Special Issue

National Institute of EducationMinistry of Education

Male’, Republic of Maldives

3rd INTERNATIONAL TEACHERS' CONFERENCE 01-02 SEPTEMBER 2015

MALE', MALDIVES

TECHNOLOGY ENABLED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

SPECIAL ISSUE

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the copyright owner. By submitting this article the authors agree that the copyright of their articles are transferred to their publisher. It is a condition of the publisher that an article already published by NIE cannot be sent for publication elsewhere.

Editorial Board:

Dr. Ahmed RiyazSenior Policy ExecutiveMinistry of Education

Fathimath AzeemaTeacher EducatorNational Institute of Education

Aishath NaseerCommunity Teacher EducatorNational Institute of Education

SoodaTeacher EducatorNational Institute of Education

Mohamed AdlyEducation Development OfficerNational Institute of Education

Aniyath AliEducation Development OfficerNational Institute of Education

Proof read by:

Mariyam NihazTeacher EducatorNational Institute of Education

Niuma MohamedEducation Development OfficerNational Institute of Education

Cover Design:

Abdulla ZakiSenior Media OfficerNational Institute of Education

Layout Design:

Mariyam ThiseenaAssistant TeacherNational Institute of Education

National Institute of EducationGhaazee BuildingAmeer Ahmed Magu Male’ 20125Maldiveshttp://www.nie.edu.mv

Copyright © 2017 by the National Institute of EducationAll rights reserved.Printed in the MaldivesISBN: 978-99915-0-813-9Foi faaskuri card no: 178-LBK/2017/193

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

FOREWORDIt is with utmost satisfaction and absolute privilege that I write this foreword to the Special Issue of the 3rd International Teachers’ Conference (ITC) – Technology Enabled Learning Environments held in Male’, Maldives, September 01 – 02, 2015.

The aforementioned conference predominantly enhanced NIE’s research profile, fostered a research culture amongst Maldivian educators, facilitated networking and enhanced collegial approaches that are vital in the field of educational research. In particular, the conference provided a platform to share and scrutinize experiences, innovative practices, new notions, common pitfalls and dilemmas facing ICT integration in classrooms, and augmenting the quality of teaching and learning.

The conference was a phenomenal success, when juxtaposed with the two conferences held earlier. A total of 47 papers were accepted for this conference. While 29 locals presented papers on diverse subjects, the international character of this conference was illustrated by the 6 countries embodied and by the 18 international paper presenters coming from India, Malaysia, Oman, Turkey, Sri Lanka and Australia.

In addition to the paper contributors, two high profile keynote speakers shared their innovative thinking. Dr. Sakina, Acting Deputy Vice Chancellor, UNITAR International University, Malaysia expressed her viewpoints on creating deeper learning engagement in 21st century schools. The second speaker, Ms. Helen Pinnock, Senior Consultant of Enabling Education Network, UK presented research findings on challenges facing schools in relation to Inclusive Education.

It is deemed that these Proceedings will supply academics with a reliable reference book, which in turn can be a major impetus for further researches, and for the furtherance of education sector in the upcoming years.

I, along with the staff of NIE am thankful to the Minister of Education, Dr. Aishath Shiham (Patron) for her irreplaceable support. By the same token, we thank the current Minister of Defence and National Security, Honourable Adam Shareef Umar for acting as the Chair for this Conference, and Ms. Aniyath Ali, Department head, School of Research and Development, NIE for her commitment to achieve excellence. We are deeply appreciative to all researchers, respondents and participants for sharing their expertise and decisive contributions for the conference.

Naaheed Mohamed RashaadDeputy Minister of EducationMinistry of Education

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education

Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are pleased to publish our first issue of the International Teachers’ Conference series. This issue consists of the research papers presented in the 3rd International Teachers’ Conference held on 1-2 September, 2015 at Male’, Maldives. The conference theme “Technology Enabled Learning Environments” convened various emerging local researchers and international experts who disseminated their knowledge, expertise, latest thoughts and technologies.

The conference became a reality due to the interest and passion of our honourable Minister of Education, Dr. Aishath Shiham. NIE wishes to acknowledge the colossal support rendered by the Minister. We also acknowledge with a special appreciation the hard work, dedication and guidance propounded by the former Minister of State for Education, Mr. Adam Shareef Umar.

The success of the conference lies at the heart of the immense technical contribution of our conference partner, The Universiti Sains Malaysia. Our deepest appreciation goes to Dr. Termit Kaur Ranjit Singh for her invaluable commitment and dedication. The conference was further enhanced by the professional comments catered by the executive committee and the affiliated organizing committee at the Maldives National University. The efforts of our paper reviewers and the continuing support received from our sponsors are also sincerely acknowledged.

Aniyath AliHead of the DepartmentSchool of Research & DevelopmentNational Institute of Education

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

The Third International Teachers Conference held on 1st - 2nd September 2015 focused on ICT in teaching and learning. The paper presenters at the confernce presented papers related to the theme, which provide valuable insight into ICT in education at both local and global spheres. This issue aims to share these research paper in order to enhance the education system.

The first article included in the proceeding, is by Mr. Abdullah Humaid Abdullah Al Abri titled ‘Writing Challenges Among Arab EFL Learners at University Level’, where he conducted research at two higher education institutes in Oman to investigate the writing challenges that Arab EFL learners face in terms of vocabulary usage, spelling, grammar, punctuation and organization in paragraph writing. The findings suggested that grammar is the most problematic area that Arab EFL learners face and also Arab EFL learners showed a negative attitude towards writing. The author discussed the practical implications of the study and solutions that could help Arab EFL learners................................................................

The Second article submitted by Ms. Aishath Shibana was titled ‘Exploring the skill challenges and teacher’s perception in the adoption and utilization of ICT in schools of Addu’. The study analyzed the extent of ICT adoption through teacher’s perceptions and the skill which have influenced them in utilizing technology in their classrooms. The study also explored the challenges faced by teachers in utilizing ICT in teaching. The findings indicated that teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption was very positive and teachers who have undergone training related to ICT have a higher competency in ICT adoption. The participants also indicated challenges to ICT adoption, such as limited internet access, inadequate and poor training, and lack of technical support. Ways to address these challenges and increase the use of ICT in schools were also identified in the study.

The third article titled ‘Evidence of Relationships between Teachers’ Leadership Style Practices for Learning and Student Academic Press/Emphasis’, was submitted by Hairuddin Bin Mohd Ali, Hemathy Kunalan and Aniyath Ali. The purpose of their study was to investigate the relationship between teachers’ leadership styles practices with students’ Academic Press (AP)/Academic Emphasis (AE) at selected secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur. The Findings showed that English subject teachers at the selected national

EDITORIAL

7

secondary schools understudied exhibited clearly all six leadership styles practices. The findings also showed the significant relationship of five leadership styles practiced by the English subject teachers with students’ AP/AE. The findings would contribute to the body of knowledge and will help to understand the relationship between English subject teachers’ leadership styles practices and students’ AP/AE.

The fourth article included in the proceeding is titled ‘MOOC in Malaysia’, which is a study conducted by authors Chee-Keong Chong, Mahmud Bin Hj. Abd. Wahab, Chee-Heong Lee and Chong-Heng Lim. They carried out the study to determine the development status of Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) in Malaysia and the awareness of MOOC among lecturers and students. The findings indicated that Malaysia is still in the developmental stage of MOOC and the awareness among students and lecturers is still low. The research also explored into views regarding methods of delivery and challenges related to MOOC. Many respondents held a low awareness regarding MOOC and there was difficulty in finding out the relationship between some of the constructs. Based on the findings, the authors have highlighted several implications of the research. Importance of creating awareness and conducting future research related to MOOC was indicated in the study.

The fifth article was submitted by Nor Asniza Binti Ishak and Hazri Bin Jamil. The article titled ‘How do Teachers plan the lesson? A case of Malaysian Pre-University Teachers’ pedagogical practices for enhancing students’ intellectual quality’, discusses the results of a study conducted to explore Malaysian pre-university teachers’ lesson planning to enhance the students’ intellectual quality. The findings showed that teachers planned their lesson to enhance students’ intellectual quality, focused to strengthen their content knowledge and understand the background of students. To improve students intellectual quality in teaching and learning process this study showed the importance of planning the lesson by teachers to suit the context and content of education.

The sixth article titled ‘Relationship between team characteristics and team effectiveness among teachers in Male’, was submitted by Mariyam Dhooma Moosa, Mohammed Sani Ibrahim, Visal Moosa and Ahmed Mohamed. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between team characteristics and team effectiveness among teachers in Male’, Maldives. The findings showed that team characteristics exist at moderate to high levels while team effectiveness is rated high for teachers and managers. The findings also showed the correlation among the items. The findings of this study will be useful in increasing the effectiveness and productiveness of teams in schools.

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

WRITING CHALLENGES AMONG ARAB EFL LEARNERS AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL

ABDULLAH HUMAID ABDULLAH AL ABRIEnglish Language Unit, Arab Open University, Oman Branch, Muscat

(Corresponding Author: a.abri.eng.86@gmail.com)&

PROF. DR. MOHAMMED JAFRE ZAINOL ABIDINSchool of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia

jafre@usm.my

ABSTRACT -- This study is aimed at investigating the writing problems that Arab EFL learners face at university level. It was limited to five linguistic features of paragraph writing which were vocabulary usage, spelling, grammar, punctuation and organization. The study was conducted at two higher educational institutes located in Oman which were Arab Open University and Ibri College of Technology. Two instruments were included in this study. First, a Likert-scale questionnaire was administered to 242 students and a writing test named ‘Reflective Journal Test’ was administered to 120 students. The results of the study indicated that grammar is the most problematic area that Arab EFL learners face in writing followed by vocabulary, punctuation, spelling and organization respectively. Furthermore, the study showed that Arab EFL learners demonstrated a negative attitude towards writing. Pedagogical implications of this study focus on promoting alternative approaches to writing instruction such as the process approach, by which students are exposed to writing stages; pre-writing, writing, revision followed by an effective feedback from the instructor. Another implication is to create a non-threatening learning environment in which the instructors minimize criticizing and maximize praising to improve the students’ attitude towards writing. With much anticipation, the outcomes of this study will help universities in the Arab world to overcome the writing issues and these measures will guide to carry along satisfying results in the future teaching and learning efforts in writing.

Keywords-Arab world, Arab EFL learners, attitude towards writing, writing challenges, process approach

978-99915-0-813-9/001

INTRODUCTION

Writing is an essential element in higher education. Students’ writing is considered as the centre of teaching and learning in higher education, fulfilling a

range of purposes according to the various contexts in which it occurs (Coffin et al, 2005). In academic contexts, students learn different writing abilities like the ability to reason and the ability to write a

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critique (Lillis & Turner, 2001). In some cases, they are asked to reflect on their learning in academic style. In the United States, courses of ‘freshman composition’ are applied in universities for first year students, native and non-native, to teach them generic skills of writing and this proves the significance of writing skill in higher education despite of regarding English as a first or second language (Leki, (2001).

However, writing skill in second language learning has been of concern for a long time in tertiary education. Students of higher education institutions, where English is considered as the medium of learning and communication, have been found to struggle mostly in writing. English writing hinders them to meet the institution’s literacy expectations. In the Arab world, although marvellous efforts and massive funding have been advocated in English teaching, the research studies implemented in the Arab world stated that Arab EFL learners face a lot of problems that affect their English proficiency level (Al-Khairy, 2013). Javid and Umer (2014) found that Arab EFL learners encounter difficulties in pursing their tertiary studies. They attributed these difficulties to their low writing proficiency. Al-Khasawneh and Maher (2010) examined the predicaments that Arab students who are enrolled to Business College at University Utara Malaysia face. They held that these students suffer in English writing in terms of grammar, spelling, vocabulary and register.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Writing plays a vital role in the progress of pursuing studies at university level (Coffin et al, 2005). Ahmed (2010) stated that writing characterizes a paramount importance in universities because students at universities are required to effectively write compositions in courses and examination. University students are assumed to master critical elements of writing process like planning, producing, organizing and revising, so they will be competent to complete writing assignments to fulfil the requirements of study courses (Graham, Harris & Mason, 2003). Additionally, writing includes comprehensive knowledge of grammar, spelling accuracy, appropriate vocabulary, punctuation and organization, and this knowledge leads to a good piece of writing assignment (Javid & Umer, 2014).

However, in the Arab context, research indicates that Arab students have writing challenges that inhibit the progress of their studies at university level. There is research evidence that appropriate vocabulary and grammar are the most common EFL writing problems among Arab university students (Al Khairy, 2013). In addition, evidence specifies that grammar, spelling and referencing are the most challenging elements Arab university students face in writing (Hisham, 2008). In the line with these two research evidences, Ezza (2010) identified linguistic incompetency in grammar as a primary challenge that Arab EFL learners provoke when they are engaged into a writing task. Other researchers stressed that the use of

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cohesion devices and weak connection among words are the dilemmas that Arabs face in English writing (Fawwaz & Ahmed, 2007). Likewise, Ahmed (2010) investigated Arab’s problems with cohesion and he emphasized the lack of comprehensive knowledge that Arab students demonstrated in using cohesive devices of addition, cause and effect, exemplification and inference in English writing. Moussly (2013) carried out a study at the British University in Dubai and concluded that Arabs cannot write good English because they face difficulties in spelling words correctly. In accordance with Moussly’s (2013) findings, Bowen (2011) specified spelling vowels as the most common mistake in Arab’s English writing.

Theoretical FrameworkThis part includes an analysis of the

relevant literature for clear clarification of the theoretical framework of this study. Four sets of theoretical analyses were involved in the present study of investigating EFL writing. First, because this study targeted paragraph-level composition, paragraph theory is involved to provide a theoretical clarification of paragraph writing. Second, the composing processes of unskilled college writer will be discussed to highlight the challenges of EFL learners at higher education level. Third, cognitive process model will be engaged to analyze the causes behind EFL learners’ writing challenges. Fourth, Krashen’s affective filter theory will be highlighted to emphasis how EFL learners’

perception and attitude towards writing affect their writing performance.

Paragraph Theory (PT) includes the purpose and the length of the paragraph, the relationship between sentences within the paragraph, and the extent to which the sentences are related to the paragraph topic (Shearer, 1972). This theory describes the process of generating a paragraph which embraces five principles (Smith, 2008). First principle emphasizes the precise and unambiguous association of each sentence upon what precedes. The second principle represents the parallel construction which indicates that all consecutive sentences should reflect upon one topic or idea. The third principle describes the first sentence as the dominant of the subject of the paragraph, whereas the fourth principle considers the other sentences as subordinate sentences which support the first sentence (Poteet, 1980). The fifth principle emphasizes that a paragraph has unity which targets a definite purpose. To reach PT’s five principles, Emig (1971) stressed that a writer should follow three stages in producing a well-organized and clear paragraph. He listed pre-writing, writing and revision as the writing processes that a writer should perform to be a good writer. However, Perl (1979) observed novice and experienced writers using the three stages at college level. She found that experienced writer did not follow the three stages. Instead, they wrote towards a finished written document without pre-writing or revising because as they believe that experience in writing enabled them to write directly and

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correctly. On the other hand, the novice writers tended to ignore revising. Instead, they preferred to write and at same time revise by paying attention to mechanical errors like punctuation and grammatical mistakes. As a result, this weakens the flow of their ideas when they pause for checking and correcting mistakes (Sommer, 1996). Perl (1979) and Sommer (1996) agreed that writers, especially beginners, tend to write and revise simultaneously. Consequently, this declines their ability to focus on the flow of ideas and on the linguistic features of writing. To minimize this challenge, Flower and Hayes (1981) investigated the features of the composing process in a number of individual writers and accordingly they created a model of that process which they later described it as ‘cognitive process model’.

Flower and Hayes’s model is based on two themes (Galbraith 2009). The first theme is the basic awareness that writing is not merely translating ideas into a text, but it as well includes forming content in a way that makes it fit with the reader’s needs. Flower and Hayes (1980) stated that writing is a matter of discovering and inventing of thoughts to be expressed appropriately and convincingly in a text. The second theme holds that writing is a complicated interaction includes various processes.

Flower and Hayes (1981) held that writers mainly face problems because they ignore writing processes which Flower and Hayes combined them in the second theme of their cognitive process model. In fact, they divided the writing processes into four

stages: planning, translating, reviewing and the monitor. It is very important to mention that the writing process according to Flower and Hayes (1981) is not linear. This means that the writer does not use the processes one by one. Instead, he/she combines these different processes at same time or sometimes circulates these processes many times in producing a piece of writing (Flower and Hayes, 1981). Planning is the most effective part in the cognitive approach since it helps the writer to manage and minimize the size of the rhetorical problem. At this stage, Flower and Hayes (1981) believed that the experienced writer creates three different operative plans which are generating, organizing and goal setting. In generating, the writer makes plans for generating ideas. In organizing, plans for producing a paper are made and in goal setting plans are created for guiding the whole writing process. However, novice writers tend to skip this stage and this leads to a low level of writing performance. The second stage of writing process is translating which is defined by Flower and Hayes (1981) as ‘the process of putting words into visible language’. In planning, the writer uses key words or symbols, but in translating the writer translates the meaning of these key words and symbols into a piece of English writing. The third stage of writing process is reviewing which is divided into two parts, evaluating and revising. Flower and Hayes (1981) believed that this stage is led by the type of evaluation that the writer reaches. They stated that a good evaluation leads the writer back into the previous processes which are

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planning and translating for generating new ideas, whereas negative evaluation forces the writer to revise the physical text. The fourth stage of writing process is the monitor. ‘The monitor functions as a writing strategist which determines when the writer moves from one process to the next’ (Chien, 2007). This means that the writer also monitors while he/she writes. By monitoring, the writer takes decisions of various things like how long to brainstorm, how and when to begin writing, and how and when to evaluate writing. Flower and Hayes (1981) held that monitoring mainly depends on different factors like the writer’s goals, his/her writing habit and writing styles. It is clear that Flower and Hayes’s cognitive process model is a cycling process in which the writer circulates different processes. That has motivated a lot of researchers to positively reflect on it as an applicable model to minimize writing problems and to promote teaching methodologies in EFL writing classroom (Chien, 2007). In addition to these various processes, Flower and Hayes (1981) included motivation in their model as one of the components of a writing assignment (Becker, 2006). Deane et al (2008) found that, in the cognitive process model, motivation can be a social factor by which learners demonstrate interest and enthusiasm in allowing others to read and revise what they write. On the other hand, some learners show a lack of eagerness in writing and revising their writing with others. Thus, attitude towards writing and its process may affect the learners’ writing development. Theoretically, Krashen (1982) examined second language writing

and concluded that motivation, attitude, anxiety, and self-confidence can affect second language writing (Du, 2009; Krashen, 1982). Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis emphasizes that second language learning will not occur if the input is filtered out before it can reach the brain (Lin, 2008). The filtering may occur because of attitudinal factors like anxiety, poor self-esteem or low motivation (Ni, 2012). Language learners with a low affective filter are more likely to cooperate and communicate with others about their writing, unembarrassed by making mistakes, and thereby they can promote their writing better than learners of a high affective filter. Krashen (1982) recommended that good writers regard writing as a process and more importantly they have low affective filters (Homstad & Thorson, 1994).

Research QuestionsThis study aimed at investigating the following questions:

RQ 1: What is Arab EFL learners’ attitude towards English writing at university level?

RQ 2: What are the writing problems that Arab EFL learners face at university level?

