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Self-study series
Rudiments Of
English
First Edition
By: Imtiaz Khan BS English
Associate English Lecturer at ISLAMIC SCIENCE ACADEMY
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Acknowledgements
I am feeling an immense pleasure that I am assisting my students in their academic lives. And I am thankful and grateful to my teachers who took me to this position and I do acknowledge that teachers play a significant role in one’s life. I am thankful to my English Teachers, Ibrahim Gull (FAST UNIVERSITY KARACHI), Prof. Khalid Khameed (B.Z.U Multan), and Prof. Amir Hafeez, (Emerson College, Multan) who have helped me in my academic life and are still helping me. And one must feel proud to be their student. Today I am following their footsteps.
Sir: Imtiaz Khan BS (English)
Associate lecturer at ISLAMIC SCIENCE ACADEMY
Email: [email protected]
Cell : +923072620920
All Rights Reserved:
All copyrights are reserved with the author. Any unauthorized publication will attract legal attraction. No part of this book can be used for getting the personal fame and dignity. Our religion forbids CHEATING…
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Foreword:
The aim of this book is to help each and every student of Middle, Matric and Intermediate level students. The contents are based on the syllabuses of Matric and Intermediate Boards.
As we know many students lack a sound understanding of the techniques required in English Grammar. Even when they have the intellect and command of English Grammar needed at this level, they lose marks by lying out their answers incorrectly.
A major purpose of this book, therefor, is to give students enough guidance to enable them to reach the highest standard they are capable of.
This book is totally based on English Grammar.
Right chance on the right time can or will take you to the peak point of your life. As far as I am concerned CHANCES seldom come in lives.
Be yourself and . . . . . . . . . THANK YOU!
To improve your English Speaking and Grammar Skills
Contact: Cell# 03072620920
Email# [email protected] Course Instructor: Imtiaz Khan BS (English)
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Contents Page number
Parts of Speech 05
Pronouns 06
Nouns 06
Adjectives 07
Adverbs 07
Prepositions 08
Articles 08
Punctuation 09
Verbs 09
Regular and irregular verbs 10
The use of verbs 11
Rules for making sentences 12
Conditionals 12
Tenses 13
Active and Passive Voices 13
Narration 14
Discussion Skills 16
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Parts of Sentence: There are eight different kinds of word in English. They are called 'parts of sentence' or 'parts of speech'. Look at the different kinds of word in this sentence: Prof. Khalid Khameed is our teacher
and he usually teaches us Grammar.
Prof. Khalid Khameed
Noun
Is verb
Our Determiner or Possessive pronoun
Teacher Noun
He Pronoun
Usually Adverb
Teaches verb
Us Objective pronoun
Grammar Noun
Here is a rhyme about the parts of sentences. It will give you an idea before discussing them in depth.
Every name is called a noun, As field and fountain, street and town. In place of noun the pronoun stands,
As he and she can clap their hands. The adjective describes a thing,
As magic wand or bridal ring. Most verbs mean action, something done,
To read and write, to jump and run. How things are done the adverbs tell,
As quickly, slowly, badly, well. The preposition shows relation, As in the street or at the station. Conjunctions join, in many ways,
Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase. The interjection cries out, “Heed!
An exclamation point must follow me!”
The Parts of sentence are eight in number: 1. Noun 2. Pronoun 3. Adjective 4. Verb 5. Adverb 6. Preposition 7. Conjunction 8. Interjection
A NOUN is the name of a person, place or thing: Person = Ali, Aslam, iqra Place = Multan, Karachi, New York Thing = Pen, laptop, T.V, book
A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun. Ali is absent, because he is ill.
A VERB is a word that shows an action or state in a sentence: I wrote a letter to brother. (Action verb) Karachi is a big city. (State verb)
AN ADVERB is a word that adds something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. He walks quickly. (Here quickly modifies the verb walk) This flower is very beautiful. (Here VERY modifies the adjective BEAUTIFUL.) She pronounces the word quite correctly. (Here QUITE is modifying another adverb CORRECTLY)
A PREPOSITION is a word or a group of words used before noun ore pronoun to show place, position, time or method. There is a cow in garden. Please do come on time.
