Univers

ity of

Cap

e Tow

n

Univers

ity of

Cap

e Tow

n

The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non-commercial research purposes only.

Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author.

(a) The Text

As the title t ·mplies, at this stage I am not embark ing on a complete text-book of Bsca, but am attempting t o make an ex­pos! tion 0 f those phone tie anr1 grammat ieal fentuJ'Ies or . aca that are not snared with etandard Zulu allfl standard Xhosa. S tress has there~ore been laid on the differentiae a~ neon. M7 i nvestigation r eYeala t hat the most remarkable diN'erences are chterly phonological and roo.rphclogieal, and that ayntaotica differeneea are practically negligible in quantity. 'Por this· reason, no section of this dissertation 1a deyoted to syntax a n s nch. Perhaps there:rore, a more suitable title would have been " Some Peatures u£ the 11honetic and Morpbrlogi~al Structure of Baeau; but since under some of the beadings it has been f'otJnd necessary to give a fairly detailed a~co,mt of the syntactical uae of certain t"orms, the present title ought to · be acceptable.

(4) Soundshifting

_ The :following are the sound-shinings th.nt distinguish Baea :rrom Zulu and Xhosa on the one hand, and bring 1 t nearer t Swazi*on the other:-

(a) Primgrz ?loa1ves

> Ur-Be.1ntu t tsb. e.g. -tehatht'u (three ) , let:Jha (bring).

(b) yowels ft • > ..

1. 1 or .... e.g. iait16a (pool), tn'somi (rabl e).

" a > n &r li. e.g. tshandza (love), phlsi (belo"').

(o) ~ssal Oomuounde "-:;.

UP-13antu nd"" nd.z. e.g. lindza ( ffllB.rd), 1ndza6a (matter).

" nt > nts. e.g. 1ntsa6a (mcunta1n ' , intsambo (thong) .

(d) Vowel Inf'luence on OOnaonantf! .

Or-Bantu ti 7 tahi. e.g. -tshi (sQ') , umtshi (tree).

" tu > t.hfu. e.g. -tshathf'u (three), -thf"Uma ( send).

"6! > ti. ft 1! > ti.

e.g. umtt (Yilla~o), ti~ <~~tlexive atf1x).

e.g. 1mbuut1 (goat), umhlut1 (gravy) .

{e) Nasal Gom"JOunds before Close Vowels

Us-Bantu ndt> nti. e.g. inkunti (bull), ithf'unti (shade) •.

" mb! 7 nti. e.g. 'ln 'htanti (f'iab).

of' ni

U~nntu ni +a ~ n's. e.g. Tn 'somi (fabl e), ~tn'suku (days).

•• n1 + 't ..; m'r. e.g. t13'rene (baboon), t'lty'f'udvo (to:r­to1sea).

" nl + h1 > n'bl. e.g. ettn'hlanu (t-1ve) , 1.1n'hla6o (sort

*All collOluslons on Swazi are based upon Dr. Kngelbrecht's " Swazi Texts wi'b Hotee".

(g) consonants

tJr-Bantu twa "> thtwa. e.g. thf'Wala (bear), iq,et~wana, dimin. or 1mpetht'u (maggot)

"

..

lfa > .ta.- e.g. khatshata1 causative of' khatshala (be tired) , veta, zausative of' vela (appear).

ntwa -;. nttwa. e.g. 1ntNana, d1m1n. ofA intro ( th1l'lg), ,.mntt"Wana, dimin. o t' umtfu (p erson).

!

~ ndwa )' ndzwa or ndV"na. e .g. tshsndzwa. (be loved) , umsindvwana, dimin . of> urmindYo (nola

9ome or these ar·:- flurthcr discus s ed in r el a tion to morphology.

( 5) Teke t.a or Tahe~la?

'l"hese so,IIld-ahifi 1ngs alone distinguish Baca f"rom a l l the !fguni dialects spoken in the Transke1, except Ntlangwini (1s1Z&n'si, as the Baca people call it) . To my several 1n­ftH•mr::n ta who h e:;;d n ever heard Swazi c;t:ken - in ~act, only those VlhO m ve been t o the mines have hea~ Swazi - I read extracts t"rorn Dr. Engelbrecht's ;,wazi Texts with !totes. I had tmnse~ibed these extracts in Ot-ll er to rrlve the { mpi-ession I thnt they were specimens or Bnca that I had aol lectod el se-where. rtot one of the inf'ormants, however, !"ailed to detect 1

th(!' morphological di'f"i"er encca, and the remark alway's was, 1 ''ATe kuh1s13aca leso" (That is not Rac a ) . On l esm1ng that 1 t w W'J Swazi, they invaxaiably remarked, "K'antsi na."TTa2waz1 aya - ~ tshef'ula!" (So the Swazis tsh~l!a too!) And this brings up the quest -ton: what do the Ngunis ~-eallJ" understa nd b;,~ the words tekela and thefula? I not1ee that s ome writers, e. g . Dr. r;nge1Iirecht, use the term thet\J.la f"or wh at the Ngunis in the Tranakei know as teketa, arid others, e .g. vrigc , guoting Bcyant, use tekela f'or cliAt the Transkeian .Ngunis know as tehe:rul.~. The Biicas a re v er y proud t o t ell anybody who ridi­cu!es t1e~ r dialect, ··Tshina manacn siya tehef'Uln . ASi th1: 31tshi. Asenzi: siy-cnta". It is quite obviouslit that by the word tsq~ula the :Sa cas mean the sound-shift lnga ttn t distinguish their manner of speech r r-om the Sll!•round1ng dialects. an the otner hrm1 , in a l l -the Transkeian Ngun1 dlalectg thllt I lr..now of , the term l,eketf means the "dental1za­t1on" or alveola~ consonants. that Is, , a, s, becoming t, ~' ! respectively, nnd the palatalization or 1, that 1s, I becoining ,y; and tekgtt 1s understood to mean, no t d i al ect1-e al sound-shit'tings, ut individ'l&l defects or speech.

I am no t at a11 suggesting tha t these t wo words have been incorreotly used by th e wr1 ters t o ·.vhom I hav e ref> erred . I presume that they have the s ame meanin;s i n Swazi a n in ZUlu. But what l · ~m tmng t o point out is that the origina.l eign1f'1eance o? these t wo words stUl req·uires some tnvestl­gat1on; and meanwhile , anyt>ody who tr i es t o suggest to the Bacaa that the l a nguage they hnve 1nhe r1 t e d f'rom 'Fbalime/e and Madz1kane ia net ukutshe:f"llla but ukutekcta wil l p robably nacalnnd minus hie dign{ey!

(6) -l!asal ;Jon3onants bef ore ? r1cat1voo

l'. nother 1nterea t i ng r"ea t ure of Baca phonolO~J i s t he t en­de r~y of nasal consonants to disappear bef oPe frica t ives , in specific c ases leav tng the1 r 1nf"luence on th :~· p Pe r-·ed1ng vowel. This h a3 de:rtnitely happened i n r- ~c-ard t o the a dverbs phlisi (below) , edas1 (at the bottom), where t he bo~rganic nasal has di sappeared be:f"orc a, and lef"t 1-ts t r ace on the preoediQ P: low vowel \?h ich han become A, and 1n connection with the

relat1 ves sundvu (dark-red),. 6oYU {red) which remain ntsundu, 5orr!Yu respectively in Zulu-Xhosa. The rorm 5oYU is even more r,mai'k:able because it rtl'f'eals a tendenc~r t o extend to the •oieed ~r1cat1ves a phenomLnon that is at present more preva­lent be f.'ore yoiceleas flricatives. In tact, 6ovu is the only instance I know o~ tne dieappearanoe or the nasal before a voiced f'riaative.

Where atlll ~tained before voiceless :rric a t i Y0th the nasal consonant ia all but in1:1udible , exce pt in the speech o!" ·:acas I'Nho haYe been inf'lueneed by- 11 epel11ng pronunciation" of standard Xhosa. In f"ac t I a m convlneed tnat i n cob't'Grs ation JOOst i "'J.. ite l'ute nacas drop the nasal consonant b e:Core t, a, h1 {pHon ); lnatead of tm'flmdvo, 1n'aimb1, !n'hlo~o. one otten heard 1:t'tlndvo, 1s1:mbi, 1hlo1~o respectivelY'• But e.e soon aa a sp~>: a~-:er noticed that I was st:rai ning my cur to eateh (JYery aonnd, the nasal . b ecame qn1 te audible.

The ctraumstancea in which the high 'forward vowel is na3al1zed anrl the succee ding nasal consonant s o.rtened are discussed in Chapter I. Exeept in thia e hapter , where the vowel i :"! mnMed -, ! have use J the same aymbol:1 ~('I' these aountls .ns f'or the princi al members of' their respective phonemes.

(6 )

In !mahiaana' s area many roreign phonetic and morpholo«i­cnl elements are to be heard. This is due t o s eve1~a1 ctm~ea, o:r which r muy mention the :t'"ollowing :-

(1) A large nnmber o'f ueolightened" Bncas vr!lO' have been taught tG look down upon their ~ther-tongue.

(11) 1nter-~trr1age with neighbouring tribes.

{ 111) 1 mm1grnnts f'rom neighbouring tribes.

My home at ' lbokothwana*· haY i ng been f'aV01.lrubly s1 tuote4 f'or a c.onstdet>nble knol'lledge of at least three o r the other· dialects, I was in a position to detect r:10st of the ttorms that Baca shares with them ns against standard Xhosa. A' Chief Wa6ane' s inkundla I b eard sneh forms as e70 mbuuti ( that goat), kweya nd!u ( in tha t hut). which I kne w t o be !!pondo, 1hat/h1 (horse) , 1 t/hwni (ten) which I knew t o be !lporidomise, and ut / alwa (been), sindleka'** (provide "!:or ex­pected guest) wtlioh I knew to be IO.u61.

These and other fo~s were t:ndigaantly rejected by Utf int"01--mants as "ukuboba kweemt'ika-6u.rnin1~' (the Sr>eech o r re­cent at•rivals or "u1tlanders" ) . I have discarded all such ae ,non-Baea forms. On the other hand thePe are :features in corDDX>n, e.g. tlle Hegative Pnst subjunctive , the "inclusive" Imperat i ve suojunctive nnd the Negative in -ve, the last shared with Mpondo only. 'Joat of the forme I x-e~er· t o have been of'ten ela}med as !tcort·upt f'o rma o f' XhoaaH by examiners and teaebet"a ..

* In Tsolo d i ~trict.

**Very likely a-e as e o f' transposition. Of. hlinzeka ( Zulu­Xboaa), and blinteka (Baca) .

'

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(8) The rnnuen.ce of r.othp

.4. concentr&t·ed lexieologtcal stud~r of' Baca ma.v perhaps reYeal ~ everal words or Sotho origin. £~o far l have bee n able to cUe­cover twc:t~ s tleh wortts. Yiz. amawnl'I<ITtJ ( 111r0llen boOWts~ or. Sotho ma-etn) Rfid. indYtum (beer ffr.-e~ dp,1nk t5y old men, o~. SothO 'tlSn"O'. • 8ee also on. VI. p. 43, (11'1 ) a. Th~~ words ~fll' hat'e been ntoened'.f d'Jl"'~l'lg the b!'1ef" (t()ntact 1 n the days or Madz1~ane and t.toshGeehoe.

The "1M1lt~1-.e'* I~erat1~ Snbjunoti've (ttee Oh. VII, p. 52, (X{ d) ) is possibly to be explained in the eaMe wa:r, and th1s i s most probehle see:ln • thAt i t is n :rentnre shared with Hlu61 which, ae 1e wel J-known, has b~en in eon teet wt th s otho eYer since the L1:rafjne. J.arge aub-eection~ of' thie tribe l ert Herschel, Ma.ta e1e and 't. ?letcher and. r~ettle~ w1 th the ~on~ond.ses in C).Umbu and Teolo districts abcnt the end or last centm-y, and they may be responsible !'or the presence of' this feature in Mpondomise.

(9) Conol1.19j.on

s tr.:> any- p:roY1mls rel atto'18h · p ~tw~n the ,~~azta and the Bacas 1 have no aut hoPi ty,. r have oonnttl ted several h1sto:r1ea 'l :records in Yain. But in the trad1t1· nsl history of the BacruJ "UDlam1n1" and "kwaDlamini" -rigure 1! great ,:leal, but this is no proof t.hat the eontact we" in Dlem1n1 's days. The ~amous Madzikane ls seid t o have leamt. ''kwaDlamini" and :practised auch magie as even Merlin never knew. As chief o t' the Baeae he rest-ed a lax-ge hero of heife~s wh1eh nc•Yer m1 xed with other cattle. In dooto:ring hie warriore, Yadzikane mme these heif"et~s produce unlimited qu.antit1 "8 o f.' milk by hitt ~ eaoh b~trer on the p elvis with his magic wand. The warrio1"8 .red. 1.)n tb1a milk and on nothing else for ee:veral days betOl'e they went to battle. aad woe to any al"m1' that dare OPJ"OBe their flieroe o...,laugb.\1 Madzikane is said to hnve been bx-ought up "kwa.1Jlom1n1"wbere he 1 ('~ 8l'nt this unheard-of u6utsh1.

'hat a plot, l f. Mof'olo could get hold of" 1 t! nut it does oot oolve the d.if':f'1Ctll ties of' a prosaic investigat or oe such thin ·:-e as soundah1~t1nge etc. or him thl.e f'1nc l egend deael'Yea no mre than a a~lcal, oondeeeend1ng emile.

1. The speech sounds of" Baca do 'lot di·N"er muoh f'rom those of" stand.a..r: d Xhosa and stand.ard Zul'l. :·:xocnt f"or- the na~altze.d mitt-vowel ~ and the nasalized high-fol'"ward vowel t, the vowel system 1A the same; the eon!llonant ayetem includes three heterorgan_le oompound<J which are no t. f"oun1 i n .~ : hosa ard Znl . ~ s these compounde have more than one articulation, · it 1 e not eaey to g1Tc them precise bri e~ names . I haT<;; there­rore tried to describe the~ as closely as possibl e , giving them t~ntat1Ye nBmee uh1eh. I expect wil l sound ae clumsy to ethers as they do to me.

:th<-: Vowels

2. Ther·-: ;l ! ·o nine vowels in Baca, Yiz:-' .

t, t, e,C.,. a, ~. , u , o, u.

- 6-

z. t (high ~or~ard vowel). Ex,: 1mit8h1 (trees); 1alt15a (J)Ool) ;- tshina (we); 111ve (country).

4. I (nasaliz~d high ~orward vowel). Rx.: !~ene (babonn) J - !mf'undYO ··education); 'tnsomi { :rable) 1 1.ne1mb1 ( iron) 1nhloko (head) ; tlnhlalta (doors ) . 'fh1s VO•IEll is fonnd before a nasal preceding u voioelese denti-labial _ z-.ioa tive or a vo1oele8s alveolar rrioative.

5. e (the alose mid-rorward vowel). Ex.: atulu ( above) J ixhe~1 {old man); leti (these); umse6ent1 (work) .

G. e (the open mid-forwarr,t vowel). Ex.: uoaphe {spoon); ulCheleket/hane (f'alcon); 1nkwenkwe (boy) .

7. _ a (the low vowel). Ex.: 6amba ( se138) ; 1Baea (a Baoa) l khamba (go);~ tshathnl (thl'~e).

a. ft (the nsealized low vowel). ThiR ls a verY rare vowel, eo t-ar round. in tw,:. words onl ''• It ia follow ed by the voiceless :t'riantive a which mus t original l y have been preceded b.y a nasal in tneae two words. The words are : phna1 (below ) ; edltsi ( at the bottom). As is well known, the cor responding \'.tords in Xhosa and Zulu ret a in the nasal.

9. ·~ (the open mid-back vowel) • Ex. : 1dvolo {-nee ) ; 1thfole (oclr); umgodla (bag); e~oza (Mpoza).

10. o (the e l ose mid-baok vowel). Rx. 6o~ (red); goo'Y'tlka (go home); int.fombi (mauen); lo6u (thi.s ) .

]1. u (the high back vowel). Ex.: ametutsha ( ~nt ) ; u61ldze (length) t Ulutshi (ro4); umntf"u (person •

(1) Velars

12. k (the radicnl Yelar ploeive). Ex.: 6oka (put); bideka (be oonf\u~ed ~ J 1njakat1 (bitch); ulrndlri (f'ood).

13. kt (the ejective velar ploe1ve). Ex. : 1nka61 (ox) ; 11nk.oto (grains); -nkulu (big).

14. kh (the aspiz-ated velar ploeive). "·:x.: kha (tlraw); kha6a (kick) : kakhttlu (gore fitly); ukhun1 (fire-wood) .

15. g (the voieed velar ploeive). Ex.: ugadvugadvu (su~:l:ried punpkin ehips); gijirna (run) ; g'IT<M3a (judge); umgagodla (bo~y animal ) .

( 11) Alveolars

16.t (th~ radioal alveolar ~losive). Rx.:-t3 (come); t eka (get a wite); umti .(v111agen itolo (yesterday) . •

17. t' (th~e~ective alveolar plosive). 2%.: enta (do); umlentc (leg): 11ntlpho (ala .. ) .

18. th (the asp1t~ted alveolar ploalve) . Ex.: thatha ( take)i thetl1a (argue) ; amathidala (misgivings); isithupha (thurnb;.

19. d (the voiced alveolar plosive) . Kx.: edasi (at the

- 7 ....

bottom); naand1 (he~e it is); bida (conruse ) .

(111) Bi-labials

20. p (the rad13a1 bi-lahial e.xplosive ) . This seems to oecnr only in borrowed WO!'Iif:h Ex.: 1pen1 (penny) ; ipondi ( pom'ld ~'.

. 21. p' (the ejeotive til-labial explosive). Ex.: iupath:ro

{treatment); umpenge (cough); 11mpondvo (horns); impotu (eland) J 1hlvte!'npu (pauper).

22. ph (the asp ira t ed bi-labial eXnlos i ve) • Ex.: hlonipha ( hlonipba); pbe l a ( b e ft nished) l 1phiko (win g) ; phola (be eool); pmmtl" (go out).

23. b (th~ voiced bi-labial exp·loaive}. Ex. : bala (write)i beka {lock); boba ( speak); bula (thresh) .

L 2~. 6 (the bi-labial i l'ftDlordve ) . Ex.: a8anttu (people); .4eka (put); -6in1 (two); 5ona (see); · 6uya ( ret~u·n) .

(1v} ~Tasals

20. m (the b1-labia1 nasal). Ex.: amant! (wateP) J merna ( invite) ; -mdtshi (pregnant) ; u~na (jealousy) .

25. m (syllable! m). It is :round mostly b e f or e ~r1eat1vee and plosivee before whieh preeeding u- has bee n elided. T~ x:.: umrat t (woman : ; ums1ti (eoot}; umthfombo (f"ounta1 n); unt~hateh1 (space i n b ct~en).

27. mh (th~ aspirated bi-labial nasal ) . Ex:.: umbana ther); mhemha (earrt on the ~aek).

28. m (the denti-labial nasal, phon. ~). It i s found be­fore the voiced denti-labial t"rtcative v 1ri the combination , , ~ Ex.: inwula ( re1n); 1mYelsph1 ( souree); imv"ttml wano (agreement)"~

~'\ '

29. m ( the syllabic denti-labial nasal ) . I t i s ~ouna be­fore the voiceless denti-labial fricative f. This i a a very aort denti-labia·l nasal, almost inaudible among the Bacus of Ypoze. Ex.: imrene (baboon} ; imfe (sweet reed); 1mf"uodvo (learning).

30. n {the alveolar nas al ) . It is found be!"otte a 11 vowels as well as in tlie oombinatione nt, nts, nd~ ndz, ndl. Ex.: n'tana (son); em1n1 (a,t day-time); ent a (do , ; 1ntsa.5a (mountain) : ukundinga (to :M.y); indza6a matteze) J amandla (strength).

31. n (the s yllabi c alveolar nasal). It i s round be~ore the Yoicelesa horrr>tlganto :fr1oat1 ve a s and h1 . A:1ong the Baaas or Mpoza, thio nasal, like tbe denti-labial before f , 1s all but imp erceptibl e . Ex. : 1ns 1m1 (~1eld ) ; 1nsom1 (fnble) ; . 11nhlaka (doors ) ; inblitiyo (heart); inhloko (head).

32 • . ny (the palatal nasal, phon. ;'). It 1a f'omtd bef'ore vowels as vrell as in ejective c :.:mb1nat1ons bef'ore homorgan ic a t":rircates. Ea.: ur.nyatt (basket); unyoke (your mother) ; 1nt/engula (sn~r spo n); inja (dog) .

. -33. nyh (the aspirated palatal nasal ) . '! hi a 1~ a very rar4

sound. Ex.: -nyhent i (many).

34. n (the ,.elar nasal, phon. rt ). r t 18 f"ottnd b efOre the homor•gan ie plos1 yes k and f• .sx.: 1inonk:ala-nksla (arab) f -nkulu (big) 1 uga.nga (h111; ; ngemb111 (ahead) .

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(Y) Fricat1yes

35. r (the voiceless denti-labial fricative ) . Ex.: -ra ( 41e); 1s1f. e (field oi' s\';eet reed); umrana ' ~ung man); umf"o {gentleMn); :rt1la (t"or.age); f'utsh1 (again).

36. v (the voiced denti-labial f'r1cat1ve). 7-~x. : Tala (eloee); tltvc (oo~,~ry); ilivi (voice); ¥Ula.(open) . .

37. B (the voiceless al'V'8olar ~1cat1'\'8). F.x.: iaandla (hand); ae-nga (mllk); 1sioambtl (rnat); aote~ (never!): 8'188 (r~oove); 6oniswc ( be 9hown) .

38. ~ (the veiced alveolar f'ricati.ve : . li:xccpt in place names and in honurgnnie ~onnds this s Ollftd ia very rare. Ex.: e• tpozn ( nt ·•poza); chaza (~lain); inchaza (round bcer­•r1nk1ng vessel)~ !41kazi (concubine).

39. I (the vo1ce1 e!I!R palatal f'rtcatiw). Ex.: iha/1 (bor~e); /1ys (leave behind); 1/nmi (ten).

40. ~ (the voiced palatal ~ricat1ve) . Bx.: ·- aca {be 1 "8ft); 1-. ~a (brown claY used ·f'or dre <Js 1fl.:";' wo-men • a· hnir'; ngo.;.waca (in th~ even .~ng) .

41. - ~ {the voicele~~ valaP t"r1cat1Ye). Ex .. : 1 anqn ( eurroun.d)a bn . ateka (:ttall whole l ength); o~dea ( w1 tbiraw}; julrt (pull). ·

42. g ; {the voiced velar rr1cat1ve). Ex.: g -nr; ama (growl); g ~ama (eat menlies tn their stalks) ; g uzuk (be bruised).

43. h (the vo1eelens glottal frieotive). It ts vei7rare . Ex.: huhut a (let in draught) ; hf (or striking on the head).

44. h (the- voiced f;lo ttal fricative, phon. h,). lha/1 (horse); 1a1hu1a t~ol); huwe (it is you).

~x.:

45. r (the rolled alveolar t'rioat i ve) . This i s f"ound only in borrowed words. While " school" Baeas use t his sound, the illiterate oneu translitera te it te 1. This "ochool" BaOs3 say 1orenj1 (orange) -~ umntrae1 (mattregs), whi le the illiterate say 1olenj1, umsttlaal resp.

(Yl) .T..ateral G•t asonants

46. 1 (the voiced elyeolar lateral). ex.: lala (sleep); l11\/e (stone); letsha (bring); uluti (bark used as fibre ~ .

47 ... hl (the v-o1oelesa :rr tc::: tive alTeolar l ateral , phon • .+--), l;l:z.: umhlanhla (tooth gap) ; hleka {laugh) ; amehlo ( eyea) •

48. dl ( th~ voiced 1.'r1cat1'f'e al~olar lateral, ~hon • . j i ) • Rx.: 1dlonga (ntlture); 1ndle5e (ear1: dliaa (poison , ; dlll~a (pasn).

C e) Cor;mo'!nd ConsGnants,

(1) H01'!1Dl'"!an1o 09mJ?onnda or Aft'r1cetes

(1 ) T~bial Atrr1catce

49. my the T01ced denti-labial affricate, ~hon. ~ ) . Ex.: 1mru1a (ra in); im¥elaph1 (souree ) ; amahlarnvu (rcrns ) .

(11) Alveolar A!Aric·ates

50 . :ts (the vo1cele :.3s alveolar affricate, e,ject i ve ) . It it f.Qund in 1ta simpl e f'o rm and in t he co'mbinatien nts. Ex.: ts1tss (ooze); 1t1nta i (rods); i ntaa6a (ak->:mtain) .

51.. tsh (the aspirated alveolar affricate). It f g f'ound mo!ltly bef'ore f"ront vowola. :~: tahandza (love); tehemba ( t,_.,tst); -tshf (say) J phetsha {complete). This attrrioftte is n r:>Ver fVOn, beror,~ b aok vowels except in a rew 1d eor> hones, e.g. tshu (o-r pitch dar!:nees ) . ·

s.-a. dz ( the y.~j1ced alveolar a :rf'ricate ) . I t is f ollnd be­fore ~ront vowels. Ex • . Udzudze (sister); -dzala (old); ekudzen1 (far away): kwedzini (you boy). :aerore baok yowele thi'!! af':rr .! ent~ is foun r1 onl:r in a rew ideophones , ::.g. dzuu ( o-r mnk inP" n hee-11ne ~ . This a.f'fricatt~ is . to~mrl also in com­bination W1 th the homr.ganie nasal n. Ex.: 1ndza6a (mattefl) J endza (get rr.arried, of a womn11 ) ; iqandza (eg).