METHOD

Sample

The current study applied a quantitative methodological approach. According to Muijs (2010), the most suitable approach

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to study factors like student performance or achievement, students’ attitude toward writing, and self-efficacy beliefs is by using quantitative research. Additionally, it was conducted at two higher educational institutes located in Oman which were Arab Open University and Ibri College of Technology. The researchers selected 242 male and female second year students from these two institutions by applying a cluster random sampling technique. The participants were guaranteed confidentiality to participate in this study and this contribution was upon their agreement to give a realistic opinion of the phenomenon being explored. Additionally, the participants were informed that their participation will be assessed for research purposes only.

Research InstrumentsThe present study included two research

instruments. Gay and Airasian (2003) believe that employing a diversity of instruments in research would strengthen the conclusions that are reached in terms of reliability and validity.

Questionnaire

To pinpoint applicable answers for the first question of the present research, a questionnaire was applied. The questionnaire used in this study was developed by the two researchers to investigate the attitude of Arab EFL learners towards English writing. It was administered to 242 students.

Reflective Journal Test (RJT)

For deeper awareness of students’ writing proficiency, a writing test was administered to 60 male students and 60 female students. This test was called ‘Reflective Journal Test’ (RJT) developed by English lecturers of English Language Unit (2014) at AOU Kuwait (See Appendix A). The researchers adapted RJT to suit the research purpose. RJT is used as an assessment criterion to evaluate students’ writing proficiency. Students were required to write one-paragraph essays by reflecting on their own life and the study environment at AOU Oman. The answers were marked by a group of English instructors at Arab Open University, Oman branch. The instructors used a combination of two assessment writing rubrics developed by Jacobs et al. (1981) and Ferris and Hedgcock (2013) to provide an accurate rate for each sample of writing.

Pilot Study

The researchers administered the two research instruments, as a pilot study, to 30 participants who were not included in the sample. The pilot study aimed at ensuring the reliability of the research instruments. For the questionnaire, the data obtained from this pilot study was calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of internal consistency for the questionnaire. Gliem and Rosemary (2003) held that Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient is the most appropriate type of reliability which can ensure the standardized questionnaire items. Particularly, if the value of alpha obtained is closer to one, then it demonstrates higher

14

reliability of the instrument and represents higher inter-item consistency, and vice versa (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2014). The analysis of the pilot study generated a high alpha value reached .871. Accordingly, this questionnaire has high value coefficient alpha (Muijs, 2004).

One the other hand, the Reflective Journal Test was administered twice to examine test-retest reliability which is

defined as the degree to which scores are consistent over time (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2014). There was an eleven-day difference between the two administrations. Then, the collected data in both administrations was correlated using Pearson Correlation. As Table 1 illustrates below, the obtained result from Pearson Correlation test shows that (r (30) = .82, p = .00) this instrument has a good reliability (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2014).

TEST RETEST

TESTPearson Correlation 1 .821**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000N 30 30

RETESTPearson Correlation .821** 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000N 30 30

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Table 1 Pearson Correlation of test-retest reliability of RJT

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Attitude towards English Writing

Items

Stro

ngly

Dis

agre

e (%

)

Dis

agre

e (%

)

Neu

tral (

%)

Agr

ee (%

)

Stro

ngly

Agr

ee (%

)

I enjoy writing in English. 11.2 44.2 18.6 10.7 15.3I write in my free time. 10.3 67.4 5.4 8.3 8.7English writing skill is important in my study. 5.4 7.9 15.7 43.4 27.7I like others to read what I write. 21.5 44.5 5.4 15.8 12.8I like the classes which require a lot of English writing. 16.5 36.4 12.0 23.1 12.0I am not serious in developing my writing skill. 22.7 36.0 17.4 16.9 7.0

Table 2 Attitude towards Writing by Frequency Results Gained from the questionnaire (N=242)

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Table 2 above shows that 55% of the students do not enjoy English writing and 77% of them do not write in English in their free time. Also, majority of them (70 %) believed that English writing skill was important in their study. About 62% of student do not like others to read what they write in English. In addition, almost 52% of students do not like the classes which required a lot of English writing. Majority of the students held that they do not plan what they write and they do not revise after writing. Thus, they write their first draft as a final draft. In brief, all these findings indicate that the participants demonstrate a negative attitude towards English writing at the university level.

Writing Problems

Spel

ling

Voca

bula

ry

Gra

mm

ar

Punc

tuat

ion

Org

aniz

atio

n

NValid 120 120 120 120 120

Missing 0 0 0 0 0

Mean .98 .81 .78 .95 1.00

Std. Deviation .39 .36 .34 .43 .37

Table 3 Mean Scores and Standard Deviation of Reflective Journal Test (N=120)

The mean scores of the Reflective Journal Test as shown in Table 3 above revealed that grammar (M= .78, SD= .34) was the most challenging linguistic feature in writing composition. In addition, the second problematic area that the students encountered in doing the writing test was vocabulary (M= .81, SD= .36). Respectively, punctuation (M= .95, SD= .43), spelling (M=.98, SD= .39) and organization (M=1.00, SD= .37) were the

least problematic areas that the students had in the test.

IMPLICATIONSIn the light of this finding, the researchers of this study suggest two pedagogical implications which are:

1) An attempt to promote writing proficiency should be based on Flower and Hayes’s (1981) ideas that EFL learners will be exposed to steps listed as pre-writing, drafting, revision, editing and reflection. In this case, instructors should be able to guide the students to implement these steps properly. This guidance can be in form of a variety of teaching techniques like asking students to write the first draft freely without concern for accuracy and formality, and then followed this by forming student-student interaction for peer-revision and reflection. An effective feedback from teacher should be implemented as well to check the accuracy and content. The applicability of process approach and the availability of effective feedback will lead to the natural disappearance of mistakes in grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation and organization, and thereby mastering the five linguistic features.

2) Negative attitude towards writing should be eliminated by creating a non-threatening learning environment. As Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis highlights second

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language learning will not be achieved if the input is filtered out before it can reach the brain (Lin, 2008). Thus, to achieve this, English language instructors should minimize criticizing and maximize praising to enhance students’ confidence and self-efficacy in writing. In addition, varying teaching methodologies can alter the way students view writing. Thereby, students’ affective filter will be lowered and this can motivate them to discuss their writing with others and they will be encouraged to practice writing in their leisure outside classroom.

CONCLUSIONThe analysis of this study revealed that Arab EFL learners have a negative attitude towards writing. Although writing is important in the university study, however they do not like writing and this attitude leads them to neglect planning and revision of what they write. In addition, the finding of this study indicated that grammar is the most problematic area in that Arab EFL learners face in English writing, followed by vocabulary, punctuation, spelling, and organization respectively. Consequently, this study suggests that Arab EFL learners should be engaged in activities focused on pre-writing, drafting, revision, editing and reflection to minimize the mistakes and to build a well-organized writing (Flower and Hayes, 1981). Moreover, the learning atmosphere that English language instructors create in Arab EFL writing class should be friendly and supportive, so the learners will form a low affective

filter by which they will be risk takers and not unembarrassed of making mistakes (Krashen, 1982).

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Hisham, D. (2008). Needs analysis of Arab graduate students in the area of EAP: A case study of the ICT program at UUM. Unpublished minor thesis. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia Press.

Homstad, T., & Thorson, H. (1994). Writing theory and practice in the second language classroom: a selected annotated bibliography. University of Minnesota, Center for Interdisciplinary Studies of Writing.

Jacobs, H. L., Zingraf, S. A., Wormuth, D. R., Hartfiel, V. F., & Hughey, J. B. (1981).

Testing ESL composition: A practical approach. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Javid, Choudhary Zahid, and Muhammad Umer. (2014) “Saudi EFL Learners’ writing problems: A move towards solution.”

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition (pp. 1982-1982). Pergamon: Oxford.

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Leki, I. (2001). Material, educational, and ideological challenges of teaching EFL writing at the turn of the century. IJES, International Journal of English Studies, 1(2), 197-209.

Lillis, T., & Turner, J. (2001). Student writing in higher education: contemporary confusion, traditional concerns. Teaching in Higher Education, 6(1), 57-68.

Lin, G. H. C. (2008). Pedagogies Proving Krashen’s Theory of Affective Filter.Online Submission.

Moussly, R. (2013). Why Arab students find English tricky.

Muijs, D. (2010). Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS: Sage.

Ni, H. (2012). The effects of affective factors in SLA and pedagogical implications. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(7), 1508-1513.

Perl, S. (1979). The composing processes of unskilled college writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 317-336.

Poteet, J. A. (1980). Informal assessment of written expression. Learning Disability Quarterly, 3(4), 88-98.

Shearer, N. A. (1972). Alexander Bain and the genesis of paragraph theory.Quarterly Journal of Speech, 58(4), 408-417.

Smith, C. G. (2008). Braddock revisited: The frequency and placement of topic sentences in academic writing. The Reading Matrix, 8(1).

Sommers, N. (1980). Revision strategies of student writers and experienced adult writers. College composition and communication, 31(4), 378-388.

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education

Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

EXPLORING THE SKILL CHALLENGES AND TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION IN THE ADOPTION AND UTILIZATION OF ICT

IN SCHOOLS OF ADDU

AISHATH SHIBANAS. Teacher Resource Centre, National Institute of Education, Maldives.

shibaritz@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT -- Huge investments in ICT to improve teaching and learning in schools have been initiated by many schools in the Maldives. At the same time ICT training is one of the most common topic carried out in schools as School-Based Professional Development Programs. Therefore it is important to know if the teachers in these institutions are making full use of the technology available in schools. Furthermore, it is essential to explore the extent to which teachers are utilizing the available tools, how they perceive the importance of ICT in education, and what their training needs are. Hence this paper aims to explore these issues by analyzing the extent of ICT adoption through teachers’ perceptions and the skill that have influence them in utilizing technology in their classrooms. Quantitative data was collected from a web-based survey conducted for 174 teachers from five schools of Addu that have invested on technology. The results indicated that teachers have a very positive attitude towards ICT adoption, and the teachers who have undergone ICT training programs recorded a higher competency in integrating ICT in their teaching. The respondents indicated that limited internet access, inadequate and poor training, and lack of technical support as the main challenges they face during adoption and use of ICT in schools. The study also has identified ways to address

these challenges and increase the usage of ICT in these schools.

Key words: Teachers, skills, ICT adoption, ICT integration, technology investment, Addu, TRC, SBPD.

978-99915-0-813-9/002

INTRODUCTION

The rapid growth in Information Communication and Technologies (ICT) have brought remarkable changes in the minds of school community to invest in technology. Furthermore, teachers and parents demand the latest technology to be accessible within the classroom.

Therefore, extra effort has been made to provide additional facilities like high tech classrooms with overhead projectors or LCD TVs, computers, wireless internet connection and local area network to assist teachers’ in their teaching and professional tasks. Despite these many initiatives implemented, classroom observations done at school level and from Teacher

20

Resource Center (TRC) shows that the usual teaching and curricular approaches still remain unchanged. The technology though used, are poorly adopted and remains as a lesson delivery tool only.

Purpose of the StudyThis study aims to explore the extent to which teachers are utilizing the available ICT tools in their classroom, by analyzing teachers’ perceptions and the skills that have influence them in utilizing technology in their classrooms. Therefore, the objective of this study is:

• To identify the level of ICT used by teachers in schools of Addu.

• To determine the teachers’ perception on use of ICT in schools.

• Identify the challenges the teachers face in integrating ICT in their lessons.

• Identify the training needs of these teachers.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will provid the Techer Resource Centre (TRC) to develop future in-service training programs and schools to identify areas to focus in School Based Professional Development (SBPD) programs. It has also highlighted major physical challenges that the teachers face in utilizing the available resources. Therefore, this study would assist the schools in identifying the technical and physical support they need to maximize the

use of the technology investments. It has also highlighted national level concerns such as the importance of having a digital learning material portal and incorporating ICT in pre and in-service teacher training. However, these areas needs to be studied further.

LITERATURE REVIEWResearch shows that regardless of the approach, schools introduce technology because, the teachers and school community believe that it can bring a positive effects on teaching and teach (Reeves, 1998). It is also proved in many researches that when used appropriately technology can expand education and increase pedagogical outcomes and are beneficial to teachers and students. However, studies suggests that the benefits of adopting and using ICT in school is not an automatic process. It takes its own pace (Mingaine, 2013). There are both opportunities and challenges in using technology. The opportunities include greater access to rich, multimedia content, the increasing use of digital material, the availability of mobile computing devices that can access the internet, the expanding role of social networking tools for learning and professional development, and the growing interest in the power of digital games for more personalized learning (Okojie, Olinzock, & Okojie-Boulder, 2004). At the same time the pace of change creates significant challenges for school. These challenges are researched in many parts of the world.

According to Gichoya (2005) the success

21

of an ICT project depends on its perceived benefits such as easier communication, networking, and system integration, timely, relevant, complete and useful information. If these benefits are evident, then the project can be categorized as a successful one. A literature review report done on this topic by Buabeng-Andoh, (2012) has identified competencies of the teacher as the major factor that influences the adaptation of ICT in teaching and learning. They are lack of teachers’ ICT skills, confidence, pedagogical training, suitable educational software, limited access to ICT, rigid structure of traditional education system and restrictive curricula.

In addition to teacher competencies, technological characteristics, user characteristic, content characteristics, technological consideration, and organizational capacity are also found to be factors that minimize the usage of ICT in a school (Stockdill & Moreshouse, 1992).

METHODA web based survey was conducted to

collect quantitative data from five schools of Addu, with a population of 323 teachers. The questionnaire was sent to schools through Viber groups. The result of this study is based on the analyzed results of 174 teachers.

The instrument used was a self-administered questionnaire consisting of 9 questions. The questionnaire was divided into 6 major categories which included, profile of teachers, including their teaching experiences and available

ICT facilities. The second part included two questions asking the number of trainings they have attended and adequacy of these trainings. The third question was to identify the extent of ICT adoption and use in the school. Fourth question asked teachers’ perception of the adoption and use of ICT in school. Fifth question asked the challenges they face in adopting ICT while the sixth question collected data on how to improve ICT usage in schools.

The questionnaire was sent to 10 senior teachers for their suggestions and necessary changes were brought to maintain the internal validity. The reliability of the tool was established through test and re-test method before administering it to the actual respondents.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Profile of the respondents

The profile of the respondents include their teaching experiences and the ICT facilities they have in their classrooms. In this study the majority of the teachers (67) 38.51% have 5- 10 years of experience and (56) 32.18% teachers have more than 10-15 years. The least experience group is 23% and most experience group makes 28%. This is a good sample for the study in terms of teaching experience, as the majority of this sample have adequate teaching experiences and at the same time are familiar with the latest technology.

In a study on the extent of ICT adoption among 250 secondary teachers in Malaysia, Lau and Sim (2008) found

22

that older teachers are far better in incorporating ICT in their lessons than the younger teachers. He also mentioned the reasons as; the older teachers have rich experience in teaching, classroom management, therefore finds it easier to integrate ICT into their teaching. However, these finding contradict with the findings of Bacon (2013) which showed that the experience teachers use digital tools less frequently, as they feel that their students are more competent than they are at using these tools.

According to Plomp, Anderson, Law, and Quale, (2009) cited in Buabeng- Andoh (2012) access to ICT infrastructure and resources is a necessary condition to the integration of ICT in education. 92 % of the respondents have ICT facilities available in their classroom and 52% of them have internet facilities in their classroom. This is constant with the findings of Buabeng- Andoh (2012) which says that for effective adoption and integration of ICT into teaching highly depends on the availability and accessibility of ICT resources.

Level of ICT trainingThe findings for this part is to determine, the level of the teachers ICT level. The study showed that (25%) of the teachers have had one training while (14.09%) had 2 trainings and (7.84%) had more than three trainings. (33.33%) of the sample says that they have not attended any training on ICT. Surprisingly approximately 39% of the teachers believe that they had enough training while 61 % of them believe that they do not have enough training to incorporate ICT in teaching. This means that teachers who received 2 or more trainings are confident in integrating technology than those who had one or no training.

A literature review by Buabeng- Andoh (2012) showed that training and professional support are the greatest determinants of sucessful ICT intergration. At the same time, a study done by Mingaine, (2013) showed that limited supply of qualified ICT teachers as one of the challenges in adoption and use of ICT in schools. Therefore for the effective ICT integration in schools, teachers require enough training, and continuous professional support.

Extend of ICT adaptation and use in

school

In this part teachers were asked about the frequent use of ICT, either daily or weekly, 100% of the teachers said that they use ICT as a teaching aid to make

Variable Category No %

Teaching Experience

Less than 5 yrs 23 13.21Between 5-10 yrs 67 38.51Between 10-15 yrs 56 32.18More than 15 yrs 28 16.09

ICT facilities available in the classroom

Computer/laptop 124 85Smart board 3 5.22 Speakers 69 39.66Internet 90 51.72Projectors/TV 135 91.83

Table 1: Profile of the respondents

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Variable Category %

Number of workshops/training

0 28.161 28.62 12.093 16.32More than 3 14.79

Perception Strongly Disagree 12.91Disagree 49.66Agree 30.61Strongly Agree 5.44

Table 2: Adequacy of ICT training

learning interactive.(94.31%) teachers use ICT for communication among other teachers and (90.38%) teachers use ICT to make teaching and evaluation material. However (20.41%) teachers said that they do not use it with students. The overall results are constant with Williams (2003) as cited in Buabeng- Andoh (2012) which states that ICT integration is the means of using any ICT tool to assist teaching and learning. His study also found that there is a strong relationship between content, ICT tool and pedagogy in these schools.

Variable Never Monthly Weekly Daily Monthly, weekly & daily

to make teaching & evaluation materials

9.62% 9.62% 25.00% 55.77% 90.38%

as a teaching aid 0.00% 1.92% 51.92% 46.15% 100%

to make teaching interactive

0.00% 7.69% 57.69% 34.62% 100%

for communication among other teachers

5.69% 13.73% 27.45% 43.14% 94.31%

as a learning aid by students

20.41% 16.33% 40.82% 22.45% 79.59%

Table 3: ICT skill used

The respondents were asked about the ICT applications most frequently used either on daily, weekly or monthly basis. All the teachers use PowerPoint presentations, while majority of the teachers use all the applications in their teaching. The most frequently used are PowerPoint, MS. Word and web links. The study shows that a greater percentage of teachers do not use simulations /programs and online demos /virtual tours.

Both these application requires high internet speed and also require advance skills from users when compared to the other applications. This is constant with findings of Theng, Lau, and Sim (2008) which says that teachers do not make use of graphical visualizing tools, hypermedia multimedia, and simulation programs because they consider the applications to be specialized software and require advanced skills from users.

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Variable Never Monthly Weekly DailyMonthly, weekly &

daily

Microsoft Word 7.84% 9.80% 17.65% 64.71% 92.19%

Presentations0.00% 5.66% 75.47% 18.87% 100 %

Web links18.37% 14.29% 36.73% 30.61% 81.63%

hyperlink and multimedia 25.53% 27.66% 31.91% 14.89% 74.47%

simulations /programmes 34.69% 26.53% 28.57% 10.20% 65.31%

online demos /virtual tours 36.73% 28.57% 30.61% 4.08% 63.27%

Table 4: ICT applications most frequently used

Figure 1: ICT Skill Used

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Figure 2: ICT applications most frequently used

Teachers’ Perception of the adoption and use of ICT in schools

To evaluate the perceptions of teachers towards adoption and use of ICT in these schools, 12 questions were asked to check whether they agree or not. As shown in the table 5, (100%) teachers’ perceived ICT as beneficial in teaching and learning in all the subjects, improve education and make teaching enjoyable and stimulating, (96%) of the teachers agreed that ICT is useful for them in their work preparation and also it as a useful skill for students and teachers, (94%) of the teachers agreed that adoption and use of ICT can improve student’s critical thinking and also enhance remedial instruction. This is in agreement with the findings of Zaman, et al. (2011) who reported that appropriate use of ICT can improve the quality of education and make teaching and learning an active process connected to real life.

