Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 414–425

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

http://d1364-03

n CorrE-m

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar power technologies for sustainable electricitygeneration – A review

Jibran Khan a,b,n, Mudassar H. Arsalan a

a Department of Basic Sciences, Dawood University of Engineering & Technology, New M. A. Jinnah Road, Karachi 74800, Pakistanb Institute of Space and Planetary Astrophysics, University of Karachi, Main University Road, Karachi 75270, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 17 August 2014Received in revised form15 August 2015Accepted 26 October 2015

Keywords:Fossil fuelsHazardousSolar energyPhotovoltaic technologySustainable power generation

x.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.13521/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

esponding author at: Department of Basic Scail address: jibranliaquat@gmail.com (J. Khan)

a b s t r a c t

Most of the energy generated globally utilize fossil fuels involving the emission of environmentallyhazardous carbon dioxide and depletion of fossil fuel resources. The continuous variation in fuel priceshas added a major concern on its sustainable use for future energy requirements. In order to minimizethe environmental degradation during energy production process due to emissions of hazardous gases,the utilization of renewable energy resources can make the energy use clean as well as sustainable. Dueto an ever increasing demand of clean energy, a sharp rise in the utilization of naturally available solarenergy has been observed. Currently, there are several possible routes for solar energy technologicaldevelopments. In order to effectively utilize the solar power system, one needs to know the technologyand its suitability according to the requirements and nature of usage. In this article, different solar powertechnologies have been reviewed which can be utilized for the global sustainable electric power gen-eration. Major emphasize has been on solar photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP)technologies. Their types, mechanism, efficiency and cost factors have been discussed. It has beenobserved that solar PV being more commercially developed and mature technology is suited for bothsmall and large scale applications while CSP technology despite being expensive yield higher economicreturns and is suited for large scale applications. Every solar power technology has its own advantageand disadvantage and their preferred usage is basically dependent on the specific case and given con-ditions. It has also been observed that solar energy, which is a fairly stable and consistently availablesource of clean energy has the significant potential to cater ever increasing world electricity require-ments.

& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4152. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

2.1. Literature search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4152.2. Identified studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

3. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4183.1. Concentrated solar power (CSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4183.2. Concentration technologies of CSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4193.3. Photovoltaic (PV) technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4193.4. Generations of photovoltaic technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

4. Comparison of CSP and PV technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4204.1. System efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4204.2. System sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

4.2.1. Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4204.2.2. Economic concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

iences, Dawood University of Engineering & Technology, New M. A. Jinnah Road, Karachi 74800, Pakistan..

283

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

198

Ener

gy C

onsu

mpt

ion

in Q

uard

rillio

n B

itu

Fig. 1

J. Khan, M.H. Arsalan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 414–425 415

4.2.3. Social acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

5. Discussion and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

1. Introduction

Energy is the most important factor for economic developmentand prosperity of any country. It is directly related to the globalkey challenges that the world faces – poverty alleviation, globalenvironmental change and food security [1]. The growing energycrisis is one of the major issues of 21st century [2]. Energy demandincreases at a rate proportional to the population and economicgrowth of a country. In the International Energy Outlook (2009), atechnical report issued by the US Department of Energy, the totalworld energy consumption has been projected to increase by 44%during the period of year 2006–2030 [3]. Fig. 1 shows the pro-jected world energy consumption chart.

According to International Energy Agency [4], the current shareof fossil fuels in the global energy mix, at 82%, is the same as it was25 years ago, however due to sharp rise in the understanding ofrenewable energy sources, use of fossil fuels is anticipated to bedeclined up to 75% by the year 2035.

The present global energy situation, led by the fossil fuels, hassome serious concerns such as the impacts on regional climaticconditions, environmental degradation, depletion of fuel resourcesand the energy security. Nuclear power plants also have majorreservations such as the associated radioactive emissions. It is thusindispensable to adopt renewable sources of energy for the globaldevelopment of a sustainable electricity generation system. In therecent times, renewable energy sources have gained a majorimportance due to their worldwide social acceptance and anability to provide sustainable energy generation to cater worldelectricity requirements. Based on recent technological innovationand extensive research initiatives by researchers across the globe,naturally available solar energy has shown an immense potentialto meet the future world's energy demands [5].

Sun is the most abundant source of energy for earth. Naturallyavailable solar energy falls on the surface of the earth at the rate of120 petawatts, which means that the amount of energy receivedfrom the sun in just one day can satisfy the whole world's energydemand for more than 20 years [5]. The development of anaffordable, endless and clean solar power technological innovation

308348 366 398

472508

552596

637678

EnergyConsumption

Years

0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

. Projected world energy consumption chart. Source: [3].

Literature search to identify previously

done studies

Review of dsolar po

technologietheir param

Fig. 2. An overall workflow of

has huge long-term benefits as it enhances countries' powersecurity through being an import-independent source, there-by resulting in an improved durability, minimal environmentalhazards and reduced cost [2,6]. The potential of solar energymakes it beneficial, in a variety of ways such as:

� The areas in tropical and sub-tropical regions receive a higheramount of solar radiations throughout the whole year thuscountries in these regions have a significant potential to harnesssolar energy for their electricity requirements.