~ . 53. ndl (the vl1ced lateral alveolar a ff'rioate. pbon.

nd t~J . F.x.: 1ndlaln ( atflM'Htion); lndlele (way) ; indlondlo (epeeiee of mamba) fn ,'lu (hut).

(i11 ) Palatal Af"rl"ioates

54.,. t/ (the vo1cele..., .3 p e:.la t a l aff r i o Bt e , eject, ive ) . x.: it/alo \oale.bash); 111t/e (stone ) : . /ut/wa (be f" inis·hed) . It is a1eo :round in combination w1 th the honr>t-gan1c na.sal poon. J' ) • F~.: ent/ a (new ) ; int/aka rmeal1e flower); int/ ongc {nicotine).

55. t/h (the aspi l"ated palatal a:f"frieate;. . Ex.: , umt/hana (a.t·~ter's obild); t t/hiaa (burn) ; -t;ho (say so ) .

00. j (tht voieed palatal af:r.riaate , phon. :J ,. ) . -r.:x. : jamela (glare at ) f clja (tell lies): ljlki (beer}r geja (miss). It i a alBo f"ourtt1 i n combination with the houorganic nasal , Kx.: 1n;1a_ (dog); manje {now; 1njongo (aim). t "

(tv) Velr:w Af"f'l-1·,ates )

57. k J (the ;voicel ~.::as v elar affrica te ) . ~x.: k ala (wh1te-1"oced) ; k ;fleb n (tan hi dee ) ; k ,-wela (scratoh) ; k

1o6a ~peep).

(2) H$!tero~sn S e no:ppounq'i

The mn:tn consonunts under this houdlog a r•e eombimttiona ot al~reolar 1)1oa1ves wt th denti-ls.binl .fl'icatiYes, the voic:ele3a ploA1Te aomb1ning with the voieelesa rr.ioati ve and tbe voiced plosive with the voieed ~t'"rleat ive. To produce a e onnd o'f ai\V Gt" these ccmb1nat1ol1s , the upper teeth slightly t ouch the lov~p ltp s 1multnnem1sl.y with the alveolar plosion. The breath, eeenping f"orc1bly as a r esul t of' th•::' ploAion, c auses l?r1ot1on between the lower lip and th ·;;: upper t eeth. The s ound thua pro­duced m~y be voiced or vo1aele~s , or aspira ted.

58. tf (the voieel<tss alveolo-dent1-lab1al oompound, ejecti v.e). ? his soUl) ~ 1:· very rare in its indenendent ~orrn, but is vm-;r eomnon '1n- eonjunett0n with the alveolar nasal. It is followed bf bac~-: VOwel s or by the bi-labial s emi-vo\vel. Ex.: utf"olo (arrow J; intt'o ( thing) ; umntf ·l ( pe r11on); urnntfwana (ch114) .

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59. dy (the y otced alveolo-de~ti-labial compound, ejective It is found b<: fore back vowels and b cf'oret ~e b1-:-labia1 semi­Towel.. It ia also tound in eonjtmt'!t1on wt th th<'l n1Tef'·lar na~al, Ex.: :ldvo~o (knee); 1.ndTOdzn ( lft!ln \ ; ltmlendYU (debt)i 1aidvul1 (ant-heap); dvwa6a (f'orac;a for flil'Bt-f'l-u1t ce:Pemr.myJ ..

60. tht (the aspirated al.veolo-denti-labial comnound) . Tt 1s f"oun -1 b df'ore bae~ voweli3 a nd befo~ the bi-labial aem1-Yowel. EL: irrpatb:ro (tzo;:atmen'l); -tehl.lthf'u (three); tht'Uma (send);. tnrwala (otu •ry). ·

61. kh/ ( the aspirnted velar-palatal ·llo~ound) . Only one ~ nra, as 'fa l' as I have been ttble to 1nVest1gt\te., c ontains this sound. Ttiis 1 :~ kh/iK:h/a (strike). Mnond,. has a a1milru• word k hwit/ ba with tne same meaning, and standard Xhosa h&!l the word khwit/ha (shower) and umkhwit./ho (beating shower ) .

rt. y opinion ie thatthe r,fpondo-Xhosa fOrm is the ox•igine one and. that the Baca f"orm is a res11l t o.r rec1~rooa1 .asa1m1lat1c The aspirated Yelar plosive in the ·rtrst· sylla le assimilated the palatal t Which was original 1y in the s econd syll abJ.e, and the palatal t•ricative element 1 11 the second ay].lable has 88-similated the b1~labial send-vowel w in the first a7ll able. Thus

' . khwl > kh/ 1, and t /M ? kh/ a, and theref'ore khwi t / ha ) kh/ ik:h/s. '

Among the Haeua of" ~1poza the plonio 11 of the f irst syllable in this word ia preceded by a round i n g o f' t he lipa, and simultaneous wi th t i: e plosion 1e A sharp withdrawal of the comers o~ the !!V'uth, the· result being an indeterMinate w in the first sylleble. T thin;· t h iB is further ev1denoo of' a prert.ous eXistence o~ w 1 n 'this syllable.

6 2. rrhe Mg,rptr;log!eal I n:t"luenae of' the ~ •asr.tl.e on ? lain £oqsonRn,1!. ,

(1) 1311-osiV..!§

Under t.>l asal f.ambana -6in1 6oleka &1mba

inf luence the bllabiul (hold eaoh other) > (two' ::. {lend) > · (meuld) )

implosive 6 becomes b. Ex. : 1mbembano (dispute etimb1n1 (twn) 1mboleko {le nd ing 1mbmriba (co~act matter)

( 11) Fr ·i:catives ~ or t.nt~ voioeless J~r i. ca'ti vea only the palatal is made ejective by a pPeoeding ·nasal. I~asel + I ·> nt/. Ex. : u/ 1y1 ( eyebrar ) i1nt/iy1 (eyebrows); /ukUmR (roove) > int/ulrumo. uerore the voiceless dent1-labial fricative f, and the alveolar t'riaat1Y• s and hl, the nasal is ao soft that it is " all but inau('tible, especially at Mpozs. I f' the nasal is preceded b ·: the high­forward vowel, this vowel is distinctly nasalized ; bu t the fricative itself' is no t inf luenced by the nasal. Thus :

(a) .Naesl + f' ). mf' (phon. ~'f')

Ex.: f'Uil "_ (].earn) . tmt'unt'tvo llcarninr:r), phon. Im!'u:ndv ~ ?:!~odvla0 (otuo!Z!_istoe'), ( 1

1·m:r1

-.. ~ an.~~ obligation}, phon. "l~an ._ :1 .·.~· ~u ( ~~- ~ uu~u.v tortoises), phon. t:m'ru:a. J.

- 11-

(b) Nastd + e > ns (phon .. n' a).

Ex.: salela !remain) us16a f'eather) US'U~ day)

> lnsalela ~remnant)t pbon. tn'sale:la ~ 11na16a feathers ; ,phon. t:n's1:6a :::. 11neuku days) phon. !:n•su:ku

(a) N'as el. + hl > nhl, phon. n• 4-Ex. : uhlange

·-blaRU uhlo6o

{incision) "> 11nhltmgs (1nc1sicns), pbon.t :n ~}.a:~ {five) > etinhlanu (five) pbon. etin' .. -a::nu ( eort) 11nhlo6o ( a:n-t~s) phon. 1: n ' ., 1 6 -.

(2) The voiced f.Ficatives v, dl (phon. \J and ·~ are all made ejeotive by a preceding na~; al. 'l'hus :- .J ..;

Ex. t (a) Har'Jal + Y '> ., phon. m ~"" " j uvalo (breastbone) '...c ij.mvalo

) 1timv1

(b) N£;\SaJ.. + dl > ndl 7 phon. nd ~ Ex.: d1al~ (play) ">· 1nd.lalo (pla;r), phc;n. ind : a: 1 ~

(c) Jliaa al +· .~ '> nj, phon. lid .._ Ex .• : jamelana (g1are at eoch o(tte"~) > tnjamelwano (mntUHl hatre

phon. 1 id .am .lwa:n · 3onga (aim at) 1njongo.;(a1m), phon.

1 .d . ! g ~.

'fhe voiced alveolar ~icat1Ve z never occurs 1ri1t1n11y in 1 te s1·;;1ple form and therefor e ie nev er preceded directly by a ·nasal. The same applies to all velar and glottal f ricatives, whether voicelesR or voiced.

(111) Aeptrett!S Aapihtea beoorne e~Jeotive unde1~ nasal influence. Thus:-

Ex.:

Ex.: (b ., ne.:>al + kh > nk, I>hDn. nk'. khatehsta ( exaBpe:r-ate) > iokatahato (disturbance), phon.

1 i k'atahat f) ukheleket/hane (falcon) 1inkeleket/hane (falcons), phon.

1: ·jk:.. l ~k .,t/ba: n

(c) J.rnsnl .,. tab > nts, phon. nt.s' ~ iX.: -tsbathlJ.u {'three) "> etintsathf"tl (tlU"ee), p hon.e1:1.nts'a:th

ulutahi ( 1"'0<1.) } 1t1nts1 (rods). phon. 1 ti :nta '1

(d) ltasal + thf" ) nt:r, phon. ntf t ?;x.: u.thi'ul:i ((lust) 7 iintfuli (clo~1ds or Just ) , phon.

•lt•aPe~e-~eJ:e~ 1:ratf'u:11 . u6uthfongo (sleep)> iin.tfongo (gumny Matter in the e~ee),

phon. 1 :ntf'::>: 1lg :.. ... ~hfomba (sprout) "' int,.-omb1 (maiden), phon. 1nt!''o:mb1.

Although the aapiruted palatul af'f'rlcate t/h exists, there do not seem to be~~~Y incidences of nasal influence on it.

63. The relat1onsh1) bet-wee n the Alveolar /1.f'!lricates tah, dz, and th~ 1Jeterorgnnic Compounds tht', dv.

Th e Baca aspirated alveolar• aff:rioate tah (<. Ur-~antu t ) can on ' y be :followed by front Yowcls. Before bac~: vowels tsh b eaomee th:f". This is a ; en in the t' ·· rmation o f' nouns o t' Claaa 9 (s tandard alaasi:r1oat1on) torn verba ending in teha, when final -a beco.'11Ca -o. Her~ tah b •")aomcs th:"" . Ex.: phat.·sha ~handle) > 1I~H1thfo ~r trcatr:1ent)

ch1tsha SlJend) ·· lnoithto eXpenditure) phetsha conol,lde) UI1'1phettho ~,conclusi()n

Consider also the f ollowing:

Yerb cotsha (ealk slowly) n utsns (cut ahort)

V~rb Ideophone cothfota (walk lazily) ooth.t'o-cotl nqutsb.eka ( lieutl.! r r orm) Qtj'nthtu

The voiced alveolar af•f'ricata dz is cirived rrom ·Jx-BaRtu 1 . (n + 1 )' ndz, and ndz-n !>" dz). But d2, 11ke tsh, can be fol­lowed onl:;r by front VOI."Iels. s efnre bae?. Towels dz ~ecomee dy. l!l the i"::>rmation of nouns of Class 9 trom verbs, '~~ben final -a becomes -o. dz becomes. dv • . ;x. : ts handza (love) -, utahandvo (love)

noedza (help ) ~ uncedvo (aaalstanee) qondzn (perceive)~ 1nqhondvo (perception).

Note also thf\mdza (urinat€), umthfuadvo Curine). It 1a quite po9s1ble that umthf'ondvo (penis) also come3 f'rom th..-"'undza. and that an2Jimilutlon o f vowels nos taken place.

~lick Consonants

(1) Dentals

54. c (the plain dental click). t:x.: ioala (side); 1s1camba (mat) ; cela (beg); u6ucopoo (brain)

65. -eh {the aspirated dental elick). Ex.: chana {h1 t); che6s. (sh ~'lll"): chwes u ( ra.vo). _

66. nc (the nssal dental cl10k). Rx.: -noani (s :;Jall); _ nca (or sticking ras.t ) ; need..za (help); 1newadz1 (book).

67. nch (the aa;>i :>oted nasnl dental elick ) . Y- x.: 1ncha (grnsa ) ; 1nch\2be (t"1ra t-fru1t aeremon)"); -mnnchu (sour).

sa. go (the v o! ced don tal click). Ex.: gcagca (elope); -gcelu (seven); igcokwe {ch~eken).

(11 ) r alat t<ls .

69. q {the plain paloto-alveolar cliek). Ex.: 1qe.6sta {drop); iqela (group ) J 1.ll12g'WaQO ( ro ad. ; .

70. qh ( the asp1rat•Jd palato-alveolar ~lick) . Ex.: 1qhinga (trick); u6uqhRf'utu ( of.t1c1ousnese); qheln (be uaed to)

71. nq (the nasal palato-alveolnr click). Ex.: inqawe (pipe); inqina (hoof) ; isinqundvu (tree-sturrp).

72. DCJh ( t"ne aspirated nas al palato-ulveolar c11ok) . Ex.: 1nqhalu/e {smootlT round stone) ; 1nqhina (wi tneas); inqhumbe (wrnt

73. gQ (the voiced palnto-alveolar el1ok ) . 1~. : egqe (jump over); gq11a ( of ~alling over) J unvqu6a (manure) .

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(111 ) Laterals

74. x ( the pla-in lateral click) . J~x.: 1e1xathf'tt6a (ehoe) ; 1xe/a (time); xina (def'eat) ; ibOxo (gate-post ) .

· 75. Xfi (the aspirated lateral oliok ) . K~: ixbnla ( anxiety) ; i.xhegn {old r~mn); xhol R ( hur t t h e eye ) .

76. nx (the na0al lateral click) . ~x.: inxe6a (wound) f inxano ( thil"St); minxa ( elutah); umnxe6a ( ~~e rope.

77 .. nxh. (the agpi:r'atefi ooaal late1'"~u cliek) . Ex.~ nxl\ama (be angPy); unXhawu (,ot); !nxhiwa ( bag); nXh011sa (seold).

78. gx (the ~o~ced l ateral cli~k) . Rx. : iligX& (~oreat); gxot/ha (expel ) ; gxuma ( be startled by "?&tn).

79 .. ~L'he Morn_ho~ogiqal I ntluenoe of__fill_~_}lasal on ;&icjt tionsonante.

ra ) TJnder n8aal inf'l uenee the plein clicks a, q , x heaome HJP,iz-e·t cd nasnl clicks. e > ncb; q ~ nqh; x -,. nxh. ~_ :x. s

calula J an· alyae) "J. incna.lltlo tr analysis ) cinga (think) "' 11nch1nga thoughta } qondzafpei>eeive) > 1nqhond•o mind) q,Umba ·, be wl'atbt'tll ;,, inqhumbo wt-uth) xa6ana · qunM'el ) inxhA6ano g11tlt-rel) xela , re;?O~t ) 1nxbelo (report )

BUT. ueep'he ( a])oon) u qe. gas 1 (ridge)

.., 1incephe ( spoons) 1inqaqas1 (~1dgcs )

(b) 't'b.eas'v1rated clicks ch, qh~· xh, become nasal eli aka ( non­asp1mtr:d) under nasal influence. ch..,. ne; ~h > nq; xh > DX. sx. ch:ttsha (spend) ·:~ tnclthf'o ( expendi ture/wa!!te)

chaza (e. :xnlain.) > ine!izelo (expl.anat1.on) qhut\a (-proceed) ) 1nq;t~6o (procedure) qhataha (ohe. a t ) -, inqath:fo (oheatl~) xhaaa (suppor-t) "> inxa.so (support ) xha:lllekf!(tne.ke e.ffor~ in vain ) :> 1nXAmleko ( Yai n eri'orta)

ao. Thie efi'eets ( 1) naane in tbe locative forma tion,

(11 ) no,m!l! nnd. q':tA.lit'1eat1ves in the ·d1minuti.e for matio n and ( 111) vel'"bs in the passive r.ormetion. As these will be tUlll' discm ... ~sed 'mder the approprtste headinfMJ, let it Sllt.r1ce merel~ to state h er e that :- pb > t/h; 6 .> t/; b ? j; ab ::> nj; m :> DY' l

. I ~ nt, .

AS ie well k nown, palatalization a~fects c hi erfy b1-lsbials, but in the Baca d i min1;tfve f'ormat i !"Jn, as in Zul u , pnlats11znt ' n af:reat ~ t he alveolar• nsa a.l a 3 wel l . n '/' ny.

81. Flieion

I n addition to the elision o~ initial nnd final ~we: there i s a great dea l of' el1e:ion o f whole sy11ablesl' even in the Sf)eeoh of inkunclla orator·s . 1:1 r•..:gard t o the elis1oa of the i ni t1a1 vowel :Baca reveals nothing ocw. Tbe int t ia1 Towe·l

· is elided (1)-iri tne vocative formation, {11 ) afte a demon­strative pronoun, ( 111 ) in· nouna or Clang la at'ter th'l P,OS­aasaive formati'Ye k&, (tT) a:t"ter absolute pronouns of' the let and 2nd. persons and (v) ai'ter emphatic absolute p ronouns.

- 14.-

Exa-.plee:-

(i) ita apba, -at~wana n4z1n1 (Ooae here, child)

Iii) leli tbtoti (tble calf) . 11i) uayaio lik!!!hana (aa..v mother's root) 1v) tsb1na •!Baoa twe Racaa) v) a6ona ~(the real inhabitants\.

In rerard to the elision o~ the final vowel, in addition to the well known elisions or the TOwel o~ tbe aubjeetival con-cord betore YOwel-verb ate:ns, ant! that of the locative tor.­

ttve tu berore nouns or Olaaa 1a, the ~1low1ng standard eltatona are worth noting:-

(1) El1a1on or the final vowel or a monoa7llabio demonstrative pronoun bef"ore a qua11r1cative whose 1nitia1 vowel is i~entioal with the vowel of the demonstrative. Ex.: lo omncani > 1' omnoaot tthia little one)

lo omnye > 1' omnye th1e other one) le enble :-. 1' enhle this Nne one) le' et1mb1n1 ) 1' et1mb1ni these two) ·

{11) Elision of the rtnal vowel or the locative demonstrative adverb la' { <. lapha) before tccativf!'s in e-. Ex.: la' endlini ~ 1 • endl1n1 (here tn the hut)

la' 81Salll0 ~ 1' emaamo (here op,.,oai te the door) le' et·ulu > l' etulu (here at the top)

!Jomettmes in the spoken language onlY' eontext dtattng,ttshes between the ~o~ or (11) and tbo~e or pbPasea con~iating or demon.atrattye pronouns and. nouns or certain claes~C>e. "'!onapare the two ~nreaes tn each o~ the following paira:-

1' enhloko (here on the head) le nhloko (this head)

1' ea16aya ~here in the told) 1e• s168Y'a \ thie r,ld)

1' et16unu le' t16unu

~liaion or Szl18blea

(here on tbe buttocks) (these bu ttocta)

Except tor the two words kh/ilth/a and inltomo ret"erred to at the end ot- this section, elision or B711ables is confl1De4 to final avllables, as fqr as I ha~ been able to aeeertain. E11a1on of'the f'inal syllable takes .,lace: (1) In the inter~ogative noun u8an1? when it 1e at the end of a aentence. The tone o1' 6a' in tbta case ta raiaed to the level or tba t or the elided -n1. Ex. : iltbamba na&a' 7 (With whom are 70tJ go~. nfl'?)

T.ants1 11nkomo leto hetika&a'' (And whose did the cattle prove to be?)

(11) In the demonstratiYe adverbs lapha and nganha, -pha is very of't'!"n elided. 'l'huR 1apba > la' end ngapha ', nga'.

(iii) ia-•a. Ir a demonstrative pronoun prece4ee a noun wboee :tiNt e:rllable 11 fdent1eal with the t1nal ayllable of the pronoun, the :t1na1-a71lable ott the pronoun is alwal! elided. Bx.: lett t1D41u le' ttndlu (these buts)

lett t.andla le' tandla (these hands) lo6'11 6uhlalu lo' 6u\llalu (these beat!a) loku kudla · lo' ltudla (U...,¢ f'ood)

In addition it may be aentione~ that the ~1r.et syllable or the word kh/1kb/a is perbaps always elided when the .-phasis ia on ita ad3unct. Tbua a Baca would say:

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Ewe, lldip wma ukutahi !4811kh/1kbla {Yea, I ad111t that I did atrtte bt•)

runjalo nje ndu'kll4• table (And I struck blm full) Si,eYa ukutail ~itb/ltb/tle (We do understand that you atruck

him) Kodsi ke um'khL~ ngantt"on1? (But with what did 70t1 strike btmt)

But an extreme instance o~ ellston is found tn what haa bt~"come an idiomatic uae o:r the noun inltomo before the poaseaeiYee 7&kowetbt"u, 7akowenu, yakowa6o. Wb~never a Baca alludes to a beaet to wb1ch the owoer 1,.. Ter7 llllch at taebed, 1nkomo becomea i'•'· 'l'b.ua: t rakOtBO yako'fttht"u

inko1110 J'&ltowa&o

tnkomo yakowenu

~ i'm'akoweth~ (the beast to which I am ver,r greatly attached)

't'm'akowat\o (the beast to wbtch he 11 Ter,r much attached}

i'm'akowenu (the beset to which you are very muehattached)

It ts to be noted that i'm'akoweth~fakowa6Q(akowenu are stereotyped phrases, and that their uae ia extended to boraea. Ex.: lfdandikhwelele 1 'm' a'kowetbf'u nm7ama (I waa riding tbe

black horae to wbich I am auch attached) Iph1 i'm'atowenu ephela-odlet (Where 1s the dart-red,

brish~-eared, bright-muzzled ox o~ which you are ao proud?) ·

lf.B. Thi.e 1d1ollatic use of' inltomo ts confined to male animals.

82. VOW!l !JaJ"!!?Ol·

Except in the incidence or locatives, Baca has noth1n~ new to reveal here. In regard to other 1ne1deneee a rew il-lustrations will auf"~ice. '

{1) Ooaleacence: Uta/i} la + inkoai > lenkoai (or the chief) aeaei) a + llllftttwana ::,. Ol!ll'lttwana {or the child

(ii) Elision : ku + oo6ewo >- too6awo (to our fathers) ndi + enta ~, ndenta (I do)

(i 1 1) Oonaonantaliaatton: 1 + am > :rn (of nfe) u + aya -~ wa7a (Be went)

{tv) Assimilation : 6~na ~ 6on1sa (abow( b ;;ka / bekile (look;

When a formative ia pre~txed to a loeative 1n e-. ao that the final vowel or th~ formative and in1t1a1 e- are juxta-poaed, the 'follo.win~ rules al'"e observed:

(1) The final YO•e1 o~ the indefinite locative rormet1ve nga­eoaleacea with 1n1t1a1 e- or the locative. Ex.: qa + emayango nsemn7ango ~b7 the door)

nga + endl1n1 ngendltni b7 the hut) np + etulu ngetulu O!l the 3t1~i t)

/ (ii) Prelo~ative -k~ is prePl~ce4 to iftitia, e- or a looat1Ye when tne 1o:-ative is prece<Jed b7 (a) the oonjunetive f'ormatiYe aa-, (b} bJ' the pcJeseastve cancord and (c) by the subject1Yal concord tn a aopula~tve predicattye. Ex.: (a) na + etnini ; nakemtia1 (even at the Tillage)

na + eLutaten1 ~ nake!~tateni (eyen at Lutaten1)

(b) wa + emtin1 J'B + ePipoza

(c) u + ejik1ni ai + eGolt

> watemtini (from a strange land) > 7akeWposa (or t«poza)

> utej1k1nt (he 1s in a beer partJ') ~ s1keGo11 (we are in the mines)

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83. l!m.!· Since Raea ba~ nothing new to reYeal in this con­

nection, a f'ew 11luetrat1ona or eipLrtcant tone w11 1 suffice.

(a} Semantic Toae

~x.: JfOUD8

em1ae 111en ,1 (on the a11ea}; 1em 1ae~aleni {at the law1-cour-t;

1a1tana (groUpo~ JQung men)s ~-~~,an ,a (small sweet reed garden)

Yerba

tu.nd a 1a ( 1 e am) 1ultw ,eth:tuk ,a (to tnreat-) Uk pl

11n«att

18 (to Tie with

~1eeallaneoue

1m ,1 tah1 (tHea) ,1s1Y ,e {tribe) ngale (by means or thie 11111 ,e {it bas atop?ed}

(b) Grammatical Tone

1m1teh,1 (she is pregnant) 11e 11Te { the.t he rney heat- us)

one) ng ,ale {on the other aide) "'•11 ,e (that it may grow)

nd 1ent a (I do) nd 'enta (I doing) nd 'tkh \; 1111be (that I me;,y go) ; ndilrha1Db 1e (I went) and1bl ~niphe (let me hlon1pba); 1and1blon 11 1pbe (let her

(respect lie)

(e) lmotional Tone

AYe elldla 1j1k1 (He doe* not drink beer) AYe elidla 1j1k1! (How he drinks beer!)

"gajani 1nttomb1? (Whet sort ot girl?) Enjan1 1nt~omb1! (What a g1 rl!)

84. Irtnspoatt1on

Tllie may or mq not be, a f"eflt'Jre or Raea. So far only one woPd aaa been diacoyered that is r~cogn1eable •~ a eertain ceee of transposition. Th1a 1s the word 1nte41ana (cow that bas lat.ely calved). The Sulu and Xhosa 1"01'1118 are indlezane and tndlezana Pespectively. ?rom the Ba~a •Tatem or aound-eh1fting we shoul~ therefore deduee tndletana. It 1a obYiO''" that dl and t have changed plaeee, an~ tbat 1D41etana has by transposition become intedlana.

The aea1-Yowela should hne come in under ••consona!"lta", but wePe o•erlooked. These are the bi-labial aem1-vowe1 w, e.g. wna (you), chitehwa (be spent), aM the palatal s•1-YOWe1 .,, e.g. ,.ena (be), 7'178 (leave behind).