This is also consistent with the finding of Aktaruzzaman, Shamim, and Clement (2011) which says that ICT can create more effective learning environments and improve life-long learning skills and habits in their students.

Furthermore, majority of the teachers (75.47%), disagree that ICT tools are difficult to use and (94.34%) teachers disagree to the fact that capable teachers do not need ICT to teach, while (84.91%) disagree that adoption and use of ICT does not stimulate students to learn. Also teachers disagree that implementation of ICT in schools can reduce personal contact between teachers and students (58.49%).

Therefore, there is a match between what they agreed and disagreed proving that their perception on ICT adoption and usage as positive.

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According to Buabeng- Andoh (2012) teacher’s support and attitude is a very important factor for the successful implementation of educational technology in a school. He also states that if the teachers believe and perceive technology as not fulfilling their needs, nor their students’ need, then it is likely that they will not integrate ICT into their teaching.

However, 50% of the teachers agree that use of ICT puts more work on the shoulder of the teacher while the other 50% disagree with this. This is constant with the findings of Neyland (2011) on factors influencing the integration of online learning in high schools in Sydney. According to this study, one computer coordinator in a school stated that many teachers are already burdened with the over- crowded curriculum and they can not cope with the pressure of another task, so find it difficult to integrate ICT effectively.

Variables Agree DisagreeUse of ICT tools in schools is beneficial in teaching and learning all subject areas in the curriculum. 100.00% 0.00%

ICT can improve education. 100.00% 0.00% Use of ICT tools in teaching can be enjoyable and stimulating. 100.00% 0.00%Use of ICT will put more work on the shoulders of teachers. 49.06% 50.94% ICT tools are difficult to use. 24.53% 75.47%Capable teachers do not need ICT to teach. 5.66% 94.34%ICT is useful for teachers work preparation (making worksheets, assessment, exam papers, and writing lesson plans). 96.08% 3.92%

Adoption and use of ICT can improve students’ critical thinking. 94.12% 5.88% Use of ICT can enhance remedial instruction. 94.23% 5.77% Knowledge of how to use ICT tools by students and teachers is a worthwhile skill.

96.23% 3.77%2

Adoption and use of ICT in schools cannot contribute to learning because it does not stimulate students.

15.09% 84.91%

Implementation of ICT in schools can reduce personal contact between teachers and students. 41.51% 58.49%

Table 5: Teacher’s Perception of the Adoption and use of ICT in school

Challenges Affecting Adoption and usage of ICT in School

In this section teachers were asked about the challenges that they face during ICT integration in their schools. Majority of the teachers (81.25%) indicated that the main challenge for them is not getting enough technical support, while (70 %) view that inadequate and poor training on ICT use as the main challenges that prevents them from using technology in their schools. (77%) teachers perceived limited access to internet as a big challenge that prevents them from using technology in their schools while (62.5%) indicated not having adequate ICT tools as an issue. Only (33.33%) of the teachers indicated limited support by management, parents and government as a challenge that affect adoption and use of ICT in schools.

Surprisingly, limited supply of electricity and negative attitude of teachers towards

27

computers in schools was perceived as a challenge by a lower percentage of (16.66%) and (10.42%) respectively.

Lack of technical support is claimed as a major challenge by many schools (Buabeng- Andoh, 2012). The study cited two reasons: A faulty computer interrupts teaching if there is lack of technical support. This discourage teachers from using computers of fear of equipment failure. It also make teachers frustrated resulting in their unwillingness to use ICT. However, if there is technical maintenance available in the school the risk of technical breakdown is less.

As for the training, which is another challenge mentioned by the teachers, are also found to be in agreement with previous researches. According to Pellegrino (2007) the effectiveness of ICT integration highly depends on the quality and the duration of the training program. He also mentioned that the training should involve context activities and be concentrated on subject matter, values and technology. This type of programs enable teachers to practice technology, learn, share and collaborate with colleagues, they find it easier to integrate the technology into their teaching (Levin & Wadmany, 2008).

Figure 3: Teachers’ Perception of the adoption and use of ICT in school

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Variables Respondrate

Inadequate and poor training on ICT use

70%

Inadequate ICT tools in schools 62.5%

Lack of technical support 81.25%

Limited and unreliable supply of electricity

16.66%

Limited access to internet 77.08%

Negative attitude towards computers in school

10.42%

Limited support by management, parents and government

33.33%

Table 6: Challenges Affecting Adoption and usage of ICT in School

Suggestions by teachers on how to increase the usage of ICT in schools

Teachers who participated in this study shared their view on how to overcome challenges affecting and to increase the usage of ICT in schools. (83.02%) of the teachers suggested to make curriculum relevant digital material available for the teachers to download and use within the country. Another (73.58%) suggested to enhance teacher development in ICT through in-service courses, while (66.04%) believe that ICT literacy should be made compulsory for all teachers. (64.15%) teachers suggest that it is important to create awareness of opportunities offered by ICT in schools, while (58.49%) believe that schools need to purchase ICT tools and other accessories. (49.06%) suggested to make a system to share of ICT infrastructure among the schools.

Figure 4: Challenges Affecting Adoption and usage of ICT in School

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Variables Respondrate

Enhanced teacher development in ICT through in-service courses

73.58%

Fund raise to purchase ICT tools and other accessories

58.49%

Creating awareness of opportunities offered by ICT in schools

64.15%

ICT literacy should be made compul-sory for all teachers

66.04%

Sharing of ICT infrastructure among the schools

49.06%

Making curriculum relevant digital material available for the teachers to download and use

83.02%

Table 7: Suggestions by teachers on how to increase the usage of ICT in School

Figure 5: Suggestions by teachers on how to increase the usage of ICT

CONCLUSION

This study focused on teachers’ skill challenges and perception in utilizing and adopting ICT in their schools. The study drew the following conclusions

1. All the teachers use PowerPoint presentations in their teaching to make teaching effective and interactive. The most frequently used applications are PowerPoint, MS. Word and web links. The study showed that a greater percentage of teachers do not use simulations, online demos and virtual tours. Both these applications require high internet speed and also require advance skills from users when compared to the other applications.

2. Generally, teachers perceived ICT adoption and use in schools as an important element, both for the teachers as well as students. It makes

30

their work more organized, effective in helping them to prepare learning materials, assessment materials, stimulate students and increase their involvement during the lesson by making lessons interactive, and increase students’ critical thinking.

3. Not having enough technical support available in the schools is found to be a major challenge for the teachers. It is crucial to provide technical support to the teachers for repair and maintenance for the continuous use of ICT in schools. Each teacher also requires to have minimum level of trouble shooting competency to be an independent ICT user.

4. Limited access to internet is identified as another challenge for the teachers. It is also evident from the study that the application teachers use include websites, multimedia content and presentations. Most of these require internet. Therefore, it is important for the teachers to have the knowledge to understand common problems and issues experienced by users when accessing the web- enhanced, hybrid learning material.

5. The level of ICT training of the majority teachers is relatively high. However, many teachers are dissatisfied with the amount of training they have received and believe that a more intensive training, rather than a short training is required to be more comfortable and confident in utilizing ICT.

6. Not having enough ICT tools in the schools was also identified as a challenge in making the best use of technology in the classroom.

Having one computer does not allow much collaboration among students. Therefore teachers use the tools as a teaching aid only.

7. To use ICT as a learning aid, the training programs require to include activities related on subject matter, values and technology. This type of programs enable teachers to practice technology, learn, share and collaborate with colleagues, and they find it easier to integrate the technology into their teaching.

Recommendations1. Teachers require sufficient training

on how to integrate ICT in teaching and learning, other than general training on computer use. These trainings should also focus on providing competencies to make the teachers completely independent. It requires, technical knowledge to understand common problems and issues teachers may face when accessing the web- enhanced material as well as maintenance of the computer.

2. The training programs need to be long enough and encourage constant peer learning by teachers of similar subjects. The training programs also should focus on reflective classroom performance with skills, and values enabling teachers to practice technology, learn share and collaborate with colleagues, before they integrate the content in their lessons.

3. It is important to have ICT skill standards which align with the

31

Professional Standards of the teachers. National level, regional level and schools based professional development programs have to be conducted based on these standards.

4. The schools require to have a vision which describes its expectations, content and actions concerning the integration of ICT in education when schools are planning to introduce the latest technology.

5. To foster an effective practice of ICT adoption, there should be comprehensive in-service courses on ICT pedagogy-integration of different levels. At the same time ICT literacy should be made compulsory for all teachers.

6. A national education portal, is required to be available for the teachers to access and contribute teaching and learning materials. This will save duplication of teacher workload and time.

REFERENCES

Aktaruzzaman, M., Shamim, M. H., & Clement, C. K. (2011). Trends and Issues to integrate ICT in Teaching Learning for the Future World of Education. Bangladesh: Islamic University of Technology (IUT).

Aktaruzzaman, M., Shamim, M. R., & Clement, C. K. (2011). Trends and issues to integrate ICT in teaching and learning for the future world of education. International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 11(3), 114-119.

Bacon, B. (2013). Survey finds generation gap in teachers’ comfort with digital technologies. Retrieved from Digital Book World. http://www.digitalbookworld.com/2013/survey-finds-generational-gap-in-teachers-comfort-with-digital-technologies/

Buabeng-Andoh, C. (2012). Factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration of Information Communication Technology into teaching: A review of the literature. International Journal of education and development using information and communication Technology, 8(1), 136-155.

Gichoya, D. (2005). Factors Affecting the Successful Implementation of ICT Projects in Government. Electronic Journal of e-Government, 3(4), 175-184.

Mingaine, L. (2013). Skill Challenges in Adoption and Use of ICT in Public Secondary Schools, Kenya. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(13), 61-72.

Neyland, E. (2011). Integrating Online Learning in NSW secondary schools: Three schools

Perspectives on ICT adoption. Australia Journal of Educational Technology, 27(1), 152-173.

Okojie, C. M., Olinzock, A. A., & Okojie-Boulder, C. T. (2004). The Pedagogy of Technology Integration. Virginia.

Reeves, T. C. (1998). The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools. Georgia: The Bertelsmann Foundation.

Lau, B. T., & Sim, C. H. (2008). Exploring the extent of ICT adoption among secondary school teachers in Malaysia. International Journal of Computing and ICT research, 2(2), 19-36.

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

EVIDENCE OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TEACHERS’ LEADERSHIP STYLE PRACTICES FOR LEARNING AND

STUDENT ACADEMIC PRESS/EMPHASIS

HAIRUDDIN BIN MOHD ALIKulliyyah of Education (KoED)

International Islamic University MalaysiaP.O.Box 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Tel: +60179534801 Email: hairuddin@iab.edu.my

HEMATHY KUNALAN Kulliyyah of Education (KoED)

International Islamic University MalaysiaP.O.Box 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Email: hemathy@yahoo.com

ANIYATH ALINational Institute of EducationEmail:aniyath.ali7@gmail.com

ABSTRACT -- The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between teachers’ leadership styles practices with students’ academic press/emphasis (AP/AE) at selected secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur. The study employed a quantitative research design to address the research problems and four research questions. A total of 317 students from three selected secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur were randomly selected to complete the survey questionnaires of the study. The data was statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation using SPSS version 14. The results from the descriptive statistics showed that the English subject teachers at the selected national secondary schools understudied exhibited clearly all six leadership styles practices (COE, AUT, AFF, DEM, PAC and COA). The Pearson correlation results showed the significant relationship of five leadership styles as practiced by the English subject teachers with students’ AP/AE. This study therefore adds a new dimension to the body of knowledge that will help researchers’ efforts to understand the relationship between English subject teachers’ leadership styles practices and students’ AP/AE. As this study takes place in the Malaysian context, it definitely contributes to the enriching of the indigenous body of knowledge. The implication would be in terms of the teacher training and enhancement of teacher professional development programmes.

Keywords: teachers’ leadership styles, academic press, English, quantitative.

978-99915-0-813-9/003

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INTRODUCTION

We are all aware that the main factor to achieve academic excellence is through the school leadership particularly the principal and teachers (Haymon, 1990; Mortimore, 1995; Reynolds, 1992; Sammons, 1999; Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Palardy, 2008). Ramsey (1999), supports that leadership styles do exist in a leader such as open style, closed style, flexible style and rigid style.

Another contributing factor to the student achievement (which is relatively new in Malaysia) is student “academic optimism” (AO). Kirby (2009) defined AO as a triadic set of interactions (Hoy & DiPaola, 2007; Hoy, 2010; & Hoy, 2012) where collective efficacy supports trust in clients, which in turn nurtures academic emphasis (press) and consequently turns into a “single powerful force explaining school performance (Hoy, Tarter & Hoy, 2006; Hoy, 2010; & Hoy, 2012). Though the effect of teacher AO has been shown to be strongly related to student achievement (Hoy et. al., 2006; Kirby & DiPaola, 2009; Bevel & Mitchell, 2012), however, student AO has not been intensively explored (Tschannen-Moran et. al., 2013) for at least in selected schools accounted for this study.

Understanding the existing issues and problems

From the preceding studies, one major factor that contributed directly to the students’ academic outcome is the leadership

practices of the teachers (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, 1998 & 2010; Hopkins, 1995; Creemers & Reezigt, 2005). Further, Marzano, Waters, & McNulty (2005) mentioned that leadership has been studied for many years and researchers in general have agreed that leadership is extremely important for organization/s success and hence it is very imperative to find means to boost up students’ academic achievement as it is believed that leadership style is one of the key elements that directly or indirectly affect the students’ academic achievement and the success of many individuals (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, 1998 & 2010; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008; Riehl 2000; Codding & Marc, 2002; Witziers, Bosker, & Kruger, 2003; Heck & Hallinger, 2009, Prestine & Nelson, 2005). In another scenario, it is quite distressing that most teachers, failed to observe the importance of leadership skills and role model in the classroom as it can influence learning (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, 1998 & 2010; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008). This was also quite true in Malaysian education scenario where leadership styles of the teachers were seldom used as effective tool in teaching and learning process. This of course would affect the student aspiration achievements as outlined in the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025.

A review of the literature revealed that there is dearth of studies concerning teachers’ leadership practices and students AO and students learning outcomes in Malaysia. Only Julie Abdullah Nee Tan (1997) and Krishnan, Rajathilagam (1999) did a study

34

on teachers’ but they focused on other issues. Internationally, there were similar studies conducted by researchers such as Peterkin (1996), Noland (2005), Ijaz Ahmed Tatlah, Uzma Quraishi and Ishtiaq Hussain (2010), and Agba, Ogaboh, Ikoh, Noah, and Ashibi (2010).

In this regard, although the studies of teachers and students AO are still at infancy stage (Hoy et. al. 2006; Hoy, 2010; & Hoy, 2012), the study of AO and its effect on student learning outcomes and achievement are hastily enticing more promising researchers such as Tschnnen-Moran et. al., (2013), Mascall et al. (2008), Gurol and Kerimgil (2010), McKinnon (2012), MacPherson and Carter (2009), Van Hof (2012), Bevel (2010), to name a few. At this juncture, we suspect that there could be also a correlation between the teachers’ leadership styles practices with one of the students AO particularly the aspect of academic press (AP) or academic emphasis (AE).

The concepts of universal leadership roles

Leadership is an interpersonal influence where the leaders use individuals or a group of people to achieve the same goal (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2000). They further, opined that leaders need to exert certain power over their followers in obtaining cooperation. According to Burns (1978), DePree (1989), Gardner (1990), Bolman and Deal (1994), leadership is needed to foster hope, inspire, motivate and be a pathway in order to lead and

direct the followers to somewhere which is more desirable especially during decisive and crucial time. Kotter (1990), Jaques and Clement (1991), believe that leadership is a continuous process where the leader sets direction for the followers and supports them to move in that constant direction with sufficient means for one’s needs, competence and full commitment. Sergiovanni (1990, 1996, 1999, & 2001) however, perceives that leadership can be categorized into four concepts known as 4B’s; bartering, building, bonding and banking.

According to Covey, Miller and Miller (1994) and Dubrin (1998), a leader with strong leadership must have strong personal quality in order to inspire confidence and have support among the followers to achieve the organizational goals. The quality of leadership will make a difference between ordinary and extraordinary performance of an organization (Sergiovanni, 1990, 1996, 1999 & 2001). In common understanding, thus it can be concluded that leadership is an interaction between the leader and the followers for the benefit of their organization (Slater, 1995).

Leadership roles in education

School improvements such as academic achievements, student’s discipline, teaching and learning practices are some of the aspects influenced by the principal’s leadership (Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2000; Tirozzi, 2001). Contemporarily, Senge (1990) views all types of leaders is responsible for learning while Soukamneuth

35

(2004), Quinn (2002) and Waters, Marzona and McNulty (2004) also agree that head teachers’ effective leadership have great impacts on instruction and hence boosting student’s achievement. Educational leadership has direct and indirect influence on the improvement and accomplishment of the success of the whole school including the attainment and improvement of student learning (Leithwood & Levin, 2005). In short, educational leaders have great values as they are the ones who upholds the change and lead the schools and the students to have the most excellent and outstanding education. ‘The High Performance Theory’ by Sergiovanni and ‘Model of Transactional and Transformational Theory’ by Burns is some of the few which were widely used in schools. Leithwood (2000; 2005) employed Burns’ theory as a guide to design six dimensions of transformational leadership that is applicable in schools. According to Leithwood, schools achieve the desired aim when goals are stated clearly and in detail where as individual(s) receive the necessary support to accomplish such endeavors.

Leadership styles practices for learning of English subject Teachers.

Much current leadership research aims to demonstrate the impact of leaders on schools and student (Mascall, Leithwood, Straus & Sacks, 2008) but the direct effects of teachers leadership on student achievement are weak (Hallinger and Heck, 1996 in Mascall, Leithwood, Straus & Sacks, 2008). This is however contrary to

Goleman’s (2000) and Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004) findings where leaders who employ various leadership styles on the situation of the organization will get the most desirable outcome.

Goleman (2002), and Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004) suggests coercive (COE) style demands immediate compliance with orders. It is also considered as the least flexible leadership style or practice because it emphasises ‘Do what I say’ approach. An authoritative (AUT) leader prepares and organises his or her employees towards a self-created vision in order to accomplish the organization’s mission. Affiliative (AFF) is based upon emotional bonds and helps building strong relationships within organizations by placing people first. As for democratic (DEM) leadership practice, Goleman (2002) Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004) opined that he/she is able to create a positive climate in the organization as he/she keeps the employees morale high, build trust, forges consensus through participation and collaboration in decision making. Pacesetting (PAC) leadership is where a leader has high demands and uses this leadership style not in accordance with a particular standard or rules and this can cause frustration to the employees. Goleman (2002), Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004) stresses that, the best time for a leader to apply this style is when his or her employees are highly motivated, competent and need little direction. Coaching (COA) leadership pays particular attention on the development of people for the future through empathetic self-awareness and

36

good rapport. As a conclusion, all six leadership style practices as described above were employed in this study (as the leadership styles practices of English subject teachers) and it is hypothesized as an exogenous variable which presumed to affect the student AP/AE in the schools understudy.