A Conjunction is word used to join word or sentence: Ali and Aslam are cousins. I ran fast, but missed the train.
An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden felling. Hurrah! We have won the match Alas! She died.
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Pronouns: What is pronoun?
Pronoun is a word which comes instead of a noun; there are several types of pronouns, which can be clearly understood by the following chart.
Personal Pronouns: Subjective Pronoun
Possessive
Pronoun
Objective
Pronoun
Reflexive
Pronoun
He his Him himself
She Her Her herself
It It’s It itself
I My Me myself
We Our Us ourselves
You Your You yourself
They Their Them themselves
Subjective Pronouns come as a subject of a sentence. These are also known as Nominative Pronoun. He plays cricket. Here the circled He is the Subject of a sentence:
Possessive Pronouns show the possessiveness of someone in a sentence, it is followed a noun. It is also known as Possessive Adjectives. This is our house.
Objective Pronouns are also known as Accusative pronouns. I beat you.
Reflexive pronouns are used in that type of situations when the action done by the subject turns back upon the subject.
I cut my finger myself. You will hurt yourself.
Demonstrative
Pronouns
Indefinite
Pronouns
Distributive
Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Interrogative
Pronoun
This One Each Who What
That none either whose when
These anyone neither Whom where
Those somebody that why
Few what Who/ whom
many whose
others which
Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out any
object. This is my pen and that is yours. These are my students and those are hers.
Indefinite Pronouns are used in a general way; it is not used to refer to any particular person. Do well to others. Many of them were teachers.
Distributive Pronouns refer to persons or things one at a time. Neither will be rewarded. Each student can attend the lecture.
Relative pronouns take us back or refer to the noun which has already been described in a sentence: I found the book which I have lost a day before. This is the boy whose father died in car accident a year
before. Interrogative pronouns are same as relative
pronoun but their work in sentence is different, but here they are used to ask a question. What is your name?
Nouns: The name of a person place or thing is called Noun: there are different kinds of noun, which can be clearly understood by this char.
Kinds of Noun Examples
1.PROPER NOUN Girl , city, boy, country,
2. COMMON NOUN
Iqra, Multan, Ali, Pakistan
3. COLLECTIVE NOUN
Arm, crowd, herd, family
4. ABSTRACT NOUN
Quality, Action, State
5. COUNTABLE NOUNS
Books, pens apples
6. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Milk , oil , sugar, honesty
Proper noun is used for a particular and proper thing, place or person while common noun is used for common thing, person or place Girl is common noun while Iqra is proper noun. City is common noun while Multan is proper noun. Country is common noun while Pakistan is proper noun.
Collective noun is the collection of
persons, places, or things. An army = collection of soldiers A crowd = collection of people Team = collection of players Country = collection of countries
Abstract noun is the name of a quality,
state or action: Quality: kindness, whiteness, softness, stiffness Action: wisdom, bravery State: sleep, death, youth, slavery
Countable nouns are those things
which can be counted. Book, pen, boy, laptop, shirt
Uncountable nouns are those things which cannot be counted. Sugar, milk, water, oil.
Gender:
Gender Examples
1.Masculine Boy, brother, dog, hero
2.Feminine Girl, sister, bitch, heroine
3.Neuter Pen, pencil, computer
Having the quality of male people or animal.
Having the quality of female people or animal.
A noun that refers to neither male nor female.
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Adjectives:
Adjectives are the modifiers of nouns; adjectives add something to the meaning of nouns:
Kinds of Adjectives:
Kinds Examples
Adjectives of quality
Large, Honest , foolish, brave
Adjectives of quantity
Some, much, little, enough, all, no, any, whole, half
Adjectives of number
One, third, some, any, each, every, either
Demonstrative adjectives
This, that , these, those
Interrogative adjectives
What which, whose.