� Most of the fossil fuels and energy resources lead towards theclimate change and consequently, a social decline. Thus, solarenergy in comparison to fossil fuel is a sustainable source ofclean energy. Solar power is environmentally friendly and itssocial acceptance has been significantly increased due to itsreliability and efficient performance.

� Solar power systems are relatively affordable and they are sui-table for both urban and rural areas.

With this background, solar power technologies which canbe utilized for the development of a sustainable electricitygeneration have been thoroughly reviewed in this researchwork. An extensive literature search has been conducted andmajor studies pertaining to the applications of solar powertechnologies have been identified. Cost analysis, performanceand efficiencies of different solar power technologies in com-mon practice around the world have been reviewed andaddressed.

2. Materials and methods

To review the solar power technologies for sustainablepower generation, a rigorous literature search has been per-formed to identify existing relevant studies. The identifiedstudies have been analyzed on the basis of different types ofsolar power generation technologies and their diverse appli-cations. A review of both types of solar power technologies i.e.,PV and CSP has been conducted and different types of theirconcentration technologies have also been addressed. A com-parison of both PV and CSP concentration technologies hasbeen carried out on the basis of sustainability indicators. Costeffectiveness and environmental impacts of both technologieshave also been discussed. Fig. 2 shows an overall workflow ofthe adopted methodology.

2.1. Literature search

A systematic literature search was performed at Google Scholarand Science Direct platforms to identify relevant studies involvingreview analysis of solar power technologies' applications producedin last 17 years.

ifferent wer s w.r.t eters

Comparison of CSP & PV technologies for

sustainability indicators and

conclusion

the adopted methodology.

Table 1Characterization of recent studies pertaining to solar power technologies' applications [7–86].

Sr.#

Reference Year Solar technology based application discussed Methodology adopted SustainabilityDiscussion

1 Ghaffour et al., 2015 [7] 2015 Solar energy-driven desalination technologies Study and comparison of different solar PV and CSP technologies for sustainable desalination methods Yes2 Buker and Riffat (2015) [8] 2015 Solar assisted liquid desiccant evaporative cooling

technologyStudy and review of solar assisted cooling technology with its various applications and their advantages No

3 Liu et al. (2015) [9] 2015 Solar thermoelectric cooling technologies Study of solar thermoelectric cooling system and their applications in active building envelopes Yes4 Topriska et al. (2015) [10] 2015 Solar hydrogen system for cooking applications Experimental study pertaining to proton exchange membrane electrolyzer (PEM) powered by PV panels to

produce hydrogen as fuel for cooking applicationsNo

5 Pintaldi et al. (2015) [11] 2015 Solar cooling applications Study of thermal energy storage technologies and different types of control approaches for solar coilingapplications

No

6 Sharon and Reddy (2015)[12]

2015 Solar energy based desalination technologies Study and review of solar energy based water desalination technologies with their advantages andlimitations

Yes

7 Gao et al. (2015) [13] 2015 Solar powered aircraft Detailed study of the working principle of different methods to extract and store energy for desirable fea-tures applied on solar powered aircraft

No

8 Chandel et al. (2015) [14] 2015 Solar water pumping system Study of solar energy-driven water pumping system for an irrigation and community drinking waterpurpose

Yes

9 Buker and Riffat (2015) [15] 2015 Building integrated solar thermal collector technology Study of solar thermal systems as solar collectors for building integration and their performance assessment No10 Ghaffour et al. (2014) [16] 2014 Solar energy based seawater desalination technologies Study of solar PV and solar thermal based energy-efficient seawater desalination technologies Yes11 Mustayen et al. (2014) [17] 2014 Solar dryers Study of classification of sun drying methods No12 Pirasteh et al. (2014) [18] 2014 Solar drying applications Study of industrial drying, agricultural drying Yes13 Ho and Iverson (2014) [19] 2014 Central receiver design for concentrated solar power Study of gas receivers, liquid receivers, solid particle receivers No14 Wong et al. (2014) [20] 2014 Grid-connected PV systems Experimental setup of two 3.6kWp single-phase PV system with three phase-loads & monitoring system Yes15 Fadaeenejad et al. (2014)

[21]2014 Smart power grid Study of smart power grid in different regions Yes

16 Al-Alili et al. (2014) [22] 2014 Solar thermal air conditioning Study of solar thermal cooling technologies and their comparison No17 Ferreira and Kim (2014)

[23]2014 Solar cooling technologies Study of solar electric and solar thermal methods for solar cooling No

18 Behar et al. (2013) [24] 2013 Solar energy driven power generation system Study and review of CSP technologies as well as demonstration of central receiver system (CRS) for solarelectricity production