Students’ Academic Press/Emphasis (AP/AE)

Tschannen-Moran, Bankole, Mitchell and Moore Jr. (2013) believe that AO can be also from students’ perspective. Hoy et al. (2006) in addition stress that at school level, collective academic optimism has been related to academic performance. AP/AE is the third component of students’ AO and it is the high expectations that are communicated by teachers to students in terms of their academic efforts. AP/AE is also associated with improving student achievement even when controlling for socio-economic status (Hoy, et al., 2006; Hoy, 2010; & Hoy, 2012) and it is evident when schools make academic achievement as their central purpose (McGuigan & Hoy, 2006), and when teachers believe that students are capable of academic success regardless of their learning styles and needs. Furthermore, AP/AE is apparent when high yet achievable goals are set for students; students work hard and the culture in the schools assists students to respect academic achievement (Hoy et al., 2006; Hoy, 2010; & Hoy, 2012). However, at this juncture, we do not have any knowledge of any studies that focused solely on student AP/AE but according

to Tschannen-Moran, Bankole, Mitchell and Moore Jr. (2013), previous research on teacher perceptions of AP/AE have indicated the presence of a clear link between AP/AE of schools and student achievement. Since AP/AE is a factor of its own (Tschannen-Moran et. al., 2013), we are going to seek the relationship between AP/AE and leadership styles practices of English subject teachers in the selected secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The study presents the general conceptual framework as exhibited by Figure 1 below.

Source: Adapted from Breen (2011), pg.2; Tachannen-Moran, Bankole, Mitchell and Moore Jr. (2013), pg. 166.

The General Conceptual Framework of the Study

Based on the conceptual framework (Figure 1), the paper aims to address three

STU

DEN

T AC

ADEM

IC P

RESS

/EM

PHAS

IS (A

E/AP

)Coercive (COA)

Authoritative (AUT)

Affiliative (AFF)

Democratic (DEM)

Pacesetting (PAC)

Coaching (COA)

37

main research questions, mainly: (1). Do coercive (COE), authoritative (AUT), affiliative (AFF), democratic (DEM), pacesetting (PAC) and coaching (COA) leadership styles represent the leadership styles practices of the English subject teachers at the selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia?, (2) Which is the most dominant leadership style practice (COE, AUT, AFF, DEM, PAC and COA) among the English subject teachers in selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia?, and (3). Is there an evidence of significant relationship between English subject teachers’ leadership styles practices with the students’ AP/AE in selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia?

METHODOLOGY

Research Design, Population and Sample

We together with William (2006), Taylor, Gautam Sinha and Taposh Ghoshal (2009) believe that quantitative survey design is the most suitable for this study. For the purpose of quantitative analysis, schools were purposefully selected to include students who will best answer the research questions. The logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information rich cases for study in depth (Patton, 1990; Gay & Airasian, 2003). The study decided to select three different schools within the same area in Kuala Lumpur: KB National Secondary School

SchoolsNumber of students

(Form 1)Number of students

(Form 2)Total

KB National Secondary(School (SMKKB

493 483 (60.6%) (200) 976

CS National Secondary(School (SMKCS

209 226 (27.3%) (90) 435

MS (M) National Secondary School((SMK(L)MS

77 93 (12.1%) (40) 170

(Total (population 779 802 (100%) (330) 1,581

Source: Wilayah Persekutuan (WP) Education Department.Table 1: Statistics of the Schools Involved in the Study

38

(SMKKB) [a coeducational school], CS National Secondary School (SMKCS) [an all-girls school], and MS (M) National Secondary School (SMK (L) MS) [all-boys school]. As exhibited by Table 1, the population of the study comprising 1,581 Forms One and Two students from the three selected schools. The study selected 330 students as the sample. A complete name list of the 330 students was obtained from the school and all survey questionnaires were hand delivered to all.

Instrumentation, Validity and Reliability.

The survey questionnaire for the teachers’ leadership styles practices for learning of English subject teachers was developed based on Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004). As for AP/AE construct, the items were adopted and adapted from Hoy et al. (2006). All items of the constructs needed to be validated to ensure it measures what suppose to measure (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010; Lankshear & Knobel, 2004; Punch, 2003). Views and comments from the content experts were sought to ensure it comply with the content validity particularly by paying particular importance to their relevance to the subject matter and the entire topic of the study.

Nunnally (1978), Bollen (1989), and Lankshear and Knobel (2004) stress the importance of reliable instruments for quantitative types of studies. Rosenthal and Rosnow (1991), and Punch (2003), stated that reliability of an instrument can be determined by whether or not the question(s) can be steadily and sincerely

responded to. The Cronbach’s alpha for the whole scale was 0.86 and considered adequate for this study (Nunnally, 1978). The constructs and their respective number of items are exhibited in Table 2 above. A Likert scale of 1 to 5 was used for items in Section B and C of the study. Scale “5” indicates strongly agree, scale “4” indicated agree, scale “3” indicates slightly disagree, scale “2” indicates disagree and scale “1” indicates strongly disagree.

Section Variables Number of Items

A Demographic Details 5

B

Coercive Leadership (COE)

Authoritative Leadership (AUT)

Affiliative Leadership (AFF)

Democratic Leadership (DEM)

Pacesetting Leadership (PAC)

Coaching Leadership (COA)

8

8

10

10

8

10

C Academic Press/Emphasis (AP/AE) 13

Table 2: Survey Questionnaire Format and Number of Items

Data Analysis Techniques.

The researcher made the entries for each of the 330 returned questionnaires using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 14.0), cleaned from outliers and checked for missing data. Cross-checking of the entries was carried out to ensure correct entries. Consequently, final data analysis to address the research questions (Pallant, 2001) is conducted firstly by running the descriptive statistical tests such as frequencies, percentages, standard deviations, mean and mode etc. As

39

a guideline, the summary of data analysis and statistical techniques is exhibited in Table 3 below.

Research Questions

Data Analysis and Statistical Techniques

RQ1:

Descriptive statistics especially Mean, frequencies, median, mode, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis.

RQ2:

Descriptive statistics particularly minimum, maximum, mean, frequencies and standard deviation.

RQ3:

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) giving a value between +1 and −1.

Table 3: The Summary of Data Analysis and Statistical Techniques

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Demographic Background of the R e s p o n d e n t s

Table 4 below exhibits: the total number of respondents whose returned surveys questionnaires were usable; a total of 197 (62.15%) of the respondents were female, while 120 (37.85%) were male. The largest proportion of the respondents were of Chinese origin, 181 (57.10 %), followed by Indians, 87 (27.44 %), Malays, 47 (14.83%) and others, 2 (0.63 %). The data also revealed that almost half of the sampled respondents, 157 (49.53 %) had been studying in their current schools for two years, followed by 149 respondents (47%) studying less than one year, eight respondents (2.52 %) studying for only one

year and only three respondents (0.95%) studying in their school for three years.

Demographics Frequency Percent

Gender:

MaleFemale

120

197

37.85

62.15

Age Group in Years:

131415

148

167

2

46.69

52.68

0.63

Race:

MalayChineseIndianOthers

47

181

87

2

14.83

57.10

22.44

0.63Forms:

12

144

173

45.43

54.57

Tenure (number of years) at current school

Below 1 yr.1 yr.2 yrs.3 yrs.

149

8

157

3

47.00

2.52

49.53

0.95

n = 317

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Demographic Background

Descriptive Statistics Results

Table 5 below exhibits the results of descriptive statistics for all six leadership styles practices of the English subject teachers. Although the

40

normality of data can be tested using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests (Field, 2009), however, this study finally opted the histogram, normal curve, skewness and kurtosis. Data are said to be normally distributed when the mean, median and mode are all the same or very close and the skewness and kurtosis values are within the +2 to -2 range (Garson, 2010). As exhibited in the table, the data tend to show a normal distribution, because the skewness values ranged from -0.829 to 0.827 while kurtosis values ranged from 0.679 to 1.804, with exception of AUT variable (3.929). Hence, the normality assumption for this study was confirmed. The data are now ready to employ descriptive statistics analysis.

Leadership Styles Practices as Portrayed by the English Subject Teachers .

The study employs descriptive statistics in addressing the Research question one. As revealed in Table 5, the English subject teachers at three selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia clearly possessed all six leadership styles practices (COE, AUT, AFF, DEM, PAC and COA). The mean (M) value for all six leadership styles is between 2.66 to 3.73 with standard deviation (SD) value between 0.41 to 0.72. This is in line with Bass and Avolio (1994 & 1997) where they suggest that the mean scores of greater or equal to 3.0 considered as effective leadership. Alternatively, if the scores in some cases are slightly less than 3.0, Bass and Avolio (1990, 1994 and

COE AUT AFF DEM PAC COA AP/AE

N Valid 317 317 317 317 317 317 317

Mean (M)21.3028

(2.6629)*6

26.9085

(3.3636)*4

36.2177

(3.6218)*3

37.3218

(3.7322)*1

25.1167

(3.1396)*5

36.6909

(3.6691)*2

32.6232

(3.2663)

Median 21.0000 27.0000 37.0000 38.0000 25.0000 37.0000 35.000

Mode 21.00 28.00 36.00 38.00a 25.00a 36.00 32.00

Std. Deviation (SD)

4.07094

(0.50887)

3.30819

(0.41352)

7.20451

(0.72045)

6.59190

(0.65919)

3.63644

(0.45455)

6.26819

(0.62682)

6.3321

(0.6228)

Skewness .827 -1.066 -.787 -.829 -.369 -.559 -.810

Kurtosis 1.804 3.929 .679 1.463 .772 .868 .649

Note: *ranking numbers of M.

Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for the Constructs of English Teachers’ Leadership Styles

41

1997) considered it as an ‘ideal’ level for effective leadership. The finding is also partially consistent with Oyetunji and Oluwatoyin, (2006). Similarly, Goleman (2000) and Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004) found that leadership styles are greatly influenced by the emotional intelligence of each leader. Decisively we conclude that there is very clear evidence that the English subject teachers in the selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia possessed all six leadership styles practices. Thus Research question one has been addressed successfully.

Dominant Leadership Styles Practices of English Subject Teachers in Selected National Secondary Schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

The results exhibit in Table 5 clearly imply that DEM has the highest M = 3.73 and SD = 0.66; followed by COA (M = 3.67, SD = 0.63), AFF (M = 3.62, SD = 0.72), AUT (M = 3.36, SD = 0.41) and PAC (M = 3.14, SD = 0.45) and COE (M = 2.66, SD = 0.51). As shown in Table 6, the overall mean scores for the leadership styles practices of the English subject teachers’ in KB National Secondary School (SMKKB) ranged from 2.63 to 3.64 (on a scale of 1 – 5). The mean scores for the leadership styles of the English subject teachers’ in CS National Secondary School (SMKCS) and MS (M) National Secondary School (SMK (L)MS) showed similar findings, with mean scores ranging from 2.64 to 3.94 and 2.91 to 3.76, respectively.

We opined that it is in fact significant to

compare the results between all schools understudy. As revealed in Table 6, as at KB National Secondary School (SMKKB), the mean of DEM leadership style of English subject teachers is the highest (M = 3.64, SD = 0.64), followed by COA (M = 3.59, SD = 0.57), AFF (M = 3.55, SD = 0.71), AUT (M = 3.31, SD = 0.42), PAC (M = 3.11, SD = 0.45) and COE (M = 2.63, SD = 0.46). The mean (M = 3.98, SD = 0.77) of DEM leadership style of English subject teachers at CS National Secondary School (SMKCS) is also the highest followed by AFF (M = 3.86, SD = 0.81), COA (M = 3.81, SD = 0.66), AUT (M = 3.49, SD = 0.29), PAC (M = 3.14, SD = 0.42) and COE (M = 2.64, SD = 0.53). As a comparison, the English subject teachers of MS (M) National Secondary School (SMK(L)MS) COA leadership style practices scores the highest mean (M = 3.76, SD = 0.78) followed by DEM (M = 3.73, SD = 0.78), AFF (M = 3.64, SD = 0.79), AUT (M = 3.32, SD = 0.57), PAC (M = 3.28, SD = 0.52) and COE (M = 2.91, SD = 0.64). Decisively, we conclude that the English subject teachers from KB National Secondary School (SMKKB) and CS National Secondary School (SMKCS) dominated DEM leadership style practices whereas the English subject teachers from MS (M) National Secondary School (SMK(L)MS) dominated COA leadership style practices. Hence, the study has successfully addressed and responded to the Research question two.

Interestingly there is strong evidence that almost all groups of English subject teachers from all three selected schools understudy did not exhibit COE leadership style. They

42

might probably try to avoid in practicing COE leadership style as this would create negative reinforcement patterns among the students. For this reason, Bass and Riggio (2006) described COE leadership style as the absence of leadership. Goleman (2000) and Goleman’ Boyatzis and McKee (2004) stresses that DEM leadership style had a positive impact while COE has significant negative effect on organization’s climate.

Evidence of Significant Relationship between English Subject Teachers’ Leadership Styles Practices and

Leadership style dimensions N Mean (rankings) Std. DeviationKB National Secondary School (SMKKB)COE 193 2.6276 (6) .45874AUT 193 3.3154 (4) .41596AFF 193 3.5451 (3) .70886DEM 193 3.6435 (1) .63686PAC 193 3.1127 (5) .45314COA 193 3.5865 (2) .56672CS National Secondary School (SMKCS)COE 87 2.6379 (6) .52966AUT 87 3.4885 (4) .29385AFF 87 3.8067 (3) .70742DEM 87 3.9310 (1) .61461PAC 87 3.1408 (5) .42317COA 87 3.8126 (2) .65748MS (M) National Secondary School (SMK(L)MS)COE 37 2.9054 (6) .64172AUT 37 3.3209 (4) .56561AFF 37 3.6351 (3) .78536DEM 37 3.7270 (2) .78161PAC 37 3.2770 (5) .51718COA 37 3.7622 (1) .77973

Table 6: Descriptive Statistics for English Subject Teachers’ Leadership Styles Practices as Perceived by the Students.

Students Academic Press/Emphasis (AP/AE)

Research question three attempted to inquire about and examine if there is a significant relationship between English subject teachers’ leadership styles practices with the students’ academic press/emphasis (AP/AE). According to the results as exhibited in Table 7, there is moderate, but positive and significant correlations between COA, DEM, AFF, AUT, and PAC leadership styles practices of English subject teachers in

43

the selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur with the students’ AP/AE (Pearson’s r= 0.680**, 0.611**, 0.558**, .332** and .257**). However, there is only one case where there is no significant correlation between COE styles of leadership practices of English subject teacher in selected schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia with the students AP/AE (-.076). Thus, it is indisputable evidence that at least five out of six leadership styles of English subject teachers understudy are significantly related to students’ AP/AE. The positive correlation between the five leadership styles of English subject teachers and students’ AP/AE supports the finding of earlier study that possessing emotional intelligence skills (which is related to all five leadership styles which are significantly correlated to AP/AE) had a positive significant correlation with the academic achievement of students (Vela. 2003) followed by the findings of Kavori,, Mulewa, Ombuki, and Migosi, (2013) where there was a significant relationship between head teachers’ leadership style and students’ performance. The finding is also consistent with the Al-Soukar (1984), Achieng (2000), Kimacia (2007), Nkirote (2013), and Adeyemi and Bolarinwa (2013). Contrastingly, Hay McBer (2000) found that whenever the teachers displayed COE style of leadership, the academic performance of students was very badly affected.

Relationships

Student Academic Press/Emphasis (AP/

AE)COE Pearson Correlation -.076

Sig. (2-tailed) .176AUT Pearson Correlation .332**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000AFF Pearson Correlation .558**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000DEM Pearson Correlation .611**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000PAC Pearson Correlation .227**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000COA Pearson Correlation .680**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N=317

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

Table 7: Correlations between English Subject Teachers’ Leadership Styles and Students’ Academic Press/Emphasis (AP/AE).

Implications

This study has made a significant academic and theoretical contribution at least in two areas particularly methodology and school leadership studies in Malaysian context. In case of the methodology, this study fully employed the survey instruments where it linked two main elements particularly the six English subject teachers leadership styles practices and students’ AP/AE that have not been robustly studied particularly in the Malaysian context. Thus it can be concluded that the findings from this study managed to fill the gap in the literature of

44

educational management and leadership in Malaysian context.

It has been emphasized that that this study is considered as a first of its kind in (1) exploring the relationship between the English subject teachers leadership styles practices from three selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur with the students’ AP/AE, (2) investigating the most dominant leadership style as practiced by the English subject teachers in the selected national secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, and (3) examining the relationship between English teachers’ leadership style practices and students’ AP/AE in Malaysian school context. Therefore, this study theoretically contributes to the existing body of knowledge in school leadership for learning (Heck & Hallinger, 2009; & Hallinger & Murphy, 1986). The findings definitely will help in understanding of which leadership style(s) and practices should be used extensively, avoided, and which one should be improved in future in order to affect the students’ AP/AE.

Although most teachers in this study demonstrated the DEM leadership styles, there is not much study indicating that DEM is the most excellent or outstanding leadership style. The teachers themselves must apply the most suitable leadership style/s by taking into consideration the availability of resources, personnel/staff, and student body characteristics (Dinham, 2005 & 2007; Dinham & Crowther, 2011). According to Blunt and Jones (2007) and Bass (1990, 1994 & 1995), there is no one particular style of leadership works well in all schools and with all teachers.

Hallinger and Murphy (1986), suggested that teachers at schools with specific needs may need a more task-orientation leadership. Successful leaders are high performers in meeting both expectations of task-orientation and people-focused leadership (Mendez-Morse, 1992).

Recommendation for further studies

We suggest, firstly, future research need to enlarge the scope so that the study will be able to generalize the findings to all public schools (national primary and secondary schools) in Malaysia. Secondly, the potential researcher needs to consider other research design approaches such as qualitative or mixed method design. Despite the fact that the survey questionnaire used here has well established reliability and validity, psychometric properties of the questionnaire should be further evaluated when employed in a new context to ensure credibility of the results. Next, further study should include teachers leadership outcomes to examine to what extent the teachers’ leadership style practices influence the students’ AP/AE and their academic achievement.

CONCLUSION

Theoretically, we cannot expect all English subject teachers here will practice a specific or all leadership style/s as there is no established and recognized formula in determining the most successful leadership style/s that will affect the students’ AP/AE. The awareness and appropriateness of employing different leadership styles in different types of schools with different

45

vision and goals will provide more focused perception of the students’ needs. However, the findings from this study are expected to benefit all other subject teachers in all schools in Malaysia with regard to students AP/AE. Besides, the findings from this particular study also will enrich the existing indigenous body of knowledge in the area of educational management and leadership for learning at least in Malaysian context.

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education

Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

MOOC IN MALAYSIA

CHEE-KEONG CHONGFaculty of Business and Finance, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia

Kampar, Perak, Malaysia

MAHMUD BIN HJ. ABD.WAHABFaculty of Business and Finance, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia

Kampar, Perak, Malaysia

CHEE-HEONG LEECentre for Foundation Studies, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia

Kampar, Perak, Malaysia

CHONG-HENG LIMFaculty of Business and Finance, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia

Kampar, Perak, Malaysia Email: chongck@utar.edu.my

ABSTRACT -- The aim of this paper is to determine the development status of MOOC in Malaysia and the awareness of MOOC among lecturers and students. The study was carried out in one of the private university in Malaysia. A total of 291 respondents took part in this study. A mix-designed method which includes web research, survey questionnaire and focus group discussion are used to collect data and information. The data shows Malaysia is still in the developmental stage of MOOC and the awareness among students and lecturers is still low. The successful MOOC respondents feel that lecture video clips are the best method of delivery; on the other hand they do not like discussion forum. The critical successful factors identified are strong determination, self-discipline, self-motivation and enthusiasm; whereas the challenges are lack of self-motivation and commitment. They feel that MOOC is here to stay and in future it will be associated with more on-job trainings and professional development. Many respondents are still not aware on the development of MOOC, therefore it is difficult to find out the relationship between some of the constructs and further testing on hypotheses related to the adoption of MOOC is needed. Research related to MOOC is limited, the findings from this study will provide future direction for research. Malaysia is aspired to be the education hub in this region; therefore how to leverage MOOC is important to the stakeholders. The value of this paper lies in its exploratory nature; it shows some directions on the research of MOOC in general and MOOC in Malaysia in particular.