Adjective of quality shows the quality of a noun. Karachi is a big city. My friend is an honest man. This is English Grammar.
Adjective of quantity shows the quantity of a noun; I have some oranges. Irfan has no idea about grammar. Hakim had lost all his senses.
Adjective of number shows how many persons or things are meant He has one rupee note. He told me everything about his life.
Demonstrative adjectives point out the noun. This is our house. Those are our books.
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions with noun. Whose book is this? What sort of boy he is?
Degrees of Adjective;
Positive Comparative Superlative
Tall Taller Tallest
Big Bigger biggest
Fine Finer finest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Good better best
Bad worse worst
Many More most
Comparative degree is used compare two things. While superlative degree is used for those nouns which are unique.
Formation of Comparative and Superlative;
Most one syllable adjectives form the Comparative by adding –er and the superlative by adding –est. Tall Taller Tallest
Adjectives that ends E only R and ST are added. Fine Finer Finest
Two syllable adjectives form their Comparative and Superlative by adding more and most. Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Some adjective make their degrees irregularly;
Little less least
Adverbs; Adverbs are words that tell us more about verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.
He walks quickly. (Here quickly modifies the verb walk)
This flower is very beautiful. (Here VERY modifies the
adjective BEAUTIFUL.)
She pronounces the word quite correctly.
(Here QUITE is modifying another adverb CORRECTLY)
Types of Adverb;
Adverbs of time
Here, there, yesterday, now, before,
Daily, already, since,
Adverbs of frequency
Always, occasionally, often, seldom, rarely, twice, never, sometime,
Adverbs of place
Here, there, everywhere, in, out, up, down,
Adverbs of Manner
Well, bravely, hardly, slowly, fast,
Adverbs of reason
Hence, therefor,
Adverb of degree
Pretty, enough, too, fully, very, rather, as….as, almost
1. Adverb of time shows when something is done? I have already done my homework. I met with her yesterday.
2. Adverb of frequency shows how often you do something. I never tell a lie. I usually go for morning walk. Our soldiers fought bravely.
3. Adverb of place shows where? Come in. Go out. I don’t see her anywhere.
4. Adverb of Manner shows how or in what manner. He works hard. Muslims fought bravely. Slowly and sadly we say good-bye to him.
5. Adverbs of reason show the reason of something. She therefor left the college.
6. Adverbs of degree show how much or to what extent. I was fully prepared. She is very talkative. I am rather busy.
Remember this:
7. Some words that end in ly are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in ly too.
For example:
Sam was feeling very lonely.
She was wearing a lovely dress.
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Prepositions:
What is Preposition? The word preposition means position something before something. In English grammar it is defined as:
A preposition is a word placed or
positioned before a noun or a pronoun or noun
Role or Function of preposition in a sentence:
Preposition helps to construct a sentence. For example, - He reached college on time. (time) - She lives in Lahore. (place) - Place the book on the table. (position) - Look at the sky clearly. (direction)
SPECIFIC AREAS TO USE PREPOSITIONS:
1. PREPOSITION OF PLACE, POSITION & DIRECTION
In At On By Above To Towards From Into
In the room. At the window. At the office. On the table. Sitting by the woman. Above the sky. Go to university. Towards east. Fled from home. Jumped into the well.
2. PREPOSITION OF TIME
At After Before By During From For In On Since Within throughout
At 10 a.m., at dawn at night, at an early age. After 3 O’clock, after his arrival. Before the 15th July. By 4 p.m. During five years. During the summer, during five years. From 1st January. For a week/month. In June, in 2010, in the morning/afternoon. On Sunday. On 30th July, On birthday Since arrival, since June, since morning Within three days.. Within short time. Throughout the year. Throughout the career
3. PREPOSITION OF REASON OR PURPOSE
For Form Of Through With
For the good of the people, died for the country. Died from fatigue, suffering from fever/cold. Died of cancer. Lost position through negligence Trembles with fear, shivers with fever.