No

19 Kuravi et al. (2013) [25] 2013 Solar energy based CSP power plants Study and discussion pertaining to thermal energy storage for CSP power plants for sustainable powergeneration

Yes

20 Tian and Zhao (2013) [26] 2013 Different types of solar thermal applications Study and review of solar collectors and thermal energy storage sub-systems as well as CSP technology solarpower plants

No

21 Sethi et al. (2013) [27] 2013 Solar heating technologies Study of thermal models coupled with heat storage systems Yes22 Akikur et al. (2013) [28] 2013 Stand-alone and hybrid solar systems for off-grid

applicationsStudy and comparison of stand-alone and hybrid systems types No

23 Khan and Pervaiz (2013)[29]

2013 Solar PV Study of stand-alone and grid connected systems No

24 Zhang et al. (2013) [30] 2013 Concentrated solar power plants Study and comparison of different concentrated solar power technologies No25 Cabrera et al. (2013) [31] 2013 Parabolic trough solar collectors Study, review and comparison of heating and cooling systems with parabolic trough collectors No26 Py et al. (2013) [32] 2013 Concentrated solar power Study and review of major technical and policy issues Yes27 Peterseim et al. (2013) [33] 2013 Concentrated solar power hybrid plants Study and review of different CSP technologies and plants No28 Singh (2013) [34] 2013 Solar photovoltaic technology Modeling and comparison of benefits of PV, its power generation and hybrid systems No29 Cuce and Cuce (2013) [35] 2013 Solar cookers Study of solar cookers, its system designs, modeling and simulations with performance analysis Yes30 Yadav et al., 2013 [36] 2013 Low-concentration photovoltaic systems Performance prediction model, its validation and analysis Yes31 Fang and Li (2013) [37] 2013 Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal Study and analysis of different types of PV systems and solar thermal systems No32 Franchini et al. (2013) [38] 2013 Parabolic trough and solar tower technologies Study and analysis of concentrated solar power technologies in Rankine Cycle and Combined Cycle Plants

(CCP)No

33 Hassan and Mohamad(2012) [39]

2012 Solar refrigeration and air-conditioning systems Study of solar cold production (refrigeration and air-conditioning) systems through absorption technology No

34 VijayaVenkataRaman etal. (2012) [40]

2012 Solar drying technologies Study of various designs of solar dryers, their types and performance analysis with special focus on solardryers for crops

Yes

35 Baldwin and Cruickshank,2012 [41]

2012 Solar cooling technologies Study and review of solar cooling technologies for residential and commercial applications No

36 Batman et al. (2012) [42] 2012 Grid-connected photovoltaic technology Feasibility study of grid-connected photovoltaic systems with its economic evaluation Yes37 D’Antoni & Saro (2012) [43] 2012 Massive solar-thermal collectors Thermal and Hygrometric analysis of massive solar thermal collectors with its applications No

J.Khan,M

.H.A

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38 VijyavenkataRaman etal. (2012) [44]

2012 Solar drying technologies Study and analysis of different types of solar dryers No

39 Jelle et al. (2012) [45] 2012 Building integrated photovoltaics Study of different building integrated PV systems and their performance with an economic evaluation Yes40 Chidambaram et al. (2011)

[46]2011 Solar cooling applications Study and review of solar cooling techniques alongwith thermal storage methods and their performance

analysisNo

41 Panwar et al. (2011) [47] 2011 Different solar technologies for the environmentalprotection

Study and review of solar PV and CSP technologies to analyze their role in environmental protection scenario Yes

42 Kumar and Rosen (2011)[48]

2011 Solar powered air-heating systems Study and review of solar PV and CSP technologies as photovoltaic-thermal solar collectors for air-heatingapplications

Yes

43 Avila-Marin (2011) [49] 2011 Central Receiver System Study of different types of volumetric receivers and their classification No44 Xie et al. (2011) [50] 2011 Linear Fresnel lenses Review and analysis of concentrated solar energy systems with linear Fresnel lenses, their types and

applicationsNo

45 El Chaar et al. (2011) [51] 2011 Photovoltaic technologies Review and study of different photovoltaic technologies with analysis No46 Parida et al. (2011) [52] 2011 Solar photovoltaic technologies Study of different materials used in PV manufacturing and PV technologies No47 Zhou et al. (2010) [53] 2010 Solar chimney technology Detailed analysis of solar chimney technology to assess its suitability for solar power generation Yes48 Chan et al. (2010) [54] 2010 Passive solar heating and cooling technologies Study of passive solar technologies for space heating and cooling as well as their advantages and limitations Yes49 Chow (2010) [55] 2010 Photovoltaic/thermal hybrid solar technology Study of trend of photovoltaic/thermal technology and its advancements No50 Fernandez-Garcia et

al. (2010) [56]2010 Parabolic trough collectors Study of different parabolic trough collectors with its applications No