Keywords: MOOC, Malaysia, OCW, OER, e-learning

978-99915-0-813-9/004

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INTRODUCTION

Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) is a hot topic for debate in the world of higher education since the inceptions of Udacity, Coursera, edX and lately Futurelearn. All these start-ups are from world renowned universities. Many of them believe that MOOC may or will take over some of the roles of traditional universities. It is being looked upon as another disruptive innovation, like E-commerce that can help to create another new market, and eventually displaces the existing one. The power of MOOC lies on the economics of scale in which each MOOC can take in hundred thousands of students at the same time. The learning theory behind MOOC is from connectivism theory developed by George Siemens and Stephen Downes (Downes, 2012). The connectivism learning ecology is a form of knowledge and pedagogy based on the idea that knowledge is distributed across network of connections and that learning consists of the ability to construct and traverse those networks. This theory states that learning/training in this era will be successful if we learn how to connect and build relevant networks. This network is used to construct knowledge and it is one of the key dynamics of a MOOC. MOOC is based on open educational movement that focused on open technology, open content, open knowledge and it is open to all. The technology used by MOOC is online network technology which can be easily connected if there is an internet access. The impacts of MOOC in Malaysian education industry are yet to be determined. Therefore, this study intends

to find out some of these indicators in one of the chosen private universities in Malaysia.

These indicators are:• awareness of students and staff

on the development of MOOC in general

• development of MOOC players in Malaysia

• perceptions of students and lecturers on MOOC

• factors that make a successful completion of an MOOC

• challenges faced by the participants in MOOC

• application of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) on the adoption of MOOC in Malaysia

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education in Malaysia

ICT development in Malaysia is moving very fast after the inception of Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) in Cyberjaya. MSC in Cyberjaya spearheaded all the development on ICT-related industries in Malaysia. A published report, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education in Asia (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014) revealed the status of ICT in Education in Asian countries, including the status quo of Malaysia in ICT in Education as of 2014.

A summary of the ICT in education status

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quo in Malaysia includes the following:• Malaysia has a stand-alone, sector-

wide ICT in education plan.

• There are national curricula which include courses on basic computer skills or computing by level. Primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools provide 11-20 instruction hours per week.

• Malaysia has electricity in all schools. However, telephone communication facilities are available in only 88% of primary schools and 76% of secondary schools.

• The learner to computer ratio for Malaysia is 17:12:7 (Primary: Lower Secondary: Upper Secondary).

• Allocation of computer resources for pedagogy versus administration usage: 88:12 (primary school level), 87:13 (in secondary school level) ratio.

• ICT support services are not available in Malaysian schools. Some schools face challenges to effectively maintain ICT systems infrastructure.

• Connecting schools to support Internet-Assisted Instruction (IAI): Malaysia achieves 90% connectivity in primary and 96% secondary schools.

• Participation in ICT-assisted instructions (TAI, CAI, IAI): Malaysia achieves 100% enrolments for male and female at

primary, lower and upper secondary schools.

• Basic computer skills for male and female students: Primary level (100% both male and female), lower secondary (61% male, 62% female), upper secondary (24% male and 21% female).

• Malaysian teachers are universally trained to teach using ICT in their classrooms.

• Percentage of students using computer in learning activities: Mathematics (less than 5%), Science (less than 20%).

From the above statistics, there are indicators showing that Malaysia is ready to implement any ICT-in-Education project because the country has a good infrastructure for any ICT-related project; however there exists also challenges that need to be addressed, like the low rate of usage in learning activities in Mathematics and Science; it also becomes an uphill task if Malaysia is going to implement MOOC in schools or higher education institutions

(HEIs) because of the low usage rate.

MOOC Development in Malaysia

The development of MOOC in Malaysia started in 2013 by Taylor’s University, a private university with more than 12,000 full time students. The platform selected to host the course contents is Open Learning (an Australian based for-profit educational technology company). The first MOOC offered by Taylor’s University

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is Entrepreneurship; it aims at developing business related skills to engineering students. In the normal traditional class it has about 80 students. When it was converted into MOOC, it attracted 500 students from 75 different countries within the first 20 days (Al-Atabi, 2014). In September 2014 Malaysia became the first country in the world to implement MOOCs for public universities. For an initial stage 16,000 first year students from public universities in Malaysia took compulsory subjects like Islamic Civilisation and Asia Civilisations (Titas), Ethnic relations, Entrepreneurship, and ICT Competency during the first semester in 2014 (Fadzil, Abdol Latif, & Munira, 2015). During the same year Open University of Malaysia (OUM) started its MOOC in a different platform. OUM uses iTunes U platform. The minister also announced that 15 per cent learning in IPTAs will be done through the MOOCs concept and will be increased to 30 per cent by 2020.

Motivations and Challenges in MOOC

The dropout rate of MOOC remains high because of the large number of participants. The completion rate for most MOOCs is below 13 per cent (Onah, Sinclair, & Boyatt, 2014). In order to overcome the high dropout rate, Hew and Cheung (2014) identified four reasons why students sign up for MOOCs; first, the desire to learn about a new topic or to extend current knowledge; second, they were curious; third, for personal challenge and finally to collect certificates. In the same study they identified four reasons for dropout;

lack of incentive in following MOOCs, failure to understand the content materials, having no support from others and there are other important priorities to attend to. The challenges faced by instructors are; difficult in doing evaluation on students, lack of immediate feedback from students, having heavy demand on time and money, lack of students’ participation on online forum.

Research Framework and QuestionThe research framework used is Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989). The original TAM comprises of two beliefs; the perceived utilities and the perceived ease of application, which will determine the attitudes toward use or adoption of the new technology. The attitudes toward adoption or use will decide the users’ behavioural intention to use the new technology. The modified model suggests that subjective norm plays

a part in the perceived usefulness.Research questions related to this study are:

• What are the players found in MOOC in Malaysia?

• What is the status of awareness on MOOC among students and lecturers?

• What are the critical success factors for learners of MOOC?

• What challenges faced by Malaysian MOOC learners?

• What is the future of MOOC in Malaysia?

• What are the relationships among the

55

constructs in the research framework?

METHODOLOGY

A total of 291 respondents from a Malaysian private university take part in this study; 66 (22.7%) are lecturers and 225 (77.3%) are students (Table 2), but later the 225 students are selected for further analysis. The methodology used is mixed-method, which comprises Web research, survey questionnaire and Focus Group Interview. Web research is used to find out the key players on MOOC in Malaysia. Survey questionnaire is used to collect data on demography, status of awareness on

Figure 1. Modified Technology Acceptance Model

(TAM)

Subjective Norm on MOOC

Perceived usefulness of

MOOC

Perceived ease of use of MOOC

Attitude towards MOOC

Behavioural intention to use MOOC

MOOC and perceptions on the constructs related to the research framework.

The survey instruments consist of 2 parts namely demographic section and constructs section. The construct dimensions are divided into 5 parts where each construct consists of 5 questions. The constructs are Ease of Use (EU), Perceived Usefulness (PU), Attitude (A), Subjective Norms (SN) and Behavioral Intentions (BI). These constructs was based on Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) developed by Davis (1989).

The survey instrument used for the study was adopted and adapted from Davis (1989). The instrument was used in numerous studies and duly validated over the last decade such as Ramayah, Jantan and Ma’ruf (2002), Johar & Awalluddin (2011), Abdulkadir, Galoji & Razak (2013), Hussain Chandio, Irani, Abbasi & Nizamani (2013) and Hong, Teh & Soh (2014).The survey instrument undergoes internal consistency measures through Crombach’s Alpha Reliability test to measure the reliability of the measurement instrument. The overall results revealed that the instrument has a high reliability at 0.957.

The analysis further generated reliability test of each of the construct/dimension and the results are as follows:

No ConstructReliability Coefficient

1 Ease of Use (EU) 0.8652 Perceived Usefulness (PU) 0.873

3 Attitude towards Technology (A) 0.872

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4 Subjective Norms (SN) 0.7555 Behavioral Intention (BI) 0.904

Table 1. Construct’s Reliability

According to Hair, Tatham and Anderson (2006), the construct reliability should be 0.7 or higher to indicate adequate convergence. Based on Table 1 above, all the constructs are reliable as all of them are above 0.70.

Finally Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is used to triangulate data from the survey. Critical success factors in completing MOOCs and challenges faced by learners in MOOC are developed during FGD. Quantitative results are presented using descriptive statistics and qualitative results are mapped and interpreted (looking for association, providing explanations, highlighting key characteristics and ideas) and finally a thematic framework is developed.

FINDINGSFrom the Web research carried out, a total of three MOOC players are identified, these are Malaysia MOOCs (the 20 public universities in Malaysia), Taylor’s University and the Open University Malaysia (OUM). At present there are 99,364 students follow 42 MOOCs offered (Table 2). In term of students’ enrollment MOOC in Malaysia is still far behind those run by universities or other MOOC providers from developed countries.

MOOC provider Number ofstudents

Number of featured

courses Malaysia MOOCs 76737 11

Taylor’s University 21884 24OUM, Malaysia 743 7Total 99364 42

Table 2. MOOC enrolment & featured courses in

Malaysia

A total of 291 respondents take part in this study and the categories of respondents are reflected in Table 3. From the survey data, 92 (31.6%) of them are aware of the existence of MOOC (Table 4). There are 19 of them (6.5%) signed up to follow a MOOC (Table 5) but only 12 (4.1%) completed at least one of the MOOCs (Table 6).

Respondent Lecturer Student Total

Male 40 126 166

Female 26 99 125

Total 66 225 291

Table 3. The respondents’ profile

Response Lecturer Student Total

Yes 22 70 92

No 44 155 199

Total 66 225 291

Table 4. Awareness on MOOC

Response Lecturer Student Total

Yes 10 9 19

No 56 216 272

Total 66 225 291

Table 5. Signed up in MOOC before

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Response Lecturer Student Total

Yes 7 5 12

No 3 4 7

Total 10 9 19

Table 6. Completed at least one MOOC

Further study is carried out to find the relationships between the constructs proposed in the research framework. The study managed to collect 225 respondents which consist of undergraduate students. Out of 225 respondents, 99 of them are female (44%) and 126 are male (56%). Their age ranges from 18 years old to 25 years old. They also came from various programs such as Foundation Studies (44%), Commerce and Accounting (1.3%), Banking and Finance (15.6%), Business Administration (4.9%), Entrepreneurship (7.6%), Finance (16.4%), Financial Economics (3.1%) and Marketing (7.1%). These undergraduates are mainly in their first year (n=106, 47.1%) but second year undergraduate consists of 77 respondents (34.2%) and third year undergraduate consists of 42 students (18.7%).

Massive Open Online Course is fairly new in Malaysia and being a developing nation the internet speed is still the major problem here. The study would like to investigate how far MOOC has reached the students. The survey revealed that only 31.1% (n=70) of the respondents have heard of MOOC. Anyway, the study further explores the behavioural intention of these students on the potential of MOOC.

A correlation analysis is employed to examine the relationships between the constructs of the model namely Perceived Usefulness, Ease of Use, Attitude towards Technology, Subjective Norms and Behavioural Intentions. The result was

tabulated in Table 7 below.

EU PU A SN BI

EU

Pearson Correlation

1 .726** .677** .557** .696**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000 .000 .000

N 225 225 225 225 225

PU

Pearson Correlation

.726** 1 .762** .618** .678**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000 .000 .000

N 225 225 225 225 225

A

Pearson Correlation

.677** .762** 1 .701** .752**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000 .000 .000

N 225 225 225 225 225

SN

Pearson Correlation

.557** .618** .701** 1 .691**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000 .000 .000

N 225 225 225 225 225

BI

Pearson Correlation

.696** .678** .752** .691** 1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000 .000 .000

N 225 225 225 225 225

Table 7. Correlation

Table 7 above presents the results of the relationship between various constructs such as Ease of Use (EU), Perceived Usefulness (PU), Attitude (A), Subjective Norms (SN) and Behavioural Intention (BI). The results show that there is a positive and statistically significant relationship

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between the variables. All the constructs have a high Pearson correlation r towards Behavioural Intention to use MOOC with Ease of Use r(225) = 0.696, p < 0.05, Perceived Usefulness r(225) = 0.678, p < 0.05, Attitude towards Technology r(225) = 0.752, p < 0.05 and Subjective Norms r(225) = 0.691, p < 0.05.

Qualitative Analysis

A structured interview is conducted to further identify the critical success factors and challenges faced by participants of MOOC. Two successful participants of MOOC are interviewed. Their profiles are as follow:

Inte

rvie

wee

Sex

Age

Hig

hest

Qua

lifica

tion

No.

MO

OC

sco

mpl

eted

1 Male 39 Bachelor degree 1

2 Female 27 Bachelor degree 3

Table 8. Profile of interviewees

Both of the respondents were picked as they have actively participated in MOOC program. They also have successfully completed the courses that they enrolled. They have undergone the registration, studied the course materials, did the assignments as well as participated in the group discussion forum provided by the platform. The interview was conducted in a neutral environment where a researcher explained the objectives of the sessions. Two researchers were present, one to ask questions and the other to record and

alert anything which is not covered. They were allowed to voice their opinion freely and voice recorded was used to record their statement. A series of open-ended questions were forwarded to them and probing was use to understand deeper what is not clear. Once the interview session ended, the process of transcribing was done by the researcher. Listening to the voice recording and each statement and gesture were transcribed accordingly. The recording was divided into two sessions as each was responsible to transcribe half of the session. Once the transcribing was finished both the transcribed notes were exchange and cross-checked for missing information.The transcribe notes were then given to the other members of the researchers for readings and pointing out any emerging theme from those notes. Discussions were made for consensus on the naming of the theme and whether the objectives of the study were met.Three major categories of issues/themes are identified from the data analysis. A description of these themes with supporting data is presented as follow:

• Different degree of understanding between the terms OER, OCW and MOOC

The interview result reviews showed that there was a lack of clear understanding between these terms. The one who knew could explain and differentiate them clearly, and on the other hand for the other who was blurred, she could not differentiate them.

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The responses of the interviewees are:

Interviewee 1 “I think OCW and MOOC are subsets of OER. They are generally free to use. Apart from OCW and MOOC, OER includes any individual or independent learning or teaching materials which are not bundled into a course although they are often associated with certain syllabus and level. OCW is the course materials of a subject open to everyone to download and learn. Usually they are the old materials used in the class. Very often, users are not required to sign up to download OCW. MOOCs, on the other hand is more like a proper course where those interested will need to sign up an account with the platform that provides the course. The courses will commence at certain dates. The users will be assigned a series of video lectures to watch and some exercises, quiz, tests, assignments and/or exam. There are interactions as well, be it among the instructor and course takers or among the course takers. The user’s progress will be traced and recorded. Upon completion of course and achieving the minimum requirements, the user will be awarded a certificate. There are courses that are verified by certain authorities that users who completed the courses can have the credits recognized, where the users are required to pay for a small fee for an identity verification and certification purposes. However, there are many MOOCs that function like OCW nowadays…”

Interviewee 2

“I don’t know what the difference is…”Features found in MOOCs that you like

most MOOCs have some common features like video clips and lecture notes as means of delivery; besides that discussion forum is available for exchanging ideas and knowledge as well as the evaluation tools like online quizzes. Some of them are considered useful and others may be too troublesome to use. The feature that they like most is high quality video clips; and the least favoured are the peer-graded assignments and discussion forums.

The responses of the interviewees are:

Interviewee 1“…I like video clips because the quality of the video clips for the EdX course is high but the one by Coursera is just acceptable. The video clips are not long, good enough to stay focus. Transcription is provided for the EdX course. Some video clips show the live classroom style while some are like narrated slide shows…”“…only some courses do provide lecture notes. Some just provide the reading list…”“All MOOCs have discussion forum but not many use it unless it is imposed by the instructor…”“…not all use peer graded assignment: It has been seen in some courses, but I don’t like it…”“…quizzes have been seen in some courses. Usually they come with deadline and I like it because it can give instant feedback…”“…Not all courses have final exam, but some use assignment in lieu of that…”“I like most the video clips with live classroom style and like least the peer assignment.”

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Interviewee 2

“…I like high quality video clips (especially those produced by more reputable university, e.g. Harvard, MIT), good lecturers that make the learning lively, also good materials (suggestion of good journals and articles, free notes and some free ebooks)”“I rarely participate in discussion forum because it is time consuming…”“…usually weekly quizzes use to track the performance is good for learners…”“like most – good lecturer with good

quality video; least – discussion forum.”

• Critical success factorsIt is not easy to achieve success in MOOC, one needs determination, self-motivation, language proficiency, and many others.

The responses of the interviewees are:

Interviewee 1

"The learner must have strong determination, self-discipline and self-motivation. Although MOOCs come with some interactivities, they are generally lack of the environment of a proper classroom settings where you have classmates and friends who learn together and the feeling that the teacher is teaching you directly. It is kind of boring at times and might kill the interests and motivation easily."

Interviewee 2“…enthusiastic and self-motivated learners…plus determination and support

from peers…”

• Challenges faced by MOOC learnersMOOC learners face a lot of challenges like lack of time; because most of them have career to take care of and learning is on part-time basis, lack of support by friends and family, passive learning which results in de-motivation, uncontrolled and undisciplined environment.

The responses of the interviewees are:

Interviewee 1“…The course might not be so

relevant to me or not able to arouse my interests. Apart from these, other commitments that require attention just popped up and will need to abandon the course…”

Interviewee 2

“…I think lack of self-motivation is the

important one.”

• Future of MOOC in MalaysiaMOOC movement is on for the past few years, there is no sign of decrease and in fact there are more and more adoptions throughout the world, Malaysia is one of the new comers. It is interesting to listen to some of these views for future planning and evaluation. In general they are positive on the development of MOOC.

The responses of the interviewees are:

Interviewee 1“I think certain MOOCs courses associated with job opportunity, on job training and

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promotion will have certain prospect in Malaysia, whereas others will not have high enrolment. Schools and especially higher education institutions will develop their own MOOCs as part of their branding as well as for the KPI of the teachers and lecturers. However, the courses will not replace the convention classroom face-to-face mode of delivery.”

Interviewee 2

“I see Malaysian as a user of MOOC rather than a content provider of MOOC. In terms of user market, it is full of potential.”

DISCUSSIONMany studies have been done to assess the use of technology and TAM is one of the most popular models. This study however tries to establish the behavior intention of MOOC at its infant stage in Malaysia. Although MOOC is considered to be new technology introduced to Malaysian, the study found that it is consistent with many studies that showed TAM is a useful theoretical model in explaining behavioral intention. The study established a strong and positive co-relation between the variables namely ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude, subjective norms towards behavioral intention in using MOOC. It also established a consistent result similar to other studies (Lee, Cheung, & Chen, 2005; Saade, Nebebe, & Tan, 2007).

Most of the studies focuses on developed nation, this study specifically zoom on Malaysia. Additionally, developing

countries like Malaysia have much to gain from the application of this technology and its content. From the findings it is not difficult to note that from awareness to success in MOOC is long and difficult journey. However, changes in the way teaching and learning took place is inevitable. Even though many are not widely known yet, the perception of its capabilities is enormous. It will be part of the next step towards lifelong learning experience. This view is consistent with the study done by Nassauora (2012). Therefore the Ministry of Education, Malaysia has to play an important role in the development of MOOC. The adoption of MOOC stands to gain because the best education is given free online with some prerequisites; like language proficiency (English), determination, good time management and self-motivation. MOOC is part of 21st century development in education; it is always an advantage to be an early adopter.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

In conclusion the following are answers/solutions to the research questions:• What are the players found in MOOC

in Malaysia?