Articles:
The articles are of two types:
1. Indefinites articles (a, an) 2. Definite article (the)
Indefinite Article “a” 1. use with a non-specific noun; or 2. when you have never talked about this with the listener (no shared knowledge between the speaker and listener or reader and writer) Examples
“I bought a bike today!”
You never talked about this bike with the listener before (no shared knowledge between the speaker and the listener) “I took a workshop today on web design.”
This is news to the listener. They had never discussed this workshop before. “A good idea is all I need to start a new business.”
Indefinite Article “an” Use “an” instead of “a” before a word that starts with a vowel or a vowel sound. Examples
“I bought an apple.”
“An idea I thought of is…”
“An hour of studying a day is all it takes to learn English!”
Note: Hour starts with a consonant “h”. But because the “h” is silent, it is pronounced with a vowel sound *owr+. Therefore, “an” is used instead of “a”
Definite Article “the” 1. Use “the” with a specific noun, even if never discussed between speaker and listener; or 2. The speaker and listening have already discussed this thing (they have shared knowledge) Examples:
“I bought the bike today!”
Speaker and listener know about this bike and have previously discussed it (shared knowledge). “I took the workshop today on web design.”
Speaker and listener already talked about / already know about this workshop (it is shared knowledge between the speaker and listener). “A good idea is all I need to start the new business.”
Speaker and listener have previously discussed the idea of a new business (it is shared knowledge between the two).
If they had never discussed a new business, she would say, “A good idea is all I need to start a new business”. Review • When talking about something generally (non-specific) / no shared knowledge = use “a” • When talking about a specific noun / shared knowledge = use “the”
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PUNCTUATION Apostrophe (‘)
It is used to show possessiveness. E.g. Ali’s pen.
It is used to show contraction. E.g. I am = I’m.
It is used to show the plural form word and alphabets. Write a’s clearly.
Full Stop, Period (.)
It is used at the end of a sentence instead of Interrogative sentences and exclamatory sentences.
It is used in abbreviations. U.S.A
Capital letters:
Each and every letter of any sentence will be capital.
The first letter of any proper noun will be capital.
Pronoun (I) will be capital.
Question Mark (?)
Used at the end of a Question.
Quotation Mark (“ “),(‘ ‘)
We put direct speech in these marks.
To give the reference of something.
Comma (,)
Use for a short pause in a sentence.
After the words and phrase like:
Therefore, however, sure, on the contrary, surely.
To separate reporting speech from reported speech.
To address someone.
To separate words from each other.
Semi Colon (;)
It is a slight pause, shorter than period and longer than a coma.
It is used to separate two parts of a sentence in which there exist a COMA.
e.g. She wanted to be successful, whatever it might cost; to achieve her goal , whoever might suffer as a result.
Colon (:)
Used to introduce a list, a summary, an explanation or before reporting .
e.g. The suitcase contains two things: a book and a pen.
Exclamation (!)
A short sound word or a phrase spoken suddenly to express an emotion.
“never”! she cried.
Hyphen (-)
Used to join two words together to make a new one.
Father-in-law
Hard-hearted
Verb: A verb is a word or group of words that express
an action or a state.
Types:
State verb He is a boy. (is) is a state verb
Action
verb
He goes to school.
(Go) is an action verb.
Main verb He is going to school.
Auxiliary
verb
He is going to school.
“is” is a verb which is helping the
main verb going.
Compound
verb
Compound verb =
auxiliary verb + main verb
Transitive
verbs
A transitive verb has a direct
object.
I see him yesterday.
Intransitive
verb
An intransitive verb doesn’t have
an object.
The door opened.
Ergative
verbs
It can be either transitive or
intransitive at a time.
She opened the door.
