (on-

l ( ' t l r lx ) rarv l . i ! sr i l l be longs to a l in€ ot l i tcrur l B ib l i (a l

. l tur i rx l i f fcrent r r ) rhe currenr ant i semir i ( a t ta(ks.$ l t i lc ] \ r ( rko lsk i 's Chr is t d€s.endr" ( ' h is lx t ) t ) lc .wh, , a l r u f fcr i r )€ u dcr rhe Rrrss iaD pogrom lx ' l i (v .

Rcpin s por t ru i t f (a t l r res an in tetes l ins mi \ takc, 'whn h p'i^ rdes r (on e.ti(n txl*lri) hi! okl li\L itndthr tn$ r .nr \ B ib l i (a l ( hara( ters. Th( pra! ( rsh. \ '1 . urr -! l l \ ado'ncd onl ! brse\ t ra l dark brndsar i rscr lgcs. is i r rR( l ) in \ p ! inr inr i run)d inr{ ) a completc lv s t t iyxt l( l ( ) th , rhu\ rc i r rd ins onc of thc rDadi t garb wor n bvInr l ,nr in shcphe s (F i r . . I7) . As notcd ahotc, a<cotd ingr , ' t rVr iss, \u( h ( lorhrs wcrc ( harr ( r ( r isr i . ( ) f rhc l l ib l i ( a l

I ) r ) t ) l l rs i rD( l apost lcs. , { s i rn i lar \ r r i tx . ( l ( l ( ' th h ( l

r t ) tx , i rc( l rs rhc. loak of Antok( ' l$kv s ( lhr isr . and I |g l inrs x l )aD{ l r ror t rx l Yai r ' ! head ( r ' ! (J ing i r ) Rct) in 's l8? |

t ) r i r r i rg . In horh .a!cs. lhc 11,) lh ( ( )nnc( r \ rhc ( ( )n l r rn-

t x , r r r l : r s r l l r t r o t x a n . l c w . r h c N ( $ ' l i s r n i r x n t . k w a n drh. i r Old I isr ; rnxJ l l . n{ ) r rd i ( an(( ! ror \ . Asin rhc(r \ ((n Rct) in s ln t r r r r i r , rh is i ( onor ' . l rphi ( ( l ( ( r i l tno! id( s r l( {n nr t i {nr a ls{ ) rsed l r t . ' h ! .1(wish t isrs in ( l . t )n r i ' r ra' h i r B i b l i ( r l r n ( c \ r o ' s . 6 5

. l ' tn 'ko l \kr tn . l l . i t ' t :h t t !

r \ l rh{nr{ :h , ' \Drok( ,1\ l ! ( l id t ) in sr t ) lx t r r Srav^ scrnkar-, ) r \ r l rnrsh h i \ s , u l t tur ( , hr d i ( l s I t ) t ! r r lnd ( l r rck, t )' l ' , i , i , , r , ' t . ' l ' \ r . h D . , r , i , . , 1 . h ,

" , 1 , , 1 . , i ' r h ' \ $ r i r i l i .

In i r r . i th( I i rsr l ( \ ish a isr ro nud\ ar rhc l [ )prr i r lr \ ( i r l t r l | \ . r \ ' r tok(nsI \ . in rhr t l1( l i rnnr of rhc Wxrr(k I -r r \ . ln l i { . \c( l i ' r : r r iv i ( { \ lu( r r ion as rh( pf inr . , r ! h ; , r ( ,

i r r t l r tdc th, l i ! .s i ) f h i \ l ) ro l )1c. ID l t l73, hc $r( , r . k ,