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Chapter II

Tbe Noun

(a) Classes of> Nonna

Tbe f>ollowtng are the Baca noun-class p~ertxes, aide by aide with the bJpothetical Ur-Bantu noun-class prertxea to which tb~7 correspond:

Class 1 2 3

-4 5 e 7 8 g

10 11 12 1& 14. 15 15 17 18 1 ~:) 80 21

Ur-Bantu --~·---rai-11---ki-vt ni-

1tn1-1u-tu-ka-~,)Q.-

ku-pa-ku-mu-pi-~-¥1-

Baca

\1111-a&a- (p1ur. of 1) um-im1- (plur.or ~) il1-ama- (plur. o~ 5) 1a1-1ti- {plur. of 7) 1(11)-iti{lf)- (plur. ot' 9 & ll) ulu-

-I~ we take aincular and corresponding p,ural as one and

the sa~e class, we bave eight elaaa~a or nouns eorrespondtnu, exactly to the zulu-Xhoa& one••. ~e give both full and con­tracted rorma aa fol~:

Claaa 1 la 2 I

Singular

11111-u---111-, 1-

• 5 6 ., 8

iei-, ta­t(•)-, 1-ula-, 111-, u­u6u-, u6-UJtu-, uk-

'lxa~aplea

Singular

u•ttu (peraoo) umtatt {woman) u.autbfU (Moaotbo) umelapbt (healer) ument 1 (doer)

Olaae 1

Plural

a6a­oo-1111-ama-, ante­itt-, 1t-it1(B)-, ii(N)-, 11-iti(K .l-, ii(N)-

Plural

a6antf"u a6a~ati a&aSutbtu a6elaphi a6ent1

.:. 18 -

• Olaaa la

n8a110 (father) unonkal a-nk a 1 a (crab)

ot-8awo oononkala-nkala

1211tsh1 (tree\ umthfUnt1 (shade) umleote (leg)

111Ye {countr,) 111t/e ~atone) tt/alo calabash) id..-olo knee)

Class 2

Olaas 3

class 4t 1silthwa6akat 1 ( wtdow) ta1t1~a (pool) · taalukati (old woman) 1aandla (hand)

Claas ts· 1ndlu (hut} inja {do')

11111tah1 1mithtunt1 1milente

atnaYe amat/e amat/alo amadvolo

itikhwa6akat1 1tit16a 1talukat1 1 tanttla

1tindlu 1t1nja 11mbuut1 ttabuut 1 (goat)

1npdYt2d'R (ground inqawe {pipe~ icawe (chllrcll)

hornbill) iingud-vudvu tinqawe 11eawe

Several noun~ of this class take the pre~ix o~ ~lass 3 1n the J)lural. e ·I· iftdyodza (man) > atDadvodaa; inkatanyaaa (11 ttle

firl) > amankatan711na; 1na1m1 (t"1.eld) -~- ames1m1; 1nkon:yane JOUftg calt) '> -nkon)"tlne.

Olaea 6 ulutabi {rod) ttintai ul~t1 (bark used as :fibre) r,ro plt1ral utipbo (~1nge~ na11) 11ntipho ua16a {feather) 11ns1~a

A :rf~w nonns. of' +hi.s cl~!UJ take the plural pref'ix or Class 3. e.g. ut-.ne (to~) > amatwane: u6en~ze (aple&n) > ama6endae.

Olaaa 7 u6udukwa ( dl'"!t nk ennes a) ueuthrotap (sleep) u5udnla (age) ut\o181 (11 f"e 1

uktJdls (t'ood) ukuf'a ( 4eath)

Glass 8

(b) t~e~ixal and Surttxel Komtnal ~rmativee

(1} Prefixal. 'rhe prefixal rormat1Yea ar~ as fo11ow:

(1) The locatiYe formativea ku-, twa-, e-. e.g. ku5awo (to EIQ' rather) , kuMganu (f& -Mga nu~ , kwaNomt/eket/e (at Nomt/etet/e 'a) , kwaMjanyelwa (at·Mlan,elwa's), eMpoz• (at Mpoza), e0a6az1 (at Oa6aat).

As ta well known, a11 these ~~r~tiT~s aigni~y at. from, to, in, on.

- 19 -

(11) The conjunctive rormat1ve aa-, ataaifT1Dg and, to,etber with. l!:.g. aa6antu (ark! the peOple), netinja (along with the doge).

(iii) The 1nat~1mental tor~ative n1a-, aigoifying by .. ana ot. e.g. ngomtbontro (by means or an aeeetai), ngemitah1 (by ••ana of herbs).

(1v) The 1ddertn1te pre1ocative formative nga-, signifying near. in the neighbourhood ot'. e. g. nwemrulent (near the river). ngakuMgaou (near ~ganu).

(v). The compound tormatives njenga- (like) and n«anga- (aa big as). e.g. njengekati (like a cat}, ngangembuuti {a~ big AR a goat).

(vi) The possessive formative• ka- and a-. e.g. kambana of my mother), aam&Raca (or the aaoaa).

(2) §utfiJ!l Pormativea

(1) The locative aut'tix -ci, wbiab ia always employed in con­junction with the pret'ix e-. e.g. eato•eni {to/1n/fro~on tbe beast).

(i1) The diminutive suffix -ana. e.g. iojana (little dog).

(111) Tbe augmentat1ve/reminine suffix -kati. e.g. umtabikatt (big tx .. e. , 1n3akati (bi t.cb).

The prefixal tormetivea do not cause an7 phonetic changes oa the atema or tbe nouns except tboae due to vowel barmony. S1aee t.beae are very well ltnown and have moreoyer been <!ealt. with uDder that hea41na, it. is not necessary to dwell on them here. The suffixal formative&, )Ai, -ana on the other band, oauae the ohaage known as palatalizstio9. This 1~ treated f'ull7 under '' ~rms or the Noun" tn ihe next chapter.

Jbapter III

PoriJIII of' the Moue

(1) ~· Voeat!v~ ?or.. This is formed by eliding the initial vowel oP the noun. e.g. umfati (woman) > m~ati (woman). To be more enphatic, t.be Yocative or eotlllJOn nouns is 1"ollowed b7 a4a1n1, e.g • .tati nds1n1 {thou woman).

When nouns or claaa la are eJBplo7ed 1nterjeetivel7 in the Yocatiye Porm they undergo the following changes:-

( i) Kouns ending in -a, -e, or -1 change the ullbana (mother) ' mhanee! uKa6en4&e > Ma6endaee: uRgu6omb1n1 ~ K1u6ombinee!

~1nal vowel to -••·

( 11) Nouaa en4ing in -o or -u aubat.i tu t.e -wee ror the final vowl u=o.tahelelo > Notabelelwee! uNoraaun ' Jfonaukwee! •

Tbeee vowel cb.al.Jli'ea- ere not observed (i) in impolite or aagr:r epeecb, ara4 ( 1 1~ tf the 'YOcat1ve comes at tbe end of' tbe sentence, that is, wben it is no longer merely 1nterject1ve. ?hue we eq: llollt.ebelelwee! u7ihlo ulqi'

(Bo.tabelelo, where is your ~ather?) But: UJ'iblo 11l.ay1, lfo•tahelelo? {ff\lere is 7our father, 0

Jfolltabelelot)

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(9) 'l'b.e PT.eaa1-ve 1'orm. The Jtoaaeaa1ve Concol"'} •plopd before nouns or c ••• la singular 18 •• follows:

Plural

Claaa 1 a 3

SiQ~Ular

'ta­ka-

11ka­a1ka-

6aka­lte­ka­tika­tilca­tika-

" 5 e 7 8

ka­luk:a-6uka­kuka-

Exa'£11)les:

Class 1 umana ka~omt/e~et/e {Komt/eket/e's so~) oomana 6akaNomt/eket/e (Homt/e~et/e'e eons)

" 2 umti kaV1mb1 {Vimbi's kraal)

"

"

" •

1m1t1 kaV18b1 (Vimbi's kraals)

1t/alo likambana {my mother's calabash) amat/alo kamhana (my mother·~ calahaehea)

4 isife sikaDzikwa7o (Dz1kwayo's sweet-reed garden) 1t1te t1kaDz1kwayo (Dztkweyo's sweet-reed gardena)

5 inkomo kafe/eniai cre/en1e1'e beast) 11n'komo t1ka:e/en1a1 C e /enisi' s cattle)

6 uba•bo lukaNomtahelelo (Nomtehelelo'a rib) 11mbambo tikaBomtshelelo (Nomtahelelo'a rtba)

7 u6utab1 6ukarJdza6a (Ndsa6a'a witchcraf"t)

8 uku.ra kuks ~~edziltaae o~adzikane's death) .

The general Poaaesaive .Joncoxw:t is as follows:

Olass 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Exafl4)les :

Singular ··­wa-la­aa­,-a-

lwa­blul 6a­

kwa-

Plural 6a­ya-a­

ta­ta­ta-

umana wenkosi (the son or the chie~) it/alo lomnt~ana (the ch114•a calabash) 11mbambo tenja (the ribs or the dog) ukudla kwamadvodsa (men's food)

The EmRhatic Po!!eestve. This is formed by prefixing a vowel to the ord1nar7 poascsaive forma. ?beae vowels are as fOllow&:

- 21 -

stn~lar Plural

Olaaa 1 o- a-2 o- .. e-3 e- ·-4 ·- e-~ ·- ·-e o- ·-., o-a o-

Ex.aliPlea:

11ka6awo (or my rather) '- el1ka6aYO /"

aenlrosi ~or th~ ehte tt~ / esenkca1 e~ati or the wo~an, o~om-rati.

~he E~hatie Poaeepsive either precedes or renlaeee the poaaeaaee:

iha/1 lika&awo (m:r rather's horse)..., el1ka6awo 1h(1 1aixatbt'u6a aenkoai (the chief'' a shoe) "> eeenko~i

isixathtuGa u6,ttah1 f;omf'at1 (the wanan'e witchcn•a""t) > o&lllt'eti u&utah1

It it is obvioua who or what the poaness~e ~::,. the noun aiRni­fy1ng the poas~sese is "understood", e.g.

el1ka!awo (my father's) elenkost (the oh\et'a) o6om~st1 (the woman's)

The poas s";ive torm may pre~ix the tormet1.ves ku-, no-, nga-, nganga- and njenga-.

Examples:

kwe11ka6awo'1ha/1 (on my ~ather's horse) nelomnt1"wana 1 t/alo { eWt the eh11d 's calabash) nco&omrat i u6utah1 (b7 'Mans or th·e wom~tn 's wi tehertrt) D18ft1DW8kat1 umta1 (as much as a eat's spring) n3eogawenkomo amasi {like cow adlk)

(a) Tbe Loc,t1ve ~orm. 10 torm the loca~ive. e- is eubatitutea tor lfie lnl Ia! 'vo~1 of" the noun, and the f"inal YOwel is all'b­stttuted ror ae ~~llowe: -en 1 is subat1 tu •ed ~or- t1na1 -a, or tinal -e. e. g. 1ntaa6a ) entaef>eni (mountain}; 111ve > el1Yt"ni (eo•Jntey)

-tnt tor final -1. e.g. umtsb1 > emtsh1n1 (tree).

-went f'or ~inal -o. e. g. iboxo > eboxwen 1 (gate-l'OBt)

41n1 f'or :final -u. e. g. 1a1su > eaiswtni (bellT).

Tb\a rule 1s aceompan1e~ by the following modifie2ttona:

(a) Nouns or Claa8 ~ plur. th~t or~inarily take the contracted pre1'1x ii(N)- take the full pretix in the loertive f"orm: e.g. 11nkOIDO (cattle) ... >-- etinlcotaeni; 11nka61 (oxen) '> etinlca51n1.

. -(b) Nouns ot Clasa 6 aing. and plur. tha~ take eontracte4 p~ert u-11(B)- ordinarily, take the tull prerix in the 1oeat1ve: •·I· un;rawo (toot) > elunyawen1; utwane (toe) > e-lutwanent: ~in,-awo (teet) > et1nyawen1; 11ntwane (toea) >' etintwaneot.

- 82 -

(c) If' the final eyllahle eonta!na a labial followed b7 a back yowe1, the ~ur~ix drops w. and -eni, -tnt are substituted ror rtnal -o and -u respectively. e.g. inteambo (rope) > enteldltbeni; 1gu6u (water-pot) > eguf51n,.; uttpbo (1"1naer-na11)

" elut1phfJQ1: umlom (!lOuth) ·> emlomen1; indao (place) ·::. enctsawent; Dan ia1khewu (gan) '> ee1khew1n1; 1sifo {disease

> eetren1; 111f'u (cloud) ~> elif1n1.

(d) If the ~inal syllable eontaine ~ or mb rollow~1 by -o, tbe bilabial is in ~ome caees pelata11ze~.

e ;,. t/, e. r;. 1dvot'o ( jW'lgle) > ed.ot/eni; 1hlo6o (summer) > eblot/eni. ·

mb > nj. e.g. itshambo 'bone)> t~ttshanjen1; umthf'ombo (fountain~ > e!Jitbf"onjeni.

Jf.B. Altbm1gh the aspirated bilabial ploe1Tt- ph ts not ordi­narily palatalized, one word mhlophe ~white) > emhlot/beni {obviously) .

(e) ?rop~r nsmes or place~ th8t are not also common nouns do no1 ta~e the locative Rnrrtx~ but thoe~ that ere e1so eommon nouna genera117 teke tne e'"tr-rtx. e.g. e¥.pou; eQa6az1: eJITuz1; eMt/haz1.; et~phemba.

~ ; eLuaangen1 <... uaanga (hill); eLubaeweni <.. ubaeo (desola­tiOn); e'rht'olen1 ...: ithfble (calf'); ellbodleni ~. imbodla (wild cat).

(t) The f"oltowing are a ome or the comTOn noune that do not tate the locatiYe eut'fiar:- umnfango (entrance) > emn:raogo; 1t1Jto (hearth) > etito; 16unt1 {fo~ebead) / e6unti; 1s16aya (~ld) > ea16aya; 1nhlo1to (bead) > enhloko; ikhaya (bone) ,, etrbaya; ueuauku {night) e6ueultu; ukwin~la (autumn) > ekwindla; iblantene (•1c~t~ay) > ehlantane; 1min1 (day-time} '~· eminL

The ~ol1owtn(\" ere now found exclusively in the locative f'oPm. !'bey bave lost thei-r i~ent!.ty as noun~ entirel~·, and are tbererore ela~si~ied ae adverbs:- entle (in the open veld); ekhatshf (inside); e/eya (ecroa•): ..-111 (i"l ~nt'; etulu (on top/aboft). The laet -rour, however, are ~o11owed by the poseese1Ye t"orm, the conoor~ employed being th~'~ t o"' the lost OlaS& 17. e.g. e/eya ~om~ule (acroe! the river); ekbatehi lr•tt ( 1ne1de the Yillage). .

When t'o11owe~ by a prseesalve, embili a'ld etulu ffrop the final syllable, and etulu t"urther changes final -u into -1. thus: embili > embt, and etulu "> eti. •·if· entb1. kweai6aya (in tront or the ~old); et1 kwetb~~ (above us). .

(g) Noun~ or Clssa la take the pre~ixal t'ormative ku- (the _ :rtnal Yowel being elided) tnstead o"' the ror-111 ti'Yes eons1dere4 under (a) to (f). e.-r. ltu6awo (tom~ f'sther'; kooVtmbi (to V1mb1 and hiaeompan1ona).

(b) The poasosaive concord or the lo8t 01as~ 1?, kwa-, 1s pre­fixed to nouns of 'JlaAs la Rtngular to convey the idea of "a~/to/~rom the plaa~ o~". Here the initial vowel o~ the noun is elide~ bet'ore kwa-. e.g. kwaMnehiaana (at ~!nchisana'e); kwa111alume (at t117 motber' a brother's).

It" the coajuaettve :ror.attye na- or the pos~esa1.e eon­~oJtd 1114 pre-rixed to a noun in the loeatt ve -rorm in au e-, to avoid hiatus, k- ia pr~laced to1n1tial e-. e.g. atelftlblk nalteVhlot/ben1 {eTen at Mblot,lh.eni); Ul!lfttfu waJteMabobo (peraon trom Mabobo).

- 23-

. If the 1nderio1te preloaative ~o.-atiYe nca- (in the neighbourhood or) ia prefixed to a locative in e-, ttnal -a o~ tbe ~ormative eoaleseea with initial e- or the locative. e. g. naemJ'B!l((O {bY' the door) ~ nsemt"ulen1 ( n·:.oar the river).

(4) The DimtcutiTe Form. This ie foraed bv the use o~ the aut­fix ::ana. The 'n1ea are u f"ollo•~H

(a) If tbe ~i~al vowel ot the nou~ 1a a front vowe1,-ana ia substituted. e.g. iligxa (forest)> 11igxana {11ttl~ roreat); ikati (cat) > ikatana (kitten); igcokwe (chicken) > 1gcokwana (amall chicken).

{b) rr the final vowel of the noun is a b~ck vowel preceded by consonant other than a bi-labial or nure denti-labial, ta.

final vowel 1!! ehantred to -w- bef'ore -ana is suffixed. e •. g. > ameblo (eyes) > a~~~eblwana (small eyea); inlJbondvo (m1Qdi inqbondnrana (11 ttle understanding); ixbegu {old •n) > ixhegwana {eont..,tible ol<t man/ tiny old !1llln); umnt~1 (peraen)

> umntfwana ~child).

{e) If' th.e final wwel of" tbe noun is H baek vowel preceded by a pure denti-l"bial nr by the s.-1-•owel -•-· -ens 1~>sub­et1tuted ~or the rtna1 vowel. e.g. iaifo {disease1 istfana \slight diaease); 1lifu {clo,.,d\ ) 111tana (a•all cloud); amavo (tales) > amavana (liJht tales); 11nd~Tu {beard) > 11ndzevaoa (little beard)• un7awo (foot) unyawana (small toot); unxbawu (pot) ) unxbawana (little pot).

(d) If the final syllable hae 1, as its consonant, 1 becomee 41 before subs ti tutinc -ana. e. g. ulftf"ula {river' > umf'udlana (little etrea); indlela (ro,lte) )o. indlecllana (path)~

(e) If the consonant or tbe final a7llable is a bi-labial, that consonant becomes a palatal before suf~ix1ng -ana.

6 > t/ : 1ngu6o ~blanket) ) 1agut/ana ~amall blanket) ph> t/hs ucepbe spoon) > vcet/bana small apoon{ b > 3 : incube firet-fr'l1t ceremonY)> iocbujana aame, b-;~

minor enief) JD'). n,- : umlomo (mouth) '> uml onya na (a mall mouth~ lip> nt/: ihlwempu {pa11per)> ihlwent/aoa {contemptible pauper) mb.> D;i : ~bambo (rib) > ubanjaoa (small rib).

(f') If' the consona-,t of tile final ayllable is the alveolar aaaal ~·~l• n palatali&ation takes nlaee before substituting -ana. n ~ ny: iaikhuni (log o~ woo~) > isikhun7ana (s•all log or wood).

lfote 1. an;yana is a reduplie atton or -ana. It forme double diminutives or nouna. It 1., t'ound in su~h nouns as UIBf'ao,..na ( tio7 ,-oung man), the 4iminuttye for·:; of um·rana (youni man), whieh in itself" iA the diminutive form of unr""o. .

Note alao the noud inkatanrana (little girl), rrom hyPo­thetical inkatana still foun1 in literary Ahosa as 1nkaaana

1 (wo•n, as distiopiabed :t'rom man).

'N'ote 2. Some nouns are fotmd only in the diminutive form. such a noun is um6ul~uodlwana (ouppy), fro"" hy~othetical ura6ulukundlu. Some -..aiini dialeeta haTe the i"orm um6undlwana (Mpondomtae). Literar)' Xhosa has both um6undlu (little dog) and .eundlwane (little dog tbat cannot yet eee). 'Sbat the original t'or11 waa, it is dif"'icult to aa7.

- 24-

~ote 3. In the d1m1out1Ye formation, adjectiYee and rela t1Yea follow the aa~e rules aa the nouns. e.g.: ~bulu (bog) ~ ~hudlwana; -4zala (old) > -dsadlana; -. -mhlophe (wbite) ). -llhlot/hana; -no ani (small} > -ncan;rana; -6ovu {red) ). ..- -6ovana. -

Note 4. Monoayllabic atems are not a~eeted b.r palataliza­tion. TJ.ua: -61 {ugl;r) > -6aoa, an'~ impi (1~~~p1) ). 1!Dpana.

Note 5. Beea, like Z•ll\1, ravoure diminutive f'o:rms or qualj fieatt ves arte r d im1nut1ve forms of nouns. e. g. ink at/am esundvwana (emall da~red ox); inkatanJana enblana {a pretty little girl).

Note 6. Sometimes the di~inutive surrtx i~ attached to the qnalif"tcat1ve onl;;, the significance belnqo exactly the sa!Be as that or the f'or .. ~ u:lder ~ote 5. e.g ln1ca~1 eaundvwana { amal 1- dark-red ox) • umbem o6ovana (1 hrht complexioned ;young fellow).

( 5) The A11gmenta ti ve Poraa. Thie is formed by "ffeane or the sur­fix -kati. e.g. lniomo (beast} > inkomokati (big beast); um~at1 (wo111an) > uatat1kati (big woman).

I~ the noun ie 'f"()llowe~l by a qu&lificative, the auf."ix ie attached only tv the qualiNI!ative. e.g. umfati omkhulukati {TeJ7 b1;.: woman); umtshi omdzekat1 (y~:·ry tall tree).

?be au~fix -kati is also employed as a feminine· suffix. e.g. inja (dog) > injekatl (biteh); umkhwe (father-in-law~'> urnkhwekatt (MOther-in-law).

Note 1. J...s a f"eminine suft•ix - kati is round in a f"ew word that have lost their independence aa simple l'lOl:tna an! are only tO'lDd in the :t'eainine form. e.g. iaaluk~t1 (old woman) < hypothetical isalu; iA1khwa6akati (widoWj / hfnotbetical 1aikhwa6a. '

Note 2. Colo·~ r qua 11 f'icat1 v~s employ the en1"1'ix -kati after nouns aigQ1ty1ng the names of re~a1e animals. e.1. 1mat1 ewasakati (black cow with white abdomen); ithfokati elik elaketi (white-faced heifer).

(N.B. ithtokati is the f'e.ioine of 1tbPole).

So•et1mea ~uch a ~t;al1:'"1eative is used as a substanttve. e.K. 1lungakat1 eligwanaile {big-uddered black-and-white cow).

DtetiOr!tion ot Sex

~bis cna~ter WB7 as wel conclude with a brier. reference to 41atinetion ot sex. Besides the employment or the au~fix -.at1, sex is distinguished b7

(1} diattnet terms, e.g. tR4a 1ndv0daa (man), umfat1 (woman).

(11} a special term fOr a male, e.g. 1mpongo '(he-goat).

(11i) the terms intunti (•ale), i~ati (female thet nae bad JOUDg taaikati (:remale}. - -

?heae are followed b7 generic terms in the nosseaaiYe form. e.~. tnkunt'enkomo (bul1), imat'e.Ounti (she-goat). Bote the elia1ona.

-26-

ae!'lumes the tol'!'ll kwi-; tr the ..owel or tbe eubjeat1Yal concord is an7 other vowel than 1, the locative "'ormetive re:aaioa ku-. {The lat. peraon sin~tlar. as 1a usually the case in Bantu pro­nouns, is not covered by this rule).

In the followin~ table the suhject1va1 concord is liYea in brackets to 11lustrate the rule.

Singnlar Plural

lat person kumi 'ndi) kwitahi ~a1) 2nd tt

ll:uwe ~u) ' kw1n1 n1~ 3rd " Cl.l kuye u) ku6o 6a

2 kuwo u) ?c, ltwiyo .r !i 3 kwilo (lif ltuwo t:o

4 lr:w1ao r1 , kwi to 'i t.i) 5 kwiyo 1.) .,., if:wi to '0 ti{ e kwilo lu '' kw1to t.i' 7 ku6o 6ul " 8 kuito leu -

!'fote. Class 6 sing. takee the form kwi-, most probabl7 by ralae analogy With ~las9 3 sing.

Note the rorm -mi in the l$t pereoo sing.

The forms are the same when ku- is comoounded with nga-. e.a. oaakwilo iba/1 {near the horae), ngakwito itindlu (Deal' the b.uts).

The 1~mphatic Pronoun may The final vowal or a prefixal ioi tial vowel o!' tbe pronoun. etona > nretoaa.

also take the pre~ixal rormatt-.es. fo:rali, t ive coalesces w1 th tbll e.g. na + oyena 'J no,..na; n~a +

When ku- ia pre~ixed to the emphatic pronoun, u is elided berore initial o-, and b~comea w be~ore initial a- or e-. The ~able is tbere~ore as folloYs:

Singular Plural

Class 1 koyena kwa'5nna 2 kweyona 3 kwelona kwawona 4 kwesona kwetona 5 kwe7ona kwetooa a ltol-:- na k-v~etona 7 kol)ona 8 kokona

'the ror• arc the same wben ku- is compounder\ with op-. e.g. ngakoy.ena motru 'near the very pe1•son): ngalcwawoaa mad'Yodza (near the v · ry men) •

(b) Table or De .. mon1trat1 ve Pronouns

Olaaa lgt Poa1~1on 2nd ?osition 3rd Poa1$_&on f s to ! lowo 1:owa

p la6a · 1a6o la6aya

s lo lowo lowa 'P le leyo lep

s le11 1elo lel1J'a p la lewo la•

" s l.ea1 leao lea1p p lett leto .letiya

l5 •. s le lqo leJ'a p leti leto lettya

\ \

- 2'7 -

6 "' lolu lolo lolu,.. ~.,.

p let1 leto letlya

'7 3 loEb lo~o lo6uya

8 s loku loko lok'Q7a

Tbe above table gives the fu11 ~orma o~ tne Damonatrat1ve Prono-,Jn. The ru1· ~orms ot' the 2nd and 3rd Poatt1ona are al­wa.ITs use1, wbetner the 1e!1Dnstrattve precedes or follows tbe noun, or whether tb~ noun is merely 11plied.