The door opened.
Model
verbs
Can, may , will, shall , should,
would, . . . . .
Infinitive
verbs
To + verb = infinitive verb
Passive
verbs
Verbs used in passive voice
Regular
verb
Verbs that forms there past and
past participle by adding-ed.
Play played played
Irregular
verb
Verbs that doesn’t form past and
past participle by adding –ed.
Go went gone
Linking
verb
When an ADJ. OR NOUN PHRASE
describe the subject. The verb used
between them is linking verb.
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Regular and Irregular Verbs Verbs can be regular or irregular
Regular verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding ed.
Base form Past Tense Past Participle
Walk walked walked Laugh laughed laughed Paint painted painted
Irregular verb form their past tense and past participle in a different way from adding –ed.
Base form Past Tense Past Participle
Sit sat sat Ring rang rung Come came come Cut cut cut We distinguished three types of irregular verb:
Verbs in which all three forms are the same.
Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same.
Verbs in which all three forms are different.
TYPE 1: All three forms are the same.
Base form Past Tense Past Participle
Bet bet bet Burst burst burst Cost cost cost Cut cut cut Hurt hurt hurt Hit hit hit Let let let Put put put Read read read Set set set Shut shut shut Spilt spilt spilt Spread spread spread
TYPE 2: Two of the forms are the same.
Base form Past Tense Past Participle
Beat beat beaten Become became become Bend bent bent Bleed bled bled Breed bred bred Bring brought brought Build built built Burn burnt burnt Buy bought bought Catch caught caught Come came come Creep crept crept Deal dealt dealt Dig dug dug Dream dreamt dreamt Feed fed fed
Feel felt felt Fight fought fought Find found found Get got got Hang hung hung Have had had Hear heard heard hold held held keep kept kept lay laid laid lead led led lean lent lent learn learnt learnt leap leapt leapt leave left left lend lent lent light lit lit lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant pay paid paid run ran ran say said said sell sold sold send sent sent shine shone shone shoot shot shot sit sat sat sleep slept slept smell smelt smelt spell spelt spelt spend spent spent spill spelt spelt spit spat spat spoil spoilt spoilt stand stood stood stick stuck stuck strike struck struck sweep swept swept swing swung swung teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought understand understood understood win won won wind wound wound
TYPE 3: All three forms are different.
Base form Past Tense Past Participle
Be was/were been Begin began begun Bite bit bitten Blow blew blown Break broke broken Choose chose chosen Do did done Draw drew drown Drink drank drunk Drive drove driven Eat ate eaten Fall fell fallen Fly flew flown Forbid forbade forbidden Forget forgot forgotten Forgive forgave forgiven
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Freeze froze frozen Give gave given Go went gone Grow grew grown Hide hid hidden Know knew known Lie lay lain Mistake mistook mistaken Ride rode ridden Ring rang rung Rise rose risen See saw seen Shake shook shaken Show showed shown Shrink shrank shrunk Sing sang sung Sink sank sunk Speak spoke spoken Spring sprang sprung Steal stole stolen Stink stank stunk Swear swore sworn Take took taken Tear tore torn Throw threw thrown Wake woke woken Wear wore worn Write wrote written The following verbs have an alternative past participle form (ending in -en), which can only be used adjectively.
Verb usual Past.P Adjectival Past.P
Drink drunk drunken Melt melted molten Prove proved proven Shave shaved shaven Shear sheared shorn Shrink shrunk shrunken Sink sunk sunken Strike struck stricken
Compare the following:
A= He has drunk wine B= A drunken soldier
A= The iron has melted. B= Molten iron
A= He has proved it. B= A proven fact
A= He has shaved the beard B= A clean shaven face
A= They have sheared the sheep B= a shorn sheep
A= The cloth has shrunk B= a shrunken head
A= The ship has sunk B= a sunken ship
A= The clock has struck five B= a grief- stricken widow
The use of verbs: Present Tenses: Present Indefinite: The Present Indefinite tense is used to express general statement and to describe act that are habitual or usual. Examples:
It rains in winter (this statement describes a habitual act that in every winter it rains.)