L l , ' r r , r . r , ' r i r l r i n l i r t q . , r r l ' , r l | ' r k r B l ! r L r , , i | l ' r , Frh l ( i th( r r r isr i . f l f l l ( r t in to rh( r rhr .ar i (nr , ) { rhc

l r ! , 1 ) l ( . l ) a l l i . t r l a f l , r i n R u s s i n . . . . A r r h (, r , { r r ' l l t . r h i ' i , l ' . , , e t , r r \ . ' r ' \ . , I ' r ' r t F r r . i \ \ ' r ('D ' l l \ l i l r . I rDr Dot soi ' rs ro qui ( t drND, and I r ! i l l\ r r i ! ( f , n i t r s l d r s a s I l i ! e . B u t , $ h c n r h r f i r \ r s r ( t )\ i l l l ! r k n r e . I s i l l e o f u h e r . n a r c l r : I N i l l s t : r r r r orr r r l r r r ra is ine thc lc lc l o f arr a 'non{ rh. . l ( \ (s .

t t ! . te . I l \a R. t t t . \h . t t h Id, lpost l r la toh. tN70-71lYh.r r thor^ totkmt n

. ( , r t i D r ( ! l A ' l ! ) t r ) 1 s k \ ' s t ! r l l r i r s o l { r r ( l l x } r i r r \ R u ssi i r " lcws. n( I ' as h is l t r , t ;8 Talntudn 1)r1/ )?rr . ( I is . l ) .r r x l : r i ) r i ( i l ) r r ( ( l l ! t r t r i r s o f o l d l . r L \ b v r l x . l c $ i \ l rr r t t i ' t . , ' l t h l , ' l l , r ' i r r a q ' r x r . r r , r r \ . f h l ' . , r r l r $ \ , r .b{nrshr bv Prvr l l rcrvrko! lorh is(o l l ( ( r i , , r r o t Russi r

l ) : r i ' r tcrs . "1 Rct) i r 's&\{ , l i ) t rD.nt rot ! ln ls lhrs t ) rnr t r0Swrs r l r r ( ,1) t !a i r ( o f Anrokolsk\ 's ros lRl5 h i \ ( :hr i \ r l

\ t r r t i r r . $ i th rhr inu l ie o l r B i l , l i ( r l l ( \1 . Rct , in l ( )s i( x l l ! t , , l l (nL,r l i t rh fouLh ro h is o\Jr r inrs. Ar t r 'ko lsk\ ,in ( ( )Dur\ t , \ r r11.d r r i r h rhe i rnages o l h is r<rr rcrr r lxrarrb ' ( {h ' ( 'n i l 'n l (on. l ( rded rv i rb thc iDrrsc ot ( ;hr i \ r ,

' r I ( ; r t r l ) r r / i .p ' , l l \ l { , vo \ , 1937) . ro l L pp . 151- i l t , Pr l l I lI rd \ r ln \ l rNr l : l r , r ) , rn r fn r la r . f rno ldnr fk l in r l " i i l \ , { r r rn( ,n ld rux [ r n r r l r 1350r H. s rH ia lTcd nr Rr$dr ] r r i ! ( ln r t , t r t r ! { l r l , f $ 'a 'xnr . r \ H i \ .o l ldn , , An .n r . rh r ( i r \ ! ,1inNo\ n r 1893. n n , l l l ro \n : \ rh ln t \ rk , \ ( ; r l l , i \ ir iuvun, l r \1 ,d o rn . l \ bRr$ inn r f l \ ' r l l .nn1 . / l r sm"^ . ( l

I If i',rirl non,n,ii. ( hh r(a5 uan ntrh riinr\ r\ ri)|trlin'I l ( \h .1 . ' l i f . , n r f \ .unp le in rb 'd rdD ( lm8) , rn i l l ho .nnn l i t rr l ) . B i l ) n . r D b \ l i i D B n , h s ) f l d n J . r ' ( t 9 l I ) . I ( o { r n (&\ iA l Ln ( ; { l , {nouoT ios m\ncr \ D l r r L . [ tn t t . a . S t

r r6 \,ltR.lr\Nt R]\.lNt:R

A'rd \ rnr k ' ror f . I th int onl -v abol ' r rhc Russia s.

