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Addis Ababa University
College of Development Studies
Center for Regional and Local Development Studies
Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:
The Case of Tulu- Bolo town and surrounding villages in
South West Shewa Zone of the Oromia Regional State
By:
Elellan Debela
June, 2015
Addis Ababa
Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:
The Case of Tulu- Bolo town and surrounding villages in
South West Shewa Zone of the Oromia Regional State
By:
Elellan Debela
A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of AddisAbaba University in partial fulfillment of requirements for theDegree of Master of Arts in Regional and Local Development
Studies
Advisor: Wondimu Abeje (PhD)
June, 2015
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa University
College of Development Studies
Center for Regional and Local Development Studies
Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:
The Case of Tulu- Bolo town and surrounding villages in South West Shewa
Zone of the Oromia Regional State
By
Elellan Debela
Approved by Board of examiners:
____________________________ ______________________
1. Chairman, Graduate Committee Signature
___________________________ ______________________
2. Advisor Signature
____________________________ ______________________
3. Internal Examiner Signature
____________________________ ______________________
4. External Examiner Signature
Declaration
This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university
and that all sources of material used for this thesis have been dully acknowledged.
Declared by
Name: _____________________________
Signature: __________________________
Date: ______________________________
Confirmed by
Name: ______________________________
Signature: ___________________________
Date: _______________________________
Addis Ababa
June, 2015
i
Acknowledgment
My debts of gratitude to all the support I was rendered during the research are profound. I greatly
appreciate the contribution of my advisor, Dr. Wondimu Abeje, for his encouragement and
scholastic criticisms on the topic at hand. I thank him for his kindness, patience and continual
support.
I am thankful to the Executive Director of Water Action, Ato Adane Kassa who introduced me to
the subject matter. I also extend my gratitude to the staffs of Tulu-Bolo Town Water Supply
Service Office, Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office, Tulu-Bolo Town Administration, Tulu
Bolo Electric Utility Office and Kebele administrations in Tulu-Bolo town, for kindly providing
me the necessary information. I am highly indebted to the hospitality and assistance of Ato
Abebe Getu, W/ro Elfenesh Tadesse, Ato Milkesa Lemma and Ato Gezahegn, who assisted me
in the field survey. I am also thankful to all the informants who gave me valuable information
during my field work.
Lastly, words cannot express my heartfelt gratitude to my family; Ato Debela Dinka, W/ro
Beletu Worku, W/t Workie Debela, W/ro Abdi Debela and Ato Bisrat Adugna for their patience
and encouragement during the course of my research work.
ii
Acronyms
ADF African Development Fund
AMCOW African Minister’s Council on Water
BWWEO Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office
CSA Central Statistical Authority
EDHS Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey
ETB Ethiopian Birr
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
GLAAS Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water report
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
HHs Households
IRC International Water Supply and Sanitation Center
IWRM International Water Management Institute
KW Kilo watt
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
MoWE Ministry of Water and Energy
MoWR Ministry of Water Resources
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NWI National WASH Inventory
O & M Operation and Maintenance
OWNP One Wash National Program
RWSN Rural Water Supply Network
iii
TBWSSO Tulu-Bolo town Water Supply Service Office
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
UWSPUAP Urban Water Supply Universal Access Plan
UAP Universal Access Program
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNICEF United Nations Children and Education Fund
WA Water Action
WASH Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene
WASH CO Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene Committee
WB World Bank
WIF Wash Implementation Framework
WSP Water Supply and Sanitation Program
WSS Water Supply Service
WTP Willingness to Pay
WHO World Health Organization
iv
Abstract
Sustainability of water supply schemes is a major challenge in Ethiopia. It is estimated that 20-
30% of water supply schemes in the nation are non-functional at any time. This study examines
the sustainability of water supply schemes in Tulu-Bolo town and its surrounding villages of
Keta-Insilale, Batu-Cherecha and Soyoma-Ganji. This was done by analyzing the demand and
supply of water services, the technical condition of the water schemes, the institutional capacity
of the managing bodies, the financial aspect of the water schemes and the sustainability of the
water sources. To achieve these objectives, descriptive research design was utilized. A household
survey with 144 HHs, key informant interviews with 12 individuals and personal observations
were used to gather data. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data quantitatively
followed by the discussions obtained from interviews and observations. Although there are water
supply schemes in the study area, the analysis showed that the community faced water scarcity.
The utilization of the water supply schemes depends upon their functionality. The study revealed
that the two water supply schemes in the study area are in the state of non-functionality and
‘semi-functionality’. This technical condition of the schemes is due to the inefficiency and weak
linkages among concerned institutions. Additionally, the managing bodies of the water supply
schemes haven’t achieved cost recovery and are not concerned about the sustainability of the
water source itself. One of the water sources in the area has experienced major decline over the
last ten years, but wasn’t detected by the managing body. In general, the incapacity of the
managing institutions and lack of cooperation among concerned institutions is the underlying
cause for the lack of sustainability of the water supply schemes in the study area. Thus,
strengthening the institutional capacity (financial, human and management) of the institutions
should be given priority to address the sustainability of the water supply schemes.
v
List of Figures Page no
Figure 1: Map of Bacho woreda ………………………………………………………………..10
Figure 2: Distance taken to fetch water (in meters)……………………………………………..53
Figure 3: Need of additional water points in the study area…………………………………….56
Figure 4: Organizational framework of TBWSSO……………………………………………...71
Figure 5: Organizational set up for medium towns……………………………………………..72
Figure 6: Participation level in the development of the schemes……………………………….77
Figure 7: Women’s participation in the development of the schemes…………………………..79
List of Tables Page no
Table 1.1: Water-related targets in the GTP…………………………………………………….22
Table 1.2: Non-functionality of rural water schemes in 10 regions……………………………..29
Table 3.1: Age of respondents…………………………………………………………………..46
Table 3.2: HH Size of respondents……………………………………………………………...47
Table 3.3: Education level of respondents………………………………………………………48
Table 3.4: Occupation of respondents…………………………………………………………...48
Table 3.5: Monthly incomes of respondents…………………………………………………….46
Table 3.6: Type of water supply system used by respondents…………………………………..51
Table 3.7: Time spent in queuing………………………………………………………………..54
Table 3.8: Satisfaction level of respondents with the availability of water……………………..57
Table 3.9: Days of water shortage in a week (average) ………………………………………...58
Table 3.10: Water collection responsibility……………………………………………………..59
Table 3.11: Days taken to repair a malfunction………………………………………………....66
Table 3.12: Days taken to repair water points/hand pump……………………………………...66
Table 3.13: Water utility manpower requirement for a medium town………………………….73
Table 3.14: Satisfaction level with the management……………………………………………76
Table 3.15: Problems with the management…………………………………………………….76
vi
Table 3.16: Type of participation in the development of the scheme…………………………...78
Table 3.17: Progressive water tariff……………………………………………………………..82
Table 3.18: Financial capability in paying tariff………………………………...………………81
Table 3.19: Percentage of material price………………………………………………………..84
Table 3.20: Other fees…………………………………………………………………………...85
List of Photographs Page no
Photograph 1: Women at communal water points……………………………………………...59
Photograph 2: The spring capping structure……………………………………………………61
Photograph 3: Balancing chamber & pump house………………………………………………62
Photograph 4: Outflow from collection chamber………………………………………………..62
Photograph 5: Water reservoir…………………………………………………………………..63
Photograph 6: Abandoned water point in the village of Batu-Cherecha………………………...64
Photograph 7: Non-functioning hand pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha…………………....65
Photograph 8: New water reservoir……………………………………………………………...88
Photograph 9: New collection chamber…………………………………………………………88
1
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment………………………………………………………………………………….i
Acronyms……………………………………………………………………………………...….ii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..iv
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….v
List of tables………………………………………………………………………………………v
List of Photographs………………………………………………………………………..…….vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 Background of the Study .................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 General Objective ......................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Description of the Study Area ............................................................................................ 8
1.6 Research Methodology ...................................................................................................... 11
1.6.1 Research Design and Sampling Framework ............................................................ 11
1.6.2 Data Sources ................................................................................................................ 12
1.7 Methods of data analysis................................................................................................... 13
1.8 Scope and limitations of the study ................................................................................... 13
1.9 Significance of the study ................................................................................................... 14
1.10 Organization of the study ............................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 15
2.1 Definition of operational terms ........................................................................................ 15
2.2 Access to improved drinking water source ..................................................................... 18
2.3 Overview of water policies in Ethiopia ............................................................................ 21
2.3.1 Water supply responsibilities .................................................................................... 21
2.3.2 Policies and Targets .................................................................................................... 22
2.3.3 Financial and Institutional framework set-ups ........................................................ 23
2
2.4 Sustainability of water supply schemes ........................................................................... 25
2.5 Determinants of Water Supply Scheme Sustainability .................................................. 29
2.5.1 Technical and Institutional aspects ........................................................................... 29
2.5.2 Social Aspects .............................................................................................................. 37
2.5.3 Financial Aspects ........................................................................................................ 37
2.5.4 Environmental Aspects .............................................................................................. 40
2.6 Conceptual framework of the study ................................................................................ 43
2.7 Water Supply post-2015 ................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .......................................................... 46
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 46
3.2 Background information of respondents ........................................................................ 46
3.2.1 Marital status and family size of respondents.......................................................... 47
3.2.2 Education level and occupation of respondents ....................................................... 47
3.2.3 Income level of respondents ....................................................................................... 48
3.3 Water supply in Tulu-Bolo and its surrounding villages .............................................. 49
3.3.1 Demand for water supply service .............................................................................. 49
3.3.2 Water supply sources in the study area .................................................................... 49
3.3.3 Distance travelled and time taken to collect water .................................................. 51
3.3.4 Water consumption pattern ....................................................................................... 55
3.3.5 Satisfaction level of respondents ............................................................................... 55
3.3.6 Person responsible for fetching water in the household ......................................... 57
3.4 Technical aspects of the water supply schemes .............................................................. 58
3.4.1 Technology choice and the quality of the water supply schemes ........................... 58
3.4.2 Time taken for repairs ............................................................................................... 63
3.4.3 Technical skills and availability of spare parts in the managing institutions .................. 65
3.5 Institutional and Social aspect of the water supply schemes ......................................... 66
3.5.1 Management of the water supply schemes ............................................................... 66
3.5.1.1 Operation and maintenance of the water supply schemes ................................... 66
3.5.1.2 Institutional framework and Organizational capacity......................................... 68
3.5.2 Community participation in the development of the water schemes .......................... 75
3.6 The financial aspect of the water supply schemes .......................................................... 78
3
3.6.1 Cost Sharing and Cost Recovery ............................................................................... 78
3.6.2 Financial management in Tulu-Bolo town water supply service office ................. 79
3.7 Sustainability of the water resources ............................................................................... 83
3.8 Expansion work on the water supply system in Tulu-Bolo town .................................. 84
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...................................... 87
4.1 Summary of findings ......................................................................................................... 87
4.2 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 90
4.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 92
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 95
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 105
Appendix I: Supplementary tables and figures...................................................................... 105
Appendix II ................................................................................................................................ 107
A. Questionnaire for Beneficiaries .................................................................................... 107
B. Key informant interview and personal observation checklists .................................. 114
Appendix III Water connection estimation form ................................................................... 118
Appendix IV Agreement for household connections ............................................................. 120
Appendix V Tulu Bolo Town tap attendants’ agrrement form ............................................ 124
4
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Development is the quality of life measured by various means. The first UNDP Human
Development Report stated that the basic objective of development is to create an enabling
environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives (UNDP, 1990). The subsequent
reports affirmed that countries with similar average incomes can differ substantially when it
comes to people’s quality of life: access to education, health care, employment opportunities,
availability of safe drinking water, and so on. Thus one of the means to measure the quality of
life is the accessibility and availability of safe drinking water.
A locality deprived of access to potable water is not developed even if it generates high income.
According to the WHO/UNICEF joint report in 2000, those without access to water supply and
sanitation are the poorest and least powerful. Furthermore, the issue of water availability is the
issue of survival and health. Only healthy individuals can generate income and prosper. Hence
the availability of water supply is a major source of concern and at the top of development
agenda for developing countries including Ethiopia.
The 2015 assessment report by the UNICEF/WHO indicated that Ethiopia has met the MDG
target 7c by halving the number of people without access to safe water since 1990 i.e. 57% of the
population have access to improved drinking water source (UNICEF Ethiopia, 2015). The
coverage stood at 22% in 1990 and 24 % in 2000. Although there has been a major leap in
providing safe drinking water to the nation in the last two decades, it’s evident that there is much
more to be done. There are still 42 million Ethiopians without access to improved water supply.
Lack of access to potable water coupled with high population and urbanization growth rate;
availing water is still a major challenge for the nation. In addition to lack of access, the ability to
sustain the progress is in danger due to high level of non-functional schemes that are prevalent
(WSP, 2011).
5
Surveys indicate that emphasis has been on the fast production of new water schemes and the
benefits from completed schemes are not sustained (RWSN, 2009; Calow et al., 2013).
According to a study by Habtamu et al. (2013), it has been estimated that 20-30% of water
supply schemes in Ethiopia are non-functional at any time. The incapacity of existing and new
water supply schemes to give service for a prolonged period of time jeopardizes the water
coverage level in the nation. Lockwood and Smits (2011) noted that while much energy and
resources go into building new systems, there may have to be an acceptance of a case of ‘two
steps forward, one step back’ where levels of functionality will remain problematic.
A number of studies have identified technical, financial, environmental, institutional, and social
aspects as determinants of water system sustainability (Brikké and Bredero, 2003; Habtamu et.al,
2013). Thus, this study focuses on the water supply systems in Tulu-Bolo town and its surrounding
villages of Batu-Cherecha, Keta-Insilale and Soyoma-Ganji and analyzes its sustainability against
these different aspects.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Sustainable access to safe drinking water supply is central to socio-economic development.
Additionally, it improves the health of the community. But these benefits are not sustained if
access to water supply itself is not sustainable (Habtamu et al., 2013). The number of non-
functional water supply schemes in the nation is estimated to increase from 20-30% to 35% in
the near future unless immediate solutions are devised (Collick et al., 2013). This statistics
highly threatens the yearly water coverage reports by the UNICEF/WHO. Some studies show
that a number of water supply schemes in different regions of the nation are not providing water
on a continuous basis, or have failed altogether.
A study conducted in Quarit woreda, Amhara region by Zemenu (2012) revealed that a total of
217 water supply points were constructed in the years 2005 to 2009. Of these public taps, 184
were functional and 33 were non-functional. In Mecha woreda of Amhara region, 20 of the 21
water schemes were not functioning (Habtamu, 2012). This trend is not limited to Amhara region
but can be observed across regions. Out of the 70 water supply schemes in Mirab Abaya woreda,
in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, 40 water schemes were functional
and the other 30 are non-functional (Deneke and Abebe, 2008). In Oromia region, a survey
6
conducted by the IRC shows that, of the 14 boreholes in Daro Lebu woreda in 2005, 12 were
functional and 2 non-functional. Of the additional 15 boreholes constructed in the same woreda
since 2005, 7 are non-functional and 8 are functional. Moreover, 60% of the Somali region’s
birkado [cement-lined underground cisterns] are damaged and unused (Magda & Mulugeta,
2012).
As a consequence, the government of Ethiopia has taken stock of the situation that it plans to
reduce non-functionality of water supply facilities to 10% by 2020 under its new program: One
water, sanitation and hygiene national program (UNICEF, 2013). Such problem facing the water
supply sector indicates the need for a thorough study to analyze the sustainability of water supply
systems in the nation and finding out strategies to improve the situation. Thus, recent researches
have indicated that the services rendered by water supply schemes are hardly sustained.
Nonetheless, few studies exist that address the problem by scrupulously analyzing the different
building blocks of sustainability. This research intends to address this knowledge gap.
Similar to most water supply schemes in the nation, the water supply scheme in Tulu-Bolo town
was built in response to the incapacity of the previous water system to serve the growing
population. In addition, a number of people in the study area were using unprotected sources.
The water supply scheme was built in 2002 and its source is a spring that has a safe yield of 15
lit/sec. Nonetheless, the community that benefit from this scheme face water shortage. In
addition, those who were intended to benefit from the scheme, the villagers of Batu-Cherecha,
have abandoned the public tap. A hand pump has been constructed by the woreda water office in
the village but the community currently obtains water from unprotected sources (WA, 2002;
TBWSSO, 2011). Therefore, the mere construction of water supply schemes doesn’t necessarily
translate into sustainable services that continue to meet users’ needs in terms of water quantity,
quality, ease of access, and reliability.
In general, a concerted effort in the nation is on the construction of new water supply schemes
but not on the institutional, social, financial, technical and environmental aspects of the schemes
that sustain the services provided by the schemes. These aspects are the building blocks of the
sustainability of water supply schemes. Understanding and addressing these different aspects of
water supply systems will aid the efforts taken to extend and sustain water services. Therefore,
7
this study focuses on the sustainability of the water supply systems (not on the projects) in the
study area. This refers to the maintenance and management of the water supply system,
functionality of the system, quantity and quality of the water, as well as the provision of an
acceptable level of water supply, the involvement of the society in the overall system and the
environmental sustainability. This study using current data sought to assess the sustainability of
water supply scheme in the study area and make a timely contribution to the existing knowledge.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of this study is to investigate the sustainability of the water supply scheme
in Tulu-Bolo town and surrounding villages in South West Shewa Zone, Oromia National
Regional State.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are:
to assess the demand and supply of water in the study area
to analyze the technical aspect of the water scheme
to analyze the institutional and social aspects of the water scheme
to analyze the affordability and financial aspect of the water system
to analyze the environmental sustainability of the scheme
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is the technical condition of the water scheme?
2. What is the state of the institutional capacity managing the water scheme?
3. What is the environmental condition of the water source?
8
1.5 Description of the Study Area
Location
Tulu-Bolo town and the villages surrounding it are located in Bacho woreda (figure 1), South
west Shewa zone of the Oromia regional state. Tulu-Bolo is a rural town located at a distance of
about 80kms west of Addis Ababa on all weather road. Tulu-Bolo is the capital of Bacho woreda
and it is surrounded by 19 rural kebeles. The villages in Soyoma-Ganji, Keta- Insilale and Batu-
Cherecha are accessed with gravel feeder roads. Tulu-Bolo is an urbanizing small town while the
villages are rural villages. The economy of the area is predominantly based on agricultural
production. Almost all of the people in the area are ethnically Oromos while they practice
Christianity and Islam (Bacho Woreda Physical and Socio-Economic Profile, 2012).
Topography and Climate
The area under study is located in the western part of the Bacho woreda. The name of the town,
Tulu-Bolo, is taken from the nearby scoria conical hill located southeast of the town which also
has the same name which means in oromiffa language ‘hill in the lowland’. The elevation at the
top of the hill is 2,264 meters. This site is the only elevated place located in the center of a flat
terrain in the area. The altitude of the flat land is about 2,180 meters above sea level (WA, 2000;
Bacho Woreda Physical and Socio-Economic Profile, 2012).
According to the information gathered from the woreda agricultural office, 97% of the woreda is
within the Weina-Dega agro-climatic Zone while only 3% is in the Dega (cool temperate) zone.
The area under study lies within the Weina-Dega zone. The rainfall pattern is bi-modal whereby
the short rains occur from mid February to April and the long rainy season is from June to
September. The average annual temperature is 18°C (Bacho Woreda Physical and Socio-
Economic Profile, 2012).
Demography
In 2007, the population of Tulu-Bolo town was 14,476 (CSA, 2008). According to the CSA
population projection, the population of Tulu- Bolo town stood at 20,727 in 2014. Out of this
10,328 are male and the rest 10,399 are female. Tulu-Bolo town has two kebeles named kebele
01 and kebele 02. The Tulu-Bolo Physical and Socio-Economic Profile (2012) indicated that the
9
town had 2,766 HHs i.e. kebele 01 had 1380 HHs while kebele 02 had 1386 HHs. Each kebele is
divided into 5 villages (Got/Gere); Belbele-Bantu, Menafesha, Hospital, Hawi-Gudina and
Mulu-wengel in kebele 01 and Bulchisa, Bufeta Feya, Kamb-Gebya, Total-Finance and Tele-
Kera in kebele 02. On the other hand, Soyoma-Ganji had 608 HHs, Keta-Insilae had 411 HHs
and Batu-Chiracha had 176 HHs in 2012 (Bacho Woreda Land Administration and Protection
Office, 2012)
Brief history of water supply in the study area
A local NGO, Water Action, built a water supply scheme in 2002 to serve the population in
Tulu-Bolo town and the villagers in Soyoma-Ganji, Keta-Insilale and Batu-Cherecha. The source
of water for the scheme is a spring located adjacent to Tulu-Bolo town. The total existing
population in 2002 and the total 15 years projected population to benefit from the scheme were
11,411 and 20,235 respectively. Prior to 2002, the water supply of Tulu-Bolo town was from a
borehole source. The system was constructed in 1973 for a design period of 15 years to serve a
community of about 4,000. The depth of the well is 80 meters and the water was pumped from the
well with 11KW electrical submersible pump (with power supply from the electric main) to an
overhead steel tanker of 4m3 capacity (WA, 2000; WA 2002).
The water was distributed to the town through household connections and 6 public taps but only
three public taps were functioning in 2000. Due to the expansion of the town, the public taps were
insufficient to serve the community and most of the community obtained water from the spring. In
addition, the distribution pipe lines and the casing of the borehole were damaged due to old age.
Additionally, the villagers in Soyoma-Ganji, Keta-Insilale and Batu-Cherecha obtained water
from unprotected sources like river, unprotected spring, and unprotected wells. In light of this,
Water Action constructed a water supply scheme for the town population by considering the three
villages located around the town (WA, 2000).
10
Figure 1: Map of Bacho Woreda
Source: Bacho Woreda Land Administration and Protection Office, 2012
11
1.6 Research Methodology
1.6.1 Research Design and Sampling Framework
The researcher focuses on descriptive research design where different data are collected to obtain
the necessary information. Probability and non-probability sampling designs is applied to
identify the sample villages (got) and sample households. The sample frames for the survey are
the intended beneficiary households of the Tulu-Bolo water supply scheme. These are 3,026
households; 2,766 HHs in Tulu-Bolo town, 62 HHs in Soyoma-Ganji, 140 HHs in Keta-Insilale
and 58 HHs in Batu-Cherecha. Due to time and financial limitations the researcher decided to
take 150 sample households i.e. only 5 percent of the total number of households. The researcher
randomly (lottery method) selected four villages (got) from the two kebeles of the town; Belbele-
Bantu and Hawi-Gudina from kebele 01; Tele-Kera and Kamb-Gebya from kebele 02. The
researcher has taken all the beneficiaries of the rural villages. Thus, the sample households are
from the selected four villages (got) in the town and the three rural villages. They are selected
using a systematic random sampling method so that all beneficiaries are fairly represented.