51 Sherwani et al. (2010) [57] 2010 Solar PV technologies Life cycle assessment based review analysis No52 Eltawil et al. (2009) [58] 2009 Solar desalination systems Study of solar technologies and their economics for state-of-the-art desalination as well as types of solar

power desalination systemsYes

53 Desideri et al. (2009) [59] 2009 Solar-powered cooling systems Study of technical aspects, operation, advantages and limitations of solar-powered cooling systems Yes54 Blanco et al. (2009) [60] 2009 Solar energy applications to water processes Study and review of solar desalination systems, solar detoxification systems and solar disinfection systems Yes55 Abdulateef et al. (2009) [61] 2009 Solar-driven ejector refrigeration technologies Study of various designs of solar energy based ejector refrigeration technologies as well as their advantages

and recent progressYes

56 Sharma et. al. (2009) [62] 2009 Solar energy drying systems Review of different types of solar dryers and their working principle No57 Khawaji et al. (2008) [63] 2008 Solar assisted seawater desalination through solar

evaporationStudy of seawater desalination technologies with an emphasize on solar evaporation as a method for sea-water desalination

Yes

58 Qiblawey and Banat (2008)[64]

2008 Solar thermal based desalination Study of solar thermal based desalination technologies with a major focus on those suitable for use inremote areas

No

59 Hwang et al. (2008) [65] 2008 Solar cooling technologies Study and review of different types of solar cooling technologies and their advances for air-conditioning andrefrigeration purposes

Yes

60 Kim and Infante-Fer-riera (2008) [66]

2008 Solar refrigeration Study of solar electric & thermal refrigeration technologies Yes

61 Fan et al. (2007) [67] 2007 Solar refrigeration technologies Study and detailed analysis of solar sorption refrigeration technologies as well as their development phasesand different applications

Yes

62 Xi et al. (2007) [68] 2007 Solar thermoelectric technologies Study and survey of solar energy driven thermoelectric technologies and thermo-electric power generationas a major application

Yes

63 Mathioulakis et al. (2007)[69]

2007 Solar assisted desalination Study and review of renewable energy based desalination systems with a major focus on solar energyapplications

Yes

64 Henning (2007) [70] 2007 Solar assisted air-conditioning of buildings Study of state-of-the-art solar technologies for solar cooling applications for buildings in Europe No65 Balaras et al. (2007) [71] 2007 Solar air-conditioning systems Study of state-of-the-art and potential of solar assisted cooling and air-conditioning technologies for

buildings in EuropeYes

76 Wang and Oliveira (2006)[72]

2006 Solar energy driven adsorption refrigeration Study of solar assisted adsorption refrigeration systems with their advantages and historical developments No

67 Critoph and Zhong (2005)[73]

2005 Solar sorption refrigeration and heat pumpingtechnology

Study of different types of solar sorption refrigeration and heat pumping technologies with an emphasize ontheir mechanism

No

68 Maycock (2005) [74] 2005 Different types of PV technologies Grid connected PVs, their production, cost and market analysis Yes69 Kalogirou (2004) [75] 2004 Solar thermal collectors Study of solar thermal technology based solar collectors and their various types of applications No70 Sumathy et al. (2003) [76] 2003 Solar adsorption refrigeration systems Study and detailed overview of historical development in the field of solar refrigeration systems and their

applicationsNo

71 Kongtragool and Wong-wises (2003) [77]

2003 Solar powered Stirling engines and low temperaturedifferential Stirling systems

Review and development of Stirling and differential Stirling systems No

72 Anyanwu (2003) [78] 2003 Solid adsorption based solar refrigerator Study of practical realization of solid adsorption based solar refrigerator with its performance analysis Yes73 Garcı ́ (2003) [79] 2003 Solar assisted seawater desalination systems Study and review of different types of desalination systems utilizing solar PV and solar thermal technologies No74 Florides et al. (2002) [80] 2002 Solar energy based cooling technologies Study and review of various types of solar assisted cooling systems for the buildings Yes75 Trieba et al. (2002) [81] 2002 Combined solar power and desalination plants Study and an overview of concentrating solar power technologies and their applications as combined solar

power plants and desalination systemsYes

76 2001 Solar assisted ice-making and refrigeration Study and review of solar adsorption technologies for ice-making and air-conditioning purposes Yes

J.Khan,M

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Table

1(con

tinu

ed)

Sr.

#

Referen

ceYe

arSo

lartech

nolog

yba

sedap

plic

ationdiscu

ssed

Method

olog

yad

opted

Sustainab

ility

Discu

ssion

Diengan

dW

ang(2001

)[82]

77Li

andSu

mathy(2000)

[83]

2000

Solarad

sorption

air-co

nditioningsystem

sStudyan

dreview

ofthehistoricaldev

elop

men

tsof

solar-pow

ered

adsorption

basedair-co

nditioning

system

sYe

s

78Kolb

etal.(19

99)[84]

1999

Solarair-co

llector

system

Studypertainingto

dev

elop

men

tan

dtestingof

anefficien

tsingle-glazed

solarmatrixairco

llector

system

No

79Dav

anag

ereet

al.(19

99)

[85]