and l l$ Russixn kals . . . becans. , t i rs t , thc mrr in

nrass of Jors f inds i tse l f exacr l \ ' in Rnssi r , 5c( ond,

nokxly 'rrcds $ rnuch (du(ation in gcneral as Rrrs-

s i in Jc$s, an( l t ina l l -v , tx ' .ause in Rtrss ia i , ' t ( l in

Ru$ian. l {w\ - I have mv marn hopes. t6

A vcar la lcr , answcr ing s la$v s proporal t .n lhc.stnb_

I ishnrc l l t { ) t r . lcwish nal ional school otarr . Ank 'kr) lsk!

r r g q ' . r c r l r l r , l r t . r t r . r r i , . ' l ! , t ^ . \ l r h o u q h I ' , " r t ' r , . 1o l l l rh ! t rhc Jc$ \ t )a rx 'k ot rh. 'nar idrr l . ' but iD rhc

pasr , i lnd lhr l ' in ( ( ) r r t (nr txrmr) r imcs- lhe! arcrr lv t

Ru\ ! i rn , rnd l i . r ) (h. arx l ( ] (n an, An r . )kohk ! rLt1, r ( :

or)c rh iDs rh l t I ( r l l do i \ to inr i rc n l l rh( i t$ i \h

r is t t to .n.b l i \h r n l )aHtc rmnr at lhc ( (nr l r r rg

Wo' ld I , :xh ib i rnnt I in Par is in 1878] . And s i rx ( rh i \

i tkr r lx longs 1r ' ts<rra l l -v ro yon, i r $urk l nr) t d , )

harnr i f yoLr wort l ( l drot ' . l in( nbour i r i r &, r . ' r l '

V?nnih l t ' f t i l t ! .aya Bib l to lc la l , v , thrr i r woul( lbc

possibk a lvr f t : r rhc inhcrs ro s( t . ( ( tu ! inrc( l wi th

I ' r l t t l )2 . hu|1 r l ( l isa l ) tx) i ' ) r ( { lx rhc cs(r la rn ' ' r ) t

anr i -v l r i r is 'n in h i \ lx lo ! ( { l Rus\ ix , Anr i 'kr , ls t \

rhorght rg i i r r r lx , r t t r r r t ( ( l r t rnt idr , bul n{^L vntghr r r )

a.hn\ . \ ' i rh i r ( !cn ' | ) ( t r l t ) ra(r i (a l r in ts k) h( l t ) h i \

brcthr( n. I lc d i . r . r ( r l h is i ( l ( rs r ( ' h is snxk\r r I l l r ( ; i t r t !

bur i i . r { Antokolsk} sxw rht d i f f i t l t Posi rnnr i t r whx l t

rhc RLrss iaD . l r ' {s l ( , r 'nd thcms( lv ts , on the ot t | hrnd, : ts

th( r ( \Lr l r r ' f rh . i r l i ' t i tcd stx{ i r l i /ar i (n) - c i rh( t i r r

l ( wish $nr( ln s or iD t t l ( l ing - ard, ot r thc othcr , :n the

nsulr . ,1 rhc i r ( l ( lx l t rkr t (c ut )on lh( ( rn" t [ ] s .h i " t i i t_

rbk t ) ( t i r i (s , sh i .h 'xs $c havc l (arncd, ( r ' r h . \ . r

h( ! r r in t lLrcn(c I t !nr J$Li \h dc\r inv. 6q

As an cf f ( ' ( r i \c rLa ' - k , r (hansiDs rh is s 'n ' r r t (nr .

ADr)k, , lsLr 5Lr l r ra(sf t t l d( tebr) ing xnis t i ( hant l i t ra l ts .

su. h as r f r !x l { a ' \ ing, . r r txr r t r ! . e br t i tkr !or( t r ( (nr_

r i !e t i r r r ins. Al l o t th(nt $erc a l rcr (h r {nk\ l ' ( r ( l

anrong Russiao JeBs. but not raluftl or develop€d.Wirh rheir retaluarion and fnrth('f dclelopment, Anto-lolsk_v hop€d r() improle lx)th rhe Jctlish feeling toresdrct i .s and Jceish l iv ins condit ions. "Handicraft ,"i.cording ro Anrokolsly, "does not require only mus-.ular strcngth, bl l l a lso i rrc l l igen(e, fantasy a drask. ?0 Final lv, An()kolrky saw in handicraf is rhcsolut idr ro rhe "Jervish t)robl(m':