Categories
Selected
Got/
Villages
Total
Number of
Households
Proportional
Sampling
Number of
sample
households
Systematic
sampling
nth
household Tulu-Bolo
Town
Kebele 01 Belbele-
Bantu
255 255
1625× 150
23
150
23= 6
Hawi-
Gudina
420 420
1625× 150
39
150
39= 4
Kebele 02 Tele-Kera 300 300
1625× 125
28
150
28= 6
Kamb-
Gebya
390 390
1625× 150
36
150
36= 4
Villages in
Soyoma-Ganji - 62 62
1625× 150
6
150
6= 25
Keta-Insilale - 140 140
1625× 150
13
150
13= 12
Batu-Cherecha - 58 58
1625× 150
5
150
5= 30
Total 1625 150
12
1.6.2 Data Sources
In order to collect relevant data on the topic under investigation, this study constitutes both
qualitative and quantitative data from both secondary and primary sources. The research methods
included in these data sources are discussed briefly as follows.
1.6.2.1 Primary Data Sources
Household Questionnaire
To generate information at household level the researcher used structured questionnaire for 150
HHDs that are drown from the intended beneficiaries of the spring water scheme. Broadly, the
questionnaire has covered information on the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents,
level of consumer satisfaction for the service provided, accessibility and reliability of the water
supply, functionality of the scheme, community participation in the provision and institutional
management of the scheme, and financial aspects related with the system. Furthermore, five data
collectors who are familiar with the area were trained to conduct the survey.
Key Informant Interview
Additionally, another primary data source included in this study is interview with 12 key
informants. These informants were selected from the different institutions; Water Action, Tulu-
Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office, Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office, the water
committee managing the hand pump in Batu-Cherecha village, the Electric Utility Office in
Tulu-Bolo Town. These informants had the necessary information about the technical conditions
of the schemes; the demand and supply of water supply in the study area; the financial and
institutional aspect of the schemes; the community’s participation in the design, implementation
and management of the schemes; and the environmental sustainability of the water supply
schemes. Interviews are conducted with the manager and finance head of the town water supply
service office; 2 water technicians (1 operator and 1 plumber) of the town water supply service
office; a water technician of the hand pump in Batu-Cherecha; 2 tap attendants of public taps; the
project manager in Water Action; the head of Oromia Water Bureau and Bacho Woreda Water
Office, co-chairperson of the water committee managing the water supply scheme in Batu-
Cherecha, and an informant in the Electric Utility Office of Tulu-Bolo Town.
13
Observation
In addition to the above tools, the researcher also used observation methods to assess physically
the existing water schemes, their state of development, the distances of water sources from the
dwelling places, the technical condition of the schemes and matched it with the checklists to
assess the reliability of the data collected. To understand the realities of the water supply system,
field visits and informal discussions with users were conducted to get direct information about
the water supply system.
1.6.2.2 Secondary Data Sources
Secondary data was collected from published and unpublished materials like reports, project
documents, policy documents, books, journals, research findings of various scholars on the topic
under investigation and other publications.
1.7 Methods of data analysis
Quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis were used to analyze the data gathered
from field. The primary data collected from household respondents through structured
questionnaires were first checked for accuracy, tabulated and analyzed by using statistical
package for social science (SPSS version 20 software). Descriptive statistics such as frequency,
percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to analyze the data quantitatively. The data
were presented in tables, charts and figures. Qualitative data that was gathered through key
informant interviews, personal observations and secondary data (document review) obtained
from different offices was analyzed qualitatively.
1.8 Scope and limitations of the study
There is a significant shortage in safe drinking water supply in Ethiopia; and recently the
sustainability of water schemes has been in question. Various studies conducted have shown that
there is a sustainability problem in most water schemes set up throughout the nation due to
different reasons. Most water schemes cease to function in short period after being set up. There
are many studies conducted on the shortage of water supply but not many exist on sustainability
issue. The study is limited to domestic water supply in Tulu- Bolo rural town and surrounding
villages and does not include industrial and other consumption of water supply. Tulu- Bolo and
14
the surrounding villages are selected due to the fact that the community faced lack of safe
drinking water when there was abundant source and its relative proximity to the researcher’s
living area. One of the major limitations faced by the researcher was that it was sometimes
difficult to collect the necessary data due to unavailability of documented data and lack of
cooperation.
1.9 Significance of the study
The finding of this research is expected to come up with a conceptual framework that illustrates
the overall sustainability of water supply systems. It may also initiate interested researchers to
undertake a more comprehensive investigation to a greater understanding of the issues related to
system sustainability in water supply scene. The finding of the study will also help Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), development partners and the government to inquire a
better means to sustain water supply schemes.
1.10 Organization of the study
The thesis is divided into four chapters. The first chapter covers the introduction part which
includes the background of the study, statement of the problem, objective, significance, research
method, the scope and limitation of the study. Chapter two deals with the related literature
review on access to water supply and the sustainability of water supply schemes. The third
chapter discusses the results and findings of the study. The last chapter is the conclusion and
recommendations part.
15
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Definition of operational terms
Reading different writings on water supply as such as this, one might be faced with terms and
concepts such as safe drinking water, improved drinking water source, surface water, liters per
capita per head and the like. Some notions related to water supply are briefly explained in this
section. The most commonly used report regarding the access of water supply worldwide is the
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) report for drinking water supply and
sanitation. At the end of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-
1990), WHO and UNICEF decided to combine their experience and resources in a Joint
Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. The reports are devoted primarily
to providing information on water supply and sanitation coverage, and on the progress made at
the country level by local agencies in monitoring the sector. The JMP is tasked with providing
estimates that are comparable among countries and across time. It is the official UN mechanism
to monitor progress towards the MDG target for drinking water and sanitation (WHO/UNICEF,
2000).
Water consumption per capita is consumption of water in liters per day (the numerator)
divided by the total population (the denominator), for all domestic uses (excludes industrial and
commercial). Domestic water is water used by households for drinking, washing and cooking.
Water sources are categorized as improved and unimproved drinking-water sources. Definitions
of “improved” drinking-water sources can vary widely among countries; the WHO/UNICEF has
established a standard set of categories that are used to analyze national data on which the MDG
trends and estimates are based. According to WHO/UNICEF (2003), an improved drinking-
water source is one that, by the nature of its construction, adequately protects the source from
outside contamination, particularly fecal matter. Piped water is among the improved drinking-
water sources. Potable water is water of specified quality standard meant for drinking purposes.
It is sometimes referred to as safe water. Piped water on premises refers to piped household
water connection located inside the user’s dwelling, plot or yard. Piped water into dwelling,
16
also called a household connection, is defined as a water service pipe connected with in-house
plumbing to one or more taps (e.g. in the kitchen and bathroom). Piped water to yard/plot, also
called a yard connection, is defined as a piped water connection to a tap placed in the yard or
plot outside the house. Other improved drinking-water sources are public taps or standpipes, tube
wells or boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs, and rain water collection. Moreover,
adequate access to safe water is the ability of the community to use 20 liters of water per
person per day from an improved source that is not more than 1km away from their dwelling
(WHO/UNICEF, 2000).
Unimproved drinking-water sources are those that, by nature of their construction or through
active intervention are not protected from outside contamination, especially fecal matter.
Examples include unprotected dug well, unprotected spring, cart with small tank/drum, surface
water, bottled water (not considered “improved” because of limitations concerning the potential
of supplied water, not quality). Surface water is the most susceptible to pollution and most likely
to have poor water quality. Surface drinking-water sources are river, dam, lake, pond, stream,
canal, irrigation channels (WHO/ UNICEF, 2000).
Water scarcity is lack of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods,
ecosystems and/or production. Sometimes described as physical scarcity, where water
availability is limiting, or economic scarcity, where access to water is constrained. Water
security is the availability of an adequate quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods,
ecosystems and production, and the capacity to access it, coupled with an acceptable level of
water-related risks to people and environments, and the capacity to manage those risks (Calow et
al., 2013).
Functionality (of water systems and services) measures whether systems and services are ‘fit
for purpose’ and functioning as intended; typically used to distinguish between systems that
work and provide services, and systems that don’t because they have fallen into disrepair.
Maintenance is a minor activity carried out by a technician with skilled labor and caretaker
services provided by the villages and it is concerned with preventive care to ensure that the
system continues to function. Rehabilitation on the other hand means major overhaul and
reconstruction, often costing as much as a new project. Whereas repair is required, when the
17
system has actually broken down and need assistance in terms of material and expertise (IRC,
1990).
Operation costs include fuel, staff salaries and cost for water treatment chemicals, where as
maintenance costs are costs for labor, tools, equipment, spare parts etc. Cost-sharing implies
the share of costs among the communities and other stakeholders to develop sustainable water
supply system; while cost recovery refers to the revenue collected or the cost of water supply
systems recovered from the water sales. Full cost-recovery means that the water supply service
is able to recover the cost of operation and maintenance of the WSS systems as well as the cost
of investments. Whereas, partial cost recovery is that the water supply service covers only
operation and maintenance costs of water supply scheme (Sebsibe et al., 2002).
Tube well or borehole is a deep hole that has been driven, bored or drilled, with the purpose of
reaching groundwater supplies. Boreholes/tube wells are constructed with casing, or pipes, which
prevent the small diameter hole from caving in and protect the water source from infiltration by
run-off water. Water is delivered from a tube well or borehole through a pump, which may be
powered by human, animal, wind, electric, diesel or solar means. A hand-dug well is a well
usually dug without the aid of heavy mechanical equipment. It is usually dug with simple
digging tools. A hand pump is a device installed on a well or borehole to facilitate drawing (or
pumping) of water from the well. A public tap/standpipe is a public water point from which
people can collect water. A standpipe is also known as a public fountain or public tap. Public
standpipes can have one or more taps and are typically made of brickwork, masonry or concrete
(WHO/UNICEF, 2008).
Community participation is an active process by which beneficiary or client groups influence
the direction and execution of a development project with a view to enhancing their well-being
in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance or other values they cherish (Paul, 1987).
Community management is an approach to service provision in which communities take
responsibility for operating and maintaining their own water supply systems. Willingness to Pay
refers to the inclination of the community to pay for improved water supply. Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene Committee (WASHCO) is a committee nominated by a community to operate
local water systems and carry out minor repairs (Habtamu et al., 2013).
18
Kebele is the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia, equivalent to a community and composed of
several villages (Got). Woreda is an administrative division of Ethiopia (managed by a local
government), equivalent to a district. Woredas are composed of a number of kebeles. Regional
Bureau of Water and Energy are regional-level offices under the authority of the Ministry of
Water and Energy responsible for overseeing water resource development, management and
service delivery across regional zones and woredas.
2.2 Access to improved drinking water source
In the year 2000, heads of states gathered at the United Nations headquarters in New York and
adopted the Millennium Declaration, which formed the basis for the formulation of eight
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Goal number 7, on environmental sustainability,
included a target (target C) which calls on countries to ‘Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people
without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation’ (WHO/UNICEF, 2011).
The international community certainly did work towards the achievement of MDG-target 7C
persistently in the last two decades because the target was achieved in 2010, five years ahead of
the target date, despite significant population growth.
In 2012, 89% of the world’s population had access to an improved source, up from 76 % in
1990. This indicates that, since 1990 over 2.3 billion people have gained access to improved
sources of drinking water. More than half the world’s populations, almost 4 billion people, now
enjoy the highest level of water access: a piped water connection at their homes. But there were
748 million people still relying on unsafe drinking water sources in 2012, of which 173 million
obtained their drinking water straight from rivers, streams or ponds. The remaining population
relied on unprotected, open wells or poorly protected natural springs. Nearly half of the
populations who lack ready access to improved sources of drinking water are in Sub-Saharan
Africa (WHO/UNICEF, 2014; MDG report, 2014).
Sub-Saharan Africa faces the greatest challenge in increasing the use of improved drinking water
sources. Despite strong overall progress, 325 million people in sub- Saharan Africa do not have
access to improved drinking water in 2012. The region stands at 64 % in using improved
drinking water source. Of these, almost a quarter relies on untreated surface water, and over 90%
19
live in rural areas. The region has made little or no progress in increasing piped water on
premises (15% in 1990 – 16% in 2012). Furthermore water is not easily accessible to many
households in Sub-Saharan Africa. Many people, usually women or young girls, often need to
join long queues or walk long distances to get to an improved water source (WHO/UNICEF,
2014).
The water crisis forces people , mostly women and young girls, to spend hours collecting and
carrying water, which restricts their opportunities and choices. Women and girls have the
primary responsibility for collecting water. In some countries the proportion is more than 90%
(WHO/UNICEF, 2008). Because of this task women and children suffer from disease, have
limited participation in education, and both income generating activities and engagement in
cultural and political issues are often compromised. In Ethiopia six of every ten households (62
%) adult women are responsible for water collection (EDHS, 2011). This creates significant
burden, especially when the time taken to collect water is considerable.
In addition to water scarcity, those populations using an improved drinking water source may not
necessarily have safe water. Many improved facilities are microbiologically contaminated.
Concerns about the quality and safety of many improved drinking water sources persist. As a
result, the number of people without access to safe drinking water may be two to three times
higher than official estimates. Most people around the world aspire to piped drinking water
supplies on their premises. Yet 38 per cent of the 6.2 billion people globally using an improved
drinking water source do not enjoy the convenience and associated health and economic benefits
of piped drinking water at home (MDG report, 2013).
Moreover, a significant disparity in availability of safe drinking water is observed between rural
and urban areas of individual countries in the world. By the end of 2011, 83% of the population
without access to an improved drinking-water source lived in rural areas. Seventy-two per cent
of the 1.6 billion people who gained access to piped water on premises live in urban areas.
However, household piped connections are also increasing in rural areas: over the past 22 years,
more people in rural areas have gained access to piped water on premises than to other forms of
improved water supply. Interventions that do not have an equity focus may exacerbate inequality
by failing to reach the most disadvantaged subgroups. The disparity at national level is
20
significant; the urban coverage of safe drinking water is 97 % whereas only 42 % of rural
Ethiopia has access to improved source of drinking water. Although the nation has taken a major
stride in increasing water coverage, the rural population that accounts the majority of the general
population seems to have been overlooked (MDG report, 2014; WHO/UNICEF, 2014).
All sources confirm that water supply coverage in Ethiopia is improving and rising. The review
shows that the percentage of households with access to improved drinking water has more than
doubled over the last five years and reached 57% in 2015. Ethiopia has achieved the MDG goal
7c of halving the number of people without access to safe water since 1990 (UNICEF Ethiopia,
2015). According to GLAAS (2014), the key elements of Ethiopia’s success include: strong
political will for improving access to water and sanitation and possessing the human resources
and education institutions needed to implement WASH programmes. Financing has also played a
role in Ethiopia’s success.
In general, deprivation of basic human needs (which includes water) is referred to as absolute
poverty. Lack of access to safe drinking water is designated as being entangled in poverty and
leading to impoverishment and diminished opportunities. And the people susceptible to the
shortage of safe drinking water supply are faced with far reaching consequences, such as ill-
health/death caused by using unimproved sources of drinking (especially children), low standard
of living; loss of substantial amount of time in collecting water which can be efficiently used
(WB, 2011).
Thus, even if the MDG target is met worldwide, there will still be large numbers of people
without access to improved drinking-water sources after 2015. The high number of people
without access to safe drinking water demands for a concerted effort of many partners of the
international community especially African countries to press on with providing a safe drinking
water to the universal population.
21
2.3 Overview of water policies in Ethiopia
2.3.1 Water supply responsibilities
The Ministry of Water and Energy in Ethiopia (MoWE) has the responsibility to provide safe
and adequate drinking water for human consumption and domestic use, from source to
distribution for communities, schools, and other institutions; water quality monitoring; training
of WASHCOs, teachers, parent–teacher associations (PTAs) and others; and operation of the
National WASH Coordination Office (MoWE, 2010).
Decentralization is a fundamental principle of Ethiopian policy in the WASH sector and beyond.
The argument is that decision-making needs to occur with or close to end users to ensure that
services fully meet local needs and are sustainable. Autonomous local institutions have been
created to manage water resources and provide water supply services, including utility agencies
in large towns, private sector and local artisan associations, water user associations (WUAs) and
water committees at scheme level (Arsano et al., 2010).
The Regional Water Bureaus are the highest institutional body of the water supply sector in a
region and an executive arm of the regional council; responsible for planning and management of
water resources in the region. The bureaus are not actively engaged in the operation and
administration of water supply services but their role is in project management, tariff review and
development, bulk procurement and facilitating and regulating the activities of the water supply
service. As part of the decentralization process, woredas became the lowest level of government,
responsible for decisions on public spending and the provision of services. Regional water
bureau formulate policy appropriate to their own development and play a leading role in
managing development interventions. Woreda water desks are in charge of investment planning,
monitoring, and technical assistance to service providers, at least for lower-end technologies
(Calow et al., 2012).
Woredas receive block grants from the central government and decide how to use these grants
within broad criteria set by the MoFED. In rural areas, WASHCOs or WUAs operate water
systems and promote sanitation, supported by woreda and regional water and sanitation
government staff. Urban water supply service is a semi-autonomous sector that is responsible for
22
the provision of adequate potable water to the town, collecting water charges, operation and
maintenance of water system, and keeps records of financial transactions and produce periodic
financial report (Alemayehu, 2012).
2.3.2 Policies and Targets
The Ethiopian government has set its own ambitious targets in the first UAP in 2005 which set
out to reach full access to water by 2012. The UAP has since been revised and aligned with the
GTP, with dates extended to 2015 and targets reduced to 98.5 per cent coverage, with coverage
defined as access to 15 liters per capita per day (lpcd) within a service radius of 1.5 km. The
GTP recognizes the importance of water provision and the development of relevant institutions
to manage water service delivery at appropriate administrative levels. It includes targets for both
urban and rural water supply (Table 1.1). The GTP states that the key objective for the water
sector from 2010–15 is ‘to develop and utilize water for different social and economic priorities
in a sustainable and equitable way, to increase the water supply coverage, and to develop
irrigation schemes so as to ensure food security, to supply raw materials for agro-industries and
to increase foreign currency earnings’ (MoFED, 2010).
Table 1.1 Water-related targets in the growth and Transformation Plan
Baseline
2009/2010
Target
2014/2015
Potable water Coverage (%) 68.5 98.5
Urban potable water coverage (source
within 0.5 km)
91.5 100
Rural Potable water coverage (source
within 1.5 km)
65.8 98
Reduce non-functional rural water supply
schemes (5)
20 10
Source: MoFED, 2010
The GTP’s water-related priorities are guided by Ethiopia’s Water Resources Management
Policy (MoWR, 1999) and a Water Sector Strategy (MoWR, 2001) that emphasize the need for
efficient, equitable, and optimum utilization of available water to achieve sustainable socio-
23
economic development. Ethiopia’s Water Resources Management Policy is based on the
following principles (MoWR, 1999):
Ethiopian citizens shall have access to sufficient water of acceptable quality to satisfy
basic human needs. The policy prioritizes drinking water over other uses, but recognizes
that water is both an economic and social good.
Water resources development should be based on decentralized management and
participatory approaches. Management of water resources shall include all stakeholders,
including the private sector, and ensure social equity, system reliability, and
sustainability.
IWRM is emphasized: the policy recognizes the hydrologic boundary or basin as the
fundamental planning unit and water resources management domain. Ownership is
devolved to lower tiers and management autonomy is at the lowest administrative level.
Full cost recovery is the aim for urban water supply systems and recovery of operational
and maintenance costs for rural schemes.
In addition to extending the target date for achieving (near) universal access to water, the revised
UAP also endorses a shift towards lower-cost technologies. This includes ‘self-supply’, in which
the initiative and investment to build or improve water sources such as family wells comes from
individual households. The revised UAP also highlights the need for community mass
mobilization, advocacy and promotion required to achieve the UAP targets, and the development
of minimum capacity at woreda (district) level to implement projects, or to promote and support
self-supply (MoWE, 2010).
2.3.3 Financial and Institutional framework set-ups
Four modalities for financing and managing community and institutional WASH projects are
outlined in the WIF (FDRE, 2011):
Community Managed Projects (CMP) using the Community Development Fund (CDF)
approach (CDF approach takes decentralization of WASH services a step further by
devolving responsibility for scheme development, construction and management to
WASHCOs, including management of capital funds and procurement. The CDF will be
24
mainstreamed under the banner of CMP as a primary service-delivery approach, where
communities have the necessary capacity)
Woreda-managed projects with WASHCOs or institutional WASH committees involved
in planning, design, implementation, and management of schemes. The woreda WASH
team will be project manager with responsibility for contracting, procurement, quality
control, and handover to the community. Larger programmes involving borehole drilling
will continue to be carried out by regional government, capitalizing on economies of
scale.
NGO-managed projects, varying considerably in approach and scale. Typically NGOs
either administer external resources on behalf of the community, following the woreda-
managed project model, or make external resources available to the community directly
or through a micro-finance institution, for user-group management in an arrangement
similar to the CDF.
Self-supply, in which the initiative and investment to build or improve facilities comes
from individual households. Self-supply initiatives are ‘off budget’, but will be
documented in the NWI, incorporated into kebele and woreda WASH plans and reports,
and supported with training and technical assistance.
Achieving sustainable services under the four approaches set out in the WIF requires that
WASHCOs have the capacity to select appropriate technologies, participate in scheme planning,
collect and manage user payments, and carry out maintenance and repairs. This places a
significant demand on woredas to support WASHCOs and build their capacity in areas ranging
from scheme design to procurement and financial management, while implementing schemes,
carrying out repairs, and monitoring services (Bethel et al., 2013).
While not mentioned specifically in the WIF, the National Water Resources Management Policy
treats water as both an economic and social good. In urban areas, tariffs for water supply services
are expected to follow full cost recovery principles, including capital costs, operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs, depreciation, and debt servicing, with subsidies for poor users. Urban
tariffs are tied progressively to consumption levels, with special flat rate tariffs for communal
services such as hand pumps and public stand posts, used mostly by the urban poor. In reality,
however, urban water supply relies on public subsidy. In rural areas, tariffs are supposed to
25
recover O&M costs alone, with capital costs borne in full, or in part (depending on scheme type)
by government or other financing agencies (MoWR, 2001; FDRE, 2011).
However, the assumption that significant revenue can be generated from users and that rural
water committees have the capacity to turn this finance into sustainable service delivery is
questionable. Funds are often inadequate, technical capacity to maintain schemes often weak,
and spare parts supply chains rarely reach lower levels. This means that O&M must be
subsidized from public sources, reducing the budget for capital investments (AMCOW, 2011).
Significant investment is needed in capacity building and strengthening of technical expertise at
woreda level to achieve and sustain sector targets in Ethiopia. A key problem is that they
typically suffer from limited human capacity, skills, and knowledge, both in technical and
managerial terms, and do not always provide the services for which they were established.