It! the demonstrative or any !)Osition precedes the noun, tbe ini t1al vowel of the noun 1~ e11tled. e.~· r~estJ sieamba besam {That mat 1~ mine); iaicsmba leso heeam (~~st is •iae). Le~t.lta 11buutt t1!!la ama6ele am {1'hoi'e"ioats are ~eed1DSf on .., corn:; 11mbuuti letirl tidla. arra5e1e am ('l'ho~e goats are ~eedtn~ on my oorn). Leao s Ji;re lapha (leave that "ne here); Lettn betakwa'l3in:veln (Those are ~tjanyelwe' a).

The full ~orm9 o~ the let demonatrattve are used as ~ol­lows:

(i) When tbe demonstrative either ae eubject or as object atandt alone. e.g. La6a ha6akw1tAh1 (Th~se 8~e ~Y eompat:r1ota); T16ete lapba tonke Ieti (Put all these here). .

(11) When the demr.nat~atiYe is ,receded ~y. and tq in appos1 tion to, the nona. e.g. Iboxo lel1 1.-phulwe bini? {Wbat broke the gate-post') n&uhlalu ~am lo~u'6vyeke lapba (~~aTe my beadS here).

(iii) When the noun 1mpl1e('t, .nether preeeefing or following t.be demonstrat1ye, belon~s to one o~ the ~weak" elaAsea. e.q. Lo 1Jifo UQhamka phi? ('":'h~re does this g~ntlem"""l come froll?l ti nkomo yay1telwe 1his111~ (Thte beast wAe born deformed • Yii1 tshi 1 e yayihekaMa.Jsikane ('t'h~~ herbtJ we:r-e Mar1 zikane' a • Amadvodza-la wanyatahise (~iTe these men a drtnk). · -(lv) When the demonatratiTe preeet!e9 a notln of Claae 3 singular: Olaaa 5 plnral, Class 6 e1ngular or plural that normally takea a contracted pref'1 x ( 1. e. poly~ylla"'•ie ste'118 of these claaaea). ~.g. J,eli ba/1 lalil~ole eT/hn.npana

{Tliis bone had been offered ae lo6ola at T/hungwana)

Leti n~omo tiTela phi? (~bere have these cattle been?) tori blake ma lulungiewe (Let this door be repa1Dd) t;ti nkeletet/bane t1/u6a amageo~we ~eee raleone are f.in1ahing the ehiekene}

'!'be Contracted 1st Demonstrative

Be rore noun3 or ~weak" class :'"8 the let Deronstra t1ve ia uaf in full in all c1rcumatancee. He~ore nouna of other claaaee the 1st Demonstrative 1a made monoa:rlleb1e by e111f1 ng the aecon<. syllable before all nouns other than those considered under (tv: above.

The following tRb1e w111 11luatrate this:

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Olaaa Sinplar' Plural

1. lo mtati = lo 11tat1 (this woman) la8a 6at"at1> la' 6atati

2. lo mt1 = lo mt1 (this village} le mitt = 1~ mitt

z. leli lit/e) le' lit/e (this etOrtf') la mlt/e = la mat/e

4. lee1 s1~aya) le' s16aya (this ~o14) leti t16aya> le' t16al

f le ndlu = le ndlu (thia hut) lett tindlu> le' tindlu

6 loln lutabi) lo' lutsb.1 (this rod) lG>tt t1nta1) le' t1ntaj

7 lo5u 6uhlalu) to• &uhlalu (these beads)

8 lokn k1'~J a > lo • kud.le ( th 1 ~ food)

The tendency then is to make the demonst~ative monosyllabic bef"ore al1 noun'!!. Be'f"ore nouns ot "wesk" elasees elision is noj necessary b~cause the demonatrattYe ts already monosyllabic. Be~ore the nouDS g1Yen under (~ the tull ~orma are neeeaaar.r b~oanae eonoor41a1 agreem~nt must be observed, and since tbe entire prefixes· are elH1e"', con~ord -,an onl:: be observed by re­storign the laet svlla~le or the pronoun. Ctherwiee tbere ~~OtJld result such abaul"d forma as le'ha/1, le'nkomo (cr. the singular "'orn~).

(e) !he Enumerative Pronoun. ?he roots of the three tyPes o~ EdumeratiYe pronouns are a a 1"ollowa: -nke ( aignitytng "all"), -dvws ol" -dz1 {s1~itying "onlyt' o; "a1one"- and r.l'Jmeral r,c ote trom two ~wards \aign1f'v1np- "both, ttall thr~e", "all four" ~all ~1ve" ete. The numeral ronte take a prertx in concordial agree~ent wttb the noun implied.

The ~o11ow1ng iA the table of the FnumeratiTe Pronoun w1th root f -nke ~

Singular Plural

let person ndonke eonke 2nei " wonke nonlte 3t-d " ~, 1 wonke 6onke .

2 wonke· ~·•• yonke 3 lonlte wonke 4 ~onke tonke 15 J"Qoke · tonke·, e lonke tonke 7 6onke 8 konke

Tbts pronoun may:

(1) stand alone as subject or object. e.g. Ronke ~e)'a 7at1 _ le70 ntro (They al1 know th~t); Ia katiletahe la~ha tonke leto (Let him bring all those here).

(11) Preee*le or 'follow s noun in apposition, whether subjeot or object. £.,. wonke smakbosi aye ejikini (All the ehieta have sone to a beer:diink); Amakhoei wooke aye ejikini (All \'ne en\ets 'n&."Ye gtme -to a oeer-dr\n'k1; Wd11.\.1thul)n11.e 1.onke i~nezt (I nave paid all the lobole); Wd111khuph1le ikhazi 1onke (I abYe yaid all \be lobola' •

(111) Precede cr ro11ow an abaolute or demonstrative plOnouo. e. g. Sonke tshine 111a~ca atqhallka lura Zulu. (All of" us 8aeaa come from !fatal.): Jrona ltonke loku okllbobako ha•naa (All tbat 7ou sq is 11ea); Lettya,torakt titnkoliO_taa (All 'bose are •7 catt1,.e) i Lonke lel1 ll1UYe loo6awo (All this is our flatherlanciJ.

- 29 -

Tbe tollowtng is the table or Bnumeratiye Pronoun~ w1th root -4Ttra I -4ai

lat person and • 3:rd .. 01.1

a 3 .. IS & , 8

Singular

n4edTtra I nded&l wd.wa I wed zi yednra I yeds1 wodTtra I wod zi lodYWa I 1oda1 aodna I aods1 yod•- I J'OdZ1 lodYwa I lodz1 lod.wa I loc!s1 kodTtra I todsi

Plural

aodvwa I aods1 no4Y'It'a I nodz1 6odna I 6ods1 yodna I 704&1 wo4na I wda1 todTH I todz1 todTH I todz1 todna I to!isl

'l'be two ro..- -dywa and -4z1 are used 1nterchangeabl7 with the aa• nteaning.

Tbta pronoutl al.,at always follows a predtcative and pre­cedes the noun iJBplied. e.g. Uf'ike adzi u.ro watemtini (The at~pr arr1Yed all alone).

I~ the noun takea the first noa1t1on in the sentence tben the predicate co•ea between the nonn and the pronoun. e.a. Umf'o wakemtin1 urtke redl1 (The stranger arrived alone).

It the noun is merely implied, the pronoun rollows the predicate. •·«· tla &anyatabe t\odz1 la6aJ& (Let thoae drink by the•elvea) •.

Very rarely the pronoun rollowe the noun when the latter takea the tirat position in the sentence. e.g. Iftkosi zo4!!! aribob1 macala. (The cbiet alone does nottry oaaea).

Unleaa the noun implied is uaed, thia pronoun never pre­cedes the yerb.

Tbe E1.-eratiYe Pronoun with aumeral roots baa a double pNfix, the t"irat element bet ng taentical wt th the r1 ret a7llab1e or the Simple Absolute Pronoun, and the second be1og a contracted rorm or tbe adjectival concord, such as 1a found in certain compoun4 nouns, e.g. ndlu-nkulu! (main bouae) - a term ueed in greeting the ch1e~'a headwi~e, Kgu6o-mbini (Mr. 'l'wo-Blanketa).

!be aboYe deacr1pt1on applies only to tbe first riye nu.erals whieb are adjeot1Yes. !'be nu•rals abot' e t'ive, which are eitber nouns or relatives, do not take a double pretix. Those that are nouns subatitute a pret'1x identical with the rtrat aJ1lable or tbe absolute pronoun for the initial YOW81 o~ the prettx. ~boae that are relatiyea pret'ix this element to the Pelat1Ye stea.

In tbe following tablea the numeral roots -tahathtu (thJ'ee, adj.), -ccelu (aneth relati•e) md ilumi {ten, noun) are used aa illuatrat1ooa:.

-30-

rable with adjeotiyal root --tebt\btg

lat peraon Bnd penon lrd person 01. 1

8 3

lat pal'80ft 2nd " ard "

lat. peraon Sn4 " 8rd "

" 5 6 , 8

01. 1 2 3

" 5 6 7 8

01. 1 I a

" 5 6 ., 8

stnaular

-

--&o&utabat~u kokutaha tb~l

--

-6ogcelu koacetu

---

ao6atabatht'u no&atabathf"u 6o6atabathtu JOII1tabathh womatahatbru totitabatfhu tontaatbtu tontaatbru ...

SO(I'Celu nogoelu &oacelu 70&eelu wopelu togcelu togcelu toaoelu

aoll/12111 no11/um1 &ol1/ue1 )'01 i/um1 wo11/am1 to11/um1 tol1/unt1 tol1/uiD1

This pronoun ma7 precede or rollow or replace a noun. •·I'· 'l'Omb1n1 11Dtf"ombi tam tendsele e..Xea16en1 (Botb Ja7 4aUI'htira liaYe been •rrte4 to xea16ea) ; Leti nltomo tonxboyo n4at1taheap na-11 J'akeGo11 (I bought all etabt or theee cattle tor !IODIIJ" obtained flrom the Rand); Bo• 1--61n1 ha&aflati &atalbohtaana (All t. .. nty are Mnoh sana a w1Yea •

(4) Tbe Poaaesa1ft Prono!!!. '!'be Poaaeaaiye Pronoun bas a~ec1al poaaeaaiye roota f'or tbe at and 2nd person (a1nl'. &: alnr; and ~or Olaea 1 a1ng. The rest of" the roota are the same f"orma ot the abaolute pronoun as are uaed atter the prefixal tormattYea. To these roota 1a prefixed the poaaeaaiYe concord.

%able or P08ft8!81Ye Roota

let pereon -· -1tht'tl 2nd • -kbo -1nu arc! penon 01.1 -the -&o

8 -wo -yo -etc. etc.

lxaftl)lea: U6andse lwenta.o ZJ! nd1luae kunodipba {I b&Ye taken ~he epeen ot ~ox to the d1pping-aupel'Y1aor).

Oomana 6etbh 6aa~enta eGolt (Our son• work in the Rand)

- 11 -

Iinkomo Seau t14la phit (Where do your cattle grase?r

D• m;batic Poaaeasiye. 'fh1a is formed b;r prefixing a 't'Oftl to te orafDal'J' 01' ela~ple p0888881Ye pronoun. '!'hie YOWl 1a a, e, or o according as the 1n1t1al yowel or the noun s1gni­t;r1ng the poaaesnee 18 a, i, or u reapect1Yely. The aboYe rule, howeYer, 1e oot qtli te aat1at'actory a1nee it t'aila to cover Olaaa la plur. Keitber doea the rule that it is the Yowel or the DOnn pret'1x that determines tbe initial Yowel of th1a Pr9-DOun, tor the .... reason. It would therefore perhaps be bettez to aa;r "accollin• as the aubject1Yal concord o"" the no•1n signify­ing the pose eaeee has t'or ita YOwel a, 1 or u". e.g. a6am o~na (ay aona}: eaakhe 1aicamba {hia •at); olw~o nblo6o (their kind). ·

The staple poaseaaiy~ JU'"OI'l01tn alwa:rs 1."ol1ows the noun sig­nifying the poeeesaee, and the emphatic poeeeqsiYe pronoun always precedes the noun a igntfytag the poe~es"'ee. e. g. A-ha/i et!O! adla ent8a6eu1 (Our borat~s are grasiq on t, e mountain-a ope). A!!tb.t"u a•ha/1 adla entea6eni (our horses are •••zing on the mountain-elope).

DriogatratiYea, leumeratiYea Jed Poaaea8iYee with Pre1."ixal Por­• iwa

To d8110nat.nt.1vea or all positions the prefixal tormatiYea are prefixed without any modification taktng nlace regarding the pronoun. e.1. tultl1 tht'ole (to this calf); kula' 6anttu (to tbeae people}; naleso a1khwa6akati (eyen that widow); nalo' 6uhlalu {eYen iheae beads); Dl!letiYa tinja (b7 means of those dop); nsalt' t1ntai (b7 mea• or- theae rods).

'l'o enu•ratiYea, pP'.::t'ixal tormat1fts are ne't'8r prefixed. It tb.eee 1a aQ7 locat1Ye, conjunctive or instrumental implica­tion, the rormat1Ye i8 pre~ixed to tbe absolute. e.g. Ioala li&eke kwitebl aonka (Put the blame on all or ua); Ita nato tonke 11abuut1 (Bring all the soata); Icala mua'ul16eka 'iir£th1 -aedll (Don't put the blame on ua aloni; Boba nfl( 7edYWa (§peak to him alone); ~ Ndit/bo kw1ni no6t61n I am iadre~slng both of' ;rou); Buya nato tonhlgu (tiring back all tift}.

The poaaess1ve, When prefixal t'ormat1Yea ere ueed, assumes the empbatte form. e.g. n41ta kb.wlela tnlam iha/1. (I am going to ride ~own horae); Ma6ete nela~t1 (Let tbem bring tbe1r own Mer); Bd11Dbla6e ncowam U1111th0n'if'o {I stabbed bl ~, wl th IDJ' own -epl). ·

Obapter V

The Qualit'1cati't'8

t1n4er tb1a beading we aball deal briet'l:v with the Adject1n, the Relat1Ye and the lfu.eral. There ia notbing new a'bnut theae three, and therefore 1 t has not been roun::1 neceaaaey to deYGte a chapter to eacb.

(1) %be Adject1Ye

'l'he concords are aa f'ollowa: - -Olaaa 1 8 8' " 15 6 , 8

s. 0111-t om-, eli-, eai-, e-, olu- oeu-, otu-

P. "(V'o.!* a6a-, . •-· ama-, eti-, eti ( lf)-et 1 (I')- -

The flollowiq are the comrroneat adjectiYal JltGOta:

- 38 -

-dae {lons/tall), -ble ~eautitul), -kbulu {bog), -6i (-qly/bad). -4sala (old), -tit/bane (abort), -acani (amall), -nje (ao many, indicated by ~tnaera), -t/a (aew), -nybeati (many~, -ngakbit (bow •nFt) and numerals tr-om one to tin, Yia. -n,.e (orae), -81n1 (two), -tabathtu (tbree), ... -ae (tour),-blanu (fiye).

The adjectiTe -kbulu ia used aa an 11luatrat1on.

1. ullt'ati ollkbulu (etoflt woaan) a6atati a5akbulu (etout wome1 a. umtehi omkhulu (big tree) i•itabi emikhulu {big treea) 3. ilit/e elikbulu (big atone) a•t/e a•akhulu (big etonea) 4. 1ait16a eaikhulu (biJ pool) 1t1t16a ettkbulu {big poole) a. inja eatulu (big dog) 1t1nja ettnkulu (big dosa) e. utahan10 olukbulu (big enclosure) 11ntaango et1nkulu (big en·

· cloauree) 7. u6uao 06ukhulu (big t'ace) 8. ukuta otukhulu (aer1oua diaeaae)

Note: the a4ject1Ye -nje ia not to be con~uaed with the relat1Ye o~ the eame root. Tbe adject1Ye -nje ia uaed in count­ing on the tinsera. e.g .... 4Yo4aa amanje (so man7 men) - tbe actual aa.ber being indicated by tbe lingers. 1tikbwa6akat1 et1DjJ (ao m&D7 widows}.

(I} 'rbe Relatift

'!'be oonoort.!a are aa ~ollowe:

Olaaa 1 a 3 4 6 6 , 8

s o- o- ell- eat- ·- olu- o&u- otu-? a&a- ·- a- eti- ett- ett-

The atema that \eke the Relat1Ye Concord ma7 be cla~slfted as ro11owa:

(a) True relat1Ye atema- including nu .. rals aeYen (gcelu), e1gbt (nxhonao) e.g. inka61 eaundyu (a dark-red ox), u•hla6a o6oYU (re4 clarl; 1tht kat1, e!li;i1atat1 (a white-raced better) lniint1 ecola \a black bull:with'a wbite abdomen and a white ap6t on the pelTia); 1a'buut1 tllb.l!R,be (a wh.1 te coat); 1j1k1 ell.unobu {aour beer); -ha/I anXbongo (eipt boreee).

(b) Boun ate .. , includiog the numerals aix, nine, teo upwards: •·I• ... ba/1 aaitbi:ba {aix boraea); itlndlu et1a1thtwe6a (nine buta) l laiu a i&ublu~ (a painful atralr}; ukii4ia oku!Qandzi ••latable i'ool};np&o emant1 (a wet blanket, literally!): 1mat1 !pbela-a4lt (a dark-red cow witb briabt-red musale and eara) (11teral1y a wild-cockroach-coloured cow)

(c) De•natrat1Ye Relatives: 'l'heae haYe three poa1t1ona like the le.onatratiYe pronouns.

lat poaition

-ngalta -n3e

Sod poa1Uon

-ncako fDjalo

3r4 poe 1 t ion

-agakqa -njeya

e.s. 1n4Yodaa eDfak& (a lltan or such age); ••tchwenkwe anje ( auob bop). . _

In tbe t'1rat poeltion .;..qata ..,- ~aQ take the dOuble 41111nut1'ft auttix. •·•· U•ttwaaa ongatanJ'Ilna ur,1na ni ej1k1n1' (What does auch a smell ebild want tn a beer part"'

- 33 -

~he ~elative an~ noua atema (naturally excludiag ntaerala) may take the di•inutive autrix. e.g. inkuntana ecolaQ! (a black bullock with a white abdomen and a white epot on the pelvis); ukudla okg!gandzaga (a delicate 4iah).

!be colou~ attributes ma~ also take the feminine sur~ix when ther qmallf7 nouoa atgnirytog female ant .. la. e.g. itht'Okatt elik .alakat1 (a white-faced heifer); 1mat1 e6ovukati (a red cow). i

(4) ltouna preceded 'bJ' prefixal toNativea. e.g. Wllfati ooo6u~ le (a kind woman); u•ti ona.-tuleni (the Tillage by tlie river).

(e) Terba, which are inflected. e.g. umbem ohlakan1pb1le (a wide-awake JOUOg fellow); indTodsa 8JOtL{we {a arunken man).

(f) Oopulativea. e.g. u•fat1 obtainreMtu (an untt~y woman); inkomo ehie111•J (a detoBmed ieaat,. ·

(g) AdYerba. e.g. watt 211 (a tar-a•,. Yillage); itinfo etilapba (thinaa tba t are ere).

(3) the lfumeral. ¥here are only three roots tbnt take the numeral con­

cord, viz. -.-e (other/ of' a ditrerent kind), -nif (or wbat kiac!!), -phi' {wtlichf), the laat preplacing an initial yowel to tbe ooacord.

'l'be table or the numeral concord ia aa f'ollowa:

Clasa 1 2 ~ 4 15 fS

Sing. f8-/WU-, 11-/wu-, li- at- (J'l-) lu-

&a-, •i-/yt-, --/wa-, ti-, ti- ti-

-llbe ta the onl,. root that takes the above :torr. aa tollowa:

Olaaa 1 2 a

" 5 6 , 8

Sing. ~e/wuabe mmbe/wwabe llabe aillbe 1'111be lUJDbe 6u11be kwabe

Plur. 6aftlbe

111•'be/71mbe aallbe/walllbe

timbe tilltbe tiaibe

, a

6u- ltu-

as the:r a tand,

-~• ..,. precede or :t'ollow a noun. The noun undergoes no in­M.ect.ion if it follo• -lllbe, but dropa the initial vowel it' 1 t precedes -••. e •I• ftllbe umottu ( ao•e otb.er peraoa) , lullbf u6enctae (ao• other apleen), 6anth 6a!llbe { dtltterent peep e), tiadlu t.1mbs (di~terent buts).

Before -Jibe nouns or Olaaa & atag. that no~11y talat t.he contracted prefix u- replace t.bia by the ordinary prettx minus the initial TOwel. e•f• lultbunl lumbe (a d1t~erent piece ot wood); luf5entlse 11DD1se a dit'terent apleeo).

EDIIPl•• o:t' the uae o:t'-llbe : ·Wulab&i ullllltt"u anpcinga ajalo (some other person raay t.biak eo): tim 1int.rGmb1 t1 aytt.a naaa ae tendsi~e {Some maidens ~emain hysterical even atter mar­riage); Wetiaa lu6en4ae luabe (He brought. a ditterent spleen); Irina maoje niboba atf'o ;rl;s; (You are now d tacuaaio; ·~­tbiar dit'"'ereot).

- Z4 -

-ai? takea no concord in Olaa'"' 5 aing. In claaees 1 a1ng. 8 aing. 4 plur. and a plur. -ni? takea the rormer ot the al­ternatiYe torma ab.own in the table, aa follow:

Claaa 1 8 a .. 5 6 , 8

Sint. liD it •it lint? aioi? -a it luntt 6uni? 1t11Di?

Plur. &ani't mini? mani? tini? tiDi'f t1ni?

--ni? always follows the noun it quali~iea. 'l'be noun maa

retain or drop the initial Yowl. e. g. uamtf'wanb Bli? (What sex of child!): ndaa6a tin1? (What sort or news?).

Exa-. or the ue of -n1? : Lo tarati watala mtfwana mni~ (What was the aex or the child born of th1a woman?); Bat"11te -niboba ndza6a .l!ill (Wbat nea did they find ;rou diacuaaiog?): Hinko.o ai le,O-cfjitabenaile? (What ia the sex of the beast you bougM?): Balr:upbe kudla kuni? (Wl\et sort or rood did the7 gift JOU?) •

t -phi? takes the concords aa shown ln the table and to them preplaoea a Yowel, a-, •- or o- according as the vowel or the aubjectiTal concord o'f the nou!'l q~.la11f'1ed ia a. 1, or u reapecti yely.

The table ia theretore as tollowe:

Olaae 1 2 I 4 5 6 ., 8

o.,bt? I owupbi? ompbi? I owuph1? eliphit esiphi? eyiph1? oluph1? o6uph1? oltupbi?

a6apbi? empld.? I eyipl\i? a-*Pbi? I awapbi? etipbi? etipbi? etipbi? -

-phi? ataDda alone. the noun being understood, precedes a noun, in Which case the noun is not intlected, followa a noun, in wbiob case tbe initial vowel o~ the noun ie dropped.

Obapter VI

tt'he Verb ·

(I) Jinds or Verbt. The verba in Baea are divided into two catesoriea, y{z.:

(12

) Those with pr1•itiYe atema. ( ) Tboee with stems 4eriye4 from (1) and fro~ other parts or

epeecb.

Pr1mit1Te verb atema generally (a) are diasylabic, (b) begin wlt6 a conaonant and (e) end in the Yowel -a. e.g. teband: (loye), kbamba (go), xtoa 'defeat), boba {speak).

But there are· so•e ~noayllabio etema. e.g. -phi (g1Ye), -ra {die), -aa (dawn), -41a (eat), -*~ -t/ba (burn), -kha (draw).

There are also ate• wbiob begin with a wwe1, which yowl is latent to some caaee. e.g. -enta (4o), -akha {bu1ld),

-{1)ta (come), -(i)Ya (bear).

- 35-

'I'ben are three whose stema en4 in a .-owel other than -a. Theae are : -ati {know), -tshi (aa7), -t/bo (aa7 ao).

There are several p017S~llabic ateme whose rinal a7llable or derivation aucgeate or shows that they are derived ateme whoae autr1x has become pen or the at•. •·•· -elapha (heal), -eblula (4iv1de), 4'Y11ftdn6ala ( cl1ab to tbe aummi t), &pbela (bind), ~bwelela (ride).

In Zulu-Xboaa the two last retain their primitive tor.a 5opba and thwela, tbe ~orme 5opbela and khwelela being ap­plieative.

Dex-iYed yel"b at••• are uauall7 polys7llabie. thl"ee 1118 n V8rieiiee oP these, ria.:

There are

(a) TbOae derived ~rom otber verb atema bv ar~txea (derivative eveciea).

(b) Tboae derived trom nouns and 9ualiftcativea. e.g. khalipba (be braT&) t.. u6ultbali (abarpneaa): hlonipba (ebun) /... ublon1 (baab:tnlneae); 11•la (be incapaci ttted) < ia1liM (deformed person or animal}; lthulupbala {grow) < -k:hulu (bta)

(c) Icteophonic dax-ivatiY&a. Moat of these haT& -ka 88 final syllable. •·I· khuphuka (emerJe) < kbupbu; dzatbruka (eoap) ~ 4satbt'u; kwiltkijela (throw) <.. kw1likij1; cothtota (walk alowl7) ( cotbto-cothto.