First, in lhar $'a-v, $r)rkcrs are created, (ho arenc.(ssarl cver-vwhrr( i r(rlntl, the handicrafrs offtrrhe lFssibi l i t -v of l iv ing indctx i rdcnrlv €vervwherei.rrrr l hnr l l r . rhc f i rc f ing(r\ ( rr ' . t | , . iD t | ( ef lain wav,rhe srrm of a workcr 's (( l l lx ing. as he can thus, aranv Ix 5(t ut ion. sctr lc v"nc\(hcre else.t l

An(okolsk-v s !i( s s thus diffcnd from Stasov s for-int l la lor (reat ins a narnrtal s(h(x) l ot art bas€d o( l(pi( t i g s(cncs ot cont(mlx)r:rry l i fc and scenes tromrh( hisk)rv of a p(opk lxIonginsr(,a.cnainnat ional

r { r { x U , . I h c r c r h c s c r r i n r o l { l c p i d i n g r ( a l i r } a s i r i s " i nrh( hi , r , r i . . r l \ ( r ' l l ' . \ wr\ r , ' lv. I (hi(rcd b\ (opl insa((rrr i ( sour(csr sc!(nrh-.cDrrrry B.c. Assyr ian ( loih,or rcr)rh- rnd clc\ tnrh'( l l rury Ik lnct! manus(npti l lunr innt ions. Al t lnn'gh cn.ounrg({ l b-v Sraso\ jscndcarrrrs to cstablish l l.Nish Dari(nul schff l of art,lnr{ ,k( ' l \k! r i ( lor $ i rr ro strsl rh.( lc!ck' t )n(rr ofhand-idrr f t \ : rn( l thus ro i t r i lnolc. l i \L ish kt l inss kn esrh.r-i rs rDd l i l ins (ot |dir i (nrs. I hcs. idtas had anorbcr

Ahmntts?ro, YihM Inl . l ( ruvl"m

ADrokolsl \ n r sr\ \ r Manxn)f t)r , rhc Russian i ' rdusf i ia l isr rDd rn l im.| . in Ronn duri t |s dre winrcr of1873 ?.1, \ {hik r lorking on his Erre Hono. Althoughl i r ins abroad. h( nrninrairx{ .k)s .ontact wirh rht

(;hsbtrrs trrn$nirdl "t,k(nikv!

ud sravn \ id.ns b rh.rounss s .n . ra rnr r \ o l . l r \ r i sh r r r in \ n , Ru*h . I Gnrbburs , / :prcshLosn,l'ospontn[m\a ll x n insrad, l92l ); I N. Mrsl,^ a {rd ),skrlptat ll\n (:ntttlrtrt!, ro:Po'ri,nniln, r!d!t, pnna (L.nr

t, ADrokolsk\'\ r.xr .pD.rnrl in Biron D id Gnrzbrrs and !:lir\Ginr\buaj. l)o srit{cjini hr Biklb:n.r. Oslltd W.r!2,tu,l l (1S02) ,718 750; rod n i l t r t rd ,2 l ADr i l l !03 . pp .25-2?

r. (;inzbrra rnd ci!'rnrryi. .linlnihr Aildharcr, p 719

t -c (h k 'Sr rv^ . R( t rn , . : j0Sc t rcnrb t . l373 . ; ,S txvr ' . , ' r , r , tohAt .