However, human resource shortages are particularly acute in newly-emerging regions (e.g. Afar),
and in remote rural woredas (Arsano et al., 2010). Technical and vocational training centres
(TVETCs) were opened to train woreda water technicians following decentralization in 2004
(MoWE, 2010). However, the training is mainly classroom-based, and most woredas still have
only a few, often junior, staff with little practical experience. Motivation at woreda level tends to
be low due to low pay, weak line management, limited capacity-building support, and low
budgets. To develop greater capacity, the MoWE (2010) has allocated almost $37 million under
the revised UAP to build the capacity of its staff, regional Bureau of Water and Energy
(BoWEs), water TVETCs, and the Ethiopian Water Technology Centre (which focuses on
groundwater).
2.4 Sustainability of water supply schemes
Sustainable access to water supply is central to socio-economic development, improving health
and educational achievement, reducing child mortality, and improving livelihoods (Hutton and
Haller, 2004). But these benefits are not sustained if access to water supply itself is not
sustainable. Non-operating systems, and intermittent or unreliable supplies, place an increased
burden on the populations they are designed to serve, lead to household storage in often
unhygienic conditions and, as a consequence, increase health risks.
26
Governments, local and international NGOs in developing countries invest large sums of money
every year for the implementation of water supply projects (Gebrehiwot, 2006). However,
construction of water projects does not help if they fail after a short period of time. In order to
make the investment in water supplies more effective, failure rates of these systems should be
reduced. Harvey and Reed (2007) stated that constructing water supply systems alone would not
eliminate all problems. The problem will only be solved by adopting a holistic approach to
planning and implementation rather than focusing on one issue. They added that functionality,
utilization by intended beneficiaries, and resilience of water projects are important characteristics
to be considered and integrated in order to achieve maximum benefits.
The statistics reveal that an estimated of 30%-60% of existing water-supply systems in the world
are inoperative at any given time (Chaka et.al, 2011). According to Harvey (2008), the reasons
for such low levels of water supply sustainability are multifaceted and include limited demand,
lack of affordability or acceptability among communities, limited sustainability of community
management structures, inadequate supply chains for equipment and spare parts, insufficient
government support, and environmental issues. Similarly Niyi and Felix (2007) indicated that the
key causes include inappropriate policy or legislation; insufficient institutional support;
unsustainable financing mechanisms; ineffective management systems; and lack of technical
backstopping.
Clearly such low levels of sustainability undermine efforts to expand water coverage and cause
health and economic problems to the population especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The concept
of sustainability is not new in sub-Saharan Africa. Recent figures for 20 countries in SSA
suggest that roughly 35–40 per cent of hand pumps are ‘non-functional’, representing a total
investment of some US$1.2–1.5 billion over the last 20 years (Baumann, 2009). The reasons for
failure of water supply systems in the region includes, lack of recovery of operation and
maintenance costs, poor training, disinterested users committees, weak administrative support,
non-suitability of the technology for its intended use and finally limited sustainability of imposed
community management structures (Harvey and Reed, 2006; Bhandari and Grant, 2007; Carter,
2009).
27
Like so many other African countries, sustainability of water supply systems is a major concern
in Ethiopia. Water schemes that have failed or experienced frequent outages in the nation stand
between 20-30% (Habtamu et.al, 2013). The lack of such services is degrading for the affected
people and has a serious impact on their health and well-being. Field studies by the World Bank
(in 20 woredas) and RiPPLE (in two woredas) have found that non-functionality rates can reach
40 per cent or even 60 percent (WB, 2009; Abebe and Deneke, 2008). Furthermore, many
households classified as having access to a functional water scheme in fact travel longer
distances to water and access less water per capita than the UAP service level of 15 liters per
capita per day within 1.5 km (Moriarty et al., 2009). This is because access often declines in the
dry season when fewer sources are available (e.g. springs), and pressure on remaining sources
(e.g. boreholes) increases (Coulter et al., 2010).
Although most efforts and resources in the WASH sector continue to go into the construction of
new infrastructure, which undoubtedly is needed, such investment often appears to be at the
expense of the sustainability of services already in place. Where increasing coverage in hardware
is the key sector driver in Ethiopia, monitoring is focused on that and not on the performance or
sustainability of services (Lockwood and Smits, 2011). Thus, in addition to increasing access
through implementation of improved water supplies, it is also necessary to ensure that both new
and existing water systems are sustainable, so that access to safe water is sustained for all
(Habtamu et.al, 2013). In Ethiopia, the recent strategic shift by the government towards lower-
cost technologies and ‘facilitated self-supply’ is a response to these challenges of delivering and
sustaining services in low income areas (AMCOW, 2011). Non-functionality levels reported by
the Ethiopia regional water bureaus and projected by the GTP planning team (MoWE, 2010) are
shown in Table 1.2.
28
Table 1.2 Non-functionality of rural water schemes in 10 regions
Region Baseline non-functionality (%)
Tigray 18
Gambella 30
Benishangul-Gumuz 25
Dire Dawa 30
Harari 35
Somali 30
Amhara 18
Afar 25
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and
People’s Region (SNNPR)
25
Oromia 20
National Coverage 20
Source: MoWE, 2010
Moriarty and Butterworth (2003) identified some of the factors that affect the functionality of
water supply systems in Ethiopia: lack of involvement of the community in selection of site and
technology, implementation, operation and maintenance of the water source, lack of finances at
the community level for operation and maintenance of water sources, inadequate support from
government agencies, use of complicated technology without proper capacity-building at
community level. In the end, these factors are combined to bring about the sustainability of water
supply schemes: by sustaining accessible water supplies in sufficient quantity and quality; by
reducing the time and effort used in water collection; by allowing for the provision of enhanced
sanitation facilities; and by facilitating income-generating activities.
Addressing sustainability was a key aim of the original 2005 UAP, which aimed to do so in the
first two years of implementation by focusing on rehabilitation and maintenance of existing
schemes. The UAP reflected current global debates on sustainability, adopting such principles as
demand-responsive approaches (DRAs), community contributions for operation and maintenance
(O&M), and ‘the participation of relevant bodies, especially women’ in an effort to strengthen
local ownership of water services and their sustainability (MoWR, 2006).
29
2.5 Determinants of Water Supply Scheme Sustainability
In general, the endurance of a water supply system, as well as the system’s ability to adapt to
changing consumer needs or preferences for water quality and quantity, are defining features of
water system sustainability (Carter et al., 1999). The sustainability of water supply systems is
correlated with institutional, social, technical, environmental and financial dimensions (Harvey
and Reed, 2004). But these dimensions are interrelated and interdependent to each other. The
different factors mentioned in the previous section falls into the following determinants one way
or another.
2.5.1 Technical and Institutional aspects
A major concern for expanding water-supply services is to select technologies and institutional
options that users would be willing to pay for, and that would also ensure good public health and
sustainable environmental conditions. Technical issues relating to the design and construction of
a water system are the most obvious determinants of water system sustainability. Technical
capacity depends on the availability of equipment for operating the system, people who can be
trained to operate equipment, and the quality of construction of the system. In addition, choice
and complexity of technology, technical capacity of the system to respond to demand and
provide the desired service level are also technical factors (Brikké and Bredero, 2003; Katz and
Sara, 1998).
Choice of Technology and Quality of Construction
Poor construction quality or the use of low grade materials and design flaws may lead to the
failure of the water system. Carter et.al (1999) noted that it is disastrous for poor people when a
facility breaks down and cannot be repaired because of a fault inherent in the design or
construction. While construction quality is difficult to evaluate quantitatively, the qualitative data
indicates that if construction quality was poor, systems had a lower chance of sustainability. In
addition to the construction quality, the design has to be flexible to allow users expand the
system.
30
Furthermore, appropriate technology must be used in order for water supply system to be
sustainable (Zelalem, 2005). Choice of technology can determine how easily sustainability can
be ensured in relation to other aspects. A frequent claim is that lack of involvement of
communities in technology selection has been a major constraint in its sustainability.
Technologies should be user-friendly and communities should not be excluded from choosing a
suitable technology. Community participation from the outset can ensure sustainability by
embedding an understanding of technology upkeep, maintenance and, proper usage (Musonda,
2004; Habtamu et al., 2013). If a community is to manage a water supply system, the technology
used clearly needs to be the type that community caretakers can maintain with little outside
assistances. The technology must suit the locally available skills or that can be acquired by
community members. Technology is considered suitable if it is socially acceptable, economically
viable, technically effective and environmentally sound (Yitayh, 2011).
In addition to community involvement, the availability of spare parts should also be one of the
main factors that determine the suitability of a particular technology. Before opting for a
technology, the mechanism for supplying spare parts must be investigated, established and
assured. Often, however, the issue of spare parts arises only after the technology has been
selected and installed, which puts its sustainability at risk. Spare parts availability and supply are
therefore major considerations if water supplies are to be sustainable and suitable (Brikké and
Bredero, 2003).
Operation, Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Water supply projects should not be viewed as an end themselves, their benefits continue long
after they have been handed over to the society. Even a water supply scheme built with a
faultless construction design and suitable technology needs to be properly operated and
maintained to keep it functioning. Therefore, effective O&M is a crucial component in
sustainability of a water scheme. It brings about important health benefits by sustaining
accessible water supplies in adequate quantity and quality; by reducing the time and effort spent
on water collection; and by providing income-generating activities.
31
O&M also contribute for system sustainability by reducing frequent and long breaks in supply
and consequently by improving service delivery. This is because users are usually unwilling to
pay for poor service. This in turn causes further deterioration in services as finance is not
available for repairs and maintenance. But, if there is proper system functioning users are
prepared to pay for a reliable service. Thus, proper consideration of how O&M is to be financed
and managed will avoid this cycle of poor service, dissatisfaction, poor payment and
deterioration (WASH, 2003).
In order to address the underlined causes of system failure, and achieve sustainability and
effectiveness, scholars in the water supply sector have increasingly emphasized the importance
to follow an integrated approach to operation and maintenance. According to this approach,
O&M needs to be integrated into all decisions concerning water supply, both for new projects
and for existing facilities. In this way the implications for O&M will be taken into account at all
stages of project development and during the functioning of the system. First, before planning
even starts, an assessment would be made of the local capacity for funding, manufacture,
construction, supply of materials and spare parts, technical input, and availability of trained
people. This information is then used to develop a plan which is appropriate to the local
situation. Systems which are too expensive to be locally maintained should be disregarded from
the start. Instead, systems which can be operated independently of external funding based on
local ability to provide funds for repair and expansion should be selected. This leads to self-
sufficiency and to systems that can eventually finance their own expansion (WASH, 2003).
Technical specifications take into account the local capacity to supply equipment for
construction and to provide spare parts in the future. If capacity is lacking in these areas, there is
time to build it up before it is needed. The same applies for human resources. Plans can be made
well in advance to train local people and/or recruit appropriate technical experts so that the skill
and knowledge base to maintain the system at its full potential exists from the very beginning.
O&M personnel should be involved in planning, design, and construction; so that they are able to
understand fully the system they are going to have, and the responsibility for operating and
maintaining. This can also avoid inappropriate designs and bad technology choices (WASH
2003).
32
The next stage is operation. At this stage, O&M principles can be used to organize and manage
services. Thus, O&M principles can also be applied at the organizational and managerial levels
of water supply services. In sum, O&M has the potential to make the difference between systems
that are successful, independent and self-sustaining, and those that fail. But, to do so, it must be a
priority. Additionally, proper operation and maintenance contributes for system sustainability by
reducing the need for premature rehabilitation of systems. Therefore, O&M considerations are an
integral part of all decision-making on water supply and are detrimental in addressing frequent
system failure and insuring sustainability. However, in most developing countries, including
Ethiopia, it has been found out that operation and maintenance (O&M) of water supply facilities
is in a poor state of condition and the sustainability of the scheme is at stake (Phil Evans, 1992;
WASH, 2003).
Rehabilitation of defective schemes can provide an economic alternative to invest in new
projects, but that decision should not be automatic. Just as with a new scheme, the rehabilitation
option has to be evaluated by balancing community needs, preference, and capacity to sustain
with the support potential of the water agency. In assessing the scope for rehabilitation, the
community and the agency together need to review what went wrong last time and ensuring that
lesson are incorporated in any remedial measure. Above all, rehabilitation should not simply be a
matter of replacing broken equipment or infrastructure. The most common cause of failure is
organizational: either the agency or the community has been unable to provide the resource
needed to keep the system in operation. Replacement of failed parts will not eliminate that
causes, unless it is combined by appropriate organizational changes and acceptance by both the
agency the community (IRC, 1990).
Technical skills and Availability of Equipments
According to Brikké and Bredero (2003), spare parts can be divided into three categories:
frequently needed spare parts, for which the accessibility should be as close as possible to
the village (shop, mechanic);
occasionally needed spare parts (every six months or every year), for which accessibility
can be at a nearby major centre;
33
major rehabilitation or replacement spare parts, for which accessibility can be at the local
or regional level, or at the state capital.
The lack of spare parts may be a major constraint in the sustainability of water supplies and can
even lead to the water supplies being abandoned. The availability of spare parts is a critical
factor to keep the system infrastructure working properly. Supply chains are now recognized as
one of the key determinants of sustainability, especially where the technology provided is
imported (John et al., 2013; Davis and Liyer, 2002).
A lack of spare parts can result from policies pursued by the donors, such as when hardware has
to be purchased from the donor countries. Many donors, however, are only involved in the
construction phase of the project and make no provision for continuing the supply of spare parts
after handing over the project to the community. Some donors have attempted to overcome the
problem by supplying a stock of spares at the time of installation. But this is only a short term
remedy, because the absence of a supply system and the lack of foreign exchange mean that
stocks do not get replenished (Brikké and Bredero, 2003).
As one element of sustainability, members of the community should be well-trained to properly
and promptly repair and maintain their water supply schemes. According to Kebede (2003) the
reasons, among others, for the failure of proper service provision of the schemes are absence of
skilled care takers or technicians from the community who should repair and maintain whenever
water systems fail to be operational.
Institutional set up
Experience has shown that even a well-constructed water system needs proper institutional
arrangements to keep it functioning over time. An institutional set-up with legal and regulatory
framework, educated staff, community involvement, women’s’ participation and external support
is needed to effectively manage the water system. The institutions responsible for water supply
in a country should have clear responsibilities to execute their duties effectively. The problem of
overlapping responsibilities among different institutions is observed in many developing
countries.
34
In addition the skills of water committees and water offices in rural towns fall under scrutiny.
They usually don’t have the necessary education and skills to manage the service. They are
usually provided with a onetime training which is not adequate to sustain the system. Problem in
management is exacerbated when the number of beneficiary increases and a need of additional
water supply scheme arise. In addition to skilled personnel, transparency and accountability
should be the main feature of the water service giving institutions. The lack of accountability and
transparency in some government agencies leads to higher costs, delays in implementation, and
lack of trust by community members.
Brikke (2000) stated that the presence of strong responsible government institution is a crucial
factor for any development activity particularly in water supply program. Being a critical factor
in the water supply sector, institutional capacity is influenced by the organizational framework
and the quality of staff. The organizational framework should encompass all the components of
the sector from planning and design to O & M, with support for programs of health education
and community participation. There should be clear lines of authority and responsibility, and
when several government agencies are involved, coordinating mechanisms are essential.
Coordination among stakeholders is crucial but difficult unless there is a formal organizational
agreement and framework.
Another important element in institutional issues is allocation of adequate budget to carry out the
mandate, including budget lines for staff salaries, administration, equipment, transportation and
training. Unless the required technical, material and financial capacity of the responsible
institution is fulfilled, the institution may not discharge its responsibility and the intended goal of
adequate water provision on sustainable basis might be compromised. Furthermore, providing
institutional support to community management bodies is another important institutional issue in
water supply programs (Yitayh, 2011).
35
2.5.2 Social Aspect
Community participation and management
Sustainability rate of water supply systems increases as a result of communities’ owning and
managing their schemes, existence of management organization at the village level, protection of
the water point, communities cost recovery for operation and maintenance, and recognition of
women. Over the past three decades, experience has shown that water activities are most
effective and sustainable when they adopt a participatory approach that acts in response to
genuine demand, builds capacity for operation and maintenance and sharing of costs, involve
community members directly in all key decisions, develop a sense of communal ownership of
the project, and uses appropriate technology that can be maintained at the village level (USAID,
2009).
Currently, the principles of communities’ involvement in water supply projects are widely
accepted among NGOs. As a result, the developed water supply systems are the property of the
specific community and not of the donor agency or the government. There has been increasing
recognition of the challenges of the community-management approach since the early 2000s
(Whittington et al., 2008). These include a widespread lack of technical and managerial capacity
at community and a frequent lack of post-construction support provided either through
government backstopping or the private sector. With communities growing in size and tariff-
base, especially in larger rural settlements and small towns, and with piped networks becoming
the norm in these settlements, there is an ongoing trend towards the professionalization of
community management in many countries. Post-construction support, however, has not yet been
addressed in a systematic way (Lockwood and Smits, 2011).
Demand-Responsiveness
In identifying safe drinking water supply projects, user groups should feel the need for safe
drinking water supply. The logic here is, that if there is real demand for water supply from the
community then that indicates that water, to users, has an economic value; or if water is a felt
need of the community, then this is an indication of willingness to share and recover costs of a
system to be developed. The fact that there is a real demand for supply of water will facilitate the
36
management of the water supply schemes by the users themselves, which in turn enhances
sustainability. One way of ascertaining this is to verify that the community has applied for the
development of the schemes (IRC, 2005).
Demand-responsiveness at the household level is a determinant of overall sustainability
primarily due to its role in increasing consumer satisfaction and willingness to sustain the
system. Consumers are more likely to be satisfied with results such as quantity of water, color
and test of water, distance and waiting time to fetch water when they initiate the project, are
involved in decision-making, and are informed about their responsibilities in terms of costs and
O&M. It is expected that under such circumstances, users express a higher sense of ownership,
greater confidence in their ability to maintain the water system, a better understanding of how the
tariff is used, and a willingness to pay for improvements (Zemenu, 2012).
Various scholars recognize that when local communities participate directly in planning their
own water supply systems, these systems are more likely to be sustainable than systems that are
imposed by the government or donor organizations (Katz and Sara, 1998; Carter et al.,1999;
Gleitsmann et al., 2007; Barnes & Ashbolt, 2010). This is not to suggest that the process must be
entirely community-driven; but “polycentric” approach that engages the private sector,
government actors and communities together can work (Falk et al., 2009).
Women Participation
Gender is key, given the time-consuming and physically demanding burden that insufficient,
distant, and poor quality water supply places on women and girls – those typically responsible
for collecting water and managing household water, sanitation, and hygiene. This makes it
especially important to involve women in planning and managing the water services in which
they have such a high stake. If women are fully involved at all stages of project implementation,
the risk of costly errors in system design will be minimized. In addition, the active participation
of women in community management bodies will ensure that these bodies are effective, and
therefore cost efficient. But conventional approaches are not gender-sensitive and have
undervalued women’s needs and contribution to the sector. Involving women in all water
planning and implementation activities is one way to guarantee the sustainability of the system
(Alemayehu, 2012; Habtamu, 2013). Hence, water supply projects should give the participation
37
of women high priority since they are the ones who bear the brunt of lack of safe water supply. It
is meaningless for water projects not to reduce the hardship, among others, of women and
children.
External Support
One way of enhancing the sustainability of water supply schemes is the provision of institutional
support to their management bodies. The most effective community management is an evolving
partnership, in which a community centered organization typically a water committee draws on
resources from within the community, and from a variety of outside agencies like government
bodies, NGOs and the private sector (IRC, 2005).
Problems that are beyond the community level need to be addressed by supporting agencies like
regional and local governments and relevant government bureaus and banks. Studies indicate
that lack of backing of local community management body is an important reason for the failure
of improved water supply schemes (European Commission, 1998). Lockwood (2002) and
Schouten and Moriarty (2003) pointed out that external support should focus on technical
assistance, training, monitoring and information collection, coordination, and facilitation.
2.5.3 Financial Aspects
The community management of water supply systems is not successful, if financing resources
are not available and frequent supports are not provided (Binder, 2008). Cost appears to lie
behind many instances of unsustainable water services, with insufficient funds blamed for
problems including lack of technical capacity and spare parts. Securing investments for
construction of water supply projects and financially sustaining the service is a common
challenge. But one of the hardest lessons for the water supply sector is that making the initial
capital investment is often the easiest part of the job. It is often relatively easy to find the
resources (money, labor, materials and organization) for one big push to build something. It is,
however, much more difficult to maintain a truly sustainable system (WHO/UNICEF, 2000).
38
Financial Administration
Financial problems often arise after the construction of a water scheme. The operation,
maintenance, and management of a water supply costs money. Whether it is agency managed or
community managed, the money for the running of a supply must come from somewhere. And it
is advisable if different sources are used to cover the costs. As Cardone and Fonseca (2003) point
out, cost recovery for a sustainable service requires all costs throughout the service lifetime to be
met from different funding sources – users, government, and development partners. But for many
years, initial and recurrent costs for water supply schemes have been covered by government and
donor organizations.
However, ever since the last decade, it became clear that neither governments nor donors can
continue to afford to pay for the costs of providing water supplies and of running them. There
has been a trend of paradigm shift away from free provision towards user's significant
contribution to the cost, particularly to the operation and maintenance cost. The argument in
favor of financial self reliance of water supply is mainly based on the belief that first the
government allocates its scarce financial resources at hand among the competing needs of the
populations and therefore cannot afford to continually subsidize the operation and maintenance
cost. Secondly, if the government continues to cover the cost, beneficiaries would expect help
loosing the sense of responsibility and ownership feeling and develop a dependency syndrome.
But, if communities pay for the costs for the running of schemes, they develop the feeling of
belongingness and ownership sentiment and, the argument goes, consequently they would look
after and take care for their scheme that lead to a reliable and sustainable provision of the service
(WSP, 2011).
The provision of an improved water supply is neither cost free nor sustainable unless the costs
are recovered. These costs comprise operation costs, repair and maintenance costs and
replacement and/or rehabilitation costs (Briscoe and de Ferranti, 1988). World Bank evaluation
report states that sustainability can only be ensured if tariffs generate enough resources to operate
the system, finance the expansion of the service to new customers and ultimately replace the
infrastructure after its useful life (Paraguay IRC, 1999). The success of cost recovery efforts will
be influenced by the extent to which individuals and committees are supported, re-trained, and
guided in relation to tariff structures and broader financial management. If such (external)
39
guidance is absent, then it is likely that the success of cost recovery efforts will slowly diminish
over time (Misgina, 2006).