1999

Solarair-co

nditioningsystem

Studypertainingto

thefeasibility

analysis

ofasolardesiccantair-co

nditioningsystem

No

80Qinget

al.(19

99)[86]

1999

Solarair-co

nditioningsystem

of10

0kW

capacity

Dev

elop

men

tan

dtestingof

100kW

solarair-co

nditioningsystem

inChinawithitsperform

ance

analysis

Yes

J. Khan, M.H. Arsalan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 414–425418

2.2. Identified studies

Although the concept of solar power technologies is not newand a large number of studies have already been conducted bymany researchers across the globe. Hence, based on the litera-ture survey 80 most relevant studies have been identified (SeeTable 1). The identified research work has been characterizedaccording to the solar power technology reviewed, methodol-ogy adopted and the sustainability parameters discussion.Studies pertaining to an in-depth review of both PV and CSPtechnology with their types and applications have been takeninto account. An implementation of solar PV technology forgrid-connected and off-grid solar power stations has beenhighlighted. Table 1 characterizes recent studies addressingdifferent types of solar power technologies' applications.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Concentrated solar power (CSP)

Concentrated solar power (CSP) or solar thermal systems usemirrors and lenses to concentrate a large area of naturallyavailable solar energy, onto a small area. The concentratedbeam of light can be used to generate the electric power once itis converted into heat through an efficient utilization of ther-modynamic cycle [87]. The major advantage of CSP systemsover other solar power technologies is their capability to pro-vide electricity even in the absence of sun. The main char-acteristics of solar power plants utilizing CSP technology are asfollows [88]:

� High efficiencies can be achieved because CSP technology uti-lizes thermodynamic cycle with high temperature input.

� CSP technology uses only the direct component of incomingsolar radiation, but it implies the loss of the diffused andreflected components.

� CSP technology requires the higher values of Direct NormalIrradiation (DNI).

� Due to high capital cost, CSP technology is not suitable for smallscale solar power plants.

Fig. 3. Four main CSP technologies. Source: International Energy Agency (IEA).

Table

2Ove

rview

andco

mparison

ofCSP

tech

nolog

ies.

Source:[91–

93].

Parabo

lictrou

ghs

Linea

rfresnel

reflectors

Solartowers

Parabo

licdish(D

ish-Stirling)

How

itworks?

Byfocu

singtheparab

olic

shee

tto

afixe

dpoint

whereob

jectsintended

tobe

hea

tedare

placed,Itcanbe

singleax

isor

dual

axis

(for

trackingof

thesu

n)

TheLo

ngan

dthin

segm

entof

mirrors

areused

tofocu

sinco

mingrays

tothefixe

dab

sorber

then

concentrated

hea

tgo

esto

ahea

tex

chan

-ge

rto

drive

stea

mge

nerator

Thelarger

numbe

rof

heliostatsareusedforfocu

sing

sunrays

onto

acentral

receiver

then

thehea

tedfluid

such

asmoltensaltis

usedto

produce

stea

mfor

electricityge

neration

Itusesmirroreddishes

toco

ncentratesu

nlig

ht

onto

acentral

receiver

andthen

theco

nve

rted

thermal

energy

canbe

usedto

produ

ceelec-

tricityor

itcanalso

beroutedto

themaingrid

Cap

acity(inMW

)10

–30

010

–20

010

–20

00.01

–0.02

5Com

mercially

mature

ornot?

Ithas

been

commercially

prove

nPilotprojects

Pilotco

mmercial

projects

Dem

onstration

projects

Solar-to-electricity

efficien

cyin

%(A

nnual)

11–16

137–

2012

–25

Temperatures(in°C)

350–

550

390

250–

565

550–

750

Storag

esystem

sex

ist?

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Adv

antage

s�

Mostmature

CSP

tech

nolog

y�

Itcanprodu

cehea

tat

higher

temperatures

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J. Khan, M.H. Arsalan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 414–425 419

The growth of CSP technology is expected to increase at a fastpace. According to Sawin and Martinot [89], among the existingCSP technologies, the global market has been currently dominatedby parabolic-trough collectors which account for the total of 90%CSP power plants worldwide.

3.2. Concentration technologies of CSP

Concentration technologies of CSP systems usually exist infour forms containing parabolic trough, Linear Fresnel collector,parabolic dish and solar power tower. Different types of lightconcentrators produce varying amounts of peak temperaturesrepresenting variant thermodynamic efficiencies depending onthe ways of tracking the sun and focusing insolation. Newinnovations and improvements in technology have made CSPsystems more efficient and cost effective [90]. Different lightconcentration techniques have certain advantages over flat-plate, conventional type CSP systems. Fig. 3 shows the differentCSP concentration technologies while Table 2 presents anoverview and comparison of CSP technologies. The mainadvantages are listed below:

� As compared to the flat-plate solar energy collecting surface, theworking fluid can achieve higher peak temperatures in a lightconcentrating system.

� The thermal efficiency of the light concentrating system ishigher because of the small heat loss area in relation to thereceiver area.