l - . r t f r r ' Shrn Sorcn t , , 9 Ju lv 1871, i r id n . . 123. t ) . l r ' 7 . nk ) l . l sk \ s n l { i n r \ nor n r l t .d . hur r l r rx l ib i rnnr o l r l xs rnu \ ! ro lk { rnn , n r 1878 d id mnt . a s r .n t nn t ( o 'x t r ! rh rd . r r l , ) r rn .n r , ' l 11 s i sh . r r .Ih rY c inhhurs( lN l i9 !9 t0 )nud idvr lp t r r ( \ i t I n r )kn \Naf r . r l l t?o ,4n ! in s r Pr r i r \ rnE:nd rh .n inPr rn A l rhoushnnarof hs sorr\,.n,rn, nr rh. fi.ld of sen.e ur, lI rnt* rtr\ l.rrnh,onr..r. n. t)|.'\,rl trn imtrnant rol. nr rlfcrdD* rlt nlin,)ll.\rnh trrnDil .trr Throush nutrtrdu\ anr.l6 nnd !n(hrna

fig. 20. llta R.pin, J.tu at Pht.t, t875. Ru$ian Mryum, Fis. 2t. R.mbtu^dt, Oltl Man ia aa Atnchai. 1611.II.tmItag., L.ningnd.

Mamontovs through (on$pondcn.€ and ffcasional! is iR to their anisr i . ( i r . l ( in Abram$cvo (Fig. 22).7?

The Mamontovs, s ho llad nlready boushr rhecoun-rr_v eshre in Abramtvr\'(, iI| | 870, hoFd ro Kdrher rhereyoung Russian anists sho sharcd rheir "a(irudestowards the ai and function of afl. ''r As poinred ourby Bowlt :

Mamonto! and, morc pafli.ularly, his wite, haddcveloped an intercst in rhe principl€s of WilliamMorris and rh€ English Arts and Crafis movemenr.This in turn sr imrlnt( 'd their intercst innat iveRus-

sian arr and archirftlurc and srrength€n€d rheit\ r 'st i i ( i . 'n thar Russia \ rapid indu5tr ial expansionwas threarening rhc peasanr crafrs wi lh

On theone hand, the Wesrern influenceol lheArrsandCrafrs movement, and on rhe other, Srasov's Russiannarional schml ofarr, joined in Abramtsevo in rhe formof rhe newly develop€d anisric handicrafrs. The sam-plcs of "narive Russian arr," i.e., folk art, such as lu-boks,?t i.ons, carved and painred wooden objecrs,embroider! and p€asanr po[€ry, were already .ol lecred

On rh. Mamonioli and bramr*rl,, w Bosh, SUrd,rg.. pp.2a-39 s6$? Mamonbr Ln'rhr Anoldlskvs 8..€ Homo (*cFis. 22).

r Tln n'bok. lrbo.hnaia ^artinrd, $as a .h@p. han.l{olordbr@dside d€pi.rins Flisiour *n6 @dd from i.ons as \dl a5lopial ernns and p.mnaa6, olten oI a sriri@l naruE. ThelnboL cnjor-ed srer popularn,- sirh rh. los.c .lasFs ano sa.$ld at hirs, narker5. €rc. Thc fin6r llrli darr from rh€ s6@-rRnrh and €iaht@Drh .enruri6i ir'd.. p. !0, n. l.

I I8 MIRJAM RAJNfR

It Sinrilar a.rnnics w.r. NdcnrlcD bt Prnr.ess lenirhevi ar lrereiate ar Talashkino { trid., pD. 59-16). l low.\ cr, sinm tbcrc Bas

Fig.22. Photostoph ol Maftonto! s title uithAntohokh"l\ Ecc. Hofto behind thc piano andAntoAoLthy sitttng in lrcnt,lote 18?os-eatlj 1880!. (DordKogan, Mdmontodhii hruzhoh, Moscotu, 1970,

and resear(hcd Ihroughout thc sc(ond haltof thc ninc-teenrh cenrury.'Ihe Wanderers dcpictcd thcm acflr-rately in their works in order to visual ize thel i teot thcRussian peopl€. Howcvcr, rhc Mamontovs, tollowingthc example ot Wil l iam Morr is, wcrc not sar ist icd wirh.ol l (rr ing and depiding lolk an, but stancd to rcpro-dwc it as well. Thcir ir)rercsts .ovcrcd thc mcdia o{

t)aint ing aDd sculpturc, and also archirc.rurc aDd ap'

t)lid art. Thc projects al Abramtscvo iftidcd thcbui ldinsofa workshop, a bath.housc anda.hrrrch, andpainting thc trcsocr and i.ons lor its inrerior. Theact iv i t ies at rhe esrate in rhe late 1880s in. luded carpen-rry and .eramic workshops.