(II) Der1T!tive IReJ1el. Except for the ,xa -ana, -aniaa re­'terx-ea to e t thi en o· this eeetioa anc! f"or 41ff'erences due to aount1.-shi:rting, the ~erivatt~e species in ~aea are identi­cal wtth \hoae found tn Zulu-Xboaa.

(1) 'l'be Psaatve. Ia aenepal this ta fortBed b7 inserting -•­before the final vowel o~ the verb etea. e.~. &ona 'see) > &onwa: ch1teha (epend) > cbitahwa; beta (look) . bekwa.

This ~1le 18 accompanied by the following moditicationa:

(a} Monosyllabic verba, vowel verba with latent initial vowel and 41asylabic TOwel verba insert -iw- betbre the final vowel. e.g. -dla (eat) 4liwa; -t/a (burn) tjbiwa; -t/bo > t/biwo; -(t)ta (ocSiae) > -(1)t1wa; -(t)ri (bear) ri ~( i)T1wa; -akba (build) > althiwa. >

(b) Yerbe that take the full auf'ttx -ile in the per.teot au~­at1tute -w- tor the 1 or the suff'ix. e.g. -qalile (baT& begun)

> -qaliwe; -thf'uktle (have eura .. ) > -tbtukiwe.

Xote: The verb ... xtwt•• 6ulala (till) wbose perfect tors ia &ulele tollowa th1• rule in the preaent as well ae in tbe perfect tense. 6ulala (kill} > 6ulawa; 6ulele (have killed)

6ulawe. >

{c) Palatalisation of' bi-labial consonant!!! takes olace before -·-· 6 > t/ : tlaU&a (drive) . ~ qbut/n; /u6a (ttinish) > /ut/wa b ~ : boba <•r••k) > bojwa; fillba (wallow) qqjwa ph > t/b. : pbepha- do-e}.>> pbet/b.Wa; elapha (beal1 elat/hwa • > D7 : •I•••• \aa te) e/n_.a; tbru- ( sen4' > tbf"un71ra mb > nj : 6alllba (bold) > &anjwa; tsb.ellba (trust~ >taben3wa > ) > (d) A bi-labial in the ~1oa1 sYllable ot the stem is palata­liaed even if', as a reaul t of the a1dttion or a sutftx, the bi­lnbial ia no looser in the final syllable. •·•· 9bu&ela (drtYe

- 3&-

tor:f pt/elwa: tbt't1•ela (aead for) {cause to apeak) boj1awa.

thfun7elwa; bob1ea ).

> (e) Snera1. polp7llabie yerba now tused aa ai~~ple atema are at­t'eete4 by palatalization like the Yerba considered 11nder {4). e.g. xa&ela {cbot') xat/elwa; t"umbataba (clench) :runjatehwa; fuDtana (r.~nd) runyanwa; 6opbe1a (b~nd) ). ·6ot/b.elwa. > (2) 'l'he Re,1ter. The oom~nest au """"tx is -eka, b12t a few Terba take -&kala. e.a. tshand'a (loye) tahandzeka; TUla (open) .uleta; &ana ( .. e) 6onakala; -(1),• (hear) Yakala.

> >

(3} The Applioaav~. The eufnix is -eta. e.g. lima (plouth) limela; &amba (s~iae) 6ambela.

)o:

(4) The Caueat1Ye. 'rbe oom:110neat au.Pf"ix is -isa, bnt aeTeral Yerbs endin! in -la change -la to -ta (Ur-~antu lfa). e.g. n7ateha (drink) nyatshiaa; dvwa5a (t'orage) dTWa&iaa; kbatsbala {be tire~ > lthatshata: Tela (appear} > . Teta.

llote: Ur-Ban tu t eomet irka exerts int'l uence on lhe Towel ot' the 'l)recf!'ding SJ'llable, aod partial as~im" lation takes place e.g. dYUndYUt;ala (climb to summit) dwndvuf;eta; flud"f'Uftlals (be warm) t'udYUmeta. >-

>· (~) !be IatenaiTe. The surfix ta -ia1ea. e.g. beka (look) bek1a1aa; ... &uta (aak) 6ut1a1aa.

~ )

{6) The Reciprocal. fbe autf'ix ia -ana. e.v,. kh/ikh/a (strike) kb/ikb/ana; qoodaa. (understand) qoodaana.

). ( .,) The Rn'ftraiYe. The aut'rtxea are -ula, -ultda. 'fb1a species 1a almost confined to a tew .erba ending in -ala, namel7 Tala (close), (e)th~ala (carr.r), endlala (prepare bedding). !beae t'orm the reTeraiYe b7 substituting -ula ~or -ala. Thus: Tala ~lose) Yule (gpen}; endlala (prepare bedding) en41ula. ?b~'•erh tabela {po•r) takes -ulule in the Pn~1Te: tahela (pour) thtulula (pour out) ..

). (Four the change rrom tah to th:t" c:r. Oh. I, 63, p. 9}

'l'he Yerb phaka (dish up food) takes -•1la in tbe reveraiYe. phaka (41ab up f.Do4) pbakula (remove dishes a~ter meal).

(8) Tbe Diminutive. Tiia is formed by reduplicating the Terb atem. e.g. qlna (be atroD.I) qina-qine (be fairly strong); hleka (laugh) ble1ta-hleka f,J. augh d if'r ident 17) •

> Monoayllab1c verbs insert -yi- between

e.g. -oa (raiD) ft87ina (rain slightly). th~ stem elements.

> Po17871labic at.-a place the ~1rat two

stem bet'ore the atem. e.g. 5oniaa (abow} (abo• a little).

ST11ablee of' the 6ona-lonisa

Some Otber aspects of tbe.Te£tal deriY&ti.e 828Ciea

(1) There are some Terba wbicb are no• :round in the ne,tter and cauaati'Y8 t'Orma oolv. .!l'heae have the neuter t'orm in -eM: a or -uta, and the causat1Ye form in -eta, -ula or-uaa.

e.g. !feuter qhekeka (be cracked) ephuka (be broken) ooothtuka (be pulled out) pbeDdYDka (be turned eba•t) gOdYUka { 10 bOIIO)

Causative qheketa {ca,tae to crack) epbula (oauae to break) ncotbt"ula (cause to be P',lle~ ~ phend~la (cauae to turn about godvusa (cause to go home:

- 37 -

(11) ~he aut~ixes -na and -n1aa.

(a) Baoa baa the •e~b -{1) .. (not to giye). Tbie ia a tran~ t1Te Terb. The eu~tx -na makes it 1ntrana1t1ye. e.c. ~&e .. la a1 a6aottu ioyama' pzema~a! (Wb7 do you re~uee the people meat? You are Ye~ attncr:Y

!hla reminds one o~ the Sotho time (not to ~ive), timana (be etiDU). l'urther research may prOYe that there are other Yerba made 1ntransit1ye by the suffix -na.

(b) Another remarkable auttix ia -niaa. e.g. (e)tbfuka (swear) ettbukaaiaa. One of the apeakera (in faet the de~eadant)

1nYolnd in alawaui t at Chief" Wa6ane' a J.nkundla d•1ring the Eas~er Week, 1942, aa1d: "Lo mfati ukhupbnka 11entea6en1, adse at'odTUadYU&ala ngetulu, ethfuka, ethfukan1ta". (Tbia woman eliabe up the bill until abe reaches the summit, swearing , nd sw"'aring 1ndieeriminatel,-.)

The ~orm eth~Jkaniea is not, as would beeKPeeted, a com­bination or the Recipro~al and the Oauaatiye Species; that would be ethrnk.-ana (cause tc swear at each other}. I tried t inYaatirate further on this auffix when the 1alntndla "rose", but could get no other inatanoea. Al1 I can aar at present ie that the .,,t"f"ix -niaa ~ennot be Sllff'ixed to any and every Yerb.

•.B. TbOulh I have giyen the aut~ixee ee -na, -~1aa, they are ~re pl"'bablJ' -ana, -aniaa.

(iii) ~be RetlexiYe A~~iK. The Retlex1Ye Arttx is -ti-. e.g. ukuboba (to apeak) > uku.tibobela (to apeak for oneself').

Chapter VII

~b~ Verb (continued)

Conjugation o~ the Verb

Since this ia not a t~xt-book of grammar, it has no• been ~ouad oeeeasary to give a minute description of the Yerbal coaeorda. These are not different rro~ those or Zulu-Xhosa. Regarding the mooda and tenses, the ~ara4igaa have been :round su!"ficient in 110s t caaea, and the table cf' coneor1a is giYen brrore each paradigm where ne~eeeary.

In tbia aection special attention it~~ drawh to the two diatinet to~ of' the n••~ti.e co~gation in the indicatiYe and th~ participia,, ae we!' aa in tbe relative eonat~~etion. The ~irat ~orm in al, these caaes will be the ordinary nega­tiYe f"orm :roun" in moat Bantu languages, namely, prefixing a o~gatiye Pormative to the subjeetiTal eoneord and substituting a neasttye aurrtx ~or the final W)wel ot'" the verb. This 1a identical with the Zulu-Xhosa fOrm. e.«. n~iya khamba (I go)> andikba•bi (!am not soia~); ndtya boba (I apeak)> andibobi (I am not speaking).

In Baea this foPll is uaed almoet exclnaiyely when the Yerb ha8 no adjunct or object. In other words, as far as the indicetiTe ts concerned, this ror~ eorreapende to the long form of the poaitiTe.

The aeeond rorm, Whoa£ tormat1on will be deaer1bed later, 1a uaed almost exclu~1Yely When the verb has an object or ad­junct, the emphasis being on the latter. Por interest !t maY be mentioned here that the aeeond form 1a roun1 in Upondo too, although details or lAta its function there haTe not been in­yeatigated thorouahl,.-. Whether Baca baa "borrowed" thia form f'rom Mpondo or vice Yeraa 1t is not poaaible to aQ' until a thorough study of Mpondo baa been made.

- 38 -

(a) lb• ~n~1o1t1ve

Exai!IIPlea: Poeitive

ukukbamba 1to go) ukwenta to 4o) ukwatt to le know) Ukudliwa to be eaten)

Kegat1 ve

ukuogakbambt uk\lngenti ulc:ungati ukungadliwa

Sentenoea: Lo IBf"o 1qa kwat1 ukuo7atehela 1ndlam ('l'h1s man knows how to tread the war-danoe}: Ukul'lpbeki 1 tintf'o ltahle humkbwa olll61 (It ts a bad ba~.,;_t not to look at tbtn~s well).

(b) ~he Imperative. The following are the rules ~or the forma­tion or the imperative:

~* Diaayllabic and polysyllabic verba, whether vowel or con­sonant VArba, use the stmplt~ stem end1nf3' in -a ss the impera­tive ain~1lar. e.g. kballba (go), :'Oxa {withdraw), eaula (wipe), enta {4o). i

The Bacaa of' Luaan1en1 pre~ix y- to d1sayllab1e and poly syllabic vowel verb stems. 'l'hua: es"1la :- yequla, enta > .. yenta.

(ii) Vowel verba whose tnittal vowel is latent uee the simple atem with the latent vowel "reTealed". e.g. (1)ta (come) > tta, (1)-. (stand) > 1118, (1)wa (hear) > ivA.

The Bacaa ot Lugansen1 pref'1x T- to the "revealed" yowel Tbua : ( i) ta > J'1 t•, { 1) •• "/ J'1118, ( 1) va > J1. va.

(11i) Monoa7llabic verb stems prefix 1- to the verb stem. e.a. -4la (~at}" ) 14la, -k:ha {4raw) /' iltba, -t/ho (say so) .> 1t/ho. -

The Bacas ot Lugangeni prefix yi- to the verb stem. Tbua -4la ) Jidla, -kba '> J'ikba, -t/ho > 71t/h.o.

(tv) The imperative plural is formed by su4'"..,1x1ng -ni to the a ingular t'orae in all caaea. e.g. kbamba ). khamban1; esula, 7eaula > eaul.ani, :reaulant; ita, y1ta ) 1tan1, l'itan1 idla, 7idla > idlani, yidlan1.

(v) When preceded by the objeotival concord or by the re" t'lextve attix ti, the imperative chances ~he terminal -a or the stem into -e. e.g. 6s•ba (ae1ze) -.., m6ambe, mf5ambeni (aeize hia(; 141a (eat) .'> ~i~le. 7il)len1 (est it); J'"'ula (pull) ) tt1ule, ti

1uleo1 {pull rourael~/youreelveaJ.

' {vi) Saca, like Zulu-Xhosa, hae no correspondtn~ negati Te imperative. To e.xpreu the nerat1Ye imperative, the ve.flb stem muaa, muaaot (remove) 1~ uaed imperat1Tely before the iot'1o1t1ve form of tho Y8rb being nagattvet. The k or uku­and the final YOwel o~ ~sa, muaani are elided. e.g. ~uta (aka ask} > IIU8 'uu&uta; - 6utan1 > musan'uu6uta; dlala {pla7) > maa'uudlala; dlalaoi > muaan'uudlala.

(c) '1'he Indicative. '!'he tenses or the 1ndicat1Te are as ~olloWI (1) Primary Tenaee: Preaen~ (Long & Short), Perfect {Lol'lg & Short), Past (Si!llple), -?t:tture (r.ong and ShOrt).

(2) !1eeondar:r Tenses: Recent Past Continuoua; Remote Past Continuous; Recent Paet Perf"ect; Remote Past Perrect; Recent Past ('.,ontemplated; Remote -·aet Conteraplated.

(1) The Present 'l'ense (t..ong Tl'orm). The table of' concords 1e as follows:

- &i -

let P.. 2nd P. 1 5 6 7 8

Sing. ncti­~lur. e1-

ti-nt- 'u- u- 11.- ai- i- lu- 6u- ku­la- 1- a- ti- ti- ti- -

The concord o~ the negative ia the eame, but has wu- and ka­in tbe tdQgtll&r ot tbe 8nct and :Srd persona reapectiYel7.

Poait1ve

ndi7a khamba ~7a kbamba •uya khamba

etc.

Examplea

~I .. IOing/I 10) JOU are p1ng/7ou ,o) be 1a ,oing/he go••)

Negative

andikhantbt awukhalflb1 altakhaJBbd.

etc.

The Preaent Tenee (Short 1flo:rm)

BP.fore ordinary consonant verba the concorta are the aame as those flo'lnd before the long ~orm; but 1>erore vowel verba the concords are aa follows:

nd- 1Y- w- 1- •- 7- lw- 6- kw-/lt-

a- 6- y- a/e/o t- t- t- - -

The concord of Clue 8 is kw- before Yowel ver-ba beginning in •-· e-, and k- before vowel verba bealnning in o-.

The concord or Claaa 8 plur. 1e a- e-, o- before vowel verba beginning in a-, e-. o- reapeot1vely.

Aa tar aa the poeiti•e conju~ation ia ooncerne~, ~aea doee not differ with Zulu-Xhoaa. The neaative, howtver, reveals a new ~eature. It baa be~n found nece3aarv therefore to ~lve the tables aeparatel7 in o~er to give ~11 treatment to the negative.

Ehmplea of the Poai tive (Short f'orm)

n41khamba (I 10), odenta (I do), adondla {1 breed)

The Negative of tbe Present (Short Porm)

~be negative of the Present IndicatiYe, Short Porm, is charac+.eriae4 by the defective verb- -.e*. ··:batever ita original aigniticanca, tbia verb ia now used exclusively to form the neptift of certain tenaea and B)Ode, and one o:f' these is the Present ""ndieative, Short lPorm. This 11erb is now never apart ~m some negative ronnet1Ye or other o~ the Yerb.

To for;n the Present Indicative, Short Porln, the negative :formative a- is prefixed to -ve. In this tense, the negative f'ol"'lat1ve maY or •7 not be followed b., the aubjectival coo­cord. The main verb follows -ve, and is in tbe Participial llood, Present Tenae. Sioee the •to verb takes the aubjectival concord in the Participial IOod, the concord is optional be-· :f'ore -'te. 'rhus, n the Ptra t person, t"or instance, the forw ia either ave nd1 + main verb or andive n4i + main verb.

• All pred1cat1vea follow1nr -ve, wbetber verbal or non-•erbal, are always in the Pa~t1cipial Mood.

- 4,0 -

The form are theref"ore as tollow:

Sing .. Plur.

lat 'P. a(ndl)Ye ndikballtba (I arn not a(ai)Ye aikbamba

2n'l P. a ( wn) ve ukbamba gointr)

(you are not a{ni)ve nikb•mba going)

a(6a)ve 6ekbamba 3r4 PJ..a(ka)Ye ekhamba (be is not

a( wn)ve ukb81Dba going)

2. (it is not a(yi)Ye ikbamba going)

3. a(li)ve likbamba ~it etc.) a~wa)ve eltbamba 4. ari)Ye eikballlba it etc.) a ti~Te t1khamba 5. a yi'•e 1kbamba (it etc.) a~t1,ve tikbamba 6. a lu) Ye lukhalllba ~it etc.) a ti)Te tikballba '7. e 6u)ve 5ukhsmba it etc.} 8. a ku)Ye ltukbamba ,it etc.)

In a simple statement, this form, like the corre~n~ndin~ positive, ts employed when the verb is ~ol1ow~d by an adjunct in the 1"orm o'f object or a·'iverbial extension. e.~. A(ba1ve f5enyatsha ngokweailto (The1.are not drinkt!lg according to custom~ A(si)ve a15uta le,o ntro (We are not askin~ that); Lo mae6enti a{wn)Ye ukhamba kahle (This work is not going .a well); Inehaza enkulu a(yi}Ye inyatshtea kable (A'big ~ot 1& not com­f'ortable to drin:: fi!'Om) •

With or w1 thout, an adjunct, th1.s rorm is use" to expreea exclamation. e.g. A~ka)ve ~tnratabela indlam! {How braYel7 be treads the war-cla!"lce!); A(ka}Ye ekha•ba! (What a yapboa4 he is!)

The Pert'ect Tenae (Lon« l'orm)

The concords are the same as thoee employed in the Pre­aent. The table is as follows: ·

lat P. ndikb .. bile {I he•e gone) 2nd P. !ukbambtle ~you have gone) 3rd P.l·ukbambile be has cone)

2 ukbambile it has gone} etc.

andikbambanga awukhambanra akakbambaap anltbaiJbanga u•• etc.

The Perf'eet Tenee (Short l'orm)

The fol"tt is alWaJ"S uaed when the verb has &!1 adj,Jnct. Its negative is also charaoteriaed by tile detective verb -•e, which is followed by the main verb in the ?artic1pial Mood, Perr-et Tens~, Sbort ~orm. -ve employs the subjectival con­cord in exactly the same way as 1n th~ Present.

1st P. ndithallbe ndedzi (I went alone:,

2nd P. ~khambe wedzi ~you went alone) Zrd P.l ,ukha•be yedsi be went alone)

2 'ukbambe wodsi it wentalooe} 3 11khambe lo~si (i~ ete.)

ete.

a(nd1)ve ndikhambe ndedzi

a~wn) Ye ukbambe wed zi · a ka Ye ekbambe 7ed&1 a wu Te ukhambe 1104&1 a 11~Ye likbambe lodat

etc.

- 41 -

FUrther examplee; A(ndi)ve ndibeke wena (I was not looking at you); A(6a)Ye 6ef1ke 1tolo (It was not yestefdaY that they arrived}; Le ~uut1 a(Fi)Ye 1blintelwe wena lit waa not in your honour that this gost was aJ.au8btered);

"i'be Long ?or• may follow -•e when the oegati'Ye is ued in an exalamatol"Y aenae. e.g. 4A.(ka) ve ebob1le iowo r11fo! {Bow well that man spoke!}; A(6a)ve 6ece61le la6a 6a~t~ana 6akbo! (How healthy theae yJur children are!)

The Past Tense (Simple}

Tbe concords are the same as those or the Present, Short Worm, as employed before vowel verbs. The negative of tbe Past Tense 19 characterised ~the detective verb ta. This seems to be the only function or this verb. It is not pre­ceded by any concord, but is rollowed by the enrrtxal negattve formative -n1e; tanae is followed by the main yerb 1n the aub~uneti-.e 110od.

The table 18 ae ~ollowe:

lat p. 2nd P. 01. 1

2 a

ndakhamba ~I went) ,walt bamba you want) 'walcbamba he went.) wa~hamba ( it went) lakhamba (it eta.)

taqe ndikhsmbe tange ukhambe tange a.khambe tange ukbambe tange 11khambe

~he Pest Tense baa only one ~orm in its pr14ary for~, and this form is ernp1oyed Wh\,~her the verb has an adjun~t or not.

(iv) Tbe Future Tense te'. Th1~ is eharacte~iaed by the ver - a, to wh ~ xed the ~ub~eotival concord as 'for the Present Tense: then t"ollowed by the simple ver'tt-atem. The negative 1e formed in two waJB, 6ne the well-known way b.J aegativing -ta ts f'or the ~resent Tense, eliding the final vowel of- -ta (which te -1 in the negative) f"ollowed by the main verb in the Inrinit1ve witb -k- elided. e.g.

nd1ta khamba (I am about to go) and.it'uukhamba tita khaaba (they areeout to go) atit'uulcbambe

The positive form above ta used whether or not the verb bae an adjunct. '!'he corresponding ne~rattve is uael1 when the verb has no adjunet. The other fc~n or the negative 1~ characterise~ by -ve. Th11'1 vern is precei!ed by the prefixal n""gative rorma­tiYe a- with or w1tbout the concord at"ter it,in exact::r tbe aame way as in the Present. Bhort ~•rm. ave ie then placed bP.fnre tha positive form above, and this changes into the Par­ticipial Mood.

1st

2nd

01.

The table is as follows:

P. ndita khamba nawe (I aba11 go with you)

P. uta kbamba naye (JOU will r w1 th blnl

1 'uta khamba newe (he will go with ,ou)

etc.

a(odi)ve ndita khamba na~

a(wu)ve uta khaniba naye.

a(ka)v~ eta kbamba nawe.

etc.

~urtber examples: A{6a)ve &eta blintelwa mbuut1 (Ho goat ia going to be fl&ugbtered 1n their honour); Ave ndita boba 1ntto endingayati \( shall not say what I do not know); ~eli jiki ave lita nyatahwa buwe wedz1 (Thi~ beer is not going to be drunk by 7ou alone).

Without an adjunct, th1a torm is used in an exc1amator7 ~~n;:\!f·B· A.Ye &eta kh/ikh/wa! (W~t a biding they are ping

l

- 42 -

The 'Puture> Tense 'Remote)

The Remote ~uture is ~ormed as ~ollowa:

( 1) Prefix the subject ival eoneord to -T• ae in the Present Indicative, long ~orm. e.g. ndiya. (11} Let the me1n •erb f'Oll'-'W in the lnt"initive 'Form minu., the initial TOWel or the infinitive e.g. nd1J& kukbamba. (111) Elide the vowel or the B'lbjectival concord it th.,_ concord has a consonant, aa well aa the 7 or -ya. e.g. ndi~a nda. (iv) Elide the k- or the infinite, e.g. kukhamba ukhamba. (•) In!3ert -•- between -a and u- to avoid biat•ta e. g. ndawlduuuba. "l.'hiFt 1a tbe Re­mote "uture, pos 1 t 1 ve.

Tbe negative is rormed in two ways. The fi rnt, whloh is used when the verb has no adjun~t, is formed by negativing -78 in the regular wa7; e.g. ndiya / andi7i. ~inal -i !s elided, and J'isfollowed bJ' the in-P1n1t1ve form o" the main verb minus initial uk-. e.g. andiyukba•ba. The Por•a are there­t•ore 83 rollowe:

ndewukhamba {I shall go) uyawukhamba (you wil: go) tiJ8WQkbamba (they will go)

llegative

andiJUkhamba awu7Uk:hambe atitukhamba

The second ~orm of the neg~t1ve. which 1a employed when the verb has an adjunct, is ebaraotertsed b7 a-ve which is follol'!ed by the !!lain verb in the Part.1e1p1al Mood, 11luture Tense. The ro~s are aa ~ollowa:

n4aW'llkbuba nawe(I aball go with :rou) a(ndi)ye ndawukhamba na11 :uJ'&Wkbamba naJe (Y011 will go with a{wu)ve uyawkbamba nqe ' him) ·uyawukhamba nawe (he wil1 go with :ron) a(ka)ve eyawukhamba nawe

etc. ete.

The Secondary Tenses or the Indicative.

Except for the negative io -••, the secondary 'i'eneea do not di~rer rrom the Xhosa Secondary Te~aes. Sinee the uae of -ve has been made clear in connection with the Primary Tenses, details are no longer nfleea&ary. All that w111 be done there­~ore ie to ~ive the tables, the negative ~ormft in -ve being given below the regular foraa.

{v) Tbe Recent Patt Oontiguoya

6endikbamba (I was going}

u&ulthamba (you were going)

6elikbamba ( it •• going)

etc.

6endingakhambi 6endingeve naikhamba

u6ungakhambi u6uogeve ukhamba

f5e11ngakhambi 6e11ngeve litbamba

ete.

- 41-

(vi) Tbe Recent Past ~ertect

6end1khambtle (I had gone) 6endi~baabe

.ulukhambile (you bad ~ne} u6ukbaMbe

6el1kbamb11e (it bad gone) 6el1kballtbe

et.e.

(Y11) The Recent Peat Conte~tplated

6end1ngakbambanga 6end1ngeve nd1kha~be

u&ungakhamhenga u6ungeve ukhamte

5 el1ngak hamb8 nga 6elingeve 111thambe

etc.

eend1ta khamba (I 'l:'&& about to goJ f;endingatuukbsmba tendingeve ndita thamba

u6uta kbamba (You were about to go}u6uogat,t'lkhllmba u6ungeve uta kbamba

e6eta kbamba (~ was about to go) e&engatutmba~ba e6engeve eta khamba

.~. ·~· (v111) The Remote Past Continuous

ndandikbamba {I was going)

wawukhamba (7Qll .1ere soing)

wayekhamba (be wae going)

etc.