3.3. Photovoltaic (PV) technology

Photovoltaic (PV) technology directly converts incident solarenergy into electrical energy, according to the principle ofphotoelectric effect. It uses diffused components of incomingsolar radiations, hence PV technology is suitable for areashaving low as well as high direct irradiance. Power generationemploying PV technology makes use of solar panels, which arecomposed of different kind of photovoltaic materials. Some ofthe most commonly used materials include mono and poly-crystalline silicon, Cadmium telluride (CdTe), Gallium arsenide(GaAs) as well as triple-junction solar cells composed of Indiumgallium phosphide (InGaP). A solar cell is generally a smallelectricity generation device. In order to generate electricity ata larger scale, solar cells are combined to form a module ofmultiple cells; these modules are then assembled into a (pho-tovoltaic) PV array containing the length up to several meters.According to NREL [94], hundreds of solar arrays are inter-connected to form a large system for utility-scale solar elec-tricity generation.

Solar PV technology is sustainable, especially at the smallscale [95]. PV systems can be either grid-connected (to theexisting power grid) or stand-alone (independent units). Theseare categorized according to their configurations as fixed PVsystems (normally oriented to the south at north facing lati-tudes and vice versa) and PV tracking systems (which followthe sun path in the sky on single or double axis track). PVsystems with sun tracking ability are much more efficient thanfixed systems because they track and face the sun all the timeand they can capture the increased amount of incoming solarradiations. Nevertheless, PV tracking systems require a greateramount of area as compared to fixed PV systems as well as apart of generated electricity is utilized to track the sun. The firstapplication of PV technology was to the power the man-madesatellites in orbits as well as other spacecrafts, but nowadaysmajority of PV modules are being used for the purpose of grid-connected or stand-alone solar power generation [96]. PV

Fig. 4. From left to right: different types of PV systems. Source: NREL [97].

J. Khan, M.H. Arsalan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 414–425420

technology is also being used in many areas such as buildingsintegrated PV applications, transportation, telecommunica-tion, solar roadways and rural electrifications etc. to name afew.

3.4. Generations of photovoltaic technology

PV technology can be broadly divided into three generationsi.e., 1st Generation PV, 2nd Generation PV and 3 rd Generation PV.The overall efficiency and performance of these PV generationsvary greatly due to different types of semi-conductor materialsused in them. 1st and 2nd Generation PV being more commerciallymature yield large scale production while 3 rd generation is in pre-mature and R&D phase. Fig. 4 shows different types of PV systemswhile Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of different solar PVtechnologies.

According to Fraunhofer ISE [99], Si-wafer based technologyhad a share of about 90% of the total production in 2013 and theshare of multi-crystalline PV technology was about 55% of thetotal production. It has also been emphasized by Fraunhofer ISE[99] and Energy Informative [100], that the among the thin-filmtechnologies CdTe leads with an annual production of 2 GWp

and currently has the largest market share. Above Table 3 alsoimplies that a-Si although a commercially mature technology isnow being used for small scale applications only. CPV systemshave gained much popularity and yield higher efficiencies.

4. Comparison of CSP and PV technology

For the sustainable power generation, factors such as efficiency,economic evaluation, social acceptability and environmental impactsof solar power plants are of the utmost importance.

4.1. System efficiency

The CSP technology shows a higher annual electricity pro-duction than the PV modules when they are compared in termsof small output power [101]. Despite decreased amount ofoverall efficiency of the PV plant as compared to CSP plant, solarPV installations have proven to be more efficient systems due tosmall land use requirements. When PV power plants are com-pared with CSP plants considering the same area of an occupiedland, PV technology yields much better performance for bothelectricity production and land use capability. Due to small landuse requirements, large number of PV systems can be accom-modated in the same area as compared to CSP systems. Con-sequently, Desideri and Campana [101] highlighted that despitethe capability of CSP plant to provide electricity even in the

absence of the sun, the annual electricity production from PVsystem on the basis of same occupied land is higher than thecorresponding CSP system. According to Schultz et al. [102], theconversion efficiencies of commercially available PV systemsare around 14–22%.

4.2. System sustainability

The relationship between global environmental degradationand sustainable development has become the major point ofconcern these days. The resulting carbon dioxide (CO2) fromburning fossil fuels has turned into the largest source ofgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is pertinent to mention thatthe environmental friendliness, cost-effectiveness and socialacceptance of the adopted solar power technology is of theutmost importance. Therefore, a unique combination of socialacceptability, economic factors and environmental concernshas been incorporated into the system sustainability analysis.Fig. 5 shows the system sustainability approach.