Thc idcas lor thc Abramts(vo arr rverc drawn homrhc (ol lecr ion of Russian lolk ar i whidr was housedatdre €state and lar€r became a basis for rhe Abramrseloart nruseum. How€ver, th€ arristsworking $er€ did notexactly copy peasanl arr, bur rath€r produced "ancsthetic mixture of dre €l€menls {ound in the ncarbvyi l laaes, ' Dhi.h thev co rbincd Dith rheir own

Exampl€s o{ such €{:l€cticism .an bc sccn in Harl-mnn s "Pouery Sludio" and Pol€nola sdra(inss fromher sketchbook and h€r "corner chair" (Fiss.23,24).Separate elements o[ rvooden, p€asant archrtectur€, rnrhe.ase o[ Hartman's work, orfurnirure, in thecaseof

fig. D. Abtunttuo, the pott.ry stulio,187t. Ar.hitect:

Polanova's, are united with lumilure, floral andombroidcred geometric parterns in a new design. still,by thc lm0s, rhe artilacrs created a1 Abramtsevo hadgradually losr rheir hand-made character and becamemore indusirialized, while Mamonlov himself b€camemorc and more inrerested in his lheatrical projects.tl

Howevcr, the aspect which was probably of thegreatcsr intcresr for Antokolsky was Abramtsevo s edu-.arional a.tivities, organi7.ed from the very b€ginningby Eliraveta Mamonrova. Already in 1874 she foundedapcasant school ro give rhe children ot the near-by vil-lages a basic educarion. Four years later, she added a(arpentry workshop, where the children studied uponfinishing the course in the s.hool. Those that accom-plisb€d the rhree to four year course at the workshopreceived rhe rirleof "master.crallsman." As Mamonlovawrole in her lener ro S.V. Flerov in 1886, the studentsd€velop€d good taste while working at the workshop,sin(e they always had as examples belorc them theartistic ir€ms of the Abramrsevo museum and freeadvic€ from the anists working at the estate. Mamon-rova helped rhem as well with |he marketing of th€finished producrs.?3

The Abramrsevo circle, its workshops and educa-rional faci li ties, s trongly i n tluenced An tokolsky. WhileStasov approved rhe existence of Jewish art based on

dire.r onuc( b€r*em Anblohk! andAbnmrso, Mamonlor's2.rnirics arc of srat.r impodan.c lor us.

tr O.l. Arumanova ?t. al., Muz.i zrpov.dnih, Abtumtstuo(MuFud Cuid., AbBnrrv{t (Mos6{, 193.1), p. 30.

historical sources, lhe Mamontovs sho*ed Antokolskythe way to create it and to spread ir through educarion.During his life-timc. Anrokolsky managcd ro implanrhis ideas .oncerning Jeq'ish an educarion in his sltr-dents llya cintsburg and Boris Scharr.

Immedialely upon his reacher's death in 1902, IlvaGinrsburg set our ro realize Antokolsky's ideas byfounding a Jewish An Industrial School in Vilna,shich was suppos€d to bc named after rh€ firsr Jewishsrulptor in Russia. His relativ€, L.M. Anrokolskv, anarlist hims€lf and a thor ot rhe a icle dis.ussing theplans concerning th€ furure rhool in Vilna, srreis€dthe importancc of rhc anistic valuc of rhe crafrs as achallenge to induslrial objecls. Thc f€ar of induslrialunitormity and thc cmphasis on decorariveness andanistic elaboration had itssour.es, saysAnrokolsky, inthe newly establishtd a -nouveau movem€nls lhenspr€ading throuBhout England. Cermany, Fran.c and