(1x} The Remote Past Per~ect

ndandikhambile (I bad gone}

(x) The Remote Past contemplated

odandi ta kbamba ( I was abo•1 t to go)

wawuta khamba ry.,.,u Wefe about to 10)

W&J'eta kbuaba (he was abont to go)

etc.

ndand1ngalthamb1 ndandtngeve ndikbamba

wawungakb.ambi wawungeve ukhamba

wa7engalc:hambi wQ'engeve eltbamba

etc.

ndaodingakhambanga ndaodingeve ndikbambile

Wdandingatuukhamba ndand1ngeve ndita kbamba

wawungatuukhamba wawung~ve uta kbamba

wayengatuukhemba wayengeve eta khamba

e .. e.

N.B. It will have been noticed that in all the secondary Tenaee the negative ~ormative betre -ve is nga-, whose final -a be­eomes -e by assimilation.

(d) The Subjunctive. This mood baa two tenses. the ?resent and the Past.

(I) The Preaent. The ~able o~ the Present Tense ia aa tollowa:

I - 4& -

ndilthambe ukhambe akballbe {

that I may go) th~t you may ~) that he ma7 go)

nd1ngakhamb1 ungakb.ambi angakhanbi

etc. ete.

Tbe I erative uae ot' the SUb The ?resent sub-junctive, w th the help o. the pre~txa foT"l'!lative me-, ie used inP->eratively in the let and 3rd Persons. · e. g. • 6akhambe~ (let them go!); •a !6u7e! (Let it come beek!).

If the aubjectival concord is that ot' Plural, two dit'ferent forma are possible. one, like the e~moles given above, and it e.g. nta stkhambe. (TAt I'Ou and me go); ma two seize 1 t!)

the 1st Person roe 13 the regular signifies "we two". siyi6a~be! (Let ue

The other is a kin•1 or in~lustv~ nl,~ral, St1eh as is f'o1md in Sotho~, and it signifies "you others a·Fl myself". This is rormeil by sufficing -ni to the "e.xclus1 .. 11 rorm. e.g. ma sikhamben1! (Let you otherq and mJSelt' go:}~ ma s1y16ambeni! (Let JOU others sn~ m,yeelf' ae1ze it!). But in the negative there 1e only one T"orm. Roth lll8 s1khambe and ma eikhambeni become ma singakhamb1 (let us, two or more, not go). ( ii) The Past. 'l'he Pagt Subjun· ... tive, poet ttve, is formed in the well-known way round i:"t Z11lu-Xboaa. The negatiTe, on the otber hand, is rol'"'Hd ~)Y inserting -nga- before the verb stem, and ehanging the ~1nal vowel into -1. The table ia as t'ollowa:

let P. 2!"ld P. 01. 1

ndnkballba :wakhamba wakbalabe

ete.

(I went) ( tou went) (he went)

ndangakhamb1 ~angakhambi •wangakha11b 1

etc.

:~:xamplea: U6awo watshi ma ndi7et kodywa ma adansa;&, (M7 f'atber told me to sro, but I did not gQJ; lfdamf'Uil8 • gi\ane ni (I lOOk· 10~ him (but) did not see him): Iinkomo talahie , aile Dgo&a wasuta wansatibeki kable.(The cattle went astraY becanse h« did not look a~\er them properl7).

Tb1a form o~ tbe Negative Past Subjunetive is common to se't'era1 of' tbe Hguni dialects spoken in the 'rranskei, e. g. ~ln6i, Hpondo and Mpon1omiae, and has orten annoyed •a~ teachers and examiners aa "p~or Oboss"!

The Participial Mood. This has four tenses, viz.: Present Per'feet CLon1 ,t: Short), ?ast, li'uture. Be:f"ore eon.,r·nant verba, the eoneor1s sre the same as those '~"'ound in Zulu-V:.hosa; bet'ore monosy11abie and vowel verbs Baea forma are identical with thoal found in Zuln. That is, the -•- or -•1- inserted. in Xhosa be­f'ore the verb-stem is nc t fo·m·~ 1n Baca. In ~he ?rese.,t, the ?er~ect andthe ~uture, Baoa has two rorm~ in the negative con-3uaat1on, the f'irst being the ordinary one, ani the s~cond be­ing the ~orm in -'t'e. The Past employs the 't'erb -ta in the negative, rollowed by the aegat1Y8 rormat1Te -nge aa in the Indicative.

* Pound also in Hlu6i and »pondomiae

(1) Tbe Preaent

1st P. odtkba~a (I going)

3rd ?. e~bamba (he &oiog)

etc.

(11) The Pe~rect

lat P. nd1khamb1le (I havin~ ~ne) nd1kh&lllbe

2nd P. ukharabile (70,1 haTing gone) ukhambe

01. l elchartbile ( h~ having gone) ekhambe

etc.

( 111) The -::;tu t 11 re

let P. ndita khamba (I, about to

2nd ?. uta khamba (70U, abo,tt to

go)

goJ

en. 1. eta kbamba (he, about to go)

etc.

ndiogakhambi nd1ngeve ndikha~ba

ungakhambi ungeve lllthaT.ba

e nga 'khamb i engeve ekhambe

Ndingakhambanga ndingeve ndikbambe

ungskhambanga ungeve ukhambe

engakhambenga engeve ekbamhe

etc.

ndingatuukhamba nd1ngeve n~ita kbamba

ung& t~lultha"'''ba ungeve uta khamba

encratuukhamba engeTe eta khamba

ete.

Examples : :.;1fike a6afat1 6eta vova 1 jiki. (We arrived when tbe wo .. n were about to atrain*the beer); Eta k9§grela nje kuncedsa n1 ukumf5-uta? (Since he 1s gain£.: to deny what ie the use or ask­ing himt); Nitixhamla nje, ndinfeve ndita boba 1ntro engeblanga nje (You labou~ in vain, a1nce am not going to aay what baa not hap~jened). ,Undinqamlele, ndinseve bdita boba kekbulu (You be't'e cut me short alth<:mgh I was not going to spt'ak ~~t len~tb).

lst P. 2nd P. 3:Pd P.

( iv) The Past

ndakhamba c~ having gone) jWakhamb& (you baY 1 ng gone) ·wakhamba ()le having gone)

etc.

ndingatange ndikhambe ungatange ukhambe engatange akhambe

ete.

Examples: Hfi~a uyihlo-mkbulu 11af'( lrudsala ( Ymt arrive long after your grandrather•e death ; Lit. you arrive, y ur ,rand­rather haying died lon~ ago). Sif'ike tahina inkomo gahliDS!! ngeveki edlulile (We arrived a we~k a~ter the beast haa 6een alen1gbteret1) (lit. We arr1Ted, the beast havinl been elaugb.terec in tbe previous week); Leti pdsaea a1t1va kudza1a tadlula (We learn tbiA n~wa long aft~r it has paased).

(f) %be Po\ea~taJ "Tlrer e are three tenses o-r this nsood, ytz. Preeent, Recent ~aat, ile1110te Past. 'l'hia tense is eharacteriaed by the formative nga- which precedes the Yerb-etem.

- 46 -

(1) Tbe Present Tense

lat. 2n4

1 2

P. ndingakbamba ? . ungakbamba

angakhamba ungakbamba

etc. I

I can go\ 70u can go) he e~tn go) it can go)

lat P. 2n4 P. 01. l

2

lat ?. 2nd P. 01. 1

2

(11) :be Recent Past

6end1ngakbaraba ti collld have goa) u6ungakba•ba 70~1 " " " efSen1akhamba he " " " ) u6ungakha•ba 1 t " " " )

etc.

(11i) The Re~te Past

ndandingaktullaba{l ~ould have gone) wawunpkba•ba J'OU " ff • )

wa7engalthamba be ~" " " ' wawunsakhamba 1 t " ,. If ~

etc.

andingekhambi awnngekhambi alr:angekbambi awungekhambi

etc.

6end1ngekharnb1 u6ungekb.amb1 e6engekhamb1 u~ungekhambi

etc.

ndandingekbambt wawngeltbambi wayengelchambi wawungekhemb1

etc.

(g) The Contingent. This moon is characterised by the roraat1Ye nge which Ia p:refiud to the aubJectival concor1. The subject1Ya1 con­con is the aame aA that oP the Participial ;,·ood, exee.,t t'or cer­tain •d1f"1cati··.na in recognition or wowel 1•••· The ('..ontingent Moo4 baa four tenses,y1z.: ~resent, Perfect \Long~ short), Recent Peat Pert'ect, R~te ¥as~ ·ettect.

let P. 2Dd P. 01. 1

ngendikbamba npwukhamba ngeyekhamba

etc.

( 1). The J' resent

- {11) The Perfect

ngend1ngakhamb1 nsewnapkhamb1 ngeyengakhamb1

ete ..

let P. ngendikhambile (I should hove gone) tngendingakhambanga

8Dd P.

01.1

ngendikhambe ngendingeYe nd1khambe

ngewukhambile ngewukbambe

(ton sholt1 ~ have gone )ngewungal(hambanga ngewungeve ukhambe

ngeyelcbttmbile (he ngeyekhambe

etc._

ft }ngeyenga~hsmbanga ngeyengeve ekb&mbe

ete.

(11) Tbe Recent Pa9t Per~ect

lat P. nge6endikha~11e (1 aboul~ have goae) n&e6end1ngakbambsnga nge6endikhambe nget;end1.ngeve ndikhalal

2nd P. nge6eukhamb1le (,-ou " .. ) nge6eungakbambanga nge6eukhambe nge6eunae•e ukhambe

!rd. P. nge6eethutb1le (he " If ) n1e6eengakhambaaca nge6e elthaalbe nge6e engeve .. ekba8b«

eto. etc.

(111} The -Remote Past Perfect

lat P. ngendand1khamb1le ( should haye gone) ngendand1kharabe

2nd P. npwawukhamb1le (70u " agewa1n1kbambe "

ngendandingakhambanga n,en4and1ngeYe

nd11tbambe

ngewawungakhaabanga ngewawungeye ukbambe

- 4'7 -

3rd P. ngewayekbambile (he should haYe gone) ncewayengakh&Mbanga ngewa~ekbambe ngewayengeye ekbambe

etc. eta.

Bxnpl~s or. the use of' the Contingent Mood:

JJand ikbamba khoBt:i menje u6a Send 1huwe ( r:r I were ym.i I should go aowl; ij[!iid\kha•be na,-e u6a 6end1nema11 (If I had had ll'X)ftey I should haft gone • th h!a); U6~t ftendikb.ona n end1mkh/1kh 11e (!f' I had been there ! should haYe given him a h 1d 1q ; .ijh~e ea4i-1dte•• ..... ~1111fk,li !J6a ee~namaha/1 9se6enJne 6ete ngeenyawo (If lhey bad boraes they should not haYe come on oot}; HAa 6endiaat1 ukutabi up ytfuna nge6endite 01170. (Had T knowntbat you neede1 it I ahonld haYe brought it5; lfl!!8ltteke kudzala uea e6E-neenkomo (If" he had cattle he should havebeen married long ago); U6a umana warn e6eaaph1la ns;nd1n2eve ndidselelwe kangaka ha6afana (I~ my aon were still liYing shoni~ not be contemned so mueb by young men); U6a J'&J'ingekho im1tahi yaltbe nceW&fet"ele ltule,o ndzawo :Had his herbs not been there he abo,ll.d haYe d led onthe BllOt) ; TJAa 6end1 yat 1 imbamb11ftO ,.enu DJ8DdigSeYe nd16uta kuwe (It" I knew the eauee ot" ,.our quarrel I abo·u1d Mt 'be aetln~ you).

(ll) The &latiYe Oonat~1etion. Without any eu:2: ·e~t,io'l that the -;elative is a mood, but ?or oonvenieace, I d1sCl1S~ the RelstiTe Oonat~1ction in this ehapter.

It ha~:~ to be noted that ~aea bae a relative s'tf~ix -to, corresponding to Zulu-Xhosa -J'O, and to Sotho -og. 'l'his snf"f'ix 1a employed in the Present Tense. e.~. An1iy1Ya leyo ntf"o oy!~obako (I do n<'t hear wnat you are aa,.tng); Went.a int-ro &Y'itahandzaio (Be does what he ltkea).

But -to is no' suffixed in the f"ollow1ni:' e1.nhttnqtaneea:

(1) '•'/hen the Yerb has an adjllftet a'ld no objeet1val eoneord. That ia, when em~haais is laid on an ad~unet. e.g. A6arana a~adla i jiki and1~afshe.nda1 (I do not like FOU.ng m~n who ,., rink beer1; n•t'o ot.eka 1 ntt"ombl enhle! (A man who ie engage~ to e: ~tne girl!)

(1i) When the verb bae e progressive or exelu!!!iVt'! imp11eet1on. e.g. a6antfu aAaaaeina (people who still danee); tndYo~za ese 11ala {the ~an who is already preparing to sleep). .---

(111) In the negrttve eolljugation, 1rre~eat1ve ot" er!junet or 1m­plication. e.g. a6antfu a6anganyatsh1 (peonle who do not drink); HU7e umbem ggd1osamat1 (He is the tet1ow I don't know).

The uses or tbt various.Te9fet !n the Rel~tive Constructioi (i) #: p............,...

Simple Imp11eat1on

uanttu okhambako (the man who is going) u•t:tu okbamba maoje {the man wbo is

going now)

umntru. ongakbambi umntf'tl ongeve ekhemba man.

~rotreeeiYe Imp1icat1on

a6afat1 a6asan7atsha (women who still 4rink)

a6arat1 a6angssanyatshi a6af'ati a6angaaeve

6enyatahe

W~te: Owing to the adverbial colouring of' -sa-, the eegative in -ve is possihle in the pro£ressiYe tmnlieation whether the verb has an adj'W'Ict or not.

ExelusiYe Implication

- 48-

Exclu•tve Implicatt~n

ullf'ana oae ese6•nta (a young man who tllllt'ane. ongekue6ent1 is already working)

u.mt"ana oae eae6enta umtana ongekue6entl eGoll eno11

Note: The negative :in -ve ia not used ln the exellJelve imp1 ioa­tion or tte Present.

1ndvo1za elele

indvod za elele u6u thf'ongo

( 11) The :'erf"eet

Simple Implication

(the man who 1B sleeping)

(the man who 1~ fast asleep)

Progreaqive lmPlieation

indvo~za engalalanga

indvodaaa engeve ilele uf;uthfongo

indvodza esalele (tne man -.bo ls at11 1

sleeping) in~vodza engasalalanga lndvodza engeve isalel•

Bote the negative in -ve in spite o~ the aheenoe o~ an adjunct.

r.~xeluaive Im~,licatioo

1ndvodza eae llele (the •n who is a, read,- 1 ndvodza enge1talal1 a aleepl)n~)

One inf'o~nt told me that tb~ rorm engeve ee llele is accept­able even tr there is no adjunet.

( 111) Tbe ?uture

Simple Implication

a6ant~u a6ata ftka (people who are about a6antfu a6angatuut1ka to come) a~antfu a6angeve 6eta

fika

Bote that the negative tn-ve 1s aceep tab1e even i. f there ta no adjUDC!t.

a6antfu a6aaau fika

a6antt'u a6aaata f1ka lapb.a

Progressive Implication

(people who are a6anttu a6angaaatuut1ka still to come)

(people wbo are • a6antru a6angasatuut1ka still to come here) lapha

Bote that the aeaative in -ve is not acceptable here.

~xclu~tve Implication

a6antfu a6aae 6eta (people who are fika already about to

eo:ne';

a5antfu aSangekatuuttta

One informant told rae that the negative !'orm a6angeve ae hta fika ia acceptable even if there is no adjunct. ,.itb an ad­Junct, of eourae, the negative in -Ye is acceptable. This would be a6angeve ae Seta fika manje (who are not yet about to come now).

a5antrn a6akhambe

a6antru a6akhamba kadze

-50-

(1Y) 'l'he Pa~t ·

(people who went)

(people who went late)

a6antt'l1 a41:.angatantte 6akbambe ·

a6anttu a6angatanae 5akbambe ltadze

(Yi) The Reeent ?a<1t C!ontinucme "*sl;iple f!Dpl1cat1on

umntru o6ek:bamba (the ma, who was umnt f'u o6engakhambi go·' ng) '

unmt~ o6ekhamba (the man who W})S ~t.~umntt•u o6enpYe nawe going with 70u) ekbamba nawe

Progressive Implication

umntfu o&tsakbamba (the mao who was umntt'u o6engaaatballb1 et111 going)

umnt,t'n o6esakhamba (the T.an who W'lS umntr·1 o6engaseve ekbam nawe sttl~ going with nawe

yon)

Note that the negative i.n -ve ia aoc~eptable in the pro-'~reas1Ye 1m·,lit'st ion.

umntru nawe

o6eae~ekbamba(the man who was alread7 going)

o5eae7ekbamba(the man who wae alread~r JOing with youJ

umntru o6engekakhamb1

umnt~1 o6engeve ••7•­khamba nawe

{vii) The Recent Past Per~eet

Simpl~ Implication

umntf"u o6ekhamb1le 'the man whf'J had gone)

umntf"~ o~ekhambe ( .

umntru o6engakbambanga

umnt.t"n o~engeve ekhambe nawe nawe

Progressive Impl1eatton

u~ntt"'t of!Seaakh811b11e( the :!fan who bad unnt 1'tt o6engaaakhambang still gone)

umntru o~eeakbambe (the man who had .,., umntt'"tJ of;engeve ••kbam~ nawe at111 gone with nawe

you)

unmtt"11 o6eee;re­khamb11e

umntfu oeeseye­kbambe nawe

~xclueive Imp:ication

(the man who bad umntru o6engekakbambi already gone)

(the man who bad umntfu o6engeve ae7e-not 7et gone w1 tb khambe nawe )'OU)

- &1-

(viii) Jbe Aeeent ~aat Oont,rnolate4

~imple t~lication

u•tru of\eta ltbamba (the man who waa about to ~o)

umntf'l1 o5eta khamba nawe (the man who was a bout to go 1fi th l'OU)

umntf>lt o6engeve eta khamba nawe

Progressive Implication

umntfu o6esata lthamba (the man who was still about to go)

umnttu o6eaata lthamba nawe (the man who waaat111 about to go with you'

umntt"'l of;engasatuukba!'lba

umnt:rt1 o~engasatuukhsmba naw4

·note the abeenee or the negative in -Ye.

ExcluaiYe Implication

umnttu o6eaeyeta kha~ba (the man was already about 'o co)

umntfu o6eaey•ta khamba nawe (the man who waa already abowt

to go with you)

umntru o6engekatuukbamba ~~

llmntfu o6engeve a e,.-eta ltbamba nawe

(viii) The Remot! Past Oontinuo~us

nimple Implieetton

umntfu owayekhamba (the man who was going)

umntfu owayengakbambi

umnttu owayekbamba o.awe (tbe ntal'\ Who was going with ,.ou)

uMDt~J owayengeye ekhemba na1

Progressive Implication

umntta owayeaakhamba (the man wbo ... at111 going)

umntfU owaye aakhambi nawe (the man who waa at11, going

with you)

umnt~u o•aven~aaakhambi

umotfu owayengt·HI!eve ekhamba nswe

Excl,lsive Implication

muntf"u owayeae7ekhambs (the 1!80 who waa already going)

umntfu owayeaeyekhamba nawe (the man.wno was alreadY going

with you)

umnt~u owayehgekakhambi

umnttu owayengeve seyekhamba nawe

(is} ~he Remote Past Perfect

Simple Implication

umtru owayekbambile (the man wbo hsd gone)

umotf"'ll owayekballlbe nawe (the man who bad gone w1 tb you)

umntf"u owayengakhambaqa

umnttu owayengeve ekhambe na,

- 52-

nlltltf'u owqeeakhambile (the men wyo was atill away)

urantf'u owayeaakhambe nawe (the man whn w&e still away

with you)

umnt~n owayengasakbambanga

umnt.,.,, owayengeYe eaakbambe nawe

Rxolus1ve Imp11eatton

umntru owayeae7ekhamblle (tbe man who had alreadY gone)

umtf'l.l owayeaey-ekhambe nawe (the man who h~d already gone

with yotl)

umntf'u owayengekaltbambi

nmatfu owa~engeve seyethambe nawe

(a} The Remote Past Oont~lated

Simple !mp11eat1on

umntfu owayeta khamba (the man who wae about to go)

umntfu owayeta kbamba nawe (the !!M!ln who waa about to go

with you)

umntf't1 owayengeve eta thamba nawe

Progressive Inrp11eation

umntfn owayeaakhamba (the man who was et111 going)

umntfu owayengasakbambt

umntf'IJ owaye aat:bambi new {the "fJ&n who was going w1 th you)

11mnt1"'u owayengaaakha1'1b1 n~we

Note the absence o~ the ne1attTe in -Te.

~xclustTe implication

u~ntfu owayeae7ekbamba (the -nan wno was alread7 going)

umntfu owayeseyekha~ba nawe (the man who was already going

with you)

umntfu owayengekakhambi

umn tfu owayengeve eeyekhaatb-a nawe

As far as the claasirteation or the use of the Relat1Te Construction ta concerned, Baea has nothing new to re~eal. Illuatra t1Ye exaaaplea of' the d 1v1. sions Will there+'ore suf'fioe.

(1) Stlbstantive Qllal1f'ied as subject of the relative predi­cate+: TJnmtf'11 okbulele kulonina akalung1 ~ person who ia brought up by his mother's people never does well); H1n1 le engene l'endlini? (What iq this that ha~ entere~ the hut7); liaal1 iba/1 elingakbwelwa bumnt~ (Here is a nor3e that can be ridden by a fellow).

(11) Subatant1Ye~ua11f1ed ea ob~ect or the relattTe predicate in ettect: Htnkatanyana endand1Tat1 (She ie a girl I used to know); A6anttu end1nga6aqonds1 kable hala5o u6at/hoko 'The people whom t dr not undera tand wel1 are those you mean) ; Ywakuhumbem endimatiko (It waa a tel 1 ow I knew).

- tns -

(111) Substaat1.e qua11~1ed b~oQibt into ~oaaeas1Ye relat1on­sbP with the relative predicate: Idi6one 141anga el1~biko ma4ze 11nd1nga et1 kwam (r saw a YUlta~~ whose wings we~e long ~lying above me); Sa~ike eligxeni e11m1tahi mikhulu (We came to a roreat whose trees were btg); r.e nkosi eha/1 lihlat/iwe an. hu6a'? (Who 1'4 tbe ohie,. whose horse has befl!n stabbed?).

(iv) 3ubstant1ve brou~ht into copulative relationship wth the relative predicates Naandi inyanga endelat/bwa hiyo {Here is the doctor ~7 wb~~ I was healed); U~ati a~a/ut/we h~e humolotatana (The woman by wmm they have been r'inished fi. e. bewi tehe~\ is the daugh t er-il'l-:-law) ; Hi 1 e lo 1 qhi nga ~aanoedzwa hi~ ~That 1e the plan b7 wh1eh we were made auc­oeasful).

(v) Substantive brought into adverbial relationsn? with the relative predicate~ ~ !.oeative~ Iha/1 end1khwelele kw11o li5ovu

(rrhe horse on which I am riding ta brown)

Instrumental: Umkbont~o awablat/wa ogawo uNoaphayi kwekuhowak:he {The spear with which Ncaphqi was stabbed was hie own)

ConJunctive: !1ndaa6a atike nato t16ubltmgu(the news he has brought is sore, lit. with Which he has come)

!fanne:i-compariaon: wanting.

Positional: I11v1 endime et1 kwalo bileli (Vy contention is this, lit. The word on Which I am standing 1a th18).

Chapter vrr r ~be verb (continued)

Dertc1ent Vertta

The majori t:r or the ~ef'ietent verbs in Baea are followd either by the Subjunctive or by the Participial :Aood, but a ~•• are followed by the Iortn1t1ve.

(1) Deficient Ve~a followe1 by the Subjunctive:

~ka, -te 1 The form -ka is use~ P!tt-auas1 vel;: to indicate u if yOU please", "just thia O:tce", "tor t be time being". e. g. X:a un11 t/ene* in7ani ( .. Just tell .,. the truth); y uyi5ambe; ftat,.ta (bold tt tor the time being; I am coming)~

The :rorm -•• is used in direct statements or Questions to indicate "happening at some time or other". e.g. Ndike nd16atsone la6o 6atati (I aomet imes see those women) ; ~tke 6at/ho na ukutsbi ngena? (Did they at any t 1me aak you to eome in?).

-dze' indicating tl to happen at last.,. e.g. l.'wadze kwa5onwa m:nkbondvo wenka6i (At last tbe track or an ox was iiseovered); Ul'elendlam1n1 wadae wateka? (Did ?elendlam1n1 get marriect at last?).

* t/eoa (1n!"ona) corresponds -to Zulu t/ela.

-M-

-t(betfbt: 1nd1cat1nc "ba~rening sooner than eXpected, or p~ematurely•. e.g. I1awele ett&orhwa nge3R6a t\t/betLbe tinqutaheb (Hair that te drened with brown c1ay fails prematurely}; Leto att'ombi tenu ttta t/lletiha tendze niaelapha eGoli (tboae girls of yours wiil ;uickly get married while vcu are st111 here in the mines).

-6uf;: indicating t• to happen agai'l", ttto hap!?en aubeaquenUy", "or ater•. e. g. 'Utabi ma nd16uze ndin;ratabe {He invites me to have another drink), Site 6uxe_siyihlawule leyo ntro (we aball make compensation for that later on'.

-fane : indicating "to baopen at l"ando•r or in vain•. e.g. ~us'urane ubobe (Do not apeak et rando•J; Ifane 7ehlintwa 1• abuuti [Tbie goat baa been slaughtered in vain'.