4.2.1. Environmental impactsThe environmental impacts, determine the long term sus-

tainability of solar power systems. The major environmentalissues for the solar power plants are associated with theirassembling and decommissioning phase. There is almost noharm to the environment once the power plant has beencommissioned and has become operational. In Desideri et al.[88], it has been highlighted that during the assembly phase PVtechnology based solar power systems produce a higherenvironmental influence than CSP plants. A comparison ofenvironmental impacts of 1 MWh of electricity production, PVand CSP plants has also been presented in Desideri et al. [88]which revealed that the PV solar power plant has a higherenvironmental impact during the whole life cycle. PV cellmanufacturing involves different kinds of hazardous materialsused for the cleaning of semi-conductor surface and as a con-sequence, workers are also on the risk of inhaling Silicon dust.Also, NREL [103] has emphasized that second generation PVcells contain more toxic materials than the conventional PVcells. It is worthwhile to mention that the occupation of landduring the operation of solar power plants produces moderateimpact. No global warming emissions have been observedwhile generating power from solar energy; however, there areemissions in other phases of the solar life-cycle includingmaterials, transportation, maintenance and decommissioningphase etc. [104]. According to the reports published by NationalRenewable Energy Laboratory [105,106], the harmonized med-ian life cycle GHG emissions of the Tower and Trough based CSPsystems vary from 22 to 23 g CO2 eq/kWh, while for c-Si and

Table 3Overview and comparison of photovoltaic technologies.Source: [97–100].

1st Generation PV (Si-wafer Technology) 2nd Generation PV (Thin-film Technology) 3rd Generation PV (Multi-junction Technology)

Technology Single Crystalline Silicon(c-Si)

Polycrystalline Silicon (p-Si)

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Copper Indium GalliumDi-selenide (CIS/CIGS)

Cadmium Telluride Cells(CdTe)

Concentrated Photo-voltaic (CPV)

Dye-sensitized(DSSC)

Organic orPolymer (OPV)

Commercial PV moduleefficiency at air mass 1.5(in %)

15–19 13–15 5–8 7–11 8–11 25–30 1–5 1

Commercially mature ornot?

Commercially maturewith large-scaleproduction

Commercially maturewith large-scaleproduction

Commercially mature withsignificantly small scaleproduction

Commercially maturewith medium scaleproduction

Commercially maturewith large-scaleproduction

Commercially maturewith large-scaleproduction

R&D phase R&D phase

Maximum PV moduleefficiency (in %)

25 20.4 12.2 19.8 19.6 40 – –

Current PV module cost(in US$/W)

0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 – – –

Market share (in 2014) in%

90 55 32 25 43 – – –

Maximum PV moduleoutput power (in watts)

320 300 120 120 120 – –

PV module size (in m2) 2.0 1.4–2.5 1.4 0.6–1.0 0.72 – – –

Area needed per kilo Watt(kW) in m2

7 8 15 10 11 – – –

Table 4Initial investment cost assumptions for CSP plant.Source: [107].

CSP plantRated power¼40.00 KWe

Equipment Cost/unit Total cost (US$)

SCA 131 US$/m2 64,146,366.46Hot and cold tanks 12 US$/kWht 35,078,387.49Hp and Lp turbines 874 US$/kWe 34,943,987.54Steam generator 167 US$/kWhe 6,666,237.62Other (design cost, purchase of land) 363 US

$/kWhe

14,515,194.82

Other thermal and electricalcomponents

334 US$/kWhe

13,373,519.19

Taxes (in %)* – 10%Taxes (in US$) – 16,872,369.31TOTAL – 185,596,062.43Cost/Unit – 4,639.90 US$/kWe

* May vary on government laws and policies.

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.H.A

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–425421

Table 5Initial investments cost assumptions for PV plant.Source: [107].

PV plantRated power¼40.00 KWe

Equipment Costs/unit Quantity ofunits

Total cost (US$)

PV Modules 1.6 US$/Wp 40,000,000 64,511,976.99Inverters 203 US$/kWp 40,000 8,117,757.10Cabin MV/LV 201599.93 US

$/Cabin8.00 1,612,799.42

Cabin HV/LV 241919.91 US$/Cabin

1.00 241,919.91

Other electricalcomponents

240.58 US$/kWp 40,000 9,623,036.57

Other (design cost,purchase of landetc.)

218 US$/kWp 40,000 8,709,116.89

Taxes (in %)* – – 10%Taxes (in US$) – – 9,281,660.69TOTAL – – 102,098,267.59Cost/Unit – – 2,552.46 US$/kWe

* May vary on government laws and policies.

SociallyAcceptable

EnvironmentallyBearable

Economical

Fig. 5. The sustainability approach.

Table 6Investment cost assumptions.Source: [110–112].

CSP plant

Parabolic trough 370 US$/m2

Power block 1075 US$/kWThermal storage 34 US$/kWhLand 10 US$/m2

Construction, engineering and contingencies 20% ICOperation and maintenance 5% ICLifetime 25 yearsInterest rate 8%Annual insurance rate 1%

PV power plant

PV modules 0.63 US$/Wp

Inverter 1 US$/Wp

BOS 0.3 US$/Wp

Land 3 US$/m2

Construction, engineering, contingencies 20% ICOperation and maintenance 2% ICLifetime 25 yearsInterest rate 8%Annual insurance rate 1%Annual financial and insurance cost 10.4% IC

J. Khan, M.H. Arsalan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 414–425422

thin-film (TF) PV based systems harmonized median GHGemissions are below 50 g CO2 eq/kWh therefore considering theharmonized life cycle GHG emissions of both solar powerplants, CSP systems show a better environmental profile thanPV systems.