JrwlsH N]\TToNAL ART lN RtrSSrA l|9

Belgium.t, The school's elaborate program remindsone, however, ot Mamonrota 5 educat ionala.r iv ir ies inAbramtsevo. According to L.M. Anlokolsky, rh€ ArrIndustrial school in Vilna was (o bavr four deparr-ments: woodwork, meutlwork, graphics and deaorariv€arts, as sell as a library and a museum. The ofleredcourses were supposed ro (over various re.hniques inthc sprcific departmen ts, thus qualilying €ach srudenrin his or her field.ro Fmrn a fund-raising articleof 1903,it is possible to learn that th€ school staned to functionundcr the auspices o[ rhe lawyer G.M. Anrokolsky, amcmber of the late rulptor's family. Along reirh rhes.hool were founded the Art IndusrrialSociety and themuseum, named after Mark Antokolsky. Th€ a icleaskcd for financial help foi theclass€s, [ivestudios, themlseum, the library and the Sociely's rooms.tl

In 1903, the "Help Through Work Soci€ty" wastounded. It maintaineda lechni.al insrirute. workshops

I Lonardo, '' Erlr'l'c ob Khudorh$'rrnno-promyshlennoishkoli im.ni M.M. Anrrkolslogo," /dllod,21 April 190r. pp.25-27 _

L.M, ADrololskt, Khudorr{\eno.t)nnnyrhlonnya shkolinNni M.M. AthtolskoK), /orllod,25.luly t902, pp. 7-10.

,is. 24. Eleno lbleD1,o,.otn.t (hnn an.l d?sisnl r .hdn, ht . I88t^ .Abtumtsa,o Mus.lm.

I?O TI IRJ. \ I I R. \JNER

and trade s.hools. Antokolsky's ideas were realized in irby Dr. Benjamin Fin, the son of Rabbi Shlomo-JosephFin. Dr. Fin gave the funds for spreading productivework among the Jewish population.s, The Societ_!existed in Vi lna unt i l l9{ l . Dtrr ing i ts 38 years ofexisr-ence, its educational programs were attended by 15,000students, o[ whorir 6,000 graduat€d from its schcmlsandcourses, receiving diplomas as qualified crafismen.Among 15 courses and schools was the School ofDesign, which olfered courses for lithographers,engravers, photographers, retouchers, hous€ paintersand an advanc€d.ourse for artisrs, sculprors and d€co-rators.3s However, according to the photograph show-ing rheart srudiocrowd€d wirh copies of classica I art, askeleton, geometrical bodies and anatomical d|?wings(Fig. 25), it is possible to assume that the art cours€sotfer€d ar th€ Soci€tydid not tollon Russian endeavors

l M-crcsman,yiddnn Yiln. i Wort n Biltl l\ti||]a, tqt).D.1t,

& , Le lzerRrn(ed . ) ,J 'Mat no lL r rn ! .n rd ,1o l . r (Ne$york . r9?4) ,p. 205.

.r For the B€ahl yh@l and irran.s€N.Shilo,C-hcn(ed.),a.zi.i1906 1929 l Jertsalem: Tt'e rsrarl MuFum, 1985).

Fic. 2t. Photosteph ol ntc Hclp Thtotsh woth Socict!\ a nu.lios, t90J-t92t. (Moritz Gtosftan, yiddish' vilnc inWott un Bi ld , Yi lna, 1925, b.7L)

in the Neo-Narionalisr manner. The displayed exam-pl€s indicare an academic way o[ teaching arr, rarherthan a search for a Jewish national form of art. Muchlar€r, in 1930, for the Soviet exhibition "The NorthFair," rhe pavilion of the "Help Through Work"s.hool was built in the "orien€l sryle" (Fig. 26). Irstripartite fa(ade. square lower, point€d arch and geo-merric design were supposed to srress, once again, rhefasr€rn origin ot the Jews and their arr, as had rhe St.Petersburg synagogue, whose Moorish sryle was sug-g€sr€d by Stasov. Al the same time, th€ "HelpThroughWork" school's "orienlal" pavilion reminds one ofanorher school in search of Jewish arr - the B€zalelschool of art in Jerusalem.