Charging consumers for water should be done carefully. If prices are set too low, revenues may
not be sufficient to cover the full costs of supplying water. If, on the other hand, they are set too
high, households may not be able to afford consuming the new improved water, and again
revenues will not be sufficient to cover the full cost. In relation to this, Alebel (2004) suggested
that setting the required tariff, information on the ability and willingness of the consumers to pay
for such services are essential. In other words, to cover the full costs and sustain the service,
revenue should be collected from the sale of the water based on the tariff that considers the full
recovery of the cost, on the one hand, and the fairness and willingness of the consumers that are
supposed to be served, on the other. Therefore, the policy for increasing the coverage as the
proper use and sustainability of the service requires implementation of a cost recovery system,
which can be either full or partial cost recovery. That is, in order to implement the existing
policy for the provision of water supply fairness of the tariff, willingness to pay for the service
and efficient management of the resources of the utility office need to be examined.
Financial sustainability requires that available funds are used effectively and raised equitably. In
order to cover O&M costs and other important expenses of a particular water scheme, the
collected money from user communities should be managed properly and used for the intended
purposes. Cost-effective services require sound financial management to prevent the misuse of
scarce funds. Raising funds equitably is vital to sustainable cost recovery and use of services: if
poor users are priced out it deprives the service of revenue, and deprives users of safe water.
Water tariff should be affordable. Community consultation may be needed to identify those who
may struggle (e.g. for cash contributions at certain time of year), and to find ways to cross-
subsidize the poorest and most marginalized (Cardone and Fonseca, 2003).
Willingness and Ability to pay water tariff
According to the MoWE (2013) water tariff is the price paid by consumers for water. Water
tariff is calculated in such way that the income from water sales is sufficient to pay for all
expenses including some additional savings for further expansion and investment. Willingness to
pay establishes clear linkages between the type and level of service people want and how much
40
they are willing to pay for these services (Zelalem, 2005). Providing services which people can
afford is an obvious pre-condition for cost recovery. The willingness and ability to pay for water
service needs to be considered before the scheme is built and during tariff setting. Tariff setting
should consider different aspects so that the water schemes are not abandoned because the
beneficiaries can’t afford it. According to Briscoe and de Ferranti (1998), factors that influence
the willingness to pay are service level and standard, perceived benefits, level of income, price,
relative cost, opportunity cost of time, characteristics of existing sources, reputation of service
agency, community cohesion, policy environment, socio-cultural factors, perception of
ownership and responsibility, transparency of financial management and institutional frame
work.
Educating beneficiaries about the health and economic benefits they can gain from a new or
improved water supply system is a crucial element in increasing the willingness to pay for the
service provided. There is much evidence that even where consumers are wealthy, they often
refuse to pay or other-wise cause difficulties for a water authority which is attempting to
introduce or increase water charges (Zelalem, 2005). It is argued that the villagers may not
understand the relationship between improved water supply and health: the assumption of a well-
informed consumer is essential if normative judgments are to be made about the expression of
his willingness to pay (WSP, 2002).
2.5.4 Environmental Aspects
The environmental aspect of water services sustainability deals with the water source. Lockwood
(2003) mentioned that one of the determinants of water supply scheme sustainability is the
sustainability of the water source itself, but it is usually an overlooked matter. The development
and management of water resources should fully take into account the need for environmental
conservation with an adequate water supply, both in quantity and quality, to environmental
sustainability. First, the system must be suitable to the climatic or environmental conditions of
the region in which it is located. Second, the system should not deteriorate the quantity and
quality of source water or the ecosystems surrounding it (Carter et al., 1999; Serageldin et al.,
1994). With respect to the first feature, we note that infrastructure choices must be balanced
against the other criteria of sustainability, both technical and social. This is because community
41
preferences and technical capacity may not always match the type of system that may be deemed
optimal for a given climate or location. In terms of the second feature, we recognize that the
environmental impacts or potential degradation of a water source in rural communities are likely
to be much lower than in urban settings.
Davis et al. (1993) said the continued functionality of water supply schemes depends on a
reliable source and a reliable system of obtaining water from the source. The reliability of the
source is often determined by seasonal changes. Some springs and wells may fail towards the
end of the dry season owing to a drop in the water table. This is the time when water is needed
most but supplies are least reliable. Obviously, deterioration of quantity of the source will be
major concern in area of low rainfall or poor ground recharge whether there is greater sensitivity
to over extraction. Studies indicate that rain-fall above 500 mm per annum will generally provide
sufficient recharge for rural water supplies (Edmunds, 2008; Calow and MacDonald, 2009).
However, even in relatively water abundant regions of the world, the source can fail to satisfy
demand due to either population pressure expansion, or abuse of the supply for non-domestic
purposes.
Dereje (2007) noted that the quality of water source determines whether the water needs to be
treated or not. It also influences the technology choice. Thus, domestic water should be available
in acceptable quality to satisfy minimum requirements for drinking, cooking and food
preparation as a priority in addition to water for washing clothes and utensils, personal hygiene
and for watering small plots and/or small number of livestock or poultry. Therefore, water source
to be developed should fulfill a minimum set of quality standards. Furthermore, water quality
problem can be easily understood and mitigated by routine testing and understanding the nature
of geology and ground water resources. Otherwise, if minimum quality standard of drinking
water were not fulfilled, sustainability of water supply schemes would be questioned.
The quality of the resource also has an obvious bearing on the quality of the water service. Two
naturally occurring contaminants, fluoride and arsenic, are particular health concerns (Hunter et
al., 2010). By-products or chemicals from production facilities and nearby agricultural
enterprises could cause contamination that will affect water quality (Misgina, 2006). Another
factor that affects the quality of water source includes surface contaminants, human and animals
42
excreta. This has long-term health and productivity effects. Therefore, an adequate protection of
water source is crucial.
Inputs of experienced expertise of hydrogeology, geophysics, engineering, development planning
and sociology are vital in the course of water resource potential assessment, well site selection,
and depth to ground water and to choose the right technology option. If assessments such as,
ground water resource and depth to ground water is not well identified, the result mostly would
be dry wells and thereby unsustainable schemes (Sebsibe, 2002).
Implications of climate change for water services sustainability
Global warming will lead to higher rates of evapo-transpiration and a likely increase in the
intensity and variability of rainfall (Christensen et al., 2007; Conway, 2011), and most scientists
agree that both surface run-off and groundwater recharge will become less reliable. The potential
impacts of climate change on water services include (Howard et al. 2010; Calow et al., 2011;
MacDonald et al., 2011):
Unimproved, shallow water sources are likely to be more vulnerable to increased climate
variability because sustainability is closely coupled to rainfall.
Improved rural water sources that access groundwater over 20 m below ground surface
are likely to be more sustainable, however, a significant minority of people could be
affected by more frequent and longer droughts – particularly in areas with limited ground
water storage.
Extreme weather events such as storms and floods will lead to a greater destruction of
water infrastructure, from large city supplies to small community supplies, and increase
the risk of contamination.
Some water supply technologies will have a higher degree of resilience to climate
change, strengthening the rationale for using multiple sources throughout year, each with
a different risk profile.
An additional complicating factor is the impact of climate change on demand.
Abstraction of reliable groundwater for non-domestic purposes such as irrigation could
increase, though this could in turn enhance water security by strengthening livelihoods
and ability to contribute to maintenance and repairs.
43
Technical, administrative, environmental and financial capacities as well as social factors are not
independent from each other. For instance, the presence of social capital, via prior organizational
experience, can make it easier for communities to devise rules for ongoing operations and system
administration. At the same time, community engagement in the planning process can contribute
to training and skill building that might be needed for technical capacity. Still, communities may
not always have the technical capacity on their own for extensive system repairs and
maintenance (Kleemeier, 2000). Thus, external technical support needs to be available to help
communities maintain and monitor system performance (Gelting & Ortolano, 1998; Lockwood,
2002). In the end, these factors combine bring about the sustainability of water supply schemes,
leading to vital health benefits: by sustaining accessible water supplies in sufficient quantity and
quality; by reducing the time and effort used in water collection; by allowing for the provision of
enhanced sanitation facilities; and by facilitating income-generating activities (Moriarty and
Butterworth, 2003).
2.6 Conceptual framework of the study
What is meant by sustainability?
A water supply system is sustainable when (Brikké and Davis, 1995; IRC and WHO, 2000 and
Brikke, 2002):
It functions over a prolonged period of time (which goes beyond the lifespan of the
original equipment) and is used;
It provides the services for which it was planned, including: delivering the required
quantity and quality of water; providing easy access to the service ; providing continual
and reliable service ; providing health and economic benefits;
The management of the service involves the community (or the community itself
manages the system); adopts a perspective that is sensitive to gender issues; establishes
partnerships with local authorities; and involves the private sector as required.
Its operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, replacement and administrative costs are
covered at local level through user fees, or through alternative sustainable financial
mechanisms.
44
It can be operated and maintained at the local level with limited, but feasible, external
support (e.g. technical assistance, training and monitoring).
It has no harmful effects on the environment. In addition, the water consumed is not over-
exploited but naturally replenished.
As for the purpose of this study, the researcher has preferred to adopt the above definition of
water supply system sustainability and the following as key determinants of its sustainability.
These determinants are interdependent. The success of lasting sustainable water supply services
is dependent on the interaction of these determinants (Habtamu et.al, 2013):
Technical determinants, including the siting, design, and construction of water systems
used to withdraw and deliver water to users.
Social determinants, including the relations and networks between individuals and
communities.
Institutional determinants: the formal and informal rules and structures governing the
management of water supply schemes.
Financial determinants: financial resources from various sources to meet all costs for
long-term viability without undermining social development goals, such as poverty
reduction.
Environmental determinants, including the availability and quality (across time and
space) of the water resource, linked to characteristics that affect the supply and its
sustainability.
2.7 Water Supply post-2015
According to international consultations facilitated by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation, targets outlined regarding water supply
are to achieve universal access to basic drinking water for households, schools and health
facilities; to halve the proportion of the population without access at home to safely managed
drinking water and to progressively eliminate inequalities in access by 2030 (WASH Post
2015, 2014).
45
At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 (Rio+20), the 192
Member States declared their commitment for a global sustainable development agenda beyond
2015 in the Rio+20 Outcome Document “The Future We Want”. At the Rio+20, the member
states recognized the importance of water in sustainable development and the post-2015
development agenda, by clearly emphasizing in its outcome document that “water is at the core
of sustainable development as it is closely linked to a number of key global challenges”( Rio+20
Outcome Document, 2012). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are to replace the
MDGs which will reach deadline in 2015. The SDGs are expected to shape the global agenda on
economic, social and environmental development for the next 15 years. One of the goals of the
first draft of the SDGs includes ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all (Wall, 2014).
46
Chapter Three
Results and Discussions
3.1 Introduction
Data for this research has been gathered using questionnaire for beneficiaries, key informant
interviews and field observation. All the collected information from the different sources is
analyzed using descriptive statistical study and percentage tools. Out of 150 sample households,
144 questionnaires were filled and returned. Key informant interviews were successfully carried
out with 12 informants. Personal observation and informal discussion with beneficiaries was also
conducted to gain insightful information about the current situation of the water supply system.
In this chapter, the results from the survey are presented and analyzed followed by discussions
based on interviews and field observation.
3.2 Background information of respondents
Background facts about sample households will help in gaining an insight to the socio-economic
status of the respondents in the study area. Among the respondents, 49.3% (71) were female and
50.7 % (73) were male. Since women are an integral part of water supply, having 71(almost half)
female respondents is advantageous. With regard to age composition of the respondents, 69.4%
of them are above the age of 35. As it can be observed from table 3.1, 7.6% of the respondents
are in the age category of 18-25, 22.9% in the category of 26-35, 31.9% in the category of 36-
45, 19.4% in the category of 46-55 and 18.1% in the category of 56-65 years of age.
Table 3.1 Age of respondents
Age Composition Frequency Percentage
18-25 11 7.6
26-35 33 22.9
36-45 46 31.9
46-55 28 19.4
56-65 26 18.1
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
47
3.2.1 Marital status and family size of respondents
The family size of a household has an impact on water consumption. Households that have large
family size consume large volume of water, ceteris paribus. The collected data (table 1, appendix
I) reveals that 109 (75.7%) respondents are married. Whereas 7 (4.9%), 10 (6.9%), 17 (11.8%) of
the respondents are divorced, single and widowed, respectively. With regard to the household
family size, the minimum is 1 and the maximum is 11. Respondents with family size less than 5
comprise about 65 (45.1%), family size between 1-2 comprise 15 (10.4%), family size between
3-4 comprise 50 (34.7%), family size between 5-6 comprise 49 (34%), family size between 7-8
comprise 19 (13.2%), and only 11 (7.6%) respondents indicated that their family size is above 9.
From this the mean of the family size is 4.9 which is slightly greater than the family size of 4.7
persons in Ethiopia (CSA, 2007).
Table 3.2 HH Size of respondents
HH Size Frequency Percent
1-2 15 10.4
3-4 50 34.7
5-6 49 34
7-8 19 13.2
9 and above 11 7.6
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
3.2.2 Education level and occupation of respondents
Sample households were asked about their education level and occupation. The survey results
indicate that about 65.3% of the respondents are educated meaning that they attended formal
education. As shown on Table 3.3, 17.4% of the respondents are illiterate (unable to read and
write), those who can only read and write constitute 16%, respondents with primary school
education (1-8) represent 30.6%. Respondents with secondary school education level (9-12)
constitute 25.7% of the total respondents while 6.9% of the respondents have diploma/12+1-3
and only 2.1% of the respondents have a degree. In general, more than half of the sample
households have attended formal education.
48
Table 3.3 Education level of respondents
Education level Frequency Percent
Degree and above 3 2.1
Diploma/ 12+ 1-3 10 6.9
Grade 9-12 37 25.7
Grade 1-8 44 30.6
Only read and write 23 16
Illiterate 25 17.4
Total 142 98.6
Missing 2 1.4
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Occupation profiles of respondents varies among traders (39.6%), public servants (14.6%),
farmers (12.5%), daily laborers (11.1%), private organization employees (4.9%), both farmers
and traders (1.4%) and others (14.6%) as shown in Table 3.4. Most of the respondents in the
villages of Keta-Insilale, Batu-Cherecha and Soyoma-Ganji are farmers as the area is rural.
Productive activities indicate higher demand for water supply. The classification ‘other’ includes
students, retirees, and housewives.
Table 3.4 Occupation profile of respondents
Occupation Frequency Percent
Trader 57 39.6
Public servants 21 14.6
Farmer 18 12.5
Daily Laborer 16 11.1
Pv’t org employee 7 4.9
Other 21 14.6
Farmer and Trader 2 1.4
Total 142 98.6
Missing 2 1.4
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
3.2.3 Income level of respondents
Respondents were asked the level of income they obtain each month and out of the total sample
households, 24.3% of them were unwilling to disclose their income levels. On the other hand,
29.2% of the respondents said they earn less than 500 ETB a month, another 29.2% earn between
501 and 1,000 ETB, 6.3% earn between 1,001 and 2,000, 9.7% earn between 2,001 and 5,000
ETB per month (Table 3.5). Thus the mean of the income of the respondents is 978.8 ETB.
49
Table 3.5 Monthly incomes of respondents
Income in ETB Frequency Percent Valid
percent
<500 42 29.2 29.6
501-1,000 42 29.2 29.6
1,001-2,000 9 6.3 6.3
2,001-5,000 14 9.7 9.9
Unwilling 35 24.3 24.6
Total 142 98.6 100
Missing 2 1.4
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
3.3 Water supply in Tulu-Bolo and its surrounding villages
3.3.1 Demand for water supply service
The existence of community demand for water supply service calls for investment. Respondents
were asked if there was a need for additional water supply service. In response, 72.9% of the
respondents said they require water supply services and the remaining 27.1% said they were
satisfied with the existing service. This suggests that the available water supply is not adequate to
meet the needs of the majority of the community. In addition, the responsible institutions in
collaboration with the community need to invest more to provide the society with adequate
potable water. The reasons for the dissatisfaction of the community with the water supply are
discussed throughout the following sections.
3.3.2 Water supply sources in the study area
The population in Bacho woreda uses several sources of water like protected spring, protected
and unprotected wells and rivers for domestic use (drinking, cooking, bathing and washing
clothes). Additionally, 85.5% of the population in the woreda has access to an improved water
source within 1.5 km radius. The percentage of population in the kebeles of Keta-Insilale, Batu-
Cherecha and Soyoma-Ganji that have access to improved water within 1.5 km is 87.9%, 60.6%
and 85%, respectively. Moreover, 88.2% of the population of the town has access to potable
water within 0.5km. Nonetheless, these percentages are ambiguous because there are water
supply schemes in the area that are non-functional but not documented by the offices (BWWEO,
2012).
50
Tulu-Bolo town and the kebeles of Keta-Insilae, Batu-Cherecha, Soyoma-Ganji have different
water supply schemes. Batu-Cherecha has one shallow well and eight hand dug wells. Keta-
Insilale has ten shallow wells and two public taps. Soyoma-Ganji has nine shallow wells, one
deep well, two hand dug wells and one public tap. On average, a shallow well serves around 50
HHs, a deep well serves around 600 HHs, a hand dug well serves around 30 HHs and a public
tap serves around 70HHs (BWWEO, 2012).
As noted in previous sections, the population in Tulu- Bolo town and the two villages in
Soyoma-Ganji and Keta Insilale kebeles get water from the water supply scheme constructed in
2002. The source of the water supply is a spring located in Tulu-Bolo town. The villagers in
Batu-Cherecha (around 58 households) were supposed to be beneficiaries from this system
through one public tap. According to the head of BWWEO and the co-chairperson of the WASH
committee in the village, the villagers have abandoned the public tap in 2003 because it was far
from their houses. The Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office built a hand dug well in the
middle of the village in 2004 (BWWEO, 2004). During the field survey, the researcher learnt that
the hand pump has stopped working around six months ago and the community obtains water from
traditional hand dug wells.
The population of Tulu-Bolo town has access to the water supply through household connection
and public taps. There are 28 public taps in the town; 17 in kebele 01 and 11 in kebele 02. The
numbers of people who have access to piped water in their premises and to public taps in the
town are 9,820 and 8,470, respectively (TBWSSO, 2014). The number of users requesting for
household connections has tremendously increased. The number of people with household water
connections in 2010 was only about 1,179 i.e. it has seen a 41.64% increase in 4 years
(TBWSSO, 2011). This indicates that the number of households able to afford household water
connections in the area is rising. The villages in Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-Insilale have access to
water through three public taps. Around 62 HHs in Soyoma-Ganji get water from a single public
tap while 140HHs in Keta-Insilale obtain water from two public taps (TBWSSO, 2014).
The sample households were asked the type of water scheme they use; the field survey showed
that 50.7% of the respondents obtain water from a household connection while 43.8% obtain
water from public taps, 3.5% from unprotected well and the rest 2.1% of the respondents obtain
water directly from the spring (table 3.6). The respondents who fetch water directly from the
51
spring are residents of Kamb-Gebya village (Got). These respondents fetch water from the spring
because it is nearer to their premises and more reliable than a public tap. Respondents who use
unprotected wells are residents of the village in Batu-Cherecha. Accordingly, 94.5% of the
respondents have access to improved drinking water source while the villagers of Batu-Cherecha
obtain water from unimproved drinking source which is susceptible to contamination. In
addition, half of the respondents have access to piped water in their premises.
Table 3.6 Type of water supply system used by respondents
Type of water supply system Frequency Percent
Private Line/HH connections 73 50.7
Public taps 63 43.8
Unprotected well 5 3.5
Directly from spring 3 2.1
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Nonetheless, the community in Tulu-Bolo town and the villages of Keta-Insilale and Soyoma-
Ganji don’t have a single water supply system they use day to day. They use the combination of
different sources for their domestic use. Users of household connections fetch water from public
taps or directly from the spring when water is scarce in their house. Those who use public taps
might go further distance to other public taps or directly to the spring to collect water. Users also
mentioned that they sometimes buy water from private vendors at a high price when water is
scarce. In addition, some of the communities in Tulu-Bolo town also obtain water from
unprotected well locally named ‘Ela’. The villagers in Keta-Insilale obtain water from a river
and ‘Ela’ well when water is unavailable from the public taps. The spring is located too far for
the villagers of Keta-Insilale. As it will be discussed in the subsequent sections, the frequent
interruption of the developed water supply schemes is the main reason forcing the community to
use unprotected sources of water which are vulnerable to contamination and harmful to health.
3.3.3 Distance travelled and time taken to collect water
The primary objective of water supply programs is to develop water sources closer to the point of
use so that the time and energy spent on water collection is reduced. According to the UAP of
the nation, water should be accessible to the community within 1.5 km in rural areas and 0.5 km
in urban areas (UWSPUAP, 2011). Consequently, the BWWEO intends for the water schemes in
the rural areas to be built within 1.5 km radius and the TBWSSO within 0.5 km radius accessible
52
to the community. According to the field survey, 71 respondents travel from their houses to fetch
water i.e. 63 of them obtain water from a public tap, 5 from unprotected well and the rest 3
directly from the spring (table 3.6). But as it is mentioned above, the researcher has noticed that
users fetch water from where it is available. Therefore, those with household connections may
travel some distance to collect water from a public tap or the spring when water supply is scarce.
In some cases users send out animal pulled carts to the spring.
Figure 2: Distance taken to fetch water in meters
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Out of the total households that travel to fetch water, 74.6% (53) of them travel less than 500
meters, 16.9% (12) travel between 501 to 1,000 meters and 8.5% (6) travel between 1,001 to
1,500 meters (figure 2). Accordingly, the mean distance taken to fetch water is 419.19 meters.
Hence, 90.9% of the respondents have access to water within the radius of 1 km, the standard of
WHO. In Tulu-Bolo town, 79.2% of the respondents have access to water within 0.5 km radius,
16.7% have access within 0.5 to 1 km and 4.2% have access within 1 to 1.5 km. Respondents
who travelled 1 to 1.5 kms are residents of Hawi-Gudina village and the respondents who had
access within 0.5 to 1 km are those residing in Kamb-Gebya, Hawi-Gudina and Belebele-Bantu
villages. All the sample households who use public taps in Tele-Kera have access to the public
taps within 0.5 km. This indicates that the town hasn’t fully achieved the 0.5 km radius standard
set by the MoWE. In addition, the respondents in the rural villages have access to water within
1.5 km radius. Consequently, the majority of the population in the study area has access to water
within close range of their premises, thus the time taken to fetch water is low. Beneficiaries from
74.6%
16.9%
8.5%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
< 500 500-1,000 1,000-1,500
No
of
resp
on
de
nts
Distance in meters
53
Soyoma-Ganji village mentioned that although the distance from their house to the public tap is
convenient, it is difficult to fetch water during rainy season because the road gets muddy and
slippery.
While the time taken to fetch water is low in the study area due to the convenient distance, public
tap users spend a considerable amount of time queuing. As it can be observed from table 3.7,
15.9% of the respondents spend more than an hour waiting in line to collect water, 17.5% spend
between 41 minutes and 1 hour, 47.6% spend between 21 and 40 minutes and 19% of the
respondents spend less than 20 minutes. This indicates that 33.4 % of the respondents spend
more than 40 minutes every day to collect water. On average the public tap users queue for about
44.3 minutes daily.