-tultt: ''to b.al') ren unexpectedly", "to do unwiselyu. e. r.·. Yatuke :rala leyo nkomo ingekatali {That cow unexpectedlJ died be~ore it had abd any young)~ TJsuke u5alekane na6antf'l.J a6adzala (You unwisely avoid the senior people).

-hle: "to bapnen to do, or to happeau. e.g. Alli~tble afilte naftlb.l; "'ii]entsambama· (He may arrive this at'ternoon, very Itkely): Singable aitukh/ikh/e tabita ttaableka nje! (We 'nt!V happen to give :vou a hiding while l'OU are still laugh •.ng!) •

~he verb -hle is always in the Potential Mood.

(2) Derlcient Verb~ ~ollowed b7 the Participial Mood: ..

-loko : indioating 1' to do or happen continualll'• or of• en •

e.g. 'Uloko •aula bisifuSa (He often sur~ers rPom a sore chest); Iiiloko nllokotlaa ameblo lap he ngani' (Why do you continually east your •T•• this way?)

-mage: indicating "happening or dOing at intervals". e.g. E6e•-!9• eyikh/1kb/a etahangeni agoswati (fie at intervals gave it a tnwaek on the thigh with a switch); TJmane ubeka imbuuti leto ndidze ll416u,-e (Now an'i again east an .eye on the ;;mats until I return).

-~betsha: indicating ~to happen or do f"inallyH. ~ .• g. Lo Dlbem nita pbetsha adlllkh/1tb/1le (I sball hit this fellow at lae·t); Wa-Qngslo6oii nje, le nt~omb1 1Ja~hatsha igcegetswe ha6an,e a6a'bem (I:r you do not lobo1e th1sgr1 . .,f1.1 f'1ne.lly be abduete4 by other fellows).

Bote 1hat -phetsha is always followed by the ?erfect Tense, when used ae a dericient verh.

-aa: indicating "to happen or do oyernight", lit. "dawn". e.g Int~ombi kwasa icat/h11e (The girl absconde~ overnight) lit. It dawned the girT having absconded); Na kuaa uftle la~ha 11cala lik:a6a'? (If you die h~re O'Yerni~htWbo will be re aponstble?)

Note that as a dericient verb -sa is alwaye ~ollowed by the Perfect Tense.

(I) Deficient Verbs followed by the Infinitive:-

-••~ : indicating "to hapneo or do as a rule". e.~. Akayam1 iuk~elela (ile does not usually ride); A6afat1 5ayama ukumemana na 6evova 1jik1. (Aa a rule wamen invite one another when tbe:v atra 1n beer).

Wote (1) the elision of the initial vowe, or the tnftnitiYe 1~

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absolute negation, kukhwelela instead o~ ukukhwelela. (11) The •·egular aegati ve is 'JSe~ interchangeably wt th the nega­tive in -ve in ~•rtain deficient verbs. ~ne ~le, however 1a not elear, tor certain de~ieient verbs never take -ve •

-tabandsa : init1eat1nn- "to partake atewhat ().,. '=' eertain action or state''. e. g. Litehftndza ukuna-yina {It is raining sornewhe. t'; Le• ailwana :i1\ahandaa li'Xu6a mhlophe, kodvwa asi/u61 (This ' animal partS: es somewhat of whiteneao, but is not quite white; lit. but doee not tinil')b (wbitenesg)).

Ineoncluaion reference ~ay be made to those defective Ye-rbs which are used "derteientlr" exelusi..-ely 1n the negative conjugation. Besides -Ye and -ta, wh~~h havf' ~1r€la1y been met with in the chapter on eonju~ation, there is aote in11eatinl "neYer". It is often used in reterenee to ~1ture time, an~ 1e often employed instead o"" the refuler wut.ure Tense- in empbatic negation. ~.g. jgl! ndiknambe! ,ao! Ne.er!)

Probably the verb-stem i~ ..o.te, or tbe &a1t!e -ta that is used 1 n the n :ga ti ve of the Pa 'J t Indicative. Home oP the other Ngnni ·:lialeeta in the 'l'ranekei e. 'f. Mpondo~iee, have the ~orms aoee, and1so6e (i~ed'ste) and eoae, sn.1isoze (remote), and li terar"' Xhosa has. the form sayi kuze. The f"orm soze would there~ore aeem to he an extreme case of el1~1on. aa(71 k)uae > sauze ) soze (a • u ') o). The corresponding Baea t'orm would then, of' courae, be aote.

Chapter TX ·

Tbe OOPulative

(I: Copulatives f'rom nouns. The rules "'or the ""nrmttt1on or 1spersona1 eopulatlves are as ~ollowa:

(1) Nounsor all classes, that take the tu11. pret"ix of their class, preplace~h- to the noun-prefix. Thus: u.rati (woman) ~ lnamfati; a6atat1 (women) > ba6afat1; umtahi (tree) > llumtabi; i111 tahi ( tretta) > bimitah1; 111.ve (country) > ll111Ye; amaye (oountriea) > bamave; is111ma (cr1nple) > llisilima; itllith ,(eripplaa) > b1t111ma; inja {dog) > binja; h itinja {doge) > bitinja; ulutsl'li ~rod) > hulutehi; 1tiata1 (rode) ) bi t1 otsi; u5ublalu \beads) > hu6,1hlalu; uku41a ftood) · )l hultudla.

(I) NOuns or Olaas 3 a1ng. that take tbe.contra~ted pref1x i-~ e aftd nouns of' Olass 6 sing. that take the cl>ontracted pret"1x u-r·

tret~lace 1-~not h. Thus iba/1 (borse) ~1ba/i; igcokwe ohickent> ligcolnre; ukbuni (firewood) lukhun1; ublalta door) lublaka.

(~) Nouns of' Olaaa ~ plur. and Claea 6 plur. that take the con­tracted prefix 11(N~, pruplace t- to the prefix. T~ue: 11nkomo (ca+ t1 e) '> t11nkoll0; i intt'ombi {maidens~ tiinttombi; iinkuni (t'irewoOd) t11nkuni; 11nblaka (doers) tiinhleke.

Bxamples of' the uae of CopulatiYes ... ro. no~tne: l1Madz1. kane -6ulawa ha6aThem {!ladstltane was slain by the Waembus); Le ako110 t1ai1]tia (is beast ia a cripple); '.fk'T~la n1 ta tuphiwa nom 0 (fo'l are goi-ng- to be fed by YOUl" roothers); 6~e116ele _j_ ('!h.,- delaTed in- a beer-drink.

The rul'} .... or the ~'"ormation o!' the neptive ie ae ~ollow~;u 'l'o the pos1t1Te)'form pret"ix leu-, and let this be precede'! by ave. Thus: bumt'ati )aTe kubum-at1 (it is aot a W'OIIten);

h1miteh1 ,. .... kuhimitsbi (it 1e aot treoee); lukhuni ave kulukbun1 (it ia not firewood) --

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Peroaonal Oop'Jlati vee are f'oraaed 'from nouns by pref'ixing, to the impersonal copulettve forms. the subjectival coneord of the noua implied by the coneor4. Thus : bnmfati ubumrati {she 1e a woman); ha~af'att ~aha6af'at1 (the~ are women); h1s111ma ih1s111~e (it is a;~r1pnl~); h1t111ma tihit111ma {they are>cripples).

The negative is formed by prep1ac-1n.:r a-ve, wtth or with­out the concord o:r the noun implied'f- the concord, to the personal posi t1ve fo: .... n in the Participial ~,!,·,c)(!. Thus} uhu.tati a(ka}ve ehumrati (she is not a ~rna~); ~aha6a~ati a{~a)ve Aehft&af'ati (they ar•e not w:--men); 1h1s11ima a(yi)ve thi~ilima at is not a cripple}; tibitilima a(~i)ve tih1tilima (they aPe not eripnl""liJ). i

The recent an;! ":~emote Put roms of' the impers0na1 copu­lative are rormed b7 prefixing 6aaaa &eku-, kwaku-r€snect1vely to the impersonal positive rorms. Thus: bum~ati 6ekuhumfat1 (it was a woman), kwakuhumt'ati; hitinja) 6ekuhit1nja (it waa ~oga} ~akubi tinja. .;•

' The personal is fo:r!Ded by pre1"ix1ng the Stlbjeetival con­

cord of the noun implied by the eonco:rd to the auxiliaries -6e, -ye according to tense. This 1~ the~ nre~1xe1 to the simpl~ !~personal forms. Thua : hinkos1 e5ehinkos1 (he wee a chief); wayehinkoei. >

'> "!'he impersonal negative Recent and aemote PAst are tormed

by prefixing 6e~, kwaku- reepectivel~ to -ngeve. This ia followed b7 ku- plus the sim·le 1m personal ~orm. Thus 6ekuha6arat1 6e~ungeve kuha6afati (it was not women); kwakuba6a~at1 > kwakungeve kuba6atat1 (it was not women). 6ekubit1nja ~kungeve knhttinja (it wae not dogs); haku'bitinja "> kwakungeve lruhttinja (it w~e not dogs); nekulukbuni )6ekungeve kululr:huni (it was not firewood).

> The persQnal negat1Ye Past ie formed by prefixing the sub­

jectival conoo~ of the noun implied by the concor1 to the auxiliaries -6•, -7e according to tense. This is then pre­fl.-4 to -ngeve. T~er personal copulative rorm f~llowa. Tb•: e6ehinkoai e6engeve ehinko!li (he "'BS not a chiet"); wa7ehinkos1 wayengeve ehinko~i {he was not a chief}; eetehamakhosi > 6et>engeTe flebaRJakhos1 (they were not chie""a).

7 (Ia) Oop11lativee f"'!"'m nouns in tlle locative form.

Impersonal copulat ivee ar-e ~ormed ~"rom nouns in the loca­tive form hy pre't"ix:lnl'!' leu- to the loeat1ve. !"o avoirl hiatus, -k- i<J in>;erted between the ~'lbjectival concord ku- and initial e- or the locative. Thua: emtini (at the village) kukemtini (it 1a at the vtl'age); elthaya (at home) kukekhave {it is home); kulfbondo (at :~on~a) kukuMbonrt~ ~it ls ~Jrbonda). kwaMsali (at ~sali'e) kukw~•ali (it is ~sali's).

),

The negative is formed b7 pretlactng a-ve without any coneoJ.I'd, to the post ti Y@ form. e.g. kukemtini ave lr:utemtini {it is not at the vDlage); kukekhaye /ave ltukekhaya ( 1 t ia not home); kukulbonda ave ltulfttrtboDda ( 1 t ia not Mbonda); kukwa''sali ave knklfet 'aflli (it ts not llsali 's pli.!Ce). .. _ ,,

!be Recent ana Remote Past, poaitiye, are formed b7 pre­placing 6•-• kwa- reapeetlvely to tbe positive. ~hua: kukemtini ~ekukemtini (it was at the village)

~nkukemtin1

kultekha;re ~ekukeltha1'8 (it waa bome} ~~:wakui:e'khaJ'a ( >

6ekulrnMbooda (it waa llbonda) &akukutfbonda .).

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The a-cent and Remrte Past, negative. are formed by preplaeing 6eku- kwalru- respectively to -ogeve, a1d letting this precede the ?resent, ~os1t1ve. Thus:

6ekukemtin1 ) 6ekungeve kukemtini (it was not at the vil1age) kwakukemtfni ~ kwakungeve kukemt1oi

6ekukekhaya --,~ lekuogeve kukekha~a (it was not home) k,altultekhaya 'J kwakJngeve kukekhaya

6ekukutfbonda >- 6ekungeve ltuku .Jbonda (it was not '.fbooda) kwakuku•toonda > kwakungeve kltku~onda

6ekukwaMsali > 5etungeve kukwaMsali (it was not !sali' a place) kwakukwa'.-rsal1 ~ kwakungeve kukwallaali

Personal eopulatives are formed f'rom oonn~ in the looa­t ive f'orm by pret'ixing; the eubjeetival concortl tr t'1e noun in the locative form, the concord being that or the noun implied. 7o avoid hiatus, -k- is inserted between the sub­jectiva1 concord and initia, e- or the locative. Thus:

emtini I eklui a -., emt"ulen i ·:~ kuMbonda> kwaMeali ~,

ndikemtini (Yam in the village). 'ukekbayn (he is at home) t1keafuleni (they are on the rivePaide) n1ku\!bonda {you are at ~-fllonda). f·akwa<'>~sali (they ar·e at Mseli 'e).

The negative ie f'c•r:,ed by prej»lacing a-ve, with or witbout the con"ord o1" the .1oun implied, to the positive form. '!'hue· n41keat1n1 > ~o4i)Ye ndikemt1ni (I am not in the village) ·~ekbaya > a ka)ve ek~baya (he is not nt home) nikullbonda ;... - alni)ve nilcuMbonda ( yn,, are not at '!honda). 6akwalrleali · a(6a)ve 6ekwaMsal1 (they are not at :.1sal1'a).

)

The Recent and Remote Past, po~itive, are ~ormed by the use or. the auxiliaries -6e. -ye respectively with the coneort!a of' the noun implied. Tlis ia prefixed to the personal positive f'or11. Thus : ndikemtini

6akelchaya

> 6end1kemtini (I was in the village nda(Je)nd1kemt1n1 (

6e&ekekhaya (t~ey were et home )' 5a6ekekhaJB

tikemf'uleni .. 6et1k:emt"ulen1 {th87 were at the riverside 7 ta{ye) t ikemf',~leni )o

The- :lecent and !(emote Past, negative, are formed by the use or the auxiliaries 6e, ye :respecti.vel'r with the coneord or the noun 1mp11ed. Thi~ is preptaeed to J -ngeve, whieh is ~ollowed by the positive rorm. Tbua: 6end1t .. tin1 6endiogeve nd1~emt1n1 {! was not •~ in the

vtllage) ~etitetbaya 6etingeve tikekhaya (they were not at home) 6a~~kwdaal1 > ·aa¥ 6a(7e)6eogeve 6ekwaiit~al1 ( the7 were not at

" !mali's)

(Ib} Co~ulativea •rom Ncuoa in the Po .. essive Porm. Here we tiad on ~ the 1mp!r,onal~ form. It 1a ~ormed by prerixing h- t tbe GOun 'n the poeeeeaive i'"orm. '!'latta . elika~awo (my fetherJ'a) bel1ka6awo (lt is my tather'a) awomntrwana {the child's) > hawomnt~ans (it is the cbil4'a) o6ukat.taali (Waali' a) ; ho6ukalbal1 (it is 14aal1 • a)

* Personal eopulattves are possible in the let & 2nd pel"8ona, sing. e.g. 5diboka Kncb1aana (I am lnchiaana'a): Uboka6a' (Whose are ,out)

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The negat1Ye is formed exaetly like the n~gat1Ye of the impersonal form with noun3 in their simple form. In the poe­~esaiye form, how; ver, -Ye is neYer 'Preeedecl by the aubjectiYal concord. elg. helika6awo > aYe kubelikaf>awo (1t. is not !IIJ' father' a); h&wenkoei 'x ave kuhawenkosi ( the·.r ere not the ahief' a). '!'he Past Tenses are also formed q,i te regnlerl,-11ke those ot' the simple form. Examples

t\ekuhelika6awo {it was my rather' e) ·" &ekuhawenkos1 {they -::ere the chief" 'e' > kwakubel1ka6awo {it was my father's) > ltwakuhawenkosi (they were the chief's}

(II) .£9pnlatives f'rom ·t"onouns

6e1nmgeve kuhel ika5awo f'ekungeve kuhawenkoai kwakungeve k11he 11ka6awo k1takungeve kuhawenkoe1

(a) Fro:n Absolute Pronouaa. '.l'he rule for the f'orrnat ion is 8!3 "'ollows: To "the Abaol ute ~ronoun minus the sufrix -na, prefix h- "'cllowed bv s vowel as ~ollows:

{ 1) in the 1 't peraon singular, u

(11) .in all ~ther eases the vowel or the subjectiva1 concord {Present 1n11eat1ve) of' the cle.l!'B of' the r'lOUn 1-nplied by the pronoun.

The ""orms are therefore as f"ollows:

lat pers. hum hitahi 2nd h111re h1n1

1 huye ha6o 2 \uwo hi yo 3 hilo hawo 4 hi so hi to 5 hiy'"' hi to 6 hulo hi to 7 hu5o 8 hu~o

Personal <.:Opulatives may he .,.orn-ed by prefixing the eub­jectival concord o"' the let and 2nd persons and ;Jlaea 1 etng. and plur. to the fJbove forms. e. g. ndibuye (T e.-n he', a1ba6o (we ere they), rehito (then are they~. The i"ormation t' the neg&t1.ve iR now so clear that illue~rative tables wilT be aut­rte1ent.

lst pere. 2nd

1 2

ave k:uhum ave kuhuwe avf· k:t1hnye ave kuhuwo

etc.

ave kuh1tah1 ave 'kuh1n1 ave kuhs~o ave kuhiyo

etc.

Emphatic pronominal copulativea .,re rormect by pref'ixtng h-to the emphat te p ·ononn. Thus: oyens' boyena, elona ,·· helo11~, o6ona ). ho8one. •

The negative 1a Permed in the same way a~ that of' the - Simple Absolute. Thus: ho,-ena >-. aYe kuhoyens helona >

ave kuhelona; ho6ona ·"- ave kuho5ona. The Past 'l'erJsee are Qllit~ plain and need not be e:xpliined.

EXa"!'ples: ~ekubum {it was I' ltwaln:ih1 tah1 { 1 t was we) ~ekuhesona (1t was 4 he

very one) kwakuheyona do.

6ekungeve kuhUDS lcwakungeve kuhi tsh 1 6ekungeve kuhesona

kwakungeve k:uheyona

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(b) ?orma t 1o n o~ Ooplla t 1 yes f'rom De•'Ultl tra t ~.Ye ?roD~

The rrule f'or the t"ormation ie as follow~t: To the ~111 demonstratiye, pl"ef'1x a syllable with h- as tni tial phone. The vcwel 1"o11ow1t:lg h- is the same aa the Yowel of the aub­jectival co~ord (~resent !~1c~tiye) of' the elaaa ot tbe noun implied. by the pronoun. Tbe table 1~ therefore as rollowa

~1. let Position 2nd Pollition 3rd voai tion

1. s. hulo hulowo hulowa P. ha1a6a hala6o hlla~aya ... ., hulo b:nlowo bulowa ;;:;. ·;;. :) bile h1leyo h1leya

1: ..... '--) . b1lel1 h11~::1. 0 hileliya n " . hal a halawo hal an

4. s. h11es1 hileao bilesiya P. hileti h11eto hiletiya

B. ,-"t bile hileyo hileya ';). ;"I hileti h1leto hilett;ra

t:.. . '. s • hilolu hulolo hulOlU7a

P. h11et1 hileto nt hileti;ra 7. hulo6u hulof;o hul.06U78 a buloku hulok:o hulolru;ra

The formation of' the negstiYe is clear.

Examples: AYe kuhile ndvodzs \1t is not this man); Ave tuhala6aya 6aattu (It ia not 70nder people); Ave kuhileto tintaj (it is not those rods).

(c) Pormation o~ Copulativee from Poaeess~•e.nronouna

'l'heae are f"omed by prefixing h- to the pronoun in the posses~tve f"orm. Tbua; elam > helam; elethfu ":>- heletht'u owakbo ) howatho; oweau >t howenu.

Negative: ave kuhelam (it is not •ine); ave kuhelethfu (it is not ours)\ave tuhowakho 'it 1~ not yours): ave knhowenu (it is not J'f".Ul"BJ •

Past 'l'enses

&at 6ekuhelam (it was min•) 6ekungeve kuhelam 6ekuhelethtu !it was ours) Sekungeve kuhelethtu kwakuhowakbo it was yours! kwakung.eve kuhowakbo kwakubowenu it was yours' lcwa\rungeve kuhowenu

(d) ~ormation.o~ 09eu1atives ~rom ~nurntratjve ?ronouaa.

In the posit 1ve Baea does not dif"fer with Zulu-Xhosa. But in the negat1Ye Bnca employs a-ve w1 th 'r wi tho11t the aubjeetiYa concord. Examples:

Present a!eonke (we are al1 tnere) iyonke (it ia all there) ndindodzi (I am alone) lilodzi (it is alone) ti tombini ~oth are together) awomahlanu (all f'iva are to-

aetber)

a~si)ve siaonke al71)Ye iyonke a adi)ve ndiodod&1 a 11 )Ye lilodzi s ti)ve titombin1 a wa)ve ewomahlanu

I'ltmediate Past

6ea1sonke {w~were all there) &esingeve aisonke 161yonke (it was all the~e) i61nt~ve iyonke 6end1n~odzi (I waa alone) ~endingeve ndtn1odz1 6elilodzi (it was a,one) 6elingeve 1ilo1z~ 6e616ombin1 (both were togetther) 6etingeve titombini e6ewomahlanu (all ~ive were 6engeve ewomahlanu

together)

RerDOte Pasl

ssa19onke (we were all to-

rether)

ndandindodzi r wa~ alone) tatitombini both were to­

gether) ay~womanlanu (ell five Wll'!re

together)

saeingeve eisonke

ndandinqeve ndindodzi tating~ve titombini

ayengeve ewomRhlentt

(III) ~OAation of' Qo')ulatives ·"'rom .,djectives_ am Relatives

Tnewe ~o not di:"""er from those or z-.11u-Xhose. The only aift"erenee ts again tn th., neqative. A f'ew 111nstrattve ex­amnle~ w1·1 therefore ~ur .. ice.

mkhulu (he is big) a{ka)ve emkhulu inhle (it is fine) a* a(yi)ve inhle ~atshath~ (there are th~ee o~ them) a(wa)ve ematshathtu u6ovu (he is red) a}ka)ve e~ovu i6uhl ungu ( 1 t is sore) a\ yi}Ye i6ublungu amanti (they are wet) a(wa)ve emant1 e6ema61n1 ( tberewere two) e6engeve e .na61n1 tatimnandzi (the7 were nice) tatingeve t1mnendz1.

(IV) ~ormation of Oopulatives ftQD Numerals. :f the three nume•a1a -~hi?, -n 1? and -mbe only the t"i r~ t has "'mp le te copulative forme. These are formed by pref'ixing h- to the numeral conco~1. Tbua : omuphi'? owupb1t> --homuphi? hoWUJihi? (Whieh onr-1 is he'?); a5&nhi? ";-, ha6aohi? (whieh ones are theY?

Oopulativea ,.Y be formed from -ni? when the preced1nq con­cord implies a n!\un of" Olas$ 1 sing. or :nas~ 3 ol'tr. or ~lase " sing. Thil'l is done by pref'txing h- to the concord • .J. n class 5 aing. hi- is pre fixe,, to -ni '} '1'h,ts : umn i'? "> hullln1? (or• wbieh tribe is he?); amani? > bamani'? (what tribe are they?): -ni? > htni? (what is it~)

1'he other classes do not pecmit o"" copulativee. If' a copulative has to be ~ormed, the noun is made cornlative, and -nt? is uae1 e~-; a qualif"icat1ve. e.g. haliant<'u lani') (what people ar:'" theY?) ; _ bumtani mni ·? ( wh· t wooi i13 1 t? I .

-mbe too cart only function as qualH"ica.tive. e.g. . hamasimi wamb~ (they are difrerent lands); hnfiuso 6umbe (it is s d1ft"arent ~ace).

lfaturally there can be no negative -'orma o''" numeral copulativea.

The l"!!"'1ediate and Remote Past are f'ormed by preplac ing 5eku-, kWak:u- to forms of' the l:T\oSent. e.g. 6ekuhe11pbi? (which one was it?); kwakullamani? {wht,t trlbe werethQ'?); Personal copulatives m&y be rormed b7 prefixing the eubjectival concord or the noun implied to the impersonal ~orms. e.g. hurani? > ;ubumni? {to whlt tl•ibe do you helons?); howupb1? ub01fl4lh1? \Which one arc you?)

-61-

(Y) £o£!Htco•,;r 2aoul.at1Yel a;•ate•P.· Itft>eNonal . copula-•t••• 'H7 e · iwe from oerta e a b7' J1I-et1x1ng Ira- to the adftrbial f'orllt. 'ttlua: apba> kul~lla {it. 1a here): ~~ t.,/luaG8) k'tltllft \,/bane { 1 t 1a De 81') •

A4Yerbll aa.:aeDCtlllg 1n e- tnaert -k- aner ~· e. g. etulu) bket.ulu { 1 t 1a on t.be wp) ; ekudaen! latkekudaenl (tt. la t'ar}. ft.e ~~ept1ve 1a ttoraaed by preplaolq e-Ye witll-out the aubject.1't1ll caooord. 'rb\18: lDalapiaa> ..,. 1t111apba (it la not Mn) • ltuketul•> ••• kulnttulu (it ta aot on the top).

Put. Teuee s

een1.-. { '' waa h8N) 6ela1np¥e kulapba 6ebllraft tjbaae ~~ t •• aear) 6elc'UaeeYe kukltf'it/bane &ekGke'tll~l it was fe .._) &ttaaaae•• bkeku4sen1 kwltRet1llu it wu on tile top) kwakllapYe Jaaket.u.lu

Peraoaa 1 eopulat1Yea •7 be tOJGet! bJ' pHfixing tbe nb­jeet.lftl ool'lOoN. ot tile aoua 111!'11e4 to the a4Yerbial ro... •·•· a411apba (I am bere)J 6alntftt./barte ( tbe7 are aear); 6ett1t~1lu (t. .., .._.. at the top) J WQ'tdtelnllual (he was t'ar . ..,).

Tbe neaattw la :rorme4 by pr-eplaclng ..... with 61' without tile •tbj.,.Sftl conoo1"4, to the pOelttw rorma. e.g. a(a41}" a411apba (I am not hereJ; a(Se)ft 6eketulu (lb.,- are DDt at the top).