Boris S.hatz (1867-1932) founded rheB€ralel schoolin 1906.3r Since he studied sculprure wirh Anlokolskyduring his stay in Paris b€tween 1889 and 1895, it ispossible fiat he too, like llya cintsburg, was influencedby his teacher's ideas about spreading art and ardsrichandicrattsamong theJews. BeingaZionisr, heappliedthos€ ideas to his ideology. Srill, rhe Bezalel school otart followed in many wavs rhe basic srructure of borhthe Abramtsevo and Vilna schools ot ari, while his

.JI \ { ISH NATIONAL ART IN RTISSIA IzI

var.h {or a narional Jewish art , this l ime in Palest ine,rcf lc( t€d Srasolrs, Mamonk)t s and Anrokolskv's ideas.

' l he inir ia l srasr olnx crn Russian Jewish arr hada pbtound impacr on th( following generations of

JcrLish a11isrs. Throuah their etforts, Anrokolsky,Srrsov and Il_va C;inrsburs manaacd to spread the id€aof lcwish art and lo €stabl ish a l |nr ional s(hool shichr lrs paral lel a$ a molement t( ' thc Russian one. Anro-k(tskr-, u( rhe iame t im., as rhe t i rsr widely re(ognizf ,dRussian Jewish art ist , ln.rnx ar) cxaDrple for vounscr

scr)( Iar i (nrs oI Jc$ ish art ists i r) Russia. His imPor ran((is srrcs\cd b) rhc la. t that Jc$ish chi ldren with anai isr i ( in{ l inar ion r lcrc ' tnknalncd "orher Ankrkolsk) , thl ls ru r iDg him i l | ro a svnonlnr {or Russian

lrwish a11.si t iDr l l -v, lh( en)t , l lasis ()n art ist i ( cducaridiroxn)g.k$s, (n.oufts(( l l ) - ! Antokolsky and (;hrs-

bl l rg, cnsurcd rhr.ont i r)r ' i ty I 'nd di f tLrsnn) of a 11\ is l)i ' r r s h r , h i . ' t . , ' ! { ) . , 1 u l l , n ' r ( ' r . , r x l , , r ) r r n t P t i r r \ i r r

' I hrrs, grr lualh-, I rrrrn a f(xu$on ar l isr i ( haldi( ralrsrn( l ( lcsis l | , srcw al | t t$rt1\x ss of .k wish tolk rr t hcr i-t t |s( . NiDc -v.rrs a[r(r th( csrabl ishn]cDt ol Vi lnas"Iklp Ihrorgh Work" vlxx, l , Al | -Sky orgar) i rcd hisrrnxn,s rxtx( l i t ion whnl ' nxaft l r ral J( ' ! ish folk(. t l l 'rut l .36' l 'hccxtx( l i tnnr lxtrrght backa t tLasrr l rr(nt ofrrrr ter ia l , whir h - l ikc thc tolk l l r t .ol l | , . rcd and rcvi l tdrr Abran)rsclo - i r )rpircd rhf imrsi t |ar i (n ol thc Rrs's irD . l { wish r !ar)r- ! . ! rd( l |1 isrs.

fis. 26. I'aljilln,t 4 th( Ll.lp Th'ort:h Work Sotua\,Notth EahiLitiot, tqJA. (Lqz?t Ilni (?d.), l?/| l.tt olL i thuni t , !o l . I , N.u Yoth, I t )71, p 1 l t2)

J Bowl r . r ' ' onr r i . Pr lco fSdr lenrdr o th .R. .on{ 'u . rn , ,o rlhe I'rond in Al)rcr'G.br icl lt\l ). Tto.li ti.n nnd Rnnhhon. p.

,b rd . pp . l . l l s rKamrn. I r Qu. t o l .k \ rnh Sr \1 . . D .1 i0 . n .9 .