Table 3.7 Time spent in queuing
Time spent in queue
(minutes)
Frequency Percent
<20 12 19
21-40 30 47.6
41-60 11 17.5
1-3 hr 10 15.9
Total 63 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Respondents were asked if the hours available to fetch water from the public taps were adequate;
out of the 63 respondents who fetch water from public taps, 36 (57.1%) said that the hours
available to fetch water is not enough (table 2, appendix I). Public taps are available at different
hours in different places of the study area. The hours are decided by the community and the tap
attendants. The public taps are then availed by tap attendants on the agreed time. For instance,
public taps used by respondents in Belbele-Bantu village (got) are opened from 05:00 to 06:00
am, 07:00 to 08:30am, and 06:00 to 08:00am; public taps used by respondents in Hawi-Gudina
village (got) are open from 06:00 to 07:00am and 08:00 to 10:00am. The tap attendants informed
the researcher that the time intervals are not strictly kept because water supply is highly irregular.
Thus the tap attendants could avail the taps much earlier than the set time.
Distinctly the respondents in the village of Soyoma-Ganji said that the time available is enough.
From the interview conducted with the tap attendant of the public tap in Soyoma-Ganji, the
researcher realized that the tap attendant is a farmer and his house is within close range to the
54
public tap. Therefore, in addition to the set time 06:00 to 8:00 am, he avails the public tap when
there is a need. It is advantageous to have a tap attendant who resides near the public tap and has
flexible working hours.
In addition, the field survey revealed that respondents who queue for more than an hour reside in
Belbele-Bantu village (Got) and Hawi-Gudina village (Got). These respondents said the hours
opened to fetch water was not enough and that they might go home empty handed if the water
runs scarce when their turn comes. Users in these areas queue two to three hours before the
public taps are available i.e. around 03:00 am, so that they will be able to collect water before the
public taps are closed or before the water run scarce. Queuing at that hour is problematic to
living conditions, harmful to health and dangerous for women and girls. During informal
discussions with the society in these areas, it was clear they were fed up and angered with this
situation.
Furthermore, respondents were asked whether they needed to have additional public taps in their
locality. Most of the respondents (67.6%), as indicated in the figure 3, responded that they
needed additional public taps in their areas. All of the respondents in Hawi-Gudina village said
that they need additional public taps as the existing ones are not enough to serve them. Interview
with tap attendants confirmed that the major reason behind the need of additional public taps is
the increasing number of households. Thus, public tap users spend a considerable amount of time
daily because the water taps are not sufficient to the community and are open for a limited time
per day.
Figure 3: Need of additional public taps in the study area
Source: Field Survey, 2015
67.6%
32.4%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Yes No
No
of
resp
on
de
nts
in %
Responses
55
3.3.4 Water consumption pattern
The amount of water collected per day depends upon different factors like availability of water,
population number, number of households and household size in the community. As previously
mentioned, households in the study area do not use the same water source rather they use the
combination of different sources for domestic purposes. Respondents were asked how many
jerry cans (20 and 25 liters) of water their households consume per day on average. As a
consequence, the number of jerry cans each sample household used for domestic purposes was
multiplied with the capacity of the jerry cans (20 or 25 liters). The sum of the results divided by
the number of the population in the sample households gives the average (each respondent has
given the number of people in their household; the summation gives the number of population).
= Ʃ (number of jerry cans each household used to collect water each day* liters of the jerry cans)
Ʃ (the number of household size in the sample HHs)
= Ʃ (respondents ‘consumption of water in liters)
the number of population
= 10,710 = 15.04 lit/capita/day
712
On average, the respondents in the study area consume 15.04 liters of water per capita per day
for domestic uses. This is lower than the 20 liter per day standard set by WHO but it meets the
target set by the country’s UAP plan of 15 liters per capita per day. The consumption level of
respondents in the town is 15.39; which doesn’t meet the required 20 liter/capita/day set by the
UAP for urban areas. This shows why the communities in the area are not satisfied with the
available water supply (UWSPUAP, 2011).
3.3.5 Satisfaction level of respondents
The sample households were asked how satisfied they were with the current availability of water.
Consequently, 46.5% of the respondents said the availed water supply is not satisfactory at all
i.e. the water supply doesn’t meet their daily needs. About 36.8% of the respondents said the
availed water is fairly satisfactory, only 15.3% of the respondents were satisfied with the water
supply. Interviews with informants and informal discussions with the community in Tulu-Bolo
town, villages of Keta-Insilale and Soyoma-Ganji revealed that water scarcity is a huge problem
56
in the area. The communities in the village of Batu-Cherecha are actually worse off because they
don’t have access to an improved water source.
Table 3.8 Satisfaction level of respondents with the availability of water
Satisfaction level Frequency Percent
More than enough 2 1.4
Satisfactory 22 15.3
Fairly satisfactory 53 36.8
Not satisfactory 67 46.5
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Subsequently, to comprehend the reason for the dissatisfaction and low consumption level in the
study area, the sample households were asked how many days a week they faced interruption of
water supply. Their responses can be seen on table 3.9; 14.6% of them said they lack water from
three to six days a week, 62.5% said they lack water two to three days a week, only 2.8% said
that they don’t lack water throughout the week. On average the sample households in the area
face water scarcity for 2 days in a week. This indicates that water flow is irregular throughout the
week.
Table 3.9 Days of water shortage in a week (average)
Days of shortage Frequency Percent
None 4 2.8
One day 29 20.1
Two days 47 32.6
Three days 43 29.9
Three to six days 21 14.6
Total 144 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Furthermore, the interviews and informal discussions revealed that water is available at night
time in Tulu-Bolo town, the villages of Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-Insilale i.e. those who are
supplied from the spring. The informants in the area and users said water is mostly available
from 06:00 pm to 08:00 am. Water is scarce and irregular at day time in these areas. This is the
reason for the dissatisfaction of the community with the water supply and the reason that users of
public taps go empty handed after lining up for more than an hour. Although it is still
inconvenient, those who have household connections can fetch water in the middle of the night
in their premises. But those using public taps don’t have that option; water could be scarce when
the taps are opened by the tap attendants.
57
The irregularity and scarcity of water supply in Tulu-Bolo town, villages of Keta-Insilale and
Soyoma-Ganji, has forced the community to use multiple sources including unprotected sources.
It is a common phenomenon that those with household connection travel to public taps or to the
spring to collect water or buy water from local vendors. Most of the communities in these areas
fetch water from the outflow of the protected spring. Informal discussions with users also
revealed that some people who travel to the spring to collect water fall and get injured causing
further problem.
3.3.6 Person responsible for fetching water in the household
As discussed beforehand, the burden of fetching water in the nation heavily rests on women and
girls. Out of the 71 sample households that travel to fetch water, as shown in table 3.10, 50.7 %
women are solely responsible for collection of water. In some households the responsibility to
collect water is shared among different family members.
Table 3.10 Water collection responsibility
Responsible person Frequency Percent
Adult women 36 50.7
Adult women + adult men 4 5.6
Adult women + female aged 15-18 14 19.7
Adult men 5 7.0
Female aged 15-18 4 5.6
Male aged 15-18 3 4.2
Female below 15 years 3 4.2
Male under 15 years 2 2.8
Total 71 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Apart from women, men and children are also involved in fetching water; 5.6% of the
respondents noted that the responsibility is shared between adult women and men in the
household, 19.7% said the responsibility rests both upon adult women and girls aged between 15
and 18. Solely, 74.6 % of women of all ages fetch water in the sample households. This indicates
that the responsibility to fetch water mainly lies upon women and girls in the study area.
58
Photograph 1: Women fetching water from public taps
Generally, the community in the study area faces water scarcity. The villagers in Batu-Cherecha
don’t have access to an improved drinking water source although two schemes have been built
within the past 15 years which are non-functional. On the contrary the respondents in Tulu-Bolo,
Keta-Insilale and Soyoma-Ganji have access to an improved drinking water source but it is
highly irregular and mostly available during night time. This is highly inconvenient to the
community especially for public tap users.
The distance from respondents’ houses to the public taps are mostly convenient (74.6% of the
respondents have access within 0.5 kms). But 48.9% of these respondents said they are not
satisfied with the hours availed to fetch water from the public taps. Due to the increasing
population, there is a need for construction of more public taps and an increase in the hours
availed to fetch water from the existing public taps.
3.4 Technical aspects of the water supply schemes
3.4.1 Technology choice and the quality of the water supply schemes
The choice of technology in any particular situation is limited by the water sources available
locally. Spring water was used as a source of water for the water supply scheme built in 2002 for
the population in Tulu-Bolo town and the three villages. The community in the study area
suggested that the spring should be utilized as a source of improved water supply due to its
reasonably good and invariable yield. The spring is located adjacent to Tulu-Bolo rural town
about 500 meters from the southwest boundary of the town. The spring is the primary source of the
59
“O-O” stream which itself joins Genji River downstream only after a distance of 2kms. It has a
safe yield of 15 lit/sec and is capped using concrete. During field survey, the researcher observed
that the capping structure has leakages and has to be reconstructed properly allowing it to be
collected in the balancing chamber. The leakage could be attributed to old age of the construction
(WA, 2002; TBWSSO, 2011).
Photograph 2: The spring capping structure
The blocker around the spring capping structure is built to prevent/ block flood water which
might damage the capping structure and allow muddy water to contaminate the water. The area is
known for heavy floods in the rainy season. There is only one inlet pipe from the spring to the
collection chamber with 3 inch measurements. The balancing/collection chamber has a capacity to
hold 25 m3 of water and it is used to pump the water to the reservoir without affecting the spring
capping structure. It is constructed with stone masonry that is reinforced with Ferro cement. It is
also used as a balance in the rate of flow from the spring and the rate of pumping to the reservoir.
The collection chamber has leakages due to overflow which happens when the pump fails to work.
There is one inlet pipe (3 inches wide) from the collecting chamber to the reservoir. Another outlet
pipe distributes water from the collection chamber to the village of Soyoma-Ganji which is located
in close vicinity to the collection chamber. The villagers of Soyoma-Ganji have access to the water
through a single public tap (WA, 2002; TBWSSO, 2011).
60
Photograph 3: Balancing chamber & pump house Photograph 4: Outflow from collection chamber
The collection chamber has two outlets for outflow. People come to fetch water, take a bath and
wash clothes from the outflow. The researcher also observed people sitting on the outflow pipes
which could lead to the short life of the pipes which was observed on the pipe from the spring to
the collection chamber. It could be advantageous to limit the access of people only to the outflow
areas. Due to the topography of the area, the water is pumped to a reservoir by a water pump.
The location of the spring is in the relatively lower land of 2,160 meters. The elevation
difference between the spring and the selected reservoir site on the flank of the hill is 40 meters.
Additionally, the water pump is powered by electricity and pumps 5 lit/ sec (TBWSSO, 2011).
According to the manager of TBWSSO and an informant in the electric utility office in Tulu-Bolo,
the current pump mostly functions at night time and during holidays. The sales manager in the
electric utility office noted that the pump requires 380 volt of initial torque to function and pump
water to the reservoir. But the pump reads 356 volt on electricity meter in day time, and thus can’t
function. According to the electric utility office, 15,000 KW of power is distributed for Tulu-Bolo
town; Soyoma-Ganji, Keta-Insilae and other surrounding villages which is insufficient for the
population in these areas. Thus, activities that require electricity put pressure on the available
61
power and the water pump doesn’t get enough power to function. The water pump works without
difficulties during night time and holidays because activities subside during those periods. Due to
electric power shortage, water supply is intermittent and scarce during day time and ample amount
of water is available at night time and during holidays in these areas.
The water is pumped to the reservoir (150m3) which is located at the top of the Tulu-Bolo hill at
2,264 meters elevation high, in the southeast of the town. It is constructed from a stone masonry
that is reinforced by ferro-cement structure sandwiched between the masonry walls. The water
from the reservoir is distributed to the community by gravity flow through one outlet pipe of 6
inches dimension. The reservoir is fenced and safeguarded by a guard who lives around the area.
Moreover, the population has access to the water through public taps and household connections
(WA, 2002, TBWSSO, 2011).
Photograph 5: Water reservoir
According to the researcher’s personal observation and from the interview with the manager of
TBWSSO, the design of the scheme is suitable for future expansion. At the time of the research an
expansion was already taking place. Additionally, the manager and technicians of TBWSSO noted
that there are major flaws with the design of the water supply system; the outlet pipe from the
water reservoir to the distribution pipes (6 inches wide) is imbalanced with the inlet pipe (3 inches)
which is from the collection chamber to the reservoir. The informants also mentioned that the
62
original water pipe lines don’t have gate valves, which are primarily used to permit or prevent the
flow of water. Therefore, when there is a leakage in these pipe lines, the technicians have to close
up the water reservoir to fix it. As a result, the entire population lacks water for a defect in one
specific area. The third flaw mentioned by the informants is that wide pipes are used in elevated
areas and narrower pipes are used in low areas, which seems to be swapped.
As stated in previous sections, the villagers in Batu-Cherecha were supposed to benefit from this
scheme but they have abandoned the public tap after using it for about a year. Even over that time
period, only few people used it because it was too far from the beneficiaries. Informants also noted
that the public tap was not properly used and managed by the community. This indicates that
construction of the public tap did not consider the communities’ needs or/and the society didn’t
manage it properly.
Photograph 6: Pictures of the abandoned public tap by the villagers in Batu-Cherecha
The Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office built a hand dug well in the middle of the village in
2004. The well is 8½ meters deep. But the field survey revealed that the hand pump has stopped
functioning about 6 months ago. The communities in the area obtain water from traditional hand
dug wells they build themselves in their residential areas. In addition, the people in the area
mentioned that the scheme lets in mud during rainy season which shows that the construction
quality of the scheme was poor (BWWEO, 2004).
63
Photograph 7: Picture of a non-functioning hand pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha
The technical specifications of water supply schemes should take into account the local capacity
to supply equipment for construction and to provide spare parts in the future. According to the
technicians, managers of TBWSSO and Bacho woreda water office, spare parts are readily
available for the above type of technologies used in the study area. Furthermore, the technology of
the water schemes in the study area is easy to operate.
3.4.2 Time taken for repairs
Some users in Tulu-Bolo town mentioned that some pipe lines tend to break when heavy trucks
go over them. In addition, respondents stated that the water sometimes has dirt in it (among the
respondents that said there is water quality problems, 25% of them said the water is not
chlorinated at all times plus the water has dirt, 65 % of them said that the water has dirt content
(table 3, appendix I).The manager of TBWSSO also noted that they experience breakage of
water pipe lines frequently. Breakages of water pipe lines and public taps occur due to the old
age of the original pipe lines. Improper usage by the community or tap attendants also
contributes to breakages of public taps and hand pumps. During an interview with the tap
attendant in Soyoma-Ganji village, the researcher observed that in the absence of the tap attendant
64
his children are the ones who are tap attendants and this may lead to inappropriate use of the tap,
breakages and loss of water.
The time taken by technicians to fix breakages was analyzed to comprehend how promptly the
technicians repair pipe lines and public taps. Out of the total sample households, 25.7% of them
said it takes long time to fix breakages (table 3.15). According to the technicians of TBWSSO
and head of the Woreda Water and Energy Office, repairs of pipe lines, public taps and hand
pumps takes less than 3 days. Out of the 73 respondents who have household connections, 67.1%
(49) said it takes 1 to 3 days to fix water pipe line breakages, 28.8% (21) said it takes 4 to 7 days,
only 1.4% of the respondents said it takes 15 days to a month to repair water pipe lines (Table
3.11).
Table 3.11 Days taken to repair a malfunction
Days taken for repair Frequency Percent
1 to 3 days 49 67.1
4 to 7 days 21 28.8
15 to 30 days 2 2.7
More than a month 1 1.4
Total 73 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
Except the main pipe line, repairs of water pipe lines are the responsibility of the customers.
Therefore, the time taken to fix these pipe lines is also dependent on the time taken by users to
purchase spare parts. With regard to public fountains, 77.9% of the respondents said it usually
takes 1 to 3 days to fix breakages of public taps, 14.7% of the respondents said it took 4 to 7 days
to repair and 7.4% of the respondents said it takes more than a month for repairs (table 3.12).
The respondents who said it take more than a month to repair is those who use the hand pump in
the village of Batu-Cherecha.
Table 3.12 Days taken to repair public taps/hand pump
Days taken for repair Frequency Percent
1 to 3 days 53 77.9
4 to 7 days 10 14.7
More than a month 5 7.4
Total 68 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
65
3.4.3 Technical skills and availability of spare parts in the managing institutions
Technicians need proper training and skills to maintain a water supply system for the scheme to
operate properly and sustainably. In Tulu-Bolo town, excavation works to install or repair pipe
lines are done by daily laborers who are hired by either the community or the TBWSSO. The
installations are then carried out by the technicians. It is highly advisable for the technicians to
constantly check the daily laborers. Additionally, the technicians should be able to install the
pipes deep enough to avoid breakages. The manager of TBWSSO noted that installations of pipe
lines are sometimes not deep enough.
It was a challenge to obtain the education level of the four technicians in TBWSSO. The
researcher has learnt that one has a diploma in plumbing, two of them have attained 10+3 TEVT
education level in plumbing and one works at the office based on his long year’s experience.
Except the one with a diploma, the three technicians have an experience of almost 13 years. They
were trained by Water Action and they have been working since then. Although an experience of
more than ten years is highly valuable, education and continuous trainings are highly beneficial
to maintain the scheme. The researcher also observed that some customers prefer one technician
over the other to repair breakages. This could be due to the fact that one technician is more
qualified and skilled than the other one.
According to the head of the Woreda Water and Energy Office, the office trains local technicians
to repair and maintain water supply schemes. Additionally, the office has a technical team that is
able to assist the local technicians. A local technician in the village of Batu-Cherecha has
received training before the scheme was built. Nonetheless, the hand pump in the area hasn’t
functioned and the water technician hasn’t repaired it nor did the committee members or the
community report the malfunction to the woreda water office.
Moreover, the key informants in the study area noted that spare parts are readily available in the
area. Spare parts for the hand pumps are supposed to be stored with a member of the WASH
committee to easily avail it to the technician when needed. The informants also mentioned that
the quality of spare parts is low and that the costs of spare parts are highly increasing. Besides
the old age of the scheme, the low quality of spare parts attributes to the breakages of the water
pipe lines and public taps.
66
3.5 Institutional and Social aspect of the water supply schemes
3.5.1 Management of the water supply schemes
A sustainable water supply scheme requires a properly functioning institutional arrangement and
effective management. The non-functional scheme in Batu-Cherecha is a casing example of an
ineffective management and lack of institutional capacity of the water committee and the woreda
office. The woreda water office is unaware of the non-functionality state of the scheme. The
hand pump in Batu-Cherecha was supposed to be managed by a water committee that was
established during construction. According to the informants and respondents in the area, the
committee members have never assumed their responsibilities and carried out their tasks.
Meanwhile, the Tulu-Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office is responsible for the
management of the water supply service in Tulu-Bolo town and the villages in Soyoma-Ganji
and Keta-Insilale. Informants in TBWSSO stated that the water supply system was managed by a
water board prior to 2009, a water board established in 2002. The board was accountable to the
Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office and it was then replaced by TBWSSO in 2009. The
town water supply service office is directly accountable to the Oromia Regional Water and
Energy Bureau.
3.5.1.1 Operation and maintenance of the water supply schemes
The Tulu-Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office is responsible for the maintenance and
operation of the spring water supply system. In addition, tap attendants are responsible for the
day to day operation of the public taps in the area. As mentioned in the previous section, tap
attendants avail the public taps only for few hours in a day. Due to this, more than half of the
users of public taps said the number of hours availed to collect water was not enough. In
addition, some users mentioned that the public taps are not opened on time and by the time they
are opened water might be scarce. Thus, they have to queue two to three hours before the taps are
opened. The basic problem that needs to be addressed is that the water pump doesn’t work at day
time i.e. water is usually available at night time. This has caused inconvenience both to the tap
attendants and public tap users. Nonetheless, effective operation of water supply systems should
reduce the time and effort spent in collecting water. In all the study areas, the public taps are
67
opened only once a day i.e. in the morning. In light of the situation, the tap attendants could avail
the taps in early evenings.
Furthermore, the manager of TBWSSO noted that the office installs water pipe lines for
household connections upon request from customers and builds public taps in Tulu-Bolo town
and the villages of Keta-Insilale and Soyoma-Ganji. The office constructs public taps if it finds it
necessary, i.e. one public tap should be within a radius of 500 meters of the residents living
around it. When individuals (group of individuals) request the TBWSSO for a new pipe line to
be installed to their homes, the office sends out technicians to the particular area. The technicians
list the required equipments and make estimations. Based on the estimations, the customer
purchases the equipments and upon receipt the technicians install the water pipe lines. The
excavation works are carried out by daily laborers under the supervision of the technicians or the
customers themselves hire daily laborers themselves if they find it cheaper to do so themselves.
The regulations set by Oromia Water and Energy Bureau (Appendix IV) stipulate that customers
cover the cost of repair and maintenance of these water pipes lines. When water pipe lines are in
need of repair, customers will present the matter to the office. Technicians will analyze the
problem and customers are required to buy the spare parts needed to repair damages and all costs
related to the repair. Then the technicians of the office will repair the damages. The TBWSSO is
responsible to repair and maintain public taps and main pipe lines that are used for distribution of
water in the study area.
The water committee in the village of Batu-Chercha was supposed to be responsible for the
operation and maintenance of the hand pump. One of the responsibilities of the water committee
was to collect money from users every month and deposit it in a bank. The money is used to
cover maintenance and repair works. The committee in Batu-Cherecha hasn’t collected money
from users; thus they are unable to repair the hand pump. Tap attendants are selected from the
community and he/she is responsible for its operation. But the society in these area fetched water
whenever they wanted and there was no tap attendant to control it (WASH manual, 2006).
Moreover, the respondents in the area mentioned that the amount of water they got from the
scheme was low when the hand pump was functional. This is due to the fact that the hand pump
was open to everybody throughout the day. Discharge of groundwater should settle for a while
68
before it is pumped so that sufficient amount could be fetched. The Co-Chair person of the water
committee mentioned that the community hasn’t received training on how to use and manage the
scheme. These all indicate that the water system was not operated and maintained effectively,
additionally the scheme was vulnerable to misuse.
3.5.1.2 Institutional framework and Organizational capacity
An institutional set-up with legal and regulatory framework, educated staff, and external support
is necessary to effectively manage a water supply system. The informants in the town’s water
supply service office were not forthcoming with regard to the organizational framework of the
office and the educational level of the staff which was a setback in the study. Nevertheless, the
information that was revealed by the office and obtained through informal discussions and
observation are analyzed henceforth.