The players are Malaysia MOOCs (includes 20 public universities), Taylor’s University and OUM. According to Grainger (2013) on MOOC Report, not all university have the required resources such as finances, expertise and time to be allocated to conduct MOOC, therefore

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those universities that have the above requirements can take part in it.

• What is the status of awareness on MOOC among students and lecturers?

The level of awareness is still low and 31.6% are aware of MOOC, 6.5% signed up for a course and only 4.1% completed the course. Cole and Timmerman (2015) in their article “What do current college think of MOOC?” stated that 6 primary reasons for them to join MOOC namely reliability, accessibility, content, learning, communication and outcomes. MOOC should also move beyond the present evaluations and should be more student focused.

• What are the critical success factors for learners of MOOC?

The critical successful factors identified are strong determination, self-discipline, self-motivation and enthusiasm. These findings are similar to the one by Cole and Timmermen (2015). Barak, Watted and Haick (2016) stated that both intrinsic motivation and self-determination are success factor for MOOC participants.

• What challenges faced by Malaysian MOOC learners?

The challenges are lack of self-motivation and commitment. While having self-motivation and commitment has a positive impact on the success adoption of MOOC and the reverse is also true. Van den Berg (2011) explored the possible relationships between

motivation and commitment and found that in which commitment is presented as one of several energizing forces for motivated behaviour.

• What is the future of MOOC in Malays ia?

The future of MOOC is bright and it will be associated more with on-job training and professional development. New development is in the pipeline where the Ministry of Education Malaysia has come out with “Guidelines on Credit Transfer for MOOC” approved by Malaysian Qualification Agency (2016).

• What are the relationships among the constructs in the research framework?

The result shows that there is a positive and statistically significant relationship between the variables. Ease of Use r(225) = 0.696, p < 0.05, Perceived Usefulness r(225) = 0.678, p < 0.05, Attitude towards Technology r(225) = 0.752, p < 0.05 and Subjective Norms r(225) = 0.691, p < 0.05. All the constructs have a high Pearson correlation r towards Behavioural Intention to use MOOC (Hair, Tatham and Anderson, 2006).

Undoubtedly, the study has brought some insights on the perceived usefulness and intention of adoption on MOOC as a teaching and learning experience. For that reason, there is potential practical application in the development of self-paced and self-improvement of learners. In the word of Confucius, “If the students are ready, the teacher will appear”. This quote is without a doubt as the vast

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varieties of courses are available just a click of keyboard or mouse. Policy makers especially in Malaysia need to have better approach in spreading the news of MOOC and provide incentives to those who are willing to give their commitment.

Limitations and future research directions

Many respondents are still not aware on the development of MOOC, therefore it is difficult to find out the relationship among some of the constructs and further testing on hypotheses related to the adoption of MOOC is needed. Malaysia is on the early implementation stage of MOOC, therefore teething problems will exist, and thus future research should gear towards the identification of teething problems and solutions to solve them.

Like any other studies, this study also has the following limitations. Although presently there is about 99,000 participants of MOOC in Malaysia, we only manage of obtain 225 respondents. Survey instrument has been used repeatedly over time and in fear of over utilized the TAM constructs. Focus group discussion only manages to have a very small number of participants which is only 2 respondents because of the difficulty in getting successful MOOC participants.Future research should also look into other critical success factors in following MOOCs. Factors like course design, connectivity, reach, course content, availability of other facilities such as hardware and software to be name a few. Technology is here to stay; it is up to the

masses to embrace. Lifelong learning environment has been mooted long time ago and the reality can be achieved by

having tools like MOOC.

REFERENCES

Abdulkadir, N., Galoji, S. I., & Razak, R. B. A. (2013). An Investigation into the Adoption of Mobile Banking in Malaysia. American Journal of Economics, 3(3), 153-158.

Al-Atabi, M. (2014). The first MOOC in Malaysia. Retrieved May 25, 2014 from http://linc.mit.edu/linc2013/proceedings/Session3/Session3Al-Atabi.pdf

Barak, M., Watted, A., & Haick, H. (2016). Motivation to learn in massive open onlinecourses: Examining aspects of language and social engagement. Computers & Education, 94, 49-60.

Cole, A. W., & Timmerman, C. E. (2015). What do current college students think about MOOCs. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 188-201.

Davis, F. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly 13 (3) , 319-340.

Downes, S. (2012). Connectivism and Connective Knowledge. UPAEP.

Fadzil, M., Abdol Latif, L., & Munira, T. (2015). MOOCs in MALAYSIA: A preliminary case study. E-ASEM Forum. Bali, Indonesia: E-ASEM FORUM.

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Grainger, B. (2013). Massive open online course (MOOC) report 2013. UK: University of London.

Hair, J., Tatham, R., & Anderson, R. (2006). Multivariate data analysis. Academic Internet Publ.

Hew, K., & Cheung, W. (2014). Students’ and instructors’ use of massive open online courses (MOOCs): motivations and challenges. Educational Research Review 12 , 45-58.

Hong, Y. H., Teh, B. H., & Soh, C. H. (2014). Acceptance of smart phone by younger consumers in Malaysia. Asian Social Science, 10(6), 34.

Hussain Chandio, F., Irani, Z., Abbasi, M. S., & Nizamani, H. A. (2013). Acceptance of online banking information systems: an empirical case in a developing economy. Behaviour & Information Technology, 32(7), 668-680.

Johar, M. G. M., & Awalluddin, J. A. A. (2011). The role of technology acceptance model in explaining effect on e-commerce application system. International Journal of Managing Information Technology, 3(3), 1-14.

Lee, M. K., Cheung, C. M., & Chen, Z. (2005). Acceptance of internet-based learning medium: The role of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Information & Management 42 , 1095-1104.

Malaysian Qualification Agency (2016). Guidelines on Credit Transfer for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC). Kuala Lumpur: MQA

Nassauora, A. B. (2012). Students acceptance of mobile learning for higher learning education in Saudi Arabia. International

Journal of Learning Management Systems 1 , 1-9.

Onah, D., Sinclair, J., & Boyatt, R. (2014). Dropout rates of massive open online courses: behavioural patterns. EDULEARN14Proceedings (pp. 5825-5834). Barcelona: International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies.

Ramayah, T., Jantan, M & Ma’ruf, J. J. (2002) “Technology Acceptance Model: Is It Applicable To Users And Non Users Of Internet Banking”, The proceedings of The International Seminar, Indonesia Malaysia, “The Role of Harmonization of Economics and Business Discipline in Global Competitiveness, Banda Aceh, Indonesia.

Saade, R. G., Nebebe, F., & Tan, W. (2007). Viability of the technology acceptance model in multimedia learning environments: Comparative study. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects 37 , 175-184.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2014). Information and communication technology (ICT) in education in Asia: a comparative analysis of ICT integration and e-readiness in schools across Asia. Montreal, Canada: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.

Van den Berg, I. (2011). Exploring possible relationships between motivation and commitment (Unpublished master thesis). University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands. Retrieved from http://essay.utwente.nl/61008/

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education

Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

HOW DO TEACHERS PLAN THE LESSON? A CASE OF MALAYSIAN PRE-UNIVERSITY TEACHERS’ PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES FOR ENHANCING STUDENTS’ INTELLECTUAL

QUALITY

NOR ASNIZA BINTI ISHAKPenang Matriculation College, Ministry of Education Malaysia

HAZRI BIN JAMILNational Higher Education Research Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Corresponding email: asnizaishak@gmail.com

ABSTRACT -- This paper discusses the results of a qualitative study of Malaysian pre-university teachers’ lesson planning to enhance the students’ intellectual quality. A qualitative research approach was applied where data were obtained through interviews and classroom observations on teaching practice of 10 sixth form pre-university teachers in Penang. The research participants were selected through purposive sampling technique by setting gender, teaching experience and the subject specialization taught by teachers as a study participant selection criteria. Apart from that, data was also gathered from ten focus group interviews of students from the selected teachers. The purpose was to triangulate the data obtained from the teachers interviews and classroom observation.

The study found that teachers planed their lesson for enhancing students’ intellectual quality by preparing set induction through questioning and video showing in order to engage the students in an intellectual construction activity in the classroom. Teachers also focused on strengthening their content knowledge and understanding the background of students, identifying the students’ entree knowledge to decide what best way to teach and enhance students’ intellectual capitals. This strategic and deligent lesson planed are to ensure that the teaching strategies chosen by teachers are appropriate with the students’ level of entree knowledge. The study also found that pre-university teachers consider proper activities to be organized and prepared a clear explanations and instructions for the teaching and learning process. Teachers also gave examples on the application of thinking during classroom activities to the students. This study shows the importance of planning the lesson by teachers to suit the context and content of education to improve students’ intellectual quality in the teaching and learning process in the classroom.

Keywords: Lesson Planing, Intellectual Quality, Sixth Form Pre-University, Pedagogy

978-99915-0-813-9/005

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INTRODUCTION

Intellectual quality is the ability needed by students to be more successful and excellent as practitioners in academic, work and life (Falk & Millar, 2002; Hambur, Rowe, & Luc, 2002; Lublin, 2003). In Malaysian education system, pre-university level is the highest level for the students to develop intellectual capacity after finishing school and preparing to enter university level. This is in line with the country’s main intention in the objectives and goals of the Malaysia Ministry of Education (MOE) which to is produce quality human capital in all aspects of life, have good thinking, act rationally, high civic awareness and conscious of his role to the state, society and religion.

The Importance of Pedagogy for Enhancing Students’ Intellectual Quality

Intellectual ability associated with the ability to think critically, creatively, being critical, analytically and innovatively. Studies showed that the higher the education level, the higher the level of own intellectual development (Lim Yoke Poh & Mohamed Awang, 1986). Intellectual aspect and the ability to think critically and creatively has been a goal of formal education especially during college level (Brabeck, 1980) and pre-universities level in Malaysia (CPC, MOE, 2011). The active involvement of teachers from the school up to the pre-university level studies produced students of high intellectual level (McFadded & Munns, 2002). Teachers must be selective on the usage of effective pedagogy to in line with the teaching objective in order to develop the

students’ intellectual strength, emotional and spiritual stability through a mixture of various approaches, methods, techniques and teaching strategies. The pedagogy is intended to change the behaviour of students from passive to active as well as to improve high cognitive thinking that can lead to change and the construction of student knowledge.

The concept of intellectual quality is also consideration of increasing interest of students to master on the subjects taught in more meaningful sense and thus can improve students’ progress and achievement (Chalmers, 2000). The study of teaching in Malaysia suggest teachers should know the favoured learning styles of their students and be ready with a variety of approaches, methods, techniques or teaching in order to give space for students to gain knowledge in different ways. (Ma’rof Redzuan & Haslinda Abdullah, 2004). The study by Hazri, Nordin, Zohir, Fadhilah and Mohd Nor Isman (2009) and Natifah Abu Khairi (2012) in secondary schools in Malaysia found that students are less involved with higher-order thinking because most teachers do not encourage students to think deeply and be actively involved in the classroom. Students only receive and listen to the information given by the teacher in a passive state.

Similary, studies done by Nor Asniza Ishak (2010) and Nor Asniza Ishak, Azman Mohd Noh, Saliza Kadir and Siti Noor Daud (2012) on the pedagogical practices of Science teachers in Penang and matriculation college lecturers showed that teachers focus less on higher order thinking in teaching and learning

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(TnL). However, pedagogical issues involving methodological and pedagogical approaches is still a major problem that must be resolved among the school teachers who teach sixth form pre-university students in Malaysia (CPC, MOE, 2014). Research shows that the effectiveness of teacher’s teaching depends on the pedagogical practices in the classroom. Studies by Aminah Ayob, Hazri Jamil, Halim Ahmad, Maznah Ismail and Farouk Abdul Majid (2004) in Malaysia showed that the pedagogical practices of teachers is a significant factor that influence the increase of students’ intellectual level.

Teachers need to have a good lesson plan to ensure learning objectives are achieved. Teachers must diversify teaching strategies in order to improve student achievement and interest (Norasmah Othman & Shuki Osman, 2009; Harb,& Terry, 1995). Based on Harb & Terry (1995) each student has a unique behaviour such as like to receive, like to experience things before mastering the subject contents. Talking about students behaviour, there are students who can learn only by accepting a theory or framework, and there are students who obtain knowledge just by making an observation. These differences requires different teaching and learning methods .

Lesson Planning in Improving Students’ Intellectual Quality

Lesson planning is the process of teachers making decisions on best ways to select and prepare learning experiences that can maximize the achievements and satisfaction of teachers and students (Cruickshank, 1995). Shavelson (1987)

and Esah Sulaiman (2004) also stated that the decisions made by teachers when planning a lesson has a profound influence on behaviour in the classroom and the education received by students. There are four important questions that need to be focused by teachers in lesson planning as proposed by Kemp (1985) and, Bhowmik, Banarjee & Banarjee (2013);

1. For whom the content is built? (Characteristics of students)

2. What do we want students to obtain? (Objective)

3. What is the best way to teach subject content and skills? (Methods and teaching and learning activities)

4. How to determine the extent of student learning accomplished (Rating Process)

According to Hazri Jamil, Nordin Abdul Razak, Fadzilah Abd. Rahman, Mohammad Zohir Ahmad, & Mohd Nor Isman Ismail (2009) and Crowl et al. (1997), in the preparation of lesson planning that involve higher order thinking, teachers set long and short-terms instructional goals appropriate for unrealistic expectations that occur during teaching and learning that can improve students’ concern level. Students will try their best to achieve the goal of higher-order thinking learning set by the teacher. Lesson planning include teachers to implement student-centered teaching, the thinking classroom, and mentoring students’ progress using several evaluation methods and not only using the test (King, Goodson, & Spiritual, 2009). Kauchak

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and Eggen (1998) explained that when teachers plan to implement the teaching to enhance students’ intellectual quality, a thorough lesson planning should be considered. Among the factors that should be considered during the preparation of lesson planning is an organized activity, a clear explanation, thinking skills model that will be used, examples of mind applications, the students’ response to the thinking process, the directions that are parallel to the teaching objectives and activities, and adaptation to the needs of various students.

In this study, the concept of lesson planning refers to the extent to which teachers select and prepare working plans and lesson plans in the classroom to enhance students’ intellectual quality. Lesson planning to increase the students’ intellectual level include;

• objectives and content planning;• approaches, methods, techniques and

teaching strategies planning; and• evaluation and teaching reflection

planning.

Research Question

This study is to investigate the practice of sixth form pre-university teachers’ in planning their lesson for enhancing intellectual quality of student based on the following research questions:

1. How does the sixth form pre-university teachers plan the lesson for enhancing students’ intellectual quality

METHOD

Research Procedures

In this study, qualitative methods are employed to identify the practice of lesson planning among sixth form pre-university teachers. Informations were obtained from the interviews and classroom observations for qualitative study information collection. Ethical issue has been addressed by obtaining consent letter from the school administration and the teachers who were involved in this study before being interviewed and observed.

Research Participant

There are 38 schools that run sixth form pre-university programme in Penang for the year 2014. There are 1235 teachers from the programme. A total of 10 teachers of sixth form pre-university was selected using purposive sampling technique based on the selection criteria consist of their teaching experience, gender and the subject specialization. Researcher also verified the chosen participants with the sixth form assistant principal to ensure that the selected participants fulfil the criteria to be interviewed and observed. This is as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994) and Creswell (2012) that the selection of research participants must have credibility in providing information and data needed to answer the research questions. Ten selected teachers of sixth form pre-university were interviewed and classroom observations were done for a more in-depth information on ‘how’ lesson planning practices were implemented in the classroom to enhancing students’

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intellectual quality. Apart from that, data was also gathered from ten focus group interviews of students from the selected teachers. The purpose was to triangulate the data obtained from the teachers interviews and classroom observation.

Research Instruments

Interview protocols and check lists from observation form were used as an instruments in this study. Qualitative research in the form of interviews were used to obtain a more in-depth information about the sixth form pre-university teachers’ lesson planning in the classroom. Interview protocol used was adapted from an interview protocol developed by Hazri Jamil et al., (2009). The interview protocol Teachers Lesson Planning Practice in Enhancing Students’ Intellectual Quality consists of four parts, namely; (i) Introduction; (ii) Demographics questions; (iii) Teachers’ lesson planning in enhancing students’ intellectual quality; and (iv) Conclusion. A similar interview protocol was also used to gather data from the students’ focus group interview.

For the credibility of the interview protocol, a Malay Language expert who had been teaching Malay Language for more than 20 years, was referred to prove the legality and validity of the interface language for the interview protocol. Whilst, an expert in the field of pedagogy was referred for the legality of the contents of the interview protocol. Meanwhile, for the trustworthiness of interviews, two sixth forms pre-university teachers were interviewed for the purpose of the pilot test to ensure that the questions in the

interview protocol is clearly understood and consistent with the purpose of obtaining information to complete the research questions. Each interview was recorded and then converted to the form of transcript to be analysed. Transcript is a ‘verbatim’ and then incorporated into the research findings without modification. Each transcript is labelled according to interviewed teachers code as shown in Table 1.

No Teacher Code SubjectTaught

1 Teacher 1/Iv 1 = Teacher1 andfirst interview History

2 Teacher 2/Iv 1 = Teacher 2andfirst interview Syariah

3 Teacher 3/Iv 1 = Teacher 3 andfirst interview MUET

4 Teacher 4/Iv 1 = Teacher 4 andfirst interview History

5 Teacher 5/Iv 1 = Teacher 5 andfirst interview Biology

6 Teacher 6/Iv 1 = Teacher 6 andfirst interview MUET

7 Teacher 7/Iv 1 = Teacher 7 andfirst interview Biology

8 Teacher 8/Iv 1 = Teacher 8 andfirst interview Chemistry

9 Teacher 9/Iv 1 = Teacher 9 and first interview Economy

10 Teacher 10/Iv 1 = Teacher 10 and first interview Physic

Table 1:Teacher Transcript Code

Observation form is an instrument used by the researcher for the observation

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of teaching and learning process that involves the practice of lesson planning carried out by the sixth form pre-university teachers in improving the students’ HOTS. Observation rubric adapted from Productive Pedagogies Classroom Observation Manual (Lingard et al., 2001), which involved only the intellectual quality dimension. Observations carried out are intended to identify how the sixth form pre-university teachers improve the students’ intellectual quality in the classroom. Observation process involves only eight teachers who were involved in the interview sessions. Two teachers who were interviewed did not allow the process of classroom observations to be conducted. Recordings of the teachers’ TnL by using video and tape recordings as well as the observation form for review and researcher’s notes were used for data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This part will report the findings from teachers’ interviews, classroom observations and interviews with students related to teacher’s lesson planning practice in improving the students’ intellectual quality.

Induction Set

Induction set is a priority in the lesson planning of the teachers who were interviewed. Though the goal of teachers’ teaching is not only focused on improving the students’ intellectual quality, a good induction set is considered important in increasing students’ interest and involvement in the TnL process. Teacher 1, for example stated that she favours

induction set during the start of her teaching,

I would really plan my teaching. But not only to increase my students intellectual. When I teach, the teaching will come in that direction. I focused more on induction set in my teaching. It is important to draw the students’ interest to participate in the teaching.

(Teacher 1/History/Intv./Line 9-11)

The importance of ensuring effective induction techniques that can promote students’ thinking are shown by the teachers through a variety of induction set techniques including through questioning and the use of teaching aids. The results of teachers and students interviews also showed that Teacher 1 started teaching by induction set through questioning to students related to the previous lesson content.

Questioning techniques and use of teaching aids in induction set was also done by Teacher 3. His teaching plans are concerned with aspects of his teaching to ensure the smooth process of the TnL.