4.2.2. Economic concernsFor the commercial implementation and social acceptance of

solar power technologies, cost has been a major factor whichincludes the initial investments, operation and maintenance cost.The Levelized Electricity Cost (LEC) is a useful measure to comparethe solar electricity cost of PV and CSP plant as shown in Desideriand Campana [101] and it can be estimated with the followingequations:

LEC ¼ f cr ICþ CO&M

Eelð1Þ

f cr ¼kd 1þ kdð Þn1þ kdð Þn�1

þkins ð2Þ

where fcr is the annuity factor, IC is the investment cost, CO&M isthe annual operation and maintenance cost, Eel is the annual netelectricity output, kd is the real debt interest rate, kins is the annualinsurance rate and n is the depreciation period in years.

For the installation of solar power plants, the initial invest-ment cost has an utmost importance. A number of studies have

been carried out by many researchers for the financial analysisof PV and CSP plants such as Vergura and De Jesus Lameira[107] which also highlighted summarized initial investmentcost (IC) assumptions for the CSP and PV power plants of samenominal output power commissioned in Italy as shown inTables 4 and 5.

According to IEA [108,109], the estimated specific IC for CSPplant installation varies from 4200 to 8400 US$/kW and for the PVpower plant it varies from 2000 to 5200 US$/kW. The investmentcost (IC) assumptions for PV and CSP plants have been summar-ized from the literature in following Table 4.

Comparative analysis of the cost of both CSP and PV powerplants revealed that the initial investment costs are higher for theCSP plant than PV power plant. Although CSP plant investmentsare significantly higher, but CSP plants yield higher economicreturns and incentives than PV power plants. The maintenancecost of PV power plant is 1% of the initial IC while for CSP plant it is2% of IC due to its complex mechanism ( Table 6).

4.2.3. Social acceptanceSocial acceptability is one of the major requirements for suc-

cessful adoption of any technology. Social acceptance of solarpower plants has gained much importance and number of studiessuch as Heras-Saizarbitoria et al. [113], Yuan et al. [114] andSolangi et al. [115] highlighted the social acceptance of solar powertechnology at an end-user level. A considerable growth of smalland large scale solar power projects showed the world wideacceptance of solar power technology as a source of clean andsustainable energy. The United States and Spain have become thelargest markets for CSP technology while China and India have thelargest share for PV technology based solar power plants. Morethan 800 MW of energy produced by CSP plants was planned tocome online in the United States, South Africa, Spain and India inthe year 2013 [116]. Solar energy is being utilized in large scalepower plants as well as small scale applications such as ruralelectrification in remote areas, solar air-conditioning, street light-ing and solar heating etc. showing the acceptance of solar energyat macro and micro level. CSP technology is more suited for largescale commercial applications while PV technology is favorable forboth large and small scale applications.

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5. Discussion and conclusion

Since the inception of solar power technologies, there has beena continuous growth in CSP and PV systems' adoptability for greenenergy. In the recent past, solar power technologies have attracteda large number of customers and have emerged as a sustainableenergy solution in comparison to conventional sources of energy.As a consequence, the ever increasing customers' interest has ledto the technological revolution and major breakthroughs in theform of improved efficiencies of solar power systems. Moreenhanced technology is being made available in the commercialmarket at cheaper rates. With the technological advancements inthis field, solar power technologies have gained commercialmaturity. To some extent, these technological innovations tend tooverlap between CSP and PV applications. Nevertheless, eachtechnology has its own commercial market place and incentives.

Both CSP and PV technologies make use of naturally availablesun's energy to exploit green energy in many diverse ways withvarying mechanism and uses. Both solar power technologies i.e.,PV and CSP differ in basic mechanism and consequently their co-existence has not been the issue of competition, but a joint effortto cater the ever increasing world's energy demands as well as tofill the voids of carbon emissions. A review of different solar powertechnologies has been conducted in this research work. Theirtypes, efficiency, economic issues and environmental impacts havebeen discussed. This study revealed that for the same nominaloutput power the CSP plant produces more energy than PV plantwhich implies that the economic returns of the CSP plant aregreater than a PV plant. However, the initial investment costs toinstall a CSP plant are much higher than the corresponding PVplant. It is pertinent to mention that each solar power technologyhas its own merits and demerits and it is not possible to say whichtechnology is preferred as it is purely dependent on the type ofusage and prevailing conditions. This review article has high-lighted some of the major issues that must be taken into con-sideration to decide which solar power technology is better for aspecific case. In the present scenario, when climate mitigation andsustainability are becoming major issues in the world; solar powerhighlights itself as a primary solution of green energy.

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