According to the national guideline for urban water supply - organizational set up outlined by the
MoWE (2013), the main mission of a town water supply and sewerage services is “to provide
adequate and quality potable water supply and sewerage services to all users in and around the
town”. The Tulu-Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office has taken this mission and aims to
provide adequate and quality potable water to the town’s population but it doesn’t handle
sewerage service in the town. Generally, the major missions/functions of the town water supply
service are the followings:-
Provides adequate and standard quality potable water supply to dwellers in and around
the town.
Administers itself on the basis of cost recovery principles.
Installs water distribution lines to provide the water supply service, and amend, maintain,
and repair related water works found under it.
Ensures that any water sources are not polluted or contaminated, but are protected and
conserved, to this end, it shall take the necessary actions including the closure of
contaminated sources in cooperation and consultation with the concerned government
organs as required.
Establish a system that assists to boost the efforts being made to provide water supply
services.
Carry out other similar activities that assist for the attainment of its objectives.
69
Figure 4 depicts the institutional set-up of the TBWSSO. The manager of TBWSSO is the higher
executive officer responsible for the day to day administration and operation of the water supply
service. The organizational framework is more condensed than the set up outlined by the MoWE
(figure 5).
Figure 4: Organizational framework of Tulu-Bolo water supply service office
Source: TBWSSO, 2015
A clear and structured organizational framework is crucial for an effective management. There is
disparity between the framework stipulated by the ministry and the town water supply service
office’s framework. The organizational structure of TBWSSO is missing few offices like
woreda/zone council; town water board; legal service; audit service; marketing & customer
service; planning & data management; study, design & construction. In fact the organizational
framework resembles the organizational set up specified by the MoWE for small towns (number
of population < 15,000) (figure 1a, appendix I). Even then, the organizational set up of the town
water supply service office misses planning and customer service, town water board and
woreda/town council offices.
Manager of TBWSSO
Finance and Procurement department
Operation and Maintenance department
Material and Logistics
department
Human Resource
department
70
Figure 5: Organizational set up for medium towns (no of population between 15,000- 100,000)
Source: Organizational setup for urban water supply services, MoWE (2013)
In Tulu- Bolo water supply service office, there are five water technicians (1 pump operator and
4 plumbers), four personnel in the department of finance (finance head, accountant, cashier and
bill seller), one meter reader, one store keeper, a human resource manager and 4 guards. Table
3.13 shows the manpower requirement specified by the MoWE (2013) for a medium town water
utility office (no of population between 15, 000-100,000).
71
Table 3.13 Water utility manpower requirement for a medium town
Office Position Qualification Special Skill
Manager Office WSSS Manager Degree in
Engineering/Management
Management
Secretary Diploma in Secretarial science or
office management
Computer skill
Office girl High school complete
Planning & Data
Management
Planning & data
management expert
Degree in Economics/
statistics/computer science
Planning, M&E
and computer skill
Internal Audit Internal Auditor Degree/ Diploma in
accounting/finance
Auditing and
computer
Legal Service Legal officer Degree/Diploma in law
Human Resources
Development
Head Degree/Diploma in
Management/administration &
related
Management
Human resources
development expert
Degree/Diploma in
Management/administration
Personnel
administration
Store management
expert
Degree/Diploma in
Management/administration
Administration
Record and
archives’ expert
Secretary Diploma in secretarial science Computer(Microsof
t office)
Finance, Property
Management &
Procurement
Finance head BA/ diploma in
Accounting/finance
Financial
Management
Accounts Expert BA/Diploma in
Accounting/Finance
Accounting
Bill expert BA/Diploma in
Accounting/finance
Billing and
Computer
Cashier BA/Diploma in
Accounting/finance
Cash management
Operation &
Maintenance
Head BSC in water supply,
hydrogeology, civil etc
Coordination and
supervision
Operation Expert BSC/Diploma in water supply
operation/construction
WSS operation
Maintenance
Expert
BSC/Diploma in Water Supply
operation/construction
WSS scheme
maintenance
Electromechanical
expert
BSC/Diploma in Water Supply
construction
Electromechanical
Surveyor Diploma in water supply
operation/construction
Surveying
Water quality
expert
BSC/Diploma in
Chemistry/Biology/Biochemistry
etc
Water quality
analysis
Pipe worker Plumbing 10+2 or above Plumbing
Driver High school complete 3 grade driving
license
Pump operator
72
Secretary Diploma in secretarial science Computer(Microsof
t office)
Customer Service &
Marketing
Head BSC/Diploma in Business
Administration/Marketing/Sociolo
gy/management/and related
Promotion and
marketing
Customer Service BA/Diploma in Public
relation/Sociology
Marketing BA/Diploma in Marketing
Secretary Diploma in secretarial science Computer
(Microsoft Office)
Branch Office Branch head BSC in Engineering/Management WSS Management
Secretary
Office Girl
Customer lines
connection &
tertiary line
maintenance
workers
BSC/Diploma in Water Supply
operation/construction
Billing and
customer relation
workers
Diploma in Accounting/Finance
Water meter
readers
High school complete
Guards
Source: Organizational setup for urban water supply services, MoWE (2013)
Tulu-Bolo Water Supply Service Office has been functioning only for five years and Tulu-Bolo
town is roughly a medium town (T-B has population of 20,727) which indicates that it has low
capacity to meet the requirements set by the ministry. When considering the manpower
requirement set by the ministry, the town’s office falls short in few departments and educational
qualifications. Nonetheless, the growing number of population and increased demand on water
necessitates the office to build its capacity by incorporating important departments and qualified
personnel.
Most of the personnel in TBWSSO have worked under the water board management that
managed the scheme before 2009. They have received different trainings from Water Action
with respective to their job post (WA, 2002). Some of the staffs have built on those trainings by
attaining formal education. It is highly valuable to have staffs that know the system thoroughly
but it is also advantageous to be up to date and obtain continuous trainings. An expansion work
on the water supply system is being carried out in Tulu-Bolo town by the Oromia Regional
Water and Energy Bureau. The expertise and the personnel that are undertaking the work are
73
from the regional office. Equipping the town water supply service office with skilled workforce
will let the office carry out the necessary expansion works independently in the future.
Furthermore, there is only one meter reader at the disposal of the office i.e. he is responsible for
Tulu-Bolo town and the three public taps in the village of Keta-Insilale and Soyoma-Ganji. Since
it is an impossible task for one person, four more personnel from the office assist i.e.
unofficially. These personnel include the pump operator, store keeper and the technicians and
none of whom get additional payment for the extra work. Additionally, tap attendants of the
public taps are not staffs of the town’s water supply service office. They are elected from the
community and are responsible to collect tariff from users of the public tap. According to the
manager of finance in TBWSSO, tap attendants are required to sign an agreement with the water
supply service office (appendix V). The agreement stipulates the particular area where the public
tap is located and that the tariff is 4 ETB/ m3. The tap attendant is responsible to collect money
from users and is obligated by the agreement to turn it in to the water supply service office every
month. According to the agreement signed by the tap attendant, the water supply service office
has the right to go to court if the tap attendant doesn’t hand over the collected money to the
office on time. The agreement is helpful to avoid negligence from the tap attendants.
The working manual of WASH committees in Bacho woreda (WASH manual, 2006) states that
a water committee is to be established when a water supply scheme is built in the area. The
committee members are selected by the community and they all have different roles. The
committee along with the community is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the
scheme. In addition, the committee is accountable to the woreda water office. The committee is
required to report work activities to the bureau every three month and receive training every year
at the bureau. Furthermore, technicians and tap attendants are also trained to properly operate
and maintain the systems. A tap attendant is responsible to avail the tap for a limited time period
in a day, protect it from misuse, and report malfunctions.
Nevertheless, the co-chairperson of the water committee in Batu-Cherecha village stated that the
committee hasn’t taken any responsibility to manage the system and has never reported back to
the bureau. In addition, the bureau hasn’t followed up on the committee after its establishment.
Moreover, the communities fetched water throughout the day. There was no tap attendant to
supervise users and to avail water for restricted time. In general, the management of the hand
74
pump is non-existent. This could be attributed to poor trainings, lack of sense of ownership, and
lack of support by the woreda water office. The community cannot independently manage the
water supply scheme without the external assistance of the woreda water office which acts as a
facilitator. The head of the woreda water office responded to the situation saying that the bureau
doesn’t have the capacity to follow up all the committees in the woreda.
The respondents in the study area were asked if they were satisfied with the management of the
water supply services. Their responses varied; not satisfied (17.4%), fairly satisfied (52.1%),
satisfied (29.2%) and highly satisfied (1.4%) as it can be seen on table 3.14. They also mentioned
the problems they observe with the managing institutions (table 3.15). All the respondents in the
village of Batu-Cherecha clearly said that they were not satisfied with the committee and that
repairs are not made on time.
Table 3.14 Satisfaction level with the management
Satisfaction Level Frequency Percent
Highly satisfied 2 1.4
Satisfied 42 29.2
Fairly satisfied 75 52.1
Not satisfied 25 17.4
Total 144 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
Table 3.15 Problems with the management
Frequency Percent
Takes long time to repair 37 25.7
Lack of skilled manpower 41 28.5
Staff are unavailable during
working hours/unavailable water
committees
36
25
Lack of finance 12 8.3
Tariff is expensive 2 1.4
No problem 16 11.1
Total 144 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
75
3.5.2 Community participation in the development of the water schemes
Community participation in the development of water supply schemes is one element to ensure
sustainability. Both schemes in the study area are constructed in response to the communities’
request. The spring water supply scheme was constructed because the previous scheme of Tulu-
Bolo town was unable to serve the growing population in the town plus the community in the
villages of Soyoma-Ganji, Keta-Insilae and Batu-Cherecha didn’t have access to an improved
source of drinking water. The previous water supply scheme of Tulu-Bolo was from a borehole.
It was designed to serve a community of about 4,000 dwellers in the town. The community in the
study area strongly recommended the spring to be the source of the new scheme as it was
reliable. Moreover, the hand pump in Batu-Cherecha village was constructed in 2004 as the
community abandoned the public tap built in 2002 and was obtaining water from unprotected
sources (WA, 2002; BWEEB, 2004).
The sample households were asked if they have participated in the planning, construction and
management of the scheme. These sample households are those who have lived in the area for
more than 13 years i.e. those who lived in the area when the schemes were constructed. Out of
the total sample households of 144, 119 of them lived in the area for more than 13 years. From
these sample households, 81.5% (97) of them said that they have participated in the scheme in
one way or another (figure 6).
Figure 6: Participation level in the development of the schemes
Source: Field survey, 2015
18.5%
81.5%
No
Yes
76
The intended beneficiaries of Tulu-Bolo town; villages of Batu-Cherecha, Keta-Insilale and
Soyoma-Ganji have contributed cash, labor and materials during the construction of the scheme.
The communities contributed 100,000 ETB in cash and 203,576 ETB worth in labor and kind;
the total community contribution in cash, kind and labor amounts ETB 303,576. In addition, the
Tulu-Bolo rural town administration availed transportation facility for transporting construction
materials (WA, 2002). The means of participation of sample households can be observed in table
3.16. It is clear that the majority of the households participated in the construction of the scheme
through materials, labor and money.
Table 3.16 Respondents’ type of participation in the development of the schemes
Types of Participation Frequency Percent
Construction 61 51.3
Construction and Planning 31 26.1
Construction, Planning
and Management
3 2.5
Planning and Management 2 1.7
No participation 22 18.5
Total 119 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
A water board selected by the community, which has been established in 2002, took over the
water supply scheme from Water Action. Among the seven board members who managed the
water scheme four of them were women. This was done to ensure that women had the majority
share in management. Women also participated in the planning and construction of the scheme
(WA, 2002). Respondents were asked if the women in their households participated in the
development of the schemes. Out of the 119 sample households, 57.1% of them said that the
women in their household have participated in one way or another (figure 7).
77
Figure 7: Women’s participation in the development of the schemes
Source: Field survey, 2015
Although the villagers of Batu-Cherecha participated in the planning and construction of the
scheme notably in labor, they haven’t benefited from the scheme. According to informal
discussions with the people residing in the area, the public tap was intended to be built in the
middle of the villagers. But it was built too far from the community and they opted to use
unprotected wells in their areas. According to the manager of Water Action, the public tap was
intended to be built on the spot where it is now. This was done in consultation with the community
but the community later demanded construction of another public tap at the center of the village for
easy access. Their demand was not accepted by Water Action due to budget constraint. It appears
there was a miscommunication or misunderstanding between the communities in the area and the
implementing organization and/or the implementing organization was unable to deliver due to
lack of funds.
When the Bacho Woreda Water and Energy Office built a hand dug well for the villagers in Batu-
Cherecha upon their request, the community contributed labor and 5% of the cash needed for the
project (BWEEB, 2004). Excavation works were done by the community. It can be observed that a
sense of communal ownership of the scheme doesn’t exist because no one in the community
reported that the hand pump is dysfunctional. Community participation hasn’t been sustained
during the service life of the scheme. In addition, there is no post-construction communication
between BWWEO and the community. Lack of community involvement and external support
42.9%
57.1% Yes
No
78
from the woreda water office has contributed to the failure of the water supply scheme in Batu-
Cherecha.
3.6 The financial aspect of the water supply schemes
Management of water schemes cannot be successful if financial resources are not available and
managed efficiently. Finance is needed for the construction, operation, maintenance, and
management of a water supply scheme. As noted previously, the water committee of the village
in Batu-Cherecha doesn’t have financial resources although they were required to collect money
monthly from the community post-construction. These contributions from the community would
have been used to buy spare parts and repair the scheme. The inability to secure financial
resources after the construction of the hand pump is due to the lack of an active committee
management and lack of follow up, support, and guidance from the BWWEO.
3.6.1 Cost Sharing and Cost Recovery
The community in the study area, donor organization and the government all made contributions
to construct the spring water supply scheme. According to Water Action’s report (2002), the total
community contribution in cash, kind and labor is 303,576 ETB (22.7%), the donor organization
contributed 650,000 ETB (48.5%) and the government contributed 386,493 ETB (28.8%).
Currently, the TBWSSO is a financially autonomous office. The finance manager of TBWSSO
stated that the costs for running the water supply system is generated by the users and managed
by the office i.e. operation and maintenance costs are recovered from users. The operation and
maintenance costs include those costs which are used to run the water supply system on daily
basis which includes staff salaries, administrative costs, office running costs, chemicals, energy,
repair & maintenance costs, etc. The financial resource generated by the office is enough to
operate and maintain the system but it is unable to finance the expansion of the supply system
and replace the infrastructure after its useful life. Thus, the office hasn’t achieved full-cost
recovery.
The cost of construction of the hand pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha was 30,000 ETB. The
woreda water office covered 95% of the cost while the community contributed 5% of the
finance. The community has contributed labor for the excavation works (BWEEB, 2004).
79
Operation and maintenance costs were intended to be covered by the community’s monthly
contribution but the committee hasn’t managed to do so.
3.6.2 Financial management in Tulu-Bolo town water supply service office
A cost effective service requires skilled personnel and sound financial management. An effective
finance management necessitates sound financial policies and procedures plus a strong system to
implement them. According to the finance head of TBWSSO, the office gets income from two
sources; tariff collection and fees from new customers. Tariff is collected both from the users of
public taps and household connections. The tariffs are set by the Oromia regional government
water and energy bureau. The regional bureau determines the tariff level by considering the
income of the community, the ownership of assets, responsibility for operation and maintenance,
the level of service and the willingness and ability to pay of the community (MoWE- Urban
water utilities tariff setting, 2013).
Users of the water supply system in Tulu-Bolo town, the villages of Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-
Insilale pay for the water supply service. The tariff collection from household connections is
based on progressive tariff (table 3.18). Progressive tariff rate is paid in birr per m3
which is
determined each month from the water meter reading. According to the head of finance in
TBWSSO, meter readers go door to door for four days/month to read the water consumption
level of households, businesses, institutions and public taps. According to their consumptions,
customers are required to pay at the TBWSSO from the 11th
to 25th
day of a month. Customers
are required to pay a penalty of 31.50 ETB if they fail to make payments until the 25th
day of the
month and if customers do not pay for more than 6 months, the service given will be halted.
Table 3.17 Progressive tariff set for water consumption for household connections
Water consumption per month in m3 Tariff in ETB
1-3 4.25
3-5 4.65
6-8 5
9-11 5.40
>11 6
Source: TBWSSO, 2011
80
Flat tariff rates are paid in birr per liter by customers who use public taps. Tap attendants are
responsible to collect the tariffs from customers when they fetch water and turn in the collected
money to the TBWSSO monthly. The water tariff for public tap users is 0.10 ETB for 20 liters,
0.15 ETB for 25 liters and 0.20 ETB for 30 liters (TBWSSO, 2011). During field survey, the
sample households who use public taps were asked how much they paid for their consumption.
The respondents in the study area stated that they paid 0.10 ETB for 20 liters and 0.15 ETB for
25 liters. The sample households in the study area use jerry cans with 20 liters and 25 liters
capacity. According to the national guideline for urban water utilities tariff setting (MoWE,
2013), water tariffs per 25 liters of bucket should not exceed Birr 0.15. This has been ensured by
the town water supply service office. In addition to the water tariff, public tap users pay monthly
fees for the tap attendants which are determined by the community and are paid for the service
rendered by the tap attendant.
The study indicates the majority of the sample households who pay tariff for the water supply
service can afford the tariff. Respondents were asked if they have financial difficulties paying the
tariff; 84.9% of the respondents said they don’t have financial difficulties to pay the tariff, 11.5%
said that they sometimes have difficulties paying the tariff and 3.5% said that they have financial
difficulties paying the tariff (table 3.17).
Table 3.18 Financial capability in paying tariff
Difficulties in paying
tariff
Frequency Percent
No 118 84.9
Sometimes 16 11.1
Yes 5 3.5
Total 139 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
According to the water resource management policy (MoWR, 1999) higher income groups
(connection users) should pay higher water tariff and should subsidize the low incomes (Public
fountain users). Accordingly, the low income groups in the area are charged lower tariff than the
higher income groups. For example: for 5 m3 of water consumption, those who have household
connections pay water tariff rate ranging from 27.05 to 32.05 ETB [(3*4.25) + (2*4.65) + (fixed
service charge which varies with meter size) - refer table 3.20] while public tap users are
81
charged 20 ETB. The fixed service charges are 5, 8 and 10 ETB for ½, ¾ and 1 inch meter size,
respectively (TBWSSO, 2011).
As noted above, the fixed service charge varies with meter size and will be charged to customers
regardless of the level of consumption. Additionally, both domestic and non-domestic water
supply categories are subject to monthly fixed service charges. It is targeted to cover the
administrative overhead costs, usually customer-related costs which are not related to water
production and distribution. The fixed charges are determined and differentiated based on
equivalent meter service factors. It is assumed that customers with bigger sized connections
enjoy more convenience by getting more water at a faster rate than those with smaller sized
connections and hence charged more (MoWE, 2013).
The second source of income to TBWSSO is from installation of new water pipe lines to
customers like households, businesses and institutions (schools, health clinics, public service
offices). The finance manager of TBWSSO stated that users who require household connections
apply to the office and the technicians head out to the premise to estimate the equipments needed
to install the needed pipe lines. The water connection estimation form can be seen in appendix
III. Based on the estimates, users are required to buy the equipments themselves and the
technicians will carry out the installations.
The income received by the TBWSSO is the proportional percentage of material price;
excavation fee; permission fee; estimation fee; requisition form and customer card fee. Material
price refers to the price of pipes, faucets, gate valves and other needed equipments needed for the
installations (appendix IV). These equipments are purchased by the customer. Table 3.19 shows
different percentages of material prices for households and organizations that vary with the
length of the pipes.
Table 3.19 Percentage of material price
Length of pipe % of material price
Households Organizations
1-30m 30% of material price 40% of material price
31-60m 20% of material price 30% of material price
Above 61m 15% of material price 25% of material price
Source: Water Connection Estimation form of TBWSSO
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Table 3.20 shows other fees the office charges for the installation. These fees are the same for all
customers. Excavations are carried out by daily laborers hired either by the office or customers.
In some cases the customers hire daily laborers who will excavate for a cheaper price than 12
ETB. Moreover, the deposit varies with the size of the water meter; 75 ETB for ½ inch, 100 ETB
for ¾ inch and 125 ETB for 1 inch (TBWSSO, 2011).
Table 3.20 Other fees
Other fees Amount
Deposit
Excavation fee 12 ETB /meter
Permission fee 10 ETB
Estimation fee 30 ETB
Requisition form 3 ETB
Customer card 7 ETB
Source: Water Connection Estimation form for TBWSSO
According to the national guideline for urban water utilities tariff setting (MoWE, 2013), the
purpose of the deposit (table 3.20) is not for the security of water meter but for security of the
water used. In case the customer disappears without paying his/her bill, the town water supply
service office will easily confiscate the deposit in the amount of the bill. Only in a case where the
bill is more than the deposited amount that the service will take the case to the court. The deposit
is estimated based on three months average consumption of the customers.
The TBWSSO is a financially autonomous office. It is able to cover operation and maintenance
costs. Nevertheless, it hasn’t reached full-cost recovery as stipulated by the MoWE for town
water supply services. Furthermore, the office’s budgets are approved by the Oromia Regional
Government Water and Energy Bureau and the town water office sends out annual financial
report to the zone water bureau.
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3.7 Environmental aspect/Sustainability of the water resources
This section deals with the water source itself. The availability and quality of the water resources
linked to characteristics that affect the supply and its sustainability is discussed henceforth. From
the interviews conducted with the informants in the study area, conservation of the water
resources is not a major concern for the institutions managing the water supply schemes. In dry
seasons, the spring has a safe yield of 15 lit/sec (TBWSSO, 2011). The informants in the
regional bureau and the town water office noted that the yield doesn’t vary highly in seasons but
shows a slight increase in the rainy season. The yield of the spring was 20 lit/sec in 2000 (WA,
2000). This indicates that the quantity has declined significantly within ten years and is not
recognized by the town water office.
The Batu-Cherecha villagers who obtain water from unprotected wells noted that the quantity of
the ground water is lower during dry season but they generally don’t face shortage in water
supply. The static water level of the ground water is 5m and the discharge is 0.5 lit/sec
(BWWEO, 2004). The discharge of the ground water was tested before the construction of the
scheme but it hasn’t been checked recently by the bureau.
If minimum quality standard of drinking water were not fulfilled, sustainability of water supply
schemes would be questioned. The quality of the spring has been assessed by the Oromia
Regional Water and Energy Bureau. The temperature of the water is warm with an estimated
temperature of about 30 C°. Water sample has been taken and given to the laboratory for further
chemical analysis. It is understood that the warm water from the spring cools-down while it is
pumped all the way to and stay in the reservoir. The result of the water sample indicated that the
water is safe as a source of drinking water supply as per the Ethiopian standard (TBWSSO,
2011).