Past 'l'enaea:

e.Uke\11111 {tbe7 were at the tOp) fSettapye t11cetulu ...,.kekwlsen1 (be waa •w awa7) ..._..qeYe eltelt'Clclaeai

(Ytf !:o.!Ub! Regdnttp OQplattm ~

lat. poetttoo 8D4 poatt1on 8Pd POB1t101l

01.1 s. ..... , DaDIO Qallgup P .. aa6a ..., lla..,..

a s. n._ . .., -7· p DaD41 aando aa4tn I s. .u aalo ttl- aallp

P. .... Danko naakaya " a.

_, D880 aaalp

P. ult nato nat178 I s. aaaa oaa4o oaa41:ra

P. untt naato naattp sa. aalu ulo -~-· P. .. u. lldo aau,. • ,. s. - aa&o na61Q'8 8 s. ulna nako ··~

-·-Perao•l oopulat.lYee are :to...e4 b7 preptac1ng the oon­

twaottye ro.-t1ft n• to a atnm, and prett1Xift8 the anlb3ect1Ya1 eoaeo'Jid or the noaa atgatrying the poeeeeaor. 1tda etgntrt• poeaeaalon, tbe poaaeeaee belag 1ndloate4 b7 the noun to wbiob ..... te preplaoed. •·•· ra4taemall {I tuwe -..,.): •a-nata Ute la atJIOftB)•

Tbe •g•''" or tbe aboYe WO'tld be aa~ll, ak81l .. ndla .... '"1Yel7 lt the eopulat1Ye pN41oat1w bad no adJ'Uilctt. I:t, bo•••r• \here were adjuncts, the aegatlYe would be a(a41)ye atla.-11, a(ka)w •-D41a.

Imperaoaal aopalattwa are tormed b7 prenatag k._ to raa- · a DOlll'h to atJP11t'7:--N la". e.g. I'B!Mll lapba (there la _..Y lleN)J ~ a&an7beat1 (t ere- 81-e 'MlftJ' people}.

ftle uaat1Ye la toNecl b7 preplaotag •·-•• without &DJ' ooaoord, to the poelU•e tor.. ••I• An ~mali l•ba (Tben la no 810ft87 bere) J Aye kwl-tru a&flll7he!Kl ('there are not maa7 peo"le).

It tlae oopuld1Ye pl'edicat1Ye haa no ad,_ot, the 1Dl \tal ..._1 ot the aeaa to11ow1ng aa- ls e11cle4 ira the l~OG&l aeptlye, sad -" ta aot ...,toyed, e.g. a1rtaa6anttu (there ere ao people) J U.amall (theN la no •raey).

Cbapte X

t'he OOpulatt" {OODtiaue4)

De iPul'ti!' JRb =11· so fe • baYe b•n 41eouaelllg noa-, Yer6 CoP atlwe. fi IIOW Come to tile Yerb -&a (11e) which lD 'Baoa, as la other 11.,.1 l.aapagea, 1e ueed 1a eoajunctton wltb the aoa-Yin.-bal oopulat tYee.

u1t116a (to be)

let P. SJD4 P. 01. 1.

--·--·ra•ua6a

Pf£t!!S 191Jat1p

aadl&arlp/a( n41 )Ye ft418t aw&artp/a( w}Ye 1l8e aka&ania/a(lta}ft ele

'"'·

ln P. a41ta e. fi • about to be) a.a P. 11ta &a JOU •• • Cl. 1 '-. Ia he Ia "

•••

a(a41}w a41ta 6a a( w},.e uta Sa a(ka}n eta &a

etc.

IW\ta '-'"" I!t41Ut1!1

ln P • ...._ea ~~ aell be) a~adl)Ye a4awla 8a4 P. """ 1N&l ,au will be) a n) •• til& wu&a 01. 1 •.,.. wle 'lle " a ka )ft .,.. wafSa

l!ctn' PMS Cl!!!UD•!! tar.uoat1J!

lat P. lee418a IDIP •. lllu&a Ol. 1 eeee. .....

~

If

ff " ..

lat P. a4aa416a (I laabtt.tl7 WM/bect-) a4aa41Dge'f'e Dd16a 8n4 Pe ..... (fOU • WN/ tt ) --.en \16a 01. 1 •..,..sa (be n ._ I • ) ,..,.......,.. e&a

ete. ete.

.... ~ ~: ::!&e ~·:',!um&J' b~~) 01. 1 ale ~ " - " no·.

D48l'lPA5i ,:waaaa&11 .....

D4afl41qwe a41JB WUah ......... ..,. ... ..,.. ....... ,. wata

etc •

eto.

-84-

PatS fp:\toglal

lat. P. ll4a6a (I lla'l'ift&' beeft/beoome) 8a4 P. we6a (Yo• " Cl. 1 a6a (be " . ....

h'Ht~l

a41ngatanae a4t&e 11Dgat.ange ule eacatanp ale

etc.

lat P. ad.lta &a fi'" about to 'be/beoome} DdingBYe D41ta 6a Sll4 P. uta 6a ~u. " ._.....uta fJa 01. 1 eM Sa be, " engwe eta 6a

ete. ew.

m••a• etM!!\!al lat P. a41ap&a ~I caa lte) 8a4 P. -- JO'Q " 01. 1 aa,.ee be ") ....

En•et r;!l»••s lat P. apal16a {I ebon14 be) 8a4 P. n .. wu.&a JOU " 01. 1 aaeJWh • " •••

aftdt,..et nuapll akange61

etc.

-·-lRttst QMSta•S

let P. apft41Se ~~ allOuld 1umt ~) ... p. ftP'tiiJ,6e JOG • 01. 1 _,.e. .... "

••• R!9!ft• Put Per-ren COU'·IP!S

let P. a-n414Se (I ahcnl4 haft~) np6e1Mlt.asa8aaca 8n4 anct Z p_... a.- -~or S11111Ple perf'eot atloYe.

lwte ., .• , I'l4!£1allf Oogttaet

la\ P ......... (I abcm14 haYe beel'l/beeo•)

~i· =~= ll: : ••• lt•\1 PM\ iltrf!9taQ91SJM!I'

Ut P • ._.,aa41&e (I llbOuld haYe 'bMn/beoome) apn4aad1nga6anse 8ftl p •• _.... {,.. " .. ~.ftKB 01. 1 ....,.e. {be • ,..__,.oga6anp

ll1•SDUyt ta9l• of" the • or ty oopulatlte J!JI!! =II·

.. atik...,.....ll1 ~ feMG!l (Wilen I • in POD4olie.om. ob.tetJ lit. I 8Ift gpeatl.r' re-epeo'-1.)

~.. .... a•• ea ,.'tt•e lnllett tt..-.: (vou aPe not go ng be rulere of' this laad!)

raw• lllpalo&a nctse kule a1al' . long aa ! going to be a..,..nt?)

w;p" " nt .. bate ¢ae T ·- goftg be ruler atter Jd.a r'·theP'a death)

Na atkbaaba aaencr-lo llt!l h1a*boktlelt (Wbea we trafttte4 b7 o~ he used to be leader)

u-·~ Ill!• ldelJall lmOem81 . (!be peraoa W\io iiiarooltah waa comGt)

1fa wiiiJIIl 'akelddaatehlld. W$1at'll 141& laY-• all er (Wilile 70U are 1 n 01Ut mtda t eat meat, and be a ca - •• a4t.k•tabaa4a 9' )l1SRI1 (I cto aot 1~ to be e e

Satala M§fo!!f!8!4tif aa e6uta lowo m6uto (we bejtan~ girtage sen be aaked that queat.lon)

=vi' g-l na wena. aa .-lokataaa 6akbo 8ek118oae We?A: wre JOU DOt 8~ when 70U1' dauptere-ta-law

found J'OU 41'Qiakt)

blolaa, akoat. ·-*flu •p ~blcsi na eJQt/lwe (JleMiibeP• 0 Olltet. tlli oaeno aenae ot eballe wbea ODe la Aftllk)

Aloia """' ekluwra qo.: waea (Be _,. be at ..,_ 1n tile ennlrc) ""'

-16-

.ta*bolft atahl ave \H' ~ naatbJl!fmanje npbetalae aa&ane ~ {'fhe Obriattaas eay et-e a aD cO fC \o be an,- t1ret-ftr:1t .. .._117 at all now that waeane ta ohl .. ).

Aaa"t 111nateh1 at/biD rapnt. qo&a -nae 111nolalaall8 dt§a 9RR Jab1111e lao4s1 elikholn. (we clo aot kaow ,.,. they av eo, ror nen bla rather Kncthtaana uaect to bold the r1rst-tru1t ceremony, tn spite ot ala betaa a Ohrlett•)

Oblpter XI

A4Yelba

A4Yellbe m.,. be olaaeified aa tollow:

(1} P£!{\'''f CB'M· e.g. lql! (WileN?) t lee {f'ar a•y), :tutaSI oo oaa - a), la (laeN), ·~• (aoJ, phl? (wb<..--Pet) • ralalt (11b•'t• n2•1t ('llolrf)

'rbeae _,be aub41ri4ect into 'ft.e, Place aD4 Ya ....

Mt•O• ,, tt••

tutab1 (too loall{qatra). e.g. -'1Nbla1ela t!JMll1 ea411al (no aot ..-In too long itldooN) ..

ntat? (wt&en?) •·•· Oe•• Sakho &af"ike atgt? (When d14 J'O'ftP aoDa arP1W?)

A4'!t£1H It PlMt:

1.,.1, (Where?) th1a ts an 1at.erropt1•e ach'erb, •ect ez­oluatw17 tn copulattYe preclioatt.,.a. ••f• IlnU. bkwtnt StlaQ? (Where al'"e tbe eattle or 70ur Y1 la88'}

pld.? ( llltere?). An 1DtePrOgat1Ye adYerb used ae a 4e­a;l"lpttft tn wrbal pre41oat1ftll. e.g. Le D4Y04za ~be AJtl? nnae .. cloea tble man 11'9'e?}

lee (tar aw117). ••I• M1beb l!l (I am lJDiftg :tar awa7) •

la (laee). •·•· LQo ntaambo • ttel! (TAt that rope come lae.re).

A4J!Il!J g:t MtPRt£1

•3• (eo) •·•· (Y)llla JL1I (Stant ao). This Rdverb haa tbne pOaittoaal :toras:- aje, a3alo, njep.

ajaal! (~low?) An 1nterT"Opt1Ye ac!YeP'b. e.g. Nitbel*e pJgl' (How did you t-aM?)

(8) Bouns eteiiB beloagtag to locat1Ye olaAeee 1& and 17. aow wt th p11Nl7 a4Yerb1al t'anct1oa. •·•· lapba { bere) , lapbo ( tlleN), pba,. (7084er), pbaftclle (oute14e} , phae1 {below), klw.taa (there} •

•·•· Tt&eke •M!& (Put tt down}. Slnla ~- <• haw ..... ,...... - -

(I) lfouna DOW uaecf ezolwd.yeq aa adYe!'ba without any mo41t"1-catlon in tOftl. e.g. itolo (7esterda7), 111iPbelo (altogether).

· ••«• OO.aa 6altlle &aftke 1blo (His eons 8l'f1.Yecl ,...teJiday) J 'tJIIlt• B'IIJO (Be baa goae away tor BOocl).

-., -(4) .._. tak1118' the looat1Ye lai-ttal Yowel e- •d IIDat or tbea •e4 aow exolutYelF u a4Yerba. •·•· eax.eleat (on tile lettt) • .-a (behtlllll) f eedl e ( tn tile opea ftld) , .._1 (lt the bot 'toll), •let'• (aoJ1088J, nb111 ( 1a rJIOftt), etul• (on top). et:tatehl (laet&e), eblaataae (at IIJ.May), ..ut (at 4aP-t!•) • ---~ (hr..,.,.

AdYerba ta (I) aDd (4) aPe •atlJ' adYeJI'ba ot Place. A tew are ldw•Pba or tt•• •·•· Leto ... ,1 1141\1/1,. ftrltf (I ter \bMe eoata 1nat4e); Kllta aeaa- tJI&MMRt (Milk be don at wd.MaJ').

( 5) • ._.. ID41fte4 b.r 4~p1ng the tal tlal YOWelt -d 'flM4 a4-yerb1a117• •••• ~~ (reo•tlJ'). e.ala (aetd.e}, nqala (at ftt.Nt) J __ ....._ (in tbe artenoea}, kapbela (oal.J'), ntpela \enttrelJ'}, ea.e (ftatleesl.J'), _, (altogetbet- not).

'llaeae are a:uttl:-" attwrbe r4 Jlaaer, but a rev are ac!Ye Pile or ftDte or Plaee. •·•· 'loeke ebkwttabt t18elte !3ft: (Put all _... beloapag to ue aelcle)l Balelo ~lkt aa11DJ'a _-(ben ttaat beer we 4l'Ut natlealJ') r t'aaae a«ttllolle .!iiiii\I 414 aot •• ld11 at all) J .ANH'l:alt atlke f,..l kllle' lf.w 1'fh• , u•ta arrt.,.d here quite reeeaUJ').

(I) JIOaa • ._ p .. eeae4 by' the ttormaUw ap.- ad in \b1a tob 118tt4 ._l•t••lJ" •• a4't"eft8s •·•· -~--- (at h111trht), nao•o ( ..,_.,.._ , aa-oaqaae (at mi&ctq). UtlODCJllfte 1a \be Be• word f.'op tbe ttllkJ'. The 14ea ta .. ,..._ the UakJ' 1a beard o'Y8l"hea4• .•

All tb.e a4treP1te ta tllle o~ ere at!Yerbe ~ 'flee. •·•· t.a• lahlla l8ftke J"wa11 ( Tlleee JWIIJr •a arr1Ye4 at twt11pt: llnte ttlti&Qa - (We let\ bolle at ldMQ' •

• ,.: T1ae ap- Oo .. 1cleN4 'tllkler (I) ta aot to 1te ooar..4 wl\h tbe laclefllal'e preloeat1Ye fl.,_tl• RP- (In tile .. _..... bourhoo4 ot} which ,.,_be pnttxed to loaat1Tea in e- .... -. .. 1tt1S• aaetalu.

('f) ~ll811noat1Yee J)fteetea b7 \be f'ormatlw ka-. Tbeae an all a4Ye~a or llella•t •·•· k8:h'll111 (pet't17) • ks&t {ltadl.J'l• 'table (ftll}, k._...at.t (lllll'.t7 tt..a), ka&ta1 (twtoe), kad• (late), 'taapka (eo.-), 'taacant (a little). e.s. a.• -~~· te:e:;t. (Doa't ten 11ea eo mwJb.!) J •tJDcU.kb/llda/e •• ,.,.,, <lie • NCk • _,. ttliM >.

OU!p ... XII

!'be Icilppboae

Ba• 14eoptt.oaea ma7 be olaas L~ed as rollo.:-

(a) Ae•P41ng to 8J'llablee. AOOOI'4tq to tbts olaaetrtoatlon 111 ...... ro• •1•-· n.:- · (1) IIDII08J"].la1tle 14e9J)baaee. ••B• t'a (or atlenoe}, DJ'Il (or au.Adea 4taappeara,..}, :s• (of' talllq .4•84), .t (or ...,•lr attuac laolt llprliiJt), 'wb11 (or pttoll 4etaeaa), nt (ofl alJiden .-.. ... e), tJarwa (of' apOUeaa wb.1ta-).

-·-(8) DtaqU.abto tc.teoptaoaea. e.g. 41a1N (o~ ._..,tac , baja (.- :talltac whole 1•~), ltan (o~ atabbiJl&' with a 8pttaPJJ• hoe (ott aettllag 4ewa), laqa (~ oMtlag • ere;.

(l)hbtllablo 14..,....._ •·•· DJ81ele (ot' aaeeklng otr), ba&eft (ot ltelelltJac}.

(4) Qaa41'1.aJ'lleto t.cteopboaea. •·f· .- plaa«la (or llalttas a .,.dee, •1a7 twuption), tjbeSe e (o-r gl141a• tJIIOotlllJ' aloq) • eeeon,. (ott aleaptng peaeetullJ').

(b) .MoOrdlaa to toae. Ia a 41•otattOD ot tbta aatuN it la aet tiler aeoeaeaP7 •r- pe•tble to ct•e u extaust1 Ye aceouat 01 tile ahtatlle or toM pO•tble. All tllat will be doae th_..fVIte ta to 1fl4tcate a f'ew.

Mo..-,.llaltlc.

(1} :r...w-neta., tu, IIIMt (or ruantag la a etl'alght leYel oouae) .,.. til Lew X..els 711• tabu, ,·a (ot the alow stt4e of' a •*•>

1114-lft'el: :Jnt. '~-1114-P!atar. litJil (o~ l&ting eo as to prottacte a lleaY7 roUilf!

••• 1). (I) Btgb-r1alnl1 a• (ot hlttlng on the laeatt).

Dl..,Uabtc.

ll} Low-rt.etag: xlale-Zh18.e (ot .. llttog with a lbp), ltaqa. a Low-1eftla 41alt1l. ...... ba·t·a I Low-ralllag: .Stebl (ot a •toe• 4zopptag) • ntla (of' talllll .... ). '-·

(4) 1114-:talltap ...- (of' pltll'll'lng 1ato water).

t.r•187'1labte.

(1) Low-f'aUl811 JfFelele, ba6en . (I) ltla..f'altiaa: •ta&• (or tbe e-n pl1op o~ a hoNe).

9t.Jablayllab1o . (1) Low-ralllqt kwtll111# ( o't tbiiOwlDC a attok) , pl8ltac11a,

eekttp. (8) to .. lenl: t/Mielete.

lAIED'&D ..-111 or \bt 11• gr J4Mplaopn

Lelo laa/1 knee lltelle .liD (By the morlling that b.ol'lle bact 41a­appean4). Ball8oDa a.,.libl n1 -le kwll&'la (we eaw hi• 11't144aal7 .. rclltlr enthe otlaer8I'4e or tile ttoreat) •. ha!ib ._ .» (I•teataneoua17 u f'ell atoae c1eact). W.lala · I:ID .....,liitrwana (be alept a. peaoe'tullJ' aa a oll114). JJ4 bil .bD -'*lao•Vo (I ataMMNt h1IB 4eep wlt.h a apeap). G~l iiitlbe qekbatebt! (With a n6ten .._.t W wed 1a!). eo •U~Jt.t ~'tfl ., • ._. ... ..attat: (see bow be soe• -ll~~tlfti• 114' llfr into the lltla).

'lbe tollowtq are a rew ftrbs 4el'lw4 r.. S4eophotd.e .w.. . ~ 21131' (e~M~t'rle aloq) > .... ootltt'O-eotbte . bi (8D8P• ot a strtna) > ._..,_ ........... (be atp~M! ). a~ (i;r~-aa4 tW ott. Oh.I ..

41abtdca (lte ..-.t11M4) > Ga1N ·-brf.lSkl'ela ( tbNw) > ...,., kW11lk1~1 qibldka (bop) > "qttald laqata <-*• hrGft arla-) > laqa.

\

?

-·-fte -~,.,,~-

.......... , ... ,,._ or eoajaott ... na: (a) Pl'lti&Uw -~--ti-.

(t.) otb.eJt peJIU or ·~ .... _... t.a ~ uaect Witla a eoaJ .. ttw ftaaetlea.

(o) ou.. pane or • ..- ..an" ta r ...

!bOle_. .. (a) ue ueuall7 aon-1rat1ueaatas;. 'IDIIPl•a

ttaaas <•• llhereaa). Y- •taca llbnah1 aacU.IISoat. ~ · t•• a4tl8l!Ntkne (Be tb.talta I do aot see b1-. and 7el IW lteea •tet&tac ld• r.r aoae tS.). ·

ftttald c ...... r. r.t~te•). b.,, a41tabaa4aa *-'1 laJ'adeo 781• Ddaa6a. (lloNOYeP •nt to kDOW tbe Uuth or tlata matte.).

..... (It) '!llere ... '" rollowlacs

(l) Yebal 1afta1t1wa. ball91••

...._ (tr}. Nf uttke .-1 a.. -"'- 1et1 llllaa8a. ( Ir he arrt....-ro.-e ••• 41 ftlse thla fte1l8 to him).

'*-tallt ( .. t). 1141J'a qoatlaa Jkl"'d leto -.., taft (I "all&, that tboee oatUe 41ecl).

(11) PPOIIO-. 'biiiiPlee:

all• ~=:l· .•S»"a latt t- laklle. ki4Va .... .u.,.au •10• a alllala bd.,. (t -.. lda a~b'at I clo 110t know

::-D::.~.::J!.11{rlbou~~-:':t'f'l'.:' tnet ;rou ! •11 ...... ). .

(111) A4Yel"b8. R~CaRpleaa

-- <••). ~ IDa .... ~ • ••• epplalt (AD4 •• wllloh .. 10\1 apeet us "lliiiieep"') •

' aa (whea). Aft lt.Uh1wa "atealt" M kubo~a ioala! (M- _J a...atftl' .., .... ae ...... .,. ta DOt ~ll•le wben ti71Da' oaa ..

(IY) ~~.... lza11pl•z

k-. (It 1tt wlllta). JtllM &lfikato (It 1a When they arrlw).

lt111m1Jaa (all \be l:tettel' ao ~}.. !Jki!!UI! ~alela hhbl (All the betteJt ao \Ita t tbe7 •• not ae1a7} ..

Under (e} • ftlld tbe tollniq:

(l) Houa 4eJII.ftUwa. ..._,1• : i

-. (..- tt). .11§1 akakUIIbt aaa a4lu tt••• (EYen tr he · fa DOt Bolfl!h I peraonall7 elaall 10}• ·

ftla o•~111bllon 1s u.ae4 oorntat1Ye)¥ to allfdb ettller •• .l ••• e.c, a ........ _... ...,_., - INS1lloJ'81la llllte ete 1

lepu. \Itt JDU laappea-.-aee ettlle"ii'"lr-1 or Slllopna. eaU ~ hele}. .

. ,_.-··

.... 'tit•••)• ltu:11lllt ... :Jdtl ...... itl]PJII --~ '(1¥:-III!Jt'" .. tly ....W• • hoanfle~...-v tiiDII!It.aa). '

......... -l ....... -. -•>· •• aedi. U. ..... lilltld -.~ lWt• (Let w- 1te .,... aa •• CJ)d..r &a at&i&ll .. ).

•• • ....,. ue all 4el'1Yd r.- -.... As •• ..a.e at....., •••• tbe uaa..r lr:a Baoa 1e to el14e the ...._ o.~ til' ·l.at1*ttl, pnftL ftu ....... )- -··->-·-·-->-->..... ' lllala (ttae taT ..... ). 81ta .,_ •• ......,. (We allall _.. 811 .... t.:r*- I M\_.). . .

.,._ (tile ,--. ..._). 'fOflke le' tl. atf'o· t1J'&ft1111181ne (_.. ladll.e {All Uaeae tlalap 1d.ll ite ,...,_fle4 -.

·.. - ll:t.all haft • &004 Jlaa:t .... ). - .

(U) PN .... Ul 4el'ifttl'IH •

...... (..-.-.~.eM) • ..lfl1al ke .. aa, •• lohtlat blelo -{._.ftHteu·lft tat•lii'lh wl\'llttd \bat atat••t:).

aloiN Caow) • .llllBw..,. •ta kll•••..,., (Bat...,.,..,,... aotac wi '" itllt..,----

Ob8p ler XIV

file latep~o•

I•t•P.J•ttoae _,. M ela•ltlel aa ronowt (1) Pftal\S.e te\er~oU••· •·~ ....: (Jaallo!) 1 ..,.., (I ..,.:. ~ (llaJrrald). 1l:l-1IU& t .... l) • ..,.: \ala8l). llillool {at.a1)

(t) Other _. f1t apeeoh uae4 inter,.e\iYely. '~'"-• . ..,. M t'U titer ftMtyfAe.t a ~l1ow: ·

(l) lo1a.aa ••• tate•1-e\1W1J'• ft~e..,. lMl woattTea• ••· .r-1 (..Z) • lllk ... l. (tud.l. etatera.) •

'ftut woatt'" .,. 1M .....,.ae« bJ' a fftld.U't'4t 1deJt3ectUoa, ••I• •• Bltol (Ida. -1) • .. , ~1! ludl• ohl.,..:).

1'1l• ....,atw -. • tollow4 t~r -.. 9008ttft ro-.uw 114alat. •·•· .,. actstat! · · · .

(U) PJODO&IIN ...a laterJ•UftlJ', ••I• waa! (~%)

(111. ) !be lllperattw or .. .- ,..4 taler~ .. tlwl.J', e.a. allkal <..-:> ...... (pt •1187!) . . .

(I) S.bttteaU•al ....... e.a. aG:a-aklllal (l:laU, 0 Qwt•), itt. B1a' .._.:)J at'el.e l•~U! (llatl. \llcnl ltNYo oael)

.. CU.t. oa1t of a betl:) .

. (4) I__..ttw pJe41eallw Pr~e•· ~. · •· St*a.lapbd (1•111 · llt. -' aWQ' r.. hen! Itatal P: \G- WQ"l)

(5) Sllbj_.t1ftl pH4leat1Wa patellle4 b7 ,lite • ._,_.thl .... ..... er tile lll4 p..... -..'!. ah! (Da.-.: lit. 'fou til~)• .. .,...-.1•! (~ belltaa! lit. J'Oll·ue lletac ft8 ..... )

ftt.elle are tu eo• uaeat tJP• ot taUP'~•t1one. ll ·may 1IMI -uoae4 that lteei4ee tb.eae • .._.., lllce all .... ·1:=••• ..,. t111plo7 _,. p.-\ ot ••••• • an iatepjectioa in · a otN,..taaoea.