Yes. Of course I plan my TnL. If we do not plan, than TnL will not be very smooth. Often I’ll think of what teaching aids that I want to use and sort of questions I want to ask.

(Teacher 3/MUET/Intv./Line 11-12)

The results of observations of Teacher 3 teaching showed that his TnL is good and organized. He started the class

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with an induction set in the form of questions to students related to what they have learned in the previous lesson by asking, “Tell me the tips in learning English that you have learned in our previous class.” (Teacher 3 MUET/Observation 3/Minute 5).

Teaching aids such as the use of video show for example is one of the techniques to introduce students to new lesson content to be learned. The use of video show in induction set means to provide prior or entry knowledge to the students about the topics to be learned. According to Teacher 4,

I will do the teaching plan. Normally, I would think,for example about , what kind of induction set I want to do. Usually in History, I’d rather show video related to what is going to be taught

(Teacher 4/History/Intv./Line 11)

Usage of various teaching aids in an appropriate manner can improve the quality or focus among pupils towards learning. The uses of teaching aids also ease teachers to deliver the concept to students (Bhowmik et al., 2013; Kamarul Azmi Jasmi, Mohd Faeez Ilias, Ab. Halim Tamuri, & Mohd Izham Mohd Hamzah, 2011; Nur Baizura Mahyidin, 2006; and Mohd Dahlan, 1992). Findings from the teachers’ interviews was triangulated with findings from students’ interviews which showed that the use of video as a teaching aid in teachers’ induction set helped to stimulate students thinking,

and enhance their interest in finding out more about what will be learned.

Teacher liked to show a video or play of an English song to associate with what we are going to learn and for us to think more. For me it would enable students to have more fun in learning.

(Student 3/Teacher 3/MUET/ Intv./Line 8)

The same thing is also expressed by the students of Teacher 4 stating that the use of video as a technique for induction set can provide a thorough understanding of the content of the lessons learned. According to the students of Teacher 4,

Teacher always show video. Then Teacher would associate with what is being taught. From there we understand better what we are going to learn on that day.

(Student 4/Teacher 4/History/ Intv./ Line 10)

Spontaneous IdeaIn addition to planning a lesson in detail, the teachers also emphasized the spontaneous idea during the process of the TnL in improving the students’ intellectual quality. Relating to the implementation of lesson planning teacher 2 and Teacher 6 explained

I’m not the kind who likes to plan. The activities that I want to do with the students will come spontaneously. I even do not have the time to write the record book. But I know what Iwant to teach.

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(Teacher 2/Syariah/Intv./Line 13-14)

I do plan my teaching. But sometimes I did not write in the record book. It will be an ad-hoc basis. The idea will suddenly appear during teaching and I will use it rightaway.

(Teacher 6/MUET /Intv./Line 9)

This finding showed that most teachers planed TnL activities in the classroom that helps improve the students’ intellectual quality, but there are also those who make plans for activities spontaneously but the spontaneous idea produced serve the same goal which is to improve the students’ intellectual quality.

Content Knowledge

I’ll find another book and comment if the book is not good. For we read to learn. If what we read is incorrect and way out of facts, we have to make sure there is a correction done to the books.

(Teacher 1/History/Intv./Line 53-55 )

I’d read before I go to class. Although we know about the chapter, we still have to do additional readings.

(Teacher 2,Syariah/Intv./Line 36-38 )

The importance of this preparation and good content knowledge of teachers is also driven by the need to prepare their teaching plans for the sixth form students who like to ask questions.

When I do my own revision, we can expect the parts that will be hotspot (the

current issues that is controversial), so we will be better prepared. Anyhow we must do revision first before getting into class, for the sixth form students love to ask.

(Teacher 4/History/Intv./Line 128-130 )

The importance of content knowledge and pedagogy in teaching plans that have been studied to improve the quality of student intellectuals can also be seen in the professional discussions practices with colleagues on the content of the subjects that will be taught. Teachers’ professional discussions related to their pedagogical practices involving aspects of knowledge content and knowledge on appropriate pedagogy are two important elements in ensuring the effectiveness of TnL process (Shulman, 1987). These professional discussions involved aspects of pedagogy (questions and exercises) suitable to be provided to their students. This discussion is a professional community culture (Morrissey, 2000) showed that teachers are willing to discuss with their colleagues in making decisions involving pedagogical practices and critically evaluate their teaching efforts. This was described by teacher 5,

I prefer to discuss with my colleagues. Every week we have intellectual discourse to discuss about a topic that we will teach for that week. Then we also discuss the questions and exercises that can be given to the students.

(Teacher 5/Biology/Intv./Line 33-36 )

The findings showed that teachers who

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have a high level of pedagogical practices in improving the students’ intellectual quality focussed on the subject of intellectual mastery of the contents knowledge to be taught to students. The results showed that teachers make a thorough reading and revise either by themselves or together with colleagues who teach the same subjects as their lesson planning aspect.

Teachers Knowledge Of The Students

The findings also demonstrated knowledge of teachers about students is an important element in the planning of teachers’ TnL to improve the quality of students’ intellectual quality. Teacher 1 explained the importance of recognizing and understanding the student before starting teaching. According to her,

I will identify and research the background of my pupils and look at their ability level. Most students here are villagers who have no exposure. They mainly rely on their friends. So we (teachers) have to guide them.

(Teacher 1/History/Intv./Line 74-77 )

Teachers use their knowledge of the students to determine the relevance of the curriculum content to the needs and backgrounds of students in education (Reyes, Scribner, and Paredes Scribner, 1999) to find the best strategies in teaching practices and make the necessary adjustments to meet the diverse learning needs of students. Teacher 4 explained this,

During the first time we enter the class, we have to know our students, what their background are. For me, if we did not diagnose our students, when we go to class, the upper or to the lower level, we will be teaching the same. This will make our learning objectives not being met.

(Teacher 4/History/Intv./Line 49-52 )

Triangulation of data from interviews with students showed that students feel happy and valued when teachers recognized them. Students felt more fun in learning when this happened. This is supported by the students of Teacher 6 stating that their teachers know where they live and what they like. Originally, the students were shy to speak in English but with the help of Teacher 6, he ‘feels confident to speak because Teacher 6 respect and recognize him more (Student 6/ Teacher 6 / Intv./ Line 34-35).

As a conclusion from the findings to identify the lesson planning practices by teachers in enhancing the students’ intellectual quality, the teachers emphasized on preparing induction set either structurely or spontaneously. Teachers also consider in having a good content knowledge and having knowledge regarding students’ background.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of the research findings showed that teachers implement instructional strategies to improve the intellectual quality among students through diversity of lesson planning to attract students

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to think intellectually. According to Rajendran (2008), and Norasmah Othman and Shuki Osman (2009), for the success of the TnL and to improve students’ thinking, teachers should select appropriate approaches, strategies, methods and teaching techniques that helps achieve subject learning objectives. The active involvement of students through thinking, debate, presentation and questioning through high level questions by teachers can stimulate TnL to improve students’ HOTS. Teachers conduct teaching that enhance problem-solving skills and higher-order thinking skills among students. Among the approaches, teaching methods and techniques practiced is through a strategy of questioning and discussion of teacher-student or student-student. Rajendran (2008), Sabaria Juremi (2003) and Mustapha Ghazali (1998) stressed that thinking process can be improved by mastering students’ mind directed to the use of questions of application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Teacher plan lessons that improve the intellectual quality of students through the provision of induction set, questioning and video show to engage students in an intellectual construction activity. Teacher also focused on content knowledge of teaching in order to strengthen the content knowledge to be taught. The literature review found that most researchers stated teachers need to prepare learning objectives before starting the TnL (Nurulhuda et al., 2013; King, Goodson, & Rohani, 2009; Cruickshank, 1995; Atan Long, 1981; Kemp, 1985; Shavelson, 1987). To strengthen knowledge against

the background of students, teachers find information on students’ prior knowledge related to family background, students’ economy and information pertaining to students’ prior knowledge regarding the content of the lessons to be learned. Nurulhuda et al., (2013) also stated teachers’ initial planning in the success of teaching and learning that promotes higher-order thinking is necessary in order for these skills to be applied and appreciated by students outside the classroom. The research findings also found that sixth form pre-university teachers considered organized activities, clear explanations, examples of thinking applications and students’ feedback on the thinking . Teachers also give directions consistent with the objectives and teaching activities, taking into account the needs of various students.

Information obtained from this study can be used to improve the teachers’ quality of teaching and learning in the sixth form pre-university based on teachers’ lesson planning to enhance students’ intellectual quality through training workshops or seminars. Implementation aspects of intellectual quality of students can help students to excel in academic field and makes students better prepared to enter the university and on into the working world. Thus, it is hoped, that information obtained through this study can provide understanding and new knowledge to teachers and researchers related to intellectual thinking and pedagogical practices that can be used to enhance intellectual quality among sixth form pre-university students. Furthermore, the study

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could help improve students’ intellectual capital in order to par with the rapid developing countries in the 21st century.

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Chalmers, M. (2000). Six dogs, twenty three cats, forty five mice and one hundred and sixty spiders. New York: Harper Collins.

Creswell. J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Third Edition. Englans: Pearson Education International.

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Hazri Jamil, Nordin Abdul Razak, Fadzilah Abd. Rahman, Mohammad Zohir Ahmad, & Mohd Nor Isman Ismail. (2009). Productive pedagogies for Malaysian education system: Investigating the classroom practice of Malaysian secondary school teacher. Seminar JPPG09. School of Cognitive

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King, F.J., Goodson, L., & Rohani, F. (1997). Statewide assessment of listening and verbal communication skills, information literacy skills, and problem-solving skills. Tallahassee: Florida State University.

King, F.J., Goodson, L., Rohani, F. (2009). Higher order thinking skills. Center for Advancement of Learning and Assessment. Retrieved from http://www.cala.fsu.edu/files/higher_order_thinking_skills.pdf on 26th Januari 2015.

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Poh, L. Y., & Awang, M. (1986). Tahap Perkembangan Intelektual di kalangan Penuntut Universiti. Akademika, 29(1).

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Malaysian Ministry Of Education. (2013). Education Development Plan 2013-2025,

Ma’rof Redzuan dan Haslinda Abdullah. (2004). Asas pedagogi. Retrived from http://www.slideshare.net/razihan/asas-pedagogi on 21st June 2013.

McFadden, M., & Munns, G. (2002). Student engagement and the social relations of pedagogy. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 23(3), 357-366.

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Nor Asniza Ishak, Azman Mohd Noh, Saliza Kadir dan Siti Noor Daud. (2012). Amalan pedagogi produktif pensyarah Sains di Kolej Matrikulasi Pulau Pinang. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Pendidikan Peringkat Kebangsaan Bahagian Matrikulasi Tahun 2012. Hotel Langkasuka, Langkawi.

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Dalam Noraini Idris dan Shuki Osman (2009). Pengajaran dan pembelajaran: Teori dan praktis. Kuala Lumpur: McGraw-Hill.

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3rd International Teachers' Conference Special IssueCopyright © 2017 by the National Institute of Education

Printed in the Maldives. All rights reserved

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEAM CHARACTERISTICS AND TEAM EFFECTIVENESS AMONG TEACHERS IN MALE’

MARIYAM DHOOMA MOOSA*, MOHAMMED SANI IBRAHIM2, VISAL MOOSA3, AHMED MOHAMED4

Ministry of Education, Maldivesmariyamdhoomamoosa@gmail.com

ABSTRACT -- Based on the model developed by Campion, Papper and Medsker (1996) and the conceptual framework built up by Hashim (2010), this research aims to examine the relationship between team characteristics and team effectiveness among teachers in Male’, Maldives. This study used a quantitative method to analyse the data. A total of 254 teachers and 52 managers took part in the study which employed a survey questionnaire under the quantitative approach adapted from Hashim (2010) to collect data. Sampling method used was purposive sampling.

The results revealed that team characteristics exist at moderate to high levels while team effectiveness is rated high among both teachers and managers. It is also found that, there is no significant difference between teachers perception towards team effectiveness in schools. The result of the multiple regression test shows no significant regression model for team characteristics (process, job design, context and interdependence) and team effectiveness.

The findings of this study are useful means of building more effective and productive teams in the schools of Maldives.

Keywords: Work team, Team characteristics, Team effectiveness, Teachers, Schools

* Corresponding author mariyamdhoomamoosa@gmail.com2 mohammedsani@um.edu.my3 visal.moosa@gmail.com

4 ahmadhmohamed@gmail.com

978-99915-0-813-9/006

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INTRODUCTION

Team work is a popular approach to achieving organizational goals. Teams are becoming increasingly more common in organizations due to new working practices and increasing availability of technologies that can support distributed collaborative working such as the use of new technology (DeSanctis & Monge, 1999). This provides the organization with the benefit of being able to access more diverse expertise in enhancing their competitiveness (George, 2005). It also provides an optimum way of working where there are time constraints and where required limited resources are distributed in schools. To work effectively, importance is placed on competency, communication, and establishment of good relationships, requiring individuals to work with a wide range of different departments in and out of the school (Cormack, 1990).

The phenomenon of teamwork in organisations begins in the early 1970s in the East and later it is followed by the West (Owen, 1998). The management pioneered by the Japanese is an important structure in organisation which practises the concept of kaizen; which means the continuous improvement (Ishikawa, 1998). Teamwork is a major contributor to the success of any organisation.

In Maldives, the practice of teamwork management exists in schools in a form of functional team to cater to the

organisational structure. In this manner, the practice of management which centres on team work is not fully applicable as its existence is to fulfil the traditional hierarchy structure of principal centred management. The effectiveness of work team practice in schools depends on the ability of team leader to influence and assist the team members to increase their self-development to a better stage. Hence, the concept of team development as a continuous process will increase the level of knowledge, skill, and the capabilities of teachers in developing the work team.

The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between team characteristics with team effectiveness among teachers in schools of Male’. Based on the model proposed by Campion, Papper and Medsker (1996), this research tries to identify the team characteristics which contribute to the effectiveness of work team among teachers in Male’. In particular, this paper provides answers to the following research questions.

RQ1 To what extent do team characteristics exist among teachers in the schoo l s?

RQ2 What is the level of team effectiveness as perceived by teachers and managers in the schools?

RQ3 What is the impact of the predicting variables (the themes of job design, interdependence, context and

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process) on the effectiveness of teams in the schools?

In order to answer research question 3, the following null hypothesis is formulated.

Ho: There is no significant impact of the predicting variables (the themes of process, job design, context and interdependence) that contribute towards the effectiveness of teamwork in the schools.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Work team refers to a group of two or more people who interact and coordinate tasks or jobs in order to reach common goals set by them (Daft, 1999). According to Daft, work team is an understanding and commitment between members in a group towards achieving the goals of group in which the aims and objectives of work team will reduce the misunderstanding or even conflict existing in the group. All group members must agree with each other and be responsible in completing tasks, ambition and goals of the organisation based on their skills that could complement each other’s.

Borg and Gall (1983) define group as ‘two or more people who interact with one another in a situation where one is influenced and be influenced with one another’. According to Spain (1996), the concept of work group is similar with work team.

Team Effectiveness

Hackman and Oldham (1980) define team effectiveness as ‘production output or service which meets the standard requirements’. He asserts that effective work team should maintain the ability to work with team members all the time. Hackman (1987) as cited in Hashim, (2010) lists five characteristics of effective team: (a) trust (b) willingness to help each other (c) less destructive conflict (d) high teamwork (e) desire to succeed among team members. Schein (1992) also suggests that high performance team has a few important characteristics such as shared vision and goals, open communication, respect to each other, trust and tolerance among each other. Hence, team effectiveness becomes a more crucial element of conducive teaching and learning environment in schools.

Model of Team Characteristics

Researchers who study the team characteristics generally refer and test the Model of Hackman (1987) as cited in Hashim and Model of Campion, Medsker and Higgs (1993). This study is based on the Model of Campion, Medsker and Higgs (1993). Campion et al (1993) propose a model (see figure 1) on characteristics of workgroup and workgroup effectiveness. The model is based on the work of Gladstein (1948), Hackman (1987) and Guzzo and Shea (1992).

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Themes/Characteristics

Job Design• Self Management• Participation• Task Variety• Task Significance• Task Identity

Interdependence• Task Interdependence• Goal Interdependence• Interdependent Feedback

and Rewards

Composition• Heterogeneity• Flexibility• Relative Size• Preference for Team Work

Context• Training• Managerial Support• Communication/

Cooperation Between Team

Process• Potency• Social support• Workload sharing• Communication/

Cooperation Within the Team

EFFECTIVENESSProductivity Satisfaction

Manager Judgements

Source: Campion, M., Papper, E., & Medsker,G. (1996). Relations between work team characteristics and effectiveness. Personnel Psychology, 49, page 431

Campion, Medsker and Higgs (1993) propose five basic themes which are related to team effectiveness. The five themes in their model are task design, interdependence, composition, context and process. Each theme has its own team characteristics. They also have identified the criteria for team effectiveness. The criteria are productivity, staff satisfaction and the assessment of team effectiveness (Campion et al. 1993).

Campion, Medsker and Higgs (1993) reveal the relationship between the characteristics of workgroup and team effectiveness. They evaluate on the workgroup effectiveness by evaluating three criteria which are team productivity, staff satisfaction and evaluation on team effectiveness by the manager. Their research showed that the theme for team process and job design have huge impact on the effectiveness of work team as compared to other themes.

Conceptual FrameworkBased on the model of effectiveness work team by Campion et al. (1996), a conceptual framework for this research is designed as in Figure 2. Based on the theoretical framework by Campion et al. (1996), this research intends to study 14 out of 19 work team characteristics and they are categorised to four out of five themes.

Figure 1 Model of Campion, Medsker and

Higgs (1993)

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There are three reasons why this research maintains the four themes out of five themes as well as 14 out of 19 characteristics of work team from the original research of Campion et al. (1993 as cited in Hashim, 2010):

1. The theme of composition is excluded because almost all of the research carried by Campion et al (1993) on work team, conclude that the theme of composition has little impact on the effectiveness of work team. This is supported by the studies of Salim (2000) as cited in Hashim, (2010).

2. In past research by Campion et al. (1993), there are two characteristics of work team under the theme of composition which are job identification and priorities to work team which are not highly related to effectiveness of work team. Both characteristics also have little application on this research because they have impact in the context of production as compared to service.

3. All 14 characteristics of work team have strong significant relationship on the effectiveness of work team based on past research findings of Campion et al. (1996).

Theme / Team Characteristics

Figure 2- Conceptual Framework of the study

Source: Conceptual framework adapted from Hashim (2010: 15)

METHODOLOGY

This is a correlation descriptive research employing a cross-sectional survey design. The target population for the research is total number of teachers and managers in

Job Design• Self Management• Participation• Task Variety• Task Significance• Task Identity

Interdependence• Task Interdependence• Goal Interdependence• Interdependent Feedback

and Rewards

Context• Training• Managerial Support• Communication/

Cooperation Between Team

Process• Potency• Social support• Workload sharing• Communication/

Cooperation within the team

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

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the schools of Male’ – the capital city of Maldives. Based on the sample size table by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), the number of sample needed for the study is 306 since the total number of teachers in Male’ is 1468 (MOE, 2010).

Two survey questionnaires – based on a five-point likert scale – are used to collect data; one for measuring team characteristics and the other for measuring team effectiveness. Team characteristics are measured on four themes namely, job design, interdependence, context, and process. Similarly, team effectiveness is measured using the tool developed by Campion et al. (1993); two items are added by the researchers. The items are answered on a five point likert scale where SD, D, N, A and SA represent strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree respectively.