There is no fixed radius enforced between the spring and residents, but the manager of TBWSSO
mentioned that houses are not allowed to be constructed near the spring. During the field survey,
the researcher has noticed that there are no houses in close proximity to the spring. Furthermore,
the area where the spring is located is fenced but it is open to the community because they use
the outflow. Nonetheless, the spring is properly sealed which prevent contamination by surface
water, insects, or animals. Moreover, the blockers around the spring capping structure and the
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collection chamber protect the water from being contaminated with the heavy flood that occurs
in the rainy season.
Furthermore, the manager of the TBWSSO noted that the collection chamber and reservoir are
cleaned quarterly in a year and the water is chlorinated as deemed necessary. One of the
problems the sample households mentioned in regard to quality of the water supply is lack of
chlorination (table 4, appendix I). The respondents said that the water is not chlorinated at all
times. It was observed that the community knew the importance of chlorination for safe drinking
water. Therefore, they were urging to increase the frequency of chlorinating the water.
The BWWEO has assessed the quality of the ground water and concluded that the water is safe
as a source of drinking water supply as per the Ethiopian standard (BWWEO, 2004). Since the
villagers in Batu-Cherecha don’t have access to an improved source of drinking water, the water
they use is vulnerable to different contaminations. Given that the villagers themselves build the
wells, the quality of the construction is poor and prone to be broken and let in mud. This has
long-term health and productivity effects. Therefore, an adequate protection of water source is
crucial to ensure the quality of the water.
3.8 Expansion work on the water supply system in Tulu-Bolo town
The design period of the water supply system in Tulu-Bolo is nearing an end but according to
Brikke (2002) a sustainable system gives service for over a prolonged period of time which goes
beyond the lifespan of the original equipment. This requires an effective operation and
maintenance, expansion works and sometimes rehabilitating the entire system. The water
shortage in the study area coupled with the increasing population of the town necessitated the
TBWSSO to undertake some measures. In response, the Oromia Regional Water and Energy
bureau is undertaking an expansion work in Tulu-Bolo town to supply potable water to the entire
population of Tulu-Bolo and address the water shortage problem. The construction which started
in 2011 is fully financed by the regional water bureau because it was beyond the capacity of the
town water supply service office.
The expansion work utilizes the same spring used in the current water supply system. During the
field survey, a balancing chamber and a reservoir with a capacity of 30m3 and 500m
3 has already
been constructed next to the existing ones. According to the heads of TBWSSO and Oromia
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Regional Water and Energy Bureau, fitting works are remaining for the system to start operation.
The equipments needed for the installations are imported materials. The fitting work hasn’t
begun because the needed materials haven’t arrived in the country yet. This additional water
supply system will be working in unison with the already existing system. It is planned that it
will provide water for those who don’t have access to potable water in the town. Moreover it is
anticipated that it will alleviate the water shortage faced by the community who use the current
water supply scheme. The community and the informants in the TBWSSO are highly counting
on this scheme to address the water supply shortage they currently face.
Photograph 8: New water reservoir Photograph 9: New collection chamber
As discussed previously, the major cause of water shortage in Tulu-Bolo town is the inability of
the existing water pump to function at day time. The informants were asked how the expansion
work intends to address this problem. According to the heads of TBWSSO and Oromia water
bureau, a new water pump is incorporated with the new scheme. It will be powered by electricity
but a backup generator will be available if power fails. The new water pump is expected to pump
5.83-21.83 lit/sec (TBWSSO, 2011). As mentioned in previous sections, the current water pump
fails to function at day time because the power available is not sufficient for the water pump to
utilize and operate. According to the sales manager of Tulu-Bolo Electric Utility office and the
manager of TBWSSO, the expansion work tries to address this problem by tapping into a
33,000KW of power line which is distributed to neighboring kebeles. This power line has ample
amount of power that is unused. Thus it is hoped that that both the current and new water pumps
will utilize this power.
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The informants in the Oromia Water and Energy Bureau and the electric utility office in Tulu-
Bolo town stated that the regional bureau has already made payment to the electric utility office
to install the power line from the neighboring kebeles to Tulu-Bolo town in 2011. But it hasn’t
been installed due to lack of communication between TBWSSO and the electric utility office.
Furthermore, the electric utility office is currently facing shortage of wooden poles which will
delay the installations further. It is essential for the TBWSSO and the electric utility office to
coordinate and work in harmony since the water supply hinges on the availability of power.
Furthermore, the society hasn’t been consulted before the expansion work begun. Besides
undertaking the construction of the new scheme, consulting the society about the water supply
situations would have helped the institutions to evaluate the service given and incorporate any
other remedial measures to be undertaken alongside the construction.
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Chapter Four
Conclusion and Recommendation
4.1 Summary of findings
In light of sustainability problems in the nation, this research has taken Tulu-Bolo town and the
surrounding villages in the kebeles of Keta-Insilale, Batu-Cherecha and Soyoma-Ganji to assess
the sustainability of water supply schemes in the area. The descriptive method of research was
utilized and questionnaire, key informant interview and personal observation were used for
gathering data. The sample respondents were 5% of the intended beneficiaries of the spring
water supply system and the interviewees are individuals who have firsthand information about
the subject matter.
1. What is the demand and supply of water in the area?
Out of the total sample households, 72.9% of the respondents said they require additional
water supply services. On the other hand, 94.5% of the respondents have access to
improved drinking water source (the population in Tulu-Bolo town and villages of Keta-
Insilale, Soyoma-Ganji are supplied from the spring water supply scheme while the
villagers of Batu-Cherecha obtain water from traditional hand dug wells).
The mean distance taken by public tap users to fetch water is 419.19 meters. In addition,
90.9% of the respondents have access to water within the radius of 1 km. Nonetheless,
public tap users queue for about 44.3 minutes daily at the public taps.
Out of the 63 respondents who fetch water from public taps, 57.1% said that the hours
available to fetch water was not enough. Moreover, 67.6% of the respondents indicated
that they needed additional public taps in their areas.
On average, the respondents in the study area consume 15.04 liters of water per capita per
day for domestic uses. Consequently, 46.5% of the respondents said the availed water
supply is not satisfactory.
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On average the sample households in the area face water scarcity for 2 days in a week.
Furthermore, water is available at night time in Tulu-Bolo town, the villages of Soyoma-
Ganji and Keta-Insilale.
In response to the water scarcity and the growing population of Tulu-Bolo town, the
Oromia regional water and energy bureau is constructing additional water supply scheme
to supply the entire population of the town but the project hasn’t given the necessary
attention for the reasons of the current scheme failure.
2. What are the technical and institutional conditions of the water scheme?
Besides the old age of the spring water supply scheme, the design is of good quality and
suitable for future expansion. Nonetheless, there are three flaws with the design:
The outlet pipe from the water reservoir to the distribution pipes (6 inches
wide) is imbalanced with the inlet pipe (3 inches) which is from the collection
chamber to the reservoir.
The original water pipe lines don’t have gate valves.
The wide pipes are used in elevated areas and narrower pipes are used in low
areas, which seems to be switched
The water pump of the spring water supply scheme is non-functional at day time but works
during night hours and holidays.
The villagers of Batu-Cherecha have abandoned the public tap constructed in 2002. In
addition the hand pump constructed in 2004 is currently non-functional.
The construction quality of the hand pump is poor.
Most of the public taps and pipe lines of the spring water supply scheme are fixed within
a short period of time; 67.1% of those who have household connections and 77.9% of
public fountains users said it takes 1 to 3 days to fix water pipe line breakages and public
taps, respectively. On the contrary, the hand-pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha hasn’t
been repaired for about 6 months.
Out of the four technicians in TBWSSO, three have formal education (one has a diploma
in plumbing and two have 10+3 in plumbing) but one technician just received trainings
from Water Action.
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A local technician in the village of Batu-Cherecha has received training before the
scheme was built. Additionally, the bureau has a technical team that is able to assist the
local technicians.
Spare parts are readily available in the study area but the qualities are low.
The Tulu-Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office is responsible for the maintenance and
operation of the spring water supply system.
More than half of the users of public taps said the number of hours availed by tap
attendants to collect water was not enough.
The hand pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha was supposed to be managed by a water
committee. But the committee was non-existent; the members of the committee haven’t
assumed their responsibilities and carried out their tasks. Moreover, the community in the
village collected water throughout the day as there was no tap attendant.
The woreda water office is unaware of the non-functionality of the hand pump in Batu-
Chercha. The woreda water office hasn’t followed up and supported the water committee.
There is a major difference between the organizational framework of TBWSSO and the
one specified by the MoWE. The town water supply service office falls short in few
departments and educational qualifications.
Out of the 119 sample households that lived in the area for more than 13 years, 81.5% of
them said they had participated in the development of the water supply schemes.
Furthermore, 57.1% of the respondents noted that the women in their households have
participated in the development of the scheme.
3. What is the financial condition of the water system?
The community in the study area, donor organization and the government has shared the
cost of constructing the spring water supply scheme.
The community and the woreda water office shared the cost of constructing the hand
pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha.
TBWSSO hasn’t achieved full-cost recovery while the water committee in the village of
Batu-Cherecha hasn’t achieved partial-cost recovery.
84.9% of the respondents noted that they don’t have financial difficulties to pay the tariff.
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4. What is the condition of the water sources?
The spring, the source for the water supply scheme of Tulu-Bolo town; villages of
Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-Insilae, has a safe yield of 15 lit/sec as of 2011. Its yield was 20
lit/sec in 2000. The TBWSSO isn’t aware of the decline.
The area where the spring is located is open to the community.
The static water level of the ground water, the source for the villagers in Batu-Cherecha,
is 5m and the discharge is 0.5 lit/sec as of 2004.
Both water sources are a safe source of drinking water supply as per the Ethiopian
standard.
4.2 Conclusions
The population in Tulu-Bolo town, villages of Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-Insilale obtain water from
a scheme constructed in 2002 that utilizes spring as its source. The communities in these areas
have access to the water supply through public taps and household connections. The population in
these areas faces water shortage during the day although water is mostly available during night
time. The villagers in Batu-Cherecha collect water from traditionally hand dug wells because they
abandoned the public tap constructed in 2002 plus the hand dug well constructed by the Bacho
Woreda Water and Energy Office in 2004 is non-functional. Due to this, the current water supply
is not meeting the needs of the community in the study area and the water consumption level is
low. On the other hand, the distance travelled to fetch water in Tulu-Bolo town and villages of
Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-Insilae is low because public taps are located within convenient distance
to the community. Nonetheless, the society has to endure long queues to collect water which is
attributed to the increase in population and the unavailability of water during day time.
In response to this, the Oromia Regional Water and Energy Bureau is undertaking an expansion
work on the water supply system which intends to serve the entire population of the town for
about 15 years. This additional water supply system will be working in unison with the already
existing system but the work is taking too long and the problem that is majorly causing water
scarcity in the area is not addressed. Furthermore, the water supply didn’t consider the
population of Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-Insilale.
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With regard to the technical condition of the water supply schemes, the spring water supply
system is of good quality while the hand pump in the village of Batu-Cherecha is of poor quality.
The spring water supply system is highly dependent on the electric power supply available in
Tulu-Bolo that is not enough to pump water during the day time. Thus, addressing the electric
power shortage addresses the water scarcity problem. In the village of Batu-Cherecha, it can be
seen that training local technicians doesn’t ensure the water supply scheme will be maintained
and repaired when needed. Finally, the low quality of spare parts in the study area subjects the
water supply schemes to immature breakages. Therefore, there are major problems in the
technical condition of the water supply schemes. While the hand pump in Batu-Cherecha is non-
functional; the spring water supply scheme only supplies water during at night time.
The institutional capacity of the managing bodies of the water supply schemes plays a high role
in the sustainability of the schemes. The hand dug well in Batu-Cherecha is non functional
because the water committee is non-existent. Thus, participation in the construction of water
supply schemes plus the existence of demand for an improved water supply doesn’t guarantee
the sustainability of the scheme. Moreover, the woreda water office didn’t ensure that the
community participation is sustained during the service life of the scheme. This also indicates
that the woreda water office doesn’t have the financial and human capital to follow up and assist
all the committees in the woreda. Community managed water supply schemes need support and
follow up from woreda water offices. On the other hand, the current staff in the TBWSSO is
highly dedicated to serving the community but the office generally lacks vital departments and
qualified personnel. Additionally, the time availed by tap attendants is not sufficient which
indicates that the town water supply office doesn’t monitor the operation of public taps.
Financial resources are vital for the construction and overall management of water schemes. An
efficient institutional capacity is crucial to raise and administer financial resources. Finance was
not raised post construction of the hand dug well in the village of Batu-Cherecha due to the lack
of an effective management. Contrary to the water committee in the village, TBWSSO is
financially autonomous but has only achieved partial-cost recovery i.e. the finance it generates
cover only operation and maintenance costs and is unable to finance an expansion or replace the
infrastructure after its useful life.
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The sustainability of water resources hasn’t been given enough attention in the study area. The
spring water has experienced a 5 lit/sec decline within 10 years, which hasn’t been noticed by the
respective institutions. Furthermore, the spring is not properly fenced and protected from human
contamination. On the other hand, the woreda water office hasn’t recently checked the water
level and the discharge of the ground water in the village of Batu-Cherecha. The static level was
recorded as 5m and the discharge as 0.5 lit/sec before the construction of the scheme i.e. in 2004.
The services rendered by the water supply schemes in the study area are not sustainable due to
technical problems which are majorly the result of institutional incapacity and lack of
cooperation among different institutions. The absence of an effective management of one of the
schemes has also resulted in lack of financial resources to repair the scheme. In addition, the
managing institutions haven’t given due attention to the quantity of the water sources which has
shown an evident decline in one of the study areas. Strengthening the capacity of the managing
bodies of water supply schemes and enhancing cooperation among the institutions is an
underlying determinant for the provision of a sustainable water supply service. In addition, the
institutional, social, technical, environmental and financial dimensions are correlated with water
supply systems. These determinants are affecting the availability, reliability and sustainability of
the water supply. Therefore, it is essential that a holistic approach be taken which addresses all
sustainability factors and the relationships between them to sustain water supply services.
4.3 Recommendations
Generally;
Data on non-functional water supply schemes should be available at kebele, woreda and
national levels.
Form a co-ordination committee at regional or woreda level for different stakeholders to
work together.
Woreda and town water supply offices should conduct a continuous management,
operation, maintenance, environmental performance measurement.
93
Specifically;
Construct more public taps in Tulu- Bolo town and villages of Soyoma-Ganji and Keta-
Insilale.
The town water supply service and electric utility office should coordinate to address the
problem of power supply for the water pump immediately.
Use alternative power systems like solar and windmill to power the water pump of the
spring water supply scheme.
The public taps in the study area should be availed both in the morning and early
evenings to adequately serve the community. Additionally, TBWSSO should monitor the
tap attendants and enforce a regulation to adequately serve the community.
TBWSSO needs to hire more meter readers as the town is expanding and the number of
household connections increasing.
BWWEO should adopt a legal agreement with the water committees in the woreda to
avoid negligence.
The Woreda Water and Energy Office should monitor and ensure the quality of the
construction of the water supply schemes in the area.
Communities should participate in determining appropriate locations for public taps/
hand pumps and their participation should be ongoing throughout service delivery.
Capacity building and institutional strengthening of the woreda and town water offices-
specifically strengthen the financial capacity and human capital in the offices.
Partnership and continual dialogue should exist between the committees and the woreda
water office. An ongoing institutional support and regular monitoring by the woreda
water office can help preempt the reluctance observed with water committee in Batu-
Cherecha. Support activities compromises encouragement and motivation; technical and
financial assistance; community sensitization and trainings; capacity building; monitoring
and evaluation and setting-up effective financing mechanisms.
The town water supply service office in collaboration with the woreda water office
should consider supplying water to surrounding villages to serve the community and in
return increase its finances.
If water supply users understand that they must pay for water, rather than to maintain a
system, the financial obstacles facing the Batu-Cherecha community could be addressed.
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A fixed radius between the spring and sources of potential pollution should be enforced.
Chlorination of the spring water supply system should be carried out by the office
constantly and in definite intervals.
The quality and quantity of the water sources need to be checked occasionally and
documented as well. The water consumed should not be over-exploited but naturally
replenished.
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Appendices
Appendix I: Supplementary tables and figures
Table 1 Martial status of respondents
Response Frequency Percent Valid percent
Divorced 7 4.9 4.9
Married 109 75.7 76.2
Single 10 6.9 7
Widowed 17 11.8 11.9
Total 143 99.3 100
Missing 1 0.7
Total 144 100
Table 2 Satisfaction with the time available to fetch water form public taps
Satisfaction level Frequency Percent
More than enough 1 1.6
Enough 15 23.8
Fair 11 17.5
Not enough 36 57.1
Total 63 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
Table 3 Problems with the quality of water
Response Frequency Percent
No 124 86.1
Yes 20 13.9
Total 144 100
Source: Field survey, 2015
Table 4 Type of water quality problem
Response Frequency Percent
Lack of chlorine 2 10.0
Dirt 13 65.0
Dirt +chlorine 5 25.0
Total 20 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2015
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Figure 1a Organizational set up for small towns (no of population< 15,000)
Source: Organizational setup for urban water supply services, MoWE (2013)
107
Appendix II
A. Questionnaire for Beneficiaries
I. In English
General Introduction: The main objective of this questionnaire is to gather information about
the supply and demand of water; technical, financial, institutional and social sustainability of the
water scheme in Tulu-Bolo and surrounding villages. The data to be collected from this
interview will be used only for educational research purpose. Your responses will be kept
confidential. So, I kindly request you to participate in this study voluntarily. The quality of this
study depends on your genuine response. Therefore, you are kindly requested to answer all
questions and give reliable information on the issues. Thank you in advance for your time and kind cooperation!
Date: _______________
Name of the enumerator: __________________
Name of the Kebele / Village: _____________________________
Part One: Background of beneficiaries
1. Gender
A. Male B. Female
2. Age range
A.18-25 B.26-35 C.36-45 D.46-55 E. 56-65
3. Marital Status
A. Single B. Married C. Divorced D. Widowed
4. Educational Level
A. First degree and above B. Diploma/12+1-12+3
C. Grade 9-12 C. Grade 1-8 D. Read and write E. Illiterate
5. Occupation (Multiple choices are possible)
A. Farming B. Commercial /Trade C. Government employee D. Daily laborer
E. Private organization employee F. If other, please specify_______
6. HH Size: __________________
7. Monthly income in birr
A. less than 500 B. 501-1,000 C.1, 001-2,000
D. 2,001-5,000 E. 5,001-8,000 F. More than 80,000 F. Don’t want to say
8. Do you need water supply services?
A. Yes B. No
Part Two: Questions forwarded to Beneficiaries
2.1 Access to safe drinking water
1. For what purpose do you use water? (Multiple choices are possible)
A. Domestic use (drinking, food preparation, bathing and washing clothes)
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B. Cattle watering C. irrigation of crops D. Other
2. What is the water supply system you use?
A. Household connections B. Public taps
C. Directly from the spring D. Hand pump E. River F. Other, specify______
3. Does the current water supply meet your water consumption needs?
A. More than enough B. Satisfactory C. Fairly D. It doesn’t
4. If your answer is ‘C’ and ‘D’ to Q. 3, on average how many times a week do you face
shortage?
A. Once a week B. Twice a week C. Thrice a week D. More than three days a week
5. In case of interruption what is your alternative source of water supply?
A. Spring Water B. domestic water storage C. River D. Other, specify____________
6. On average how many Jeri can/clay pot (20 liters) of water do you need for your household
per day?
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2 E.1
For public public tap/ hand pump users
7. How long does it take you for a round trip to fetch water?
A. less than 15 minutes B. 16-30 minutes C. 31 minutes – 1hour D. more than 1 hour
8. How long do you stand in que to fetch water from the closest public tap?
A. less than 20 minutes B. 21-30 minutes C. 31 – 60 minutes D. More than 1 hour
9. How far is the public tap from your household (estimated distance in meters)?
A. 500 or less B. 501- 1000 C. 1001- 1500 D.1501-2000 E. more than 2Kilometers
10. At what time is the public tap available to fetch water? _____________________
11. How satisfied are you with number of hours available to fetch water?
A. More than enough B. satisfactory C. Fairly E. not satisfactory
12. Is there a need for additional public taps?
A. Yes B. No
13. Who is usually going to the public tap to fetch water for your household? (Multiple choices
are possible)
A. Adult woman B. Adult man C. Female child b/n 15-18 years of age
D. Female child (under15yr) E. Male child b/n 15-18 years of age
F. Male Child (under15 yrs)
2.2. Questions regarding technical Issues
14. How frequently did the water pipe/public tap/ hand pump line fail in the past year?
A. more than 5 times B. 5-3 times C. 2- 1times
15.How long does it take to fix a malfunction?
A. 1-3 days B. 4-7 days C. 8-14 days D.14 days- a month E. More than a month
109
2.3. Questions regarding institutional and social issues
16. Were you involved in the development of the water supply scheme?
A. Yes B. No
17. If your response to Q16 is 'yes’ at what stage of the development process did you participate?
(Multiple responses is possible)
A. Planning B. Construction C. Management D. None E. other, specify _____
18. What type of participation did you have during the scheme construction? (Multiple
responses is possible)
A. Cash B. Labor C. local materials D. Idea E. None F. Other
19. Are you satisfied with the service given by community management/water supply service
office?
A. Highly satisfied B. Satisfied
C. Fairly satisfied D. Not Satisfied
20. What problems do you observe under the administration of the water supply service
office/community management?
A. unable to fix technical problems on time B. lack of skilled manpower
C. Staff is not available in working hours D. Lack of financial resource
E. lack of equipments F. setting of high tariff
G. I don’t observe any problem
21. What type of participation did women in your household have in the overall water supply
development? (Multiple responses is possible)
A. Planning B. Implementation C. Management D. None
2.4 Questions regarding financial issues
22. Do you pay a fee for your water service?
A. Yes B. No
23. If your answer for Q22 is No, what are your reasons?
A. Tariff is not set to the service provided B. The tariff is expensive
C. the quality of water is unsatisfactory D. water collected is insufficient
E. other, specify_______________
Question 24-32 are to those who pay tariff
24. If your answer to Q. 22 is yes, how much do you pay?
A. Publictap users, how much do you pay per Jerri can (20 liters)? ________
B. Household connections, how much do you pay monthly on average? _______
25. Do you pay water fees on time? (Household connections)
A. Yes B. No
26. If your answer for Q25 is No, what are your reasons?
A. The tariff is expensive B. I don’t trust the tariff collector
110
C. The quality of water is unsatisfactory D. water collected is insufficient
E. other, specify_______________
27. What is your perception on tariff level?
A. Expensive B. Fair C. Inexpensive D. I don’t know
28. Do you have problems in paying tariff (ability to pay)?
A. Yes B. No C. Sometimes
29. Do you think beneficiaries should pay water fee?
A. Yes B. No
30. In Q.29 above if the answer is yes, why? (Multiple responses is possible)
A. to build new water scheme B. to cover operation and maintenance cost
C. Others, specify_______
31. In Q.29 above if the answer is no, why? (Multiple responses is possible)
A. Water is considered as a gift of nature and hence it should be provided for free
B. The villagers are poor and they cannot afford it
C. The use of traditional source of water has no problem and I prefer to use that source rather
than paying fee for improved water
D. Other, specify_____________
32. Who is the owner of the scheme? (Multiple responses is possible)
A. The community B. Local gov’t C. NGOs
D. I don’t know E. other, specify _______
2.5Questions regarding environmental issues/ source of water supply
33. Do you face problems with the quality of the water?
A. Yes B. No
34. If your answer to Q. 38 is ‘yes’, what are the quality problems?
A. It has unusual odor B. It has unusual color C. It has unusual taste
D. It is not continually chlorinated E. It contains dirt
35. If your answer to Q. 38 is ‘yes’, when do you face quality problems?
A. Dry season B. Rainy season C. doesn’t vary in season
36. Do you have anything additional to say about the water supply?
_____________________________________________________
Thank you for your cooperation!
111
II. In Amharic
ለውሀ ተጠቃሚዎች የቀረበ መጠይቅ የዚህ መጠይቅ ዋና አላማ የቱሉ ቦሎን እና በአቅራቢያው ያሉት አከባቢዎች ውሀ አቅራቦት እና ፍላጎት ፤ የውሀ ሲስተሙን ቴክኒካል፣ አስስተዳደር፣ ኢኮኖሚያዊ እና አከባቢያዊ ሁኔታ ለማጥናት ነው:: የሚሰበሰበው ዳታ ለትምህርት ብቻ የሚውል ነው:: የማንነታችሁ ሚስጥር የተጠበቀ ነው:: ስለዚህ ትክክለኛውን መልስ እንዲሰጡ በትህትና እጠይቃለሁ:: ለትብብራችሁ አመሰግናለሁ:: ቀን ፡…………………………….. የጠያቂው ስም፡…………………………………………..………… የቀበሌው እና የገሬው ስም፡………….…………………………………………………….
ክፍል አንድ ፡ ስለተጠቃሚው መረጃ 1. ጶታ
ሀ. ወንድ ለ. ሴት 2. እድሜ
ሀ. 18-25 ለ. 26-35 መ. 36-45 ሰ.46-55 ረ.56-65
3. የጋብቻ ሁኔታ ሀ. ያለጋባ ለ. ያገባ መ. የፈታ ሰ. ባለቤት የሞተበት
4. የትምህርት ሁኔታ ሀ.የመጀመሪያ ዲግሪ እና ከዚያ በላይ ለ.ዲፕሎማ/ 12+1-12+3 መ.9-12 ክፍል ሰ.1-8 ክፍል ረ.መጳፍ እና ማንበብ ብቻ ሽ. ያልተማረ
5. የስራ ሁኔታ (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. ገበሬ ለ. ነጋዴ መ.የመንግስት ሰራተኛ ሰ.የግል መስሪያ ቤት ሰራተኛ ረ.የቀን ሰራተኛ ሽ. ሌላ፣………………………………..
6. የቤተሰብ ብዛት ……………………………. 7. ወርሃዊ ገቢ (በብር)
ሀ. ከ 500 ያነሰ ለ. 501-1,100 መ. 1, 001-2,000 ሰ. 2,001-5,000 ረ. ከ5,001-8000 የበለጠ ሽ. ከ 8000 በላይ ቀ. ለመናገር ፈቃደኛ አይደለሁም
8. የውሃ አገልግሎት ያስፈልጎታል ? ሀ. አዎ ለ. አያስፈልግም
ክፍል ሁለት፤ ለተጠቃሚው የቀረበ ጥያቄ
2.1 ስለውሃ አቅራቦት የቀረበ ጥያቄ 1. ውሃ ለምን አገልግሎት ነው የምትጠቀሙት ?(ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል)
ሀ. ለመጠጥ፤ለምግብ እና ለንጵህና ለ. ለእንስሳት መጠጥ መ. ለእርሻ ሰ. ሌላ፣…………………………….
2. ለመጠጥ፤ለምግብ እና ለንጵህና የምትጠቀሙት የውሃ ሲስተም ምንድነው? ሀ. የግል ውሃ ቧንቧ መስመር ለ. የውሃ ቦኖ መ. ቀጥታ ከኦ-ኦ ምንጭ ሰ. የእጅ ፐምፕ ረ. ከወንዝ ሽ. ሌላ፣…………………………….
3. አሁን ያለው የውሃ አቅራቦት በቂ ነው? ሀ. ከበቂ በላይ ነው ለ. በቂ ነው መ. መካከለኛ ነው ሰ. በቂ አይይደለም
4. ለጥያቄ 3 መልሳችሁ መ፣ሰ ከሆነ በአማካይ በሳምንት ምን ያህል ቀን የውሃ እጥረት ያጋጥማል? ሀ. አንድ ቀን ለ. ሁለት ቀን መ. ሶስት ቀን ሰ. ከሶስት ቀን በላይ
5. ውሃ ሲጠፋ ውሃ ከየት ታገኛላችችሁ? ሀ. ከኦ-ኦ ምንጭ ለ. ከውሃ ማጠራቀሚያ መ. ወንዝ ሰ. ሌላ፣…………………………….
6. እንደ ቤተሰብ በቀን ምን ያህል ጀሪካን ውሃ ትጠቀማላችሁ ? ሀ. 5 ለ. 4 መ.3 ሰ. 2 ሽ. 1
112
ለቦኖ ተጠቃሚዎች/ የእጅ ፐምፕ ብቻ
7. አንድ ጊዜ ውሃ ቀድቶ ለመመለስ ምን ያህል ጊዜ ይፈጃል? ሀ. ከ15 ደቂቃ በታች ለ. ከ16-30 ደቂቃ መ. ከ31-60 ደቂቃ ሰ. ከ 1 ሰአት በላይ
8. በአቅራቢያችሁ ካለው የውሃ ቦኖ ውሃ ለመቅዳት ምን ያህል ጊዜ ትቆማላችሁ? ሀ. ከ20 ደቂቃ በታች ለ. ከ21-30 ደቂቃ መ. ከ31-60 ደቂቃ ሰ. ከ 1 ሰአት በላይ
9. የውሃ ቦኖው ከቤታችሁ ምን ያህል ይርቃል (በሜትር ግምት)?
ሀ. ከ 500 በታች ለ. ከ501- 1000 መ. ከ1001- 1500
ሰ. 1501-2000 ረ. ከ 2ኪሎ ሜትር በላይ
10. ውሃ ለመቅዳት የውሃ ቦኖው ስንት ሰአት ነው ክፍት የሚሆነው? ----------
11. የውሃ ቦኖው ክፍት የሚሆንበት ሰአት አጥጋቢ ነው? ሀ. ከበቂ በላይ ነው ለ. በቂ ነው መ. መካከለኛ ነው ሰ. በቂ አይይደለም
12. የውሃ ቦኖው ለአከባቢው ነዋሪ በቂ ነው? ሀ. ከበቂ በላይ ነው ለ. በቂ ነው መ. መካከለኛ ነው ሰ. በቂ አይይደለም
13. ለቤት ብዙ ጊዜ ማነው ውሃ ሚቀዳው?(ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል)
ሀ. ጎልማሳ ሴት ለ. ጎልማሳ ወንድ መ. ሴት ልጅ (15-18 አመት) ሰ. ሴት ልጅ(15 በታች)
ሸ. ወንድ ልጅ(15-18 አመት) ቀ. ወንድ ልጅ (15 በታች)
2.2 ቴክኒካል ሁኔታዎች 14. የውሃ መስመሩ በባለፈው አመት በአማካይ ምን ያህል ጊዜ ተበላሽቷል?
ሀ. ከ5 ጊዜ በላይ ለ. 5- 3ጊዜ መ. 2- 1ጊዜ ሠ. አልተበላሸም 15. የውሃ መስመር ሲበላሽ ለመጠገን ምን ያህል ጊዜ ይፈጃል?
ሀ. ከ1-3 ቀን ለ. ከ4-7 ቀን መ. ከ8- 14ቀን ሰ. ከ14ቀን- 1ወር ረ. ከ1ወር በላይ
2.3.የአስተዳደር እና ማህበራዊ ሁኔታዎች 16. የውሃ አቅራቦት ሲስተሙ ሲሰራ ተሳትፎ ነበሮት?
ሀ. አዎ ለ. አልተሳተፍኩም
17. ለጥያቄ 19 መልሶት አዎ ከሆነ፣ ምን ላይ ነው የተሳተፉት? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. እቅድ ላይ ለ. ግንባታ ላይ መ. አስተዳደር ላይ/ የውሃ ኮሚቴ ሰ. ሌላ፣…………….
18. የውሃ አቅራቦት ሲስተም ግንባታ ላይ በምንድነው ተሳትፎ ያረጉት ? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. በብር ለ. በጉልበት መ. እቃ በማቅረብ ሰ. በሃሳብ ሽ. አልተሳተፍኩም ረ. ሌላ፣……………
19. የውሃ ቢሮ በሚሰጠው አገልግሎት ደስተኛ ናችሁ/ አጥጋቢ ነው ? ሀ. ከበቂ በላይ ነው ለ. በቂ ነው መ. መካከለኛ ነው ሰ. በቂ አይይደለም
20. የውሃ ቢሮ በሚሰጠው አስስተዳደር ላይ ምን ችግር ያያሉ ? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ.ብልሽልት ለመጠገን ብዙ ጊዜ ይፈጃል ለ. የተማረ የሰው ሃይል እጥረት መ. ሰራተኞች በሰአት አለመገኘት ሰ. የፋይናንስ እጥረት ረ. የታሪፍ ውድነት ሽ. ምንም ችግር አላይም
21. በቤትዎ ውስጥ ያሉ ሴቶች በዉሃ አቅራቦት ፕሮጀክቱ ላይ ምን አይነት ተሳትፎ ነበራቸው ? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. እቅድ ላይ ለ. ግንባታ ላይ መ. አስተዳደር ላይ/ የውሃ ኮሚቴ ሰ. ተሳትፎ አልነበራቸውም
2.4.የፋይናንስ ሁኔታዎች
22. ለውሃ አቅራቦት ታሪፍ ይከፍላሉ ? ሀ. አዎ ለ. አልከፍልም
23. ለጥያቄ 22 መልሶት አልከፍልም ከሆነ፤ ለምን? ሀ. ውሀው በነጳ እንድጥጠቀም ነው የተሰራው/ታሪፍ አልተቀመጠለትም ለ. ታሪፉ ውድ ነው መ. የውሃው ጥራት አጥጋቢ አይደለም ሰ. የውሃ አቅራቦቱ በቂ አይደለም ረ. ሌላ፣…………………………..
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ጥያቄ 24-33 የውሃ ታሪፍ ለሚከፍሉ
24. ለጥያቄ 22 መልሶት አዎ ከሆነ፣ ምን ያህል ነው የሚከፍሉት ? ሀ. ለቦኖ/የእጅ ፐምፕ ተጠቃሚዎች፣ በጀሪካን ምን ያህል ይከፍላሉ?............................... ለ. ለቧንቧ መስመር ተጠቃሚዎች፣ በአማካይ ወር ምን ያህል ይከፍላሉ?...................................
25. ለውሃ አቅራቦት ታሪፍ በተገደበው ጊዜ ይከፍላሉ (ለቧንቧ መስመር ተጠቃሚዎች ብቻ)? ሀ. አዎ ለ. በጊዜው አልከፍልም
26. ለጥያቄ 25 መልሶት በጊዜው አልከፍልም ከሆነ፣ምክንያቶት ምንድነው? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. ታሪፉ ውድ ነው ለ. የታሪፉን ሰብሳቢ አላምነውም መ. የውሃው ጥራት አጥጋቢ አይደለም ሰ. የውሃ አቅራቦቱ በቂ አይደለም ረ.ሌላ፣…………………
27. የውሃ አቅራቦት ታሪፉ እንዴት ያዩታል ? ሀ. ውድ ነው ለ. ተመጣጣኝ ነው መ. ውድ አይደለም
28. የውሃ ታሪፉን መክፈል ይከብዶታል? ሀ. አዎ ለ. አይከብድም መ. አልፎ አልፎ
29. የውሃ ተጠቃሚዎች ለውሃ መክፈል አለባቸው ብለው ያስባሉ? ሀ. አዎ ለ. አላስብም
30. ለጥያቄ 29 መልሶት አዎ ከሆነ፣ ለምን? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. ተጨማሪ የውሃ ፕሮጀክቶችን ለመስራት ለ. ለጥገና እና ለስራ ማስኬጃ መ. ሌላ፣………………………..
31. ለጥያቄ 29 መልሶት አላስብም ከሆነ፣ለምን? ሀ. ውሃ የተፈጥሮ ስጦታ ነውና በነጳ ሊቀርብ ይገባል ለ. ለተጠቃሚው ውድ ነው መ. እየከፈልኩ ከምጠቀም ከ ኦ-ኦ ምንጭ/ወንዝ ቀድቶ መጠቀም መርጣለሁ ሰ. ሌላ፣…………………………………………..
32. የውሀው ሲስተሙ የማን ነው ብለው ያስባሉ ? (ከአንድ በላይ ምርጫ ይቻላል) ሀ. የአከባቢው ነዋሪ ለ. በጎ አድራጎት ድርጅት መ. የመንግስት ሰ. አላውቅም ሽ. ሌላ፣……………………………..
2.5.የውሀው ምንጭ ሁኔታዎች 33. በውሃ ጥራት ላይ ችግር አለ?
ሀ. አዎ ለ.የለም 34. ለጥያቄ 39 መልሶት አዎ ከሆነ፣ ምን አይነት ችግር አለ?
ሀ. ያልተለመደ ጠረን ለ. ያልተለመደ ከለር መ. ያልተለመደ ጠአም ሰ. ክሎሪን ማነስ ሽ. አፈር ይቀላቀልበታል
35. ለጥያቄ 39 መልሶት አዎ ከሆነ፣ በምን ወቅት ላይ ነው የውሃ ጥራት ችግር ያለው? ሀ. በበጋ ለ. በክረምት መ. በወቅት አይለያይም
36. በመጨረሻ ስለውሃ አቅራቦቱ ማለት የሚፈልጉት ነገር አለ?
ለትብብርዎ አመሰግናለሁ
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B. Key informant interview and personal observation checklists
Date - _______________
Name - _______________________________
Gender - _______________________________
Education Level - ________________________
Occupation - ____________________________
1. Interview with the manager of TBWSSO
1. What is the existing water supply situation of the Town?
2. Are there any flaws with the design of the water supply system?
3. Is the water system (the hydraulic structures like the reservoir, balancing chamber and the
engine house) designed to allow future expansion?
4. What is the technical condition of the entire system?
5. How often is repair needed with regard to the entire system?
6. Are there adequate equipments for maintenance?
7. What kind of skills do the technicians have to maintain and operate the system?
8. What are the major goals and objectives of the office?
9. What is the education level of the staff?
10. Does the office have enough resources (money, skilled personnel, transportation) to
manage the system?
11. What kind of support do you receive from other institutions (local, regional gov’t or
NGOs, banks)?
12. Has your office received any training (on water supply issues) recently from other
institutions?
2. Interview with the Finance manager of TBWSSO
1. Is the town water office financially autonomous?
2. Do you face lack of finance for operation and maintenance of the scheme?
3. How are tariffs set in the area?
4. Was the tariff set with consultation with the community?
5. How is your finance handled?
6. How do you control the tariffs charged by tap attendants?
7. Does the revenue cover the costs (repair, maintenance and extension)?
8. Does the office finance the current extension project?
9. What are the major financial problems you face?
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3. Interview with two water technicians in TBWSSO; plumber and
operator
1. What is the existing water supply situation of the study area?
2. Are there any flaws with the design of the water supply system?
3. Is the water system designed to allow future expansion?
4. What is the technical condition of the entire system (reservoir, balancing chamber, engine
house, public taps?
5. What technical problems do you encounter?
6. What are the technical problems the society complains about?
7. Do you have the necessary spare parts at your disposal?
8. How often is repair needed with regard to the public taps and water pipe lines?
9. Have you received the necessary trainings to manage the water supply system?
10. Have you faced a technical problem that is above your training?
11. What is your means of transportation to visit schemes?
12. Does the society have the perception of responsibility and ownership?
4. Interview with two tap attendants of public taps in Tulu-Bolo Town and
surroundings villages
1. Is the public tap functioning? How many faucets are functioning?
2. How many times a month does the public tap require repair?
3. How long does it take to repair the public tap, if it needs repair?
4. What time are people allowed to fetch water?
5. What is the peak time for water collection?
6. Are there long queues to fetch water?
7. Is the public tap sufficient to the society living around it?
8. Does the society consider the public tap like their property?
9. How much do you charge per liter?
10. How do you manage the tariff collected?
11. What measures do you take to protect the public tap from improper usage?
12. What do you think about the quality of the water?
13. Does the quantity vary during dry season?
5. Interview with the project manager of Water Action involved in the Tulu-
Bolo Town Water Supply System
1. Did the society participate in choosing the technology?
2. Did the society get training to embed an understanding of technology upkeep,
maintenance and, proper usage?
3. Were there technical trainings given to the community?
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4. What kind of institution did the organization set up for the management of the water
supply?
5. Was the water project the first priority need of the beneficiary?
6. Did the community participate in the planning and implementation of the project? If yes,
how?
7. Were women involved in the planning and implementation of the project?
8. How often did Water Action give trainings after construction of the system?
9. Were there any problems regarding finance in the implementation phase?
10. Was the society’s ability and willingness to pay assessed?
11. What kind of financial management was set up?
6. Interview with the head of Oromia water and energy Bureau
1. Are water committees being replaced with water supply service offices? If yes, why?
2. What are the problems that face water committees in the region?
3. What is the water coverage in Oromia region?
4. What is the % in non functionality in the region?
5. What is the involvement of Oromia Water Bureau in the current and previous
construction of water supply in Tulu-Bolo?
6. Did the office take into account lessons learnt from the previous water service?
7. Will the current construction of water scheme alleviate the water supply shortage in the
area?
8. What measures is the Oromia Bureau taking to increase the sustainability of water supply
in the region?
7. Interview with the head of Bacho woreda water and energy office
1. What are the problems facing water supply in the woreda?
2. Non functionality in % in the woreda? In the rural villages?
3. What are the responsibilities of the woreda water office?
4. What are the problems that face water committees?
5. Does your office give external support to community managed or town’s water supply
service offices? (technical, financial or training)What kind of support?
6. How do you monitor water committees in the woreda?
7. What measures has the office taken to sustain the quantity of the water source in Batu-
Cherecha?
8. Interview with the technician of the hand pump in Batu-Cherecha
1. How often does the hand pump need repair?
2. What are the major reasons for malfunctions?
3. Do you have access to spare parts easily?
4. Have you received the necessary trainings to upkeep the scheme?
5. What is the technical condition of the scheme?
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9. Interview with an informant in Tulu-Bolo Electric utility customer service
office
1. Why doesn’t the water pump function at day time?
2. What measures have been taken to alleviate the problem?
3. What measures are being taken to address the problem for the upcoming new water supply
scheme?
4. Why has it taken so long to fix the problem?
10. Interview with the co-chairperson of the water committee in
Batu-Cherecha
1. How many households does the scheme serve?
2. Is there a need for more water supply schemes in the area?
3. Do you face water shortage in the area?
4. Is there a tap attendant in charge of water collection?
5. What are the technical problems faced?
6. Do you have access to spare parts easily?
7. Does the woreda water office follow up on your progress and activity?
8. Do you receive any external support?
9. Do you have financial resources available?
10. Does the revenue cover the operation and maintenance cost?
11. How is the quality of the water?
11. Personal observation checklist
1. The existing situation of water supply and demand in the study area.
2. What are the types of the water scheme used by the population in the study area?
3. What are the types of water sources used in the study area?
4. Alternative water supply sources, when the schemes fail.
5. Is the technology used in the study area user friendly?
6. The technical condition of the spring capping structure, balancing chamber, water reservoir,
water pump and public taps.
7. The management of the water supply schemes.
9. How is the coordination between communities, water supply service offices and other
stakeholders?
10. The financial management and personnel in the managing bodies of the scheme?
11. What are the measures taken to protect and conserve the water sources?
12. What are the settlement patterns and topographic nearby water source?
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Appendix III
Tulu Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office
Water Connection Estimation Form
Customer name ___________________________
Address of property to be connected
Kebele__________________ House No ____________
No Description Size Quantity Price of material
obtained privately
Remark
Unit
price
Total
1 Pipe
2 Pipe
3 Elbow
4 Tee
5 Union
6 Union
7 Nipples
8 Nipples
9 Reducer
10 Gate valve
11 Gate valve
12 Faucet
13 Pipe saddle
(stafa)
14 Fiber
15 Antirust
16 Water meter
Sub-Total
Material price________________
30% of material price (1-30m) __________________
20% of material price (31-60m) _________________
15% of material price (above 61m) ____________________
35% of water meter _____________
Deposit ____________________
Excavation fee ____________________
Permission fee ____________________
Estimation fee ____________________
Requisition form __________________
Customer card ____________________
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Total amount _____________________
% 5 service charge __________________
Total amount paid ___________________
Price calculated by ____________________
Date ____________________
I have calculated the above total amount with cash receipt voucher
Number____________ Date ______________________
Approved by WSSU Accountant __________________
Date ________________________________________
Approved by head of WSSU _____________________
Date __________
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Appendix IV- Agreement for household connections
121
122
123
124
Appendix V Date: ___________
Tulu Bolo Town Water Supply Service Office
Water Service Supplying Agreement Form
Agreement provider: Tulu-Bolo town water supply service office
Agreement receiver: Mr. /Mrs. ______________________
Address: _____________ Village (Got) ______________ House no. _________
I, the agreement receiver, agree herein after to provide public tap service in accordance with the
price set up by the service office which means 4 ETB/ m3. I agree to submit the total sale of
water monthly to the office. I, hereby, supply Mr. / Mrs. _________ for the surety and guaranty
of this service agreement, whose address is Tulu-Bolo town, Kebele ______. I understand and
agree to provide the necessary payments expected from me until I or the office terminates the
agreement.
Now, therefore, the office which is engaged in providing this service also understood and agreed
in order to follow up water meter guage regularly and collect the appropriate balanced amount of
expected payments from the agreement receiver. The office is entitled to take the case before a
court of law if the agreement receiver fails to submit the necessary payments on the described
date
Signature of the surety: ______________
Agreement receiver For Agreement provider
Name: __________________ Name: _________________
Signature: _______________ Signature: ______________
Date: ___________________ Date: ___________________
Witnesses
1. _____________________ ________________
2._____________________ ________________
3._____________________ ________________