The themes on the team characteristics questionnaire score a Cronbach’s alpha value between 0.67 and 0.90 – which is considerably good (Hinton, Brownlow, & Cozens, 2004). The alpha value for the team effectiveness construct is 0.72 reflecting a good score.

FINDINGS

The demographic profile of the participants shows that most of the participants are female with 76.38% for teachers and

71% for the managers. It also revealed that most of the teachers who responded to the survey are fairly young; 52.76% of the teachers are between the ages of 26-35 years. On the other hand, managers are found little older; 52.00% of the managers are in the age range 36-45 years.

Table 1 shows the number of responses, their respective percentages, mean, standard deviation and interpretation of the mean scores given by participants for the theme ‘job design’. Items 33, 12 and 24 measures team characteristics under the sub-construct self management. Majority of the participants agree to all three items on this sub-construct (44.9%, 37.8% 35.4% respectively). However, according to the mean scores, two of the characteristics are found medium whereas one item is found high, which is based on the mean rank output from SPSS. For the items which under the sub-construct of participation (items 36, 49 and 43), the results indicate that majority of the participants agree to item number 36 and 49 (46.5%). The mean scores for all three items indicate that the specified characteristic is high among teachers.

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Item

Stat

emen

t

SD D N A SA Mea

n

Std.

Dev

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

Self-Management

33

The members of my team are responsible for determining the methods, procedures, and schedule in performing the given task

4 48 63 114 25 3.43 0.96 H

1.60% 18.90% 24.80% 44.90% 9.80%

12

My team, rather than my management/principal decides who does what task, within the team.

12 41 79 96 26 3.33 1.02 M

4.70% 16.10% 31.10% 37.80% 10.20%

24

Most work-related decisions are made by the members of my team rather than by the management

11 61 69 90 23 3.21 1.04 M

4.30% 24.00% 27.20% 35.40% 9.10%

Participation

36As a member of a team, I have a real say in how the team carries out the work

2 25 83 118 26 3.56 0.84 H

0.80% 9.80% 32.70% 46.50% 10.20%

49Most members of my team get a chance to participate in decision making

7 28 74 118 27 3.51 0.92 H

2.80% 11.00% 29.10% 46.50% 10.60%

43My team is designed to let everyone participate in decision making

7 21 103 91 32 3.47 0.91 H

2.80% 8.30% 40.60% 35.80% 12.60%

Task Variety

35

A few members of my team get a chance to learn different tasks that had been assigned to the team

8 114 78 50 4 2.72 0.87 M

3.10% 44.90% 30.70% 19.70% 1.60%

27Everyone in my team mostly, gets a chance to do the more interesting task

3 31 81 107 32 3.53 0.91 H

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1.20% 12.20% 31.90% 42.10% 12.60%

47

Task assignments often change from day to day to meet the requirements of the team

4 20 96 112 22 3.5 0.82 H

1.60% 7.90% 37.80% 44.10% 8.70%

Task Significance

19The work performed by my team is important to the school

14 10 39 106 85 3.94 1.07 H

5.50% 3.90% 15.40% 41.70% 33.50%

51My team makes little contribution to serving the students of the school

36 75 55 73 15 2.83 1.17 M

14.20% 29.50% 21.70% 28.70% 5.90%

41My team helps me feel that the work is important to the school

4 28 63 126 33 3.61 0.9 H

1.60% 11.00% 24.80% 49.60% 13.00%

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Job Design

Table 2 shows the responses of participants for the theme ‘interdependence’. Items 45, 18 and 39 measures team characteristics under the sub-construct task interdependence. While majority of the participants agree to items 18 and 39 (36.2% and 51.2% respectively), majority of them are not sure to item 45 (32.3%). The mean scores indicate the specified characteristics in item 45 and 18 are medium among teachers while that for item 39 is high.

Items 31, 1 and 11 measure team characteristics under the sub-construct goal interdependence. Majority of the participants agree to item 1 (50.4%), while

Items 35, 27 and 47 are used to measures team characteristics under the sub construct of task variety. While majority of the participants agree to items 27 and 47 majority of them disagree to item 35 (42.1%, 44.1% and 44.9% respectively). Analysis of mean scores shows that the characteristic in item 35 is medium whereas the other two are high among teachers. The final sub-construct – task significance – is measured by items 19, 51 and 41. The results show that while majority of the participants agree to item 19 and 41, majority of them disagree to item 51. The mean scores are high for the agreed items while it is medium for the disagreed item.

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Item

Stat

emen

t

SD D N A SA Mea

n

Std.

Dev

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

Task Interdependence

45 I can accomplish my tasks without information or material from other members of my team

20 38 82 77 37 3.29 1.13 M

7.90% 15.00% 32.30% 30.30% 14.60%

18 Other members of my team depend on me, for information or materials needed to perform their tasks

22 37 83 92 20 3.2 1.06 M

8.70% 14.60% 32.70% 36.20% 7.90%

39 Within my team, jobs performed by team members are related to one another

3 24 59 130 38 3.69 0.88 H

1.20% 9.40% 23.20% 51.20% 15.00%

Goal Interdependence

31 My work goals come directly from the goals of my team

8 56 85 85 20 3.21 0.98 M

3.10% 22.00% 33.50% 33.50% 7.90%

1 My work activities are in line with the goals of the team or the organization

20 10 66 128 30 3.54 1.02 H

7.90% 3.90% 26.00% 50.40% 11.80%

11 I do very few activities on my job that are not related to the goals of my team

27 70 71 68 18 2.92 1.12 M

10.60% 27.60% 28.00% 26.80% 7.10%

Feedback and Rewards

22 Feedback about the quality of my work, primarily depends on how well the entire team is doing

4 33 54 114 49 3.67 0.98 H

1.60% 13.00% 21.30% 44.90% 19.30%

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for the rest of the items majority of them are not sure. The mean score for item 1 is high while it is medium for the other two. Items 22, 32 and 44 measures team characteristics under the sub-construct feedback and rewards. Majority of the participants agree to items 22 and 32 (44.9% and 33.1% respectively) while majority of them chose not sure to item 44 (29.5%). Mean score for item 22 is high while it is medium for the other two.

Table 3 shows the responses of participants for the theme ‘context’. Items 55, 37 and 50 measures team characteristics under the sub-construct training. Majority of the participants are not sure to all three items (30.3% , 33.5% and 35.0% respectively). The mean scores are also medium to all three of them. Items 53 and 23 measures team characteristics under the sub

32 My performance evaluation is strongly influenced by how well my team performs

25 49 68 84 28 3.16 1.16 M

9.80% 19.30% 26.80% 33.10% 11.00%

44 Rewards of my work (salary, promotion, etc.…), are determined based on my contribution as a team member

62 38 75 72 7 2.7 1.2 M

24.40% 15.00% 29.50% 28.30% 2.80%

Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Interdependence

construct managerial support. Majority of the participants agree to both of the items (47.2% and 45.7%). The mean scores are also high to both of them.

Items 34, 20 and 48 measures team characteristics under the sub-construct communication or cooperation. Majority of the participants agree to items 34 and 48 (40.2% and 57.5% respectively). However, majority of the participants are not sure to item 20 (33.5%). The mean scores for items 34 and 20 are medium while it is high for item 48.

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Item

Stat

emen

t

SD D N A SA Mea

n

Std.

Dev

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

Training

55 The school provides inadequate technical training for my team

19 85 77 40 33 2.93 1.15 M

7.5% 33.5% 30.3% 15.7% 13.0%37 The school provides

inadequate quality and in service training for my team

24 79 85 58 8 2.79 1.00 M

9.4% 31.1% 33.5% 22.8% 3.1%

50 The school provides inadequate training on team building skills. (e.g. communication, organization, interpersonal, etc.).

21 72 89 40 32 2.96 1.13 M

8.3% 28.3% 35.0% 15.7% 12.6%

Managerial Support

53 The management of the school supports the concept of teams

1 24 88 120 21 3.54 0.79 H

0.4% 9.4% 34.6% 47.2% 8.3%23 The management/principal

supports the concept of teams

2 23 81 116 32 3.60 0.85 H

0.8% 9.1% 31.9% 45.7% 12.6%

Communication/ Cooperation

34 I frequently talk to other teachers in the school besides the teachers of my team

25 48 45 102 34 3.28 1.20 M

9.8% 18.9% 17.7% 40.2% 13.4%

20 There is little competition between my team and other teams in the school

32 79 85 44 14 2.72 1.07 M

12.6% 31.1% 33.5% 17.3% 5.5%

48 Teams in the school cooperate to get the work done

1 16 73 146 18 3.65 0.72 H

0.4% 6.3% 28.7% 57.5% 7.1%

Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Context

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Table 4 shows the responses of participants for the theme ‘process’. Items 54, 38 and 17 measures team characteristics under the sub construct potency. Majority of the participants agree to all three (58.7%, 49.6% and 48.0%). The mean scores indicate that the specified characteristic is high among teachers for all the items. Items 52, 56 and 28 measures team characteristics under the sub construct social support. Majority of the participants agree to items 52 and 28 (45.3% and 38.2% respectively) while majority of the participants are not sure to item 56 (41.3%). Means scores for the three items are, however, all high.

Items 42, 57 and 8 measures team characteristics under the sub construct workload sharing. Majority of the participants agree to all the items (52.0%, 36.2% and 47.2%). While the specified characteristic is high among teachers for item 42 it is medium for items 57 and 8.

Items 40, 46 and 26 measures team characteristics under the sub construct communication or cooperation. While majority of the participants agree to item 40 and 26, majority of them strongly agree to item 46 (49.6%, 46.5% and 52.4%). The specified characteristic is high among teachers for all the items.

Item

Stat

emen

t

SD D N A SA Mea

n

Std.

Dev

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

Potency

54 Members of my team have great confidence that the team can perform effectively

1 12 60 149 32 3.78 0.74 H

0.4% 4.7% 23.6% 58.7% 12.6%

38 My team can take on nearly any task and complete it

0 16 71 126 41 3.76 0.80 H

0.0% 6.3% 28.0% 49.6% 16.1%

17 My team has a lot of team spirit

5 31 47 122 49 3.70 0.98 H

2.0% 12.2% 18.5% 48.0% 19.3%52 Being in my team, gives

me the opportunity to work in a team and provides support to other team members

3 35 70 115 31 3.54 0.92 H

1.2% 13.8% 27.6% 45.3% 12.2%

56 My team increases the opportunities for positive social interaction

2 13 105 104 30 3.58 0.80

0.8% 5.1% 41.3% 40.9% 11.8% H

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28 Members of my team help each other out at work when needed Workload sharing

1 42 47 97 67 3.74 1.04 H

0.4% 16.5% 18.5% 38.2% 26.4%

42 Everyone in my team does their fair share of the work

2 32 53 132 35 3.65 0.90 H0.8% 12.6% 20.9% 52.0% 13.8%

57 No one in my team depends on other team members to do the work

15 56 68 92 23 3.20 1.07 M

5.9% 22.0% 26.8% 36.2% 9.1%

8 Nearly, all the members of my team contribute equally to work

20 51 49 120 14 3.22 1.08 M

7.9% 20.1% 19.3% 47.2% 5.5%

Communication/ Cooperation

40 Members of my team are very willing to share information with other team members about our work

4 22 66 126 36 3.66 0.88 H

1.6% 8.7% 26.0% 49.6% 14.2%

46 Teams enhance the communication among people working on the same product

17 11 73 133 20 3.50 0.95 H

6.7% 4.3% 28.7% 52.4% 7.9%

26 Members of my team cooperate to get the work done

2 42 48 118 44 3.63 0.98 H

0.8% 16.5% 18.9% 46.5% 17.3%

Table 4 Descriptive Statistics for Process

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Table 5 shows the response for the 11 items of team effectiveness as perceived by teachers. All except items 5 and 10 gives a high mean rank indicating that teachers perceive their teams as highly effective.

Item

Stat

emen

t

Mea

n

Std.

Dev

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

15My team consistently produces high quality work.

3.67 0.97 H

7

I have an effective service team to solve students’ teaching and learning (T&L) problems.

3.61 1.61 H

30My team managed to achieve the required level of productivity.

3.72 0.91 H

5Sometimes, my team takes more time to complete the tasks.

2.57 0.91 M

14I complete the task under the provisions provided.

3.54 1.04 H

10

I rarely work with teams to produce innovative services.

2.88 1.2 M

2My team acts quickly to problems and opportunities that arise.

3.58 0.91 H

3I am very happy to have friends in my team.

3.97 0.93 H

29

My team managed to meet all performance expectations

3.68 0.86 H

4

The members of my team showed commitment / initiative for the task given to them

3.66 0.97 H

6Frankly, I am very satisfied with the work I do.

3.97 2.54 H

Table 5 Team Effectiveness as perceived by Teachers

Table 6 shows the response for the 11 items of team effectiveness as perceived by managers (principals). All except items 4 and 6 gives a high mean rank indicating that managers rate their teams as highly effective.

Item

Stat

emen

t

Mea

n

Std.

Dev

Inte

rpre

tatio

n

1 My team consistently produces high quality work.

3.92 0.81 H

2 I have an effective service team to solve students’ teaching and learning (T&L) problems.

3.98 0.7 H

3 Achieve the required level of productivity.

3.62 0.57 H

4 Sometimes take more time to complete the tasks.

2.46 1.04 M

5 Complete the task in accordance under the provisions provided.

3.6 0.87 H

6 Rarely produces innovative services.

3 1.05 M

7 Act quickly to problems and opportunities that arise.

3.69 0.81 H

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8 Expresses job satisfaction. 3.4 0.91 H

9 Successfully meets the overall performance.

3.79 0.54 H

10 Shows a high commitment and initiative towards tasks assigned to them.

3.77 0.85 H

11 Often working with members of other teams.

3.73 0.95 H

Table 6 Team effectiveness as perceived by managers

Table 7 shows the results of the regression test performed in order to answer research question 3. By using multiple regression test, the table below shows no significant regression model between Process, Job design, Context and Interdependence to Team effectiveness, in which the value F= .379 with p > 0.05. The model of this regression equation, predict variables to give a contribution of only 3.1 % to team effectiveness. None of the predictor variables demonstrated any significant impact.

VariablesTeam

effectiveness t PB β

Process .215 .210 1.101 .276

Job design -.063 -.050 -.227 .822

Context -.080 -.066 -.457 .650

Interdependence -.032 -.029 -.154 .878

R2 = .031 (3.1 %) and F =.379 with p>0.05

Table 7 Regression Test on the effect of Process, Job design, Context and Interdependence to Team effectiveness

DISCUSSION

The first research question sought answers for the existence of team characteristics among the teachers. The results reveal that for the first construct of job design, gets a mean rank of medium to high indicating that the principal and the teachers participate in the decision making process to a level of acceptance. According to Cohen and Ledford (1994) a study highlights on the effectiveness of self-managed teams in a telecommunication company showing that the company managed to increase their quality, customer service, productivity where the team members are highly satisfied with their work. This is, in fact, reflected in the results for team effectiveness which obtained a high mean rank for almost all the items.

The findings of the theme ‘context’ show that only one characteristic namely, managerial support (no.53 and 23) show mean values at high levels. The item 53 states ‘the m a nagement of the school supports the concepts of teams’. Likewise the item 23 says ‘the management or the principal of the school supports the concept of teams’. Based on this finding it can be seen that, the top management, especially the principal s ’ support and promote the concept of teams in the schools of Male’. Similarly, th e study of Hashim (2010) also mentions that the top management, especially principals’ support and promote the concept of teams in the schools.

One of the characteristics under the theme context is tr a inings. The findings of this study disclose that for all the three items (no.55, 37 and 50) the mean is at a moderate

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level. This implies that schools rarely provide the technical training for teachers on team building. According to Persley (1999) as cited in Hashim (2010), trainings include the philosophy of work team, team decision-making, interpersonal skills and technical knowledge. The productivity of an organisation will increase when all team members have adequate trainings and they will adapt themselves to their environment and their tasks.

The findings for the theme ‘process’ signify that all the three items (no. 54, 38, 17) of sub construct ‘potency’ show a high mean value. This means that the level of confidence, team spirit, self-efficacy and high expectancy exist among the members of the team which is supported by similar studies by Hackman (1997) and Guzzo and Shea (1992). However, in a similar study, Hashim (2010) reveals that the same sub-construct potency shows a high mean value for only item number 54 which measures strong confidence.

The findings reflect that the level of workload sharing is at a high level according to the perception of teachers. Hence the team members would be more satisfied with the job. This finding is in line with Gersick (1988) which says that workload of the organisation requires the employees to interact and discuss with each other to achieve the purpose.

The second research question tries to evaluate the effectives of the teams. In general results for this section reveal that, as compared to some of the previous studies, Maldivian teachers rate the effectiveness their teams little lower (Hashim, 2010).

Meanwhile, it is also noticed that there is not much difference in the perception of teachers and principals with regard to effectiveness of teams. The mean scores indicate that both teachers and principals (managers) marked 9 out of the 11 items as high.

The regression analysis that was performed did not show any significant model, which means that there is no significant impact of any of the four themes in the design on the effectiveness of the team. Though there is a tiny contribution of 3.1%, this model is not found to be significant. Previous study, however, found some of the factors (items) having significant influence on team effectiveness (Hashim, 2010). That study considered individual items as the independent variable whereas in this study, the total of each of the four themes are used. As such, it is possible even if the none of the themes are revealed not to be having any significant influence on team effectiveness; some of the item within the construct could still demonstrate such impacts.

Implications

The findings of this study outline several implications for the work team leader to promote effectiveness of work team in schools. School principals should encourage potential aspects (team spirit or confidence) to each members of the workforce in their leadership. The effectiveness of the workforce in schools depends on the ability of the team leader to influence and help team members improve their work as a team. Thus the role of the level of knowledge, skills and abilities to

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perform work as a team among teachers should be realised.

The principal must determine when and how to encourage teachers in schools receive training on teamwork in schools. In doing so, a principal must understand and evaluate the demographic and historical background performance of members of work teams and teams working in schools under their auspices.

CONCLUSION

The results revealed that team characteristics exist at moderate to high levels while team effectiveness is rated high among both teachers and managers. It is also found that, there is no significant difference in perception between teachers and principals towards team effectiveness in schools. Additionally none of the domains of team characteristics predicted team effectiveness. Thus, it is essential to review team characteristics in the context of Maldives so as to improve team effectiveness in schools.

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Table of Contents

Forward 3

Acknowledgement 4

Editorial 5

WRITING CHALLENGES AMONG ARAB EFL LEARNERS AT UNIVERSITY LEVELAbdullah Humaid Abdullah Al Abri

7

EXPLORING THE SKILL CHALLENGES AND TEACHER’S PERCEPTION IN THE ADOPTION AND UTILIZATION OF ICT IN SCHOOLS OF ADDUAishath Shibana

18

EVIDENCE OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TEACHERS’ LEADERSHIP STYLE PRACTICES FOR LEARNING AND STUDENT ACADEMIC PRESS/EMPHASISHairuddin Bin Mohd Ali, Hemathy Kunalan and Aniyath Ali

31

MOOC IN MALAYSIAChee-Keong Chong, Mahmud Bin Hj. Abd. Wahab, Chee-Heong Lee and Chong-Heng Lim

50

HOW DO TEACHERS PLAN THE LESSON? A CASE OF MALAYSIAN PRE-UNIVERSITY TEACHERS’ PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES FOR ENHANCING STUDENTS’ INTELLECTUAL QUALITYNor Asniza Binti Ishak and Hazri Bin Jamil

64

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEAM CHARACTERISTICS AND TEAM EFFECTIVENESS AMONG TEACHERS IN MALE’ Mariyam Dhooma Moosa, Mohammed Sani Ibrahim, Visal Moosa, Ahmed Mohamed

76

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