Present Continuous: The Present continuous tense is used to describe an action that is taking place at the time of speaking. Examples:
It is raining. (Raining started before speaking, and it was still raining at the time of speaking, and the raining has not yet stopped at the time of speaking.)
The present continuous tense is also used to announce a future event which is already arranged: Examples:
She is leaving for London tomorrow.
I am going to see her at airport.
Present Perfect: The present perfect is used to show a connection in the speaker's mind between the past and the present. This occurs in two ways:
The unfinished past - by referring to something that started in the past and is continuing now: I've lived here for seven years, (and I live here now) I've worked here since 1994. (And I work here now)
Describing something that happened in the past, when the result can be seen in the present: He's painted his house. Someone's taken my wallet. She's bought a new car.
Describing something that happened recently, often when giving 'news': Two men have escaped from prison in London. The prime minister has arrived in Australia.
With certain words [just, yet, already): He's just gone out. I've already told her. Have you done your homework yet? –
describing personal experience: I've been to Paris. He's never been abroad. –
Present Perfect Continuous: The present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to indicate an action that began in the past and is still continuing. Examples:
I have been waiting here for two hours.
Past Tenses: Past Indefinite:
The Past Indefinite tense is used to indicate a single act or a habitual action in the past.
I had a cup of tea in the morning.
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She went to school an hour ago.
Past Continuous: The Past continuous tense is used to describe an action that was taking place at the time of speaking in past.
She was doing homework when the guest arrived.
Past Perfect: The past perfect tense describe an action completed at some point in the past.
I had left the house before it started raining.
Past Perfect Continuous: The past perfect continuous tense is used to describe an action which had been going on for some time and finished at some definite time in the past.
She had been working since morning.
It had been raining since morning.
Future Tenses: Future Indefinite: Future indefinite tense is used to describe a single act that has still to take place.
They will leave for London tomorrow.
Future Continuous: Future continuous tense is used to describe an action as going on in future.
When I will go there they will be playing cricket.
Future Perfect: Future perfect tense is used to describe an action that will be finished by a certain future date.
She will have stopped taking this medicine by March next.
We will have finished our course before the exams.
Future Perfect Continuous: The future perfect continuous tense is used to describe an action which has been going on continuously and has yet to be completed in the future.
Before my exams I will have been studying for 7 months.
Conditionals:
TYPE: 1 Present Will If we hurry, we will catch the bus. If we are going they will visit us. If you have finished, I will allow you.
TYPE: 2 Past would If I ate cake I would get fat. If she got up earlier, she wouldn’t be late.
If I were you, I would do that.
TYPE: 3 Past perfect would have If had worked hard you wouldn’t have got fail. If you had rung me I would have come to see you.
Rules for Making Sentences: Positive Sentences:
We usually use this format for a simple positive sentence i.e. SUBJECT H.V VERB OBJECT I (do)
opt work hard.
Negative sentences: For negative sentences we put NOT after
helping verb. I do not work hard. Here NOT is put after DO which is helping verb.
Interrogative Sentences:
Verbal Questions: For interrogative sentences we place H.V
before Subject. Do I work hard? This type of question is known as Verbal questions or (Yes, No) questions.
Interrogative sentences:
Inquiry Questions: For interrogative sentences we place W.H
before H.V i.e. Why do I work hard? This type of question is known as inquiry question.
Interrogative negative sentences: For interrogative negative sentences we
place NOT after SUBJECT and before Main Verb. Do I not work hard? Don’t I work hard? (in case of contraction we use this format for interrogative negative sentences)
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Tense: TENSE POSITIVE NEGATIVE QUESTION
Simple Present
I go to college every
morning.
I don’t go to college every
morning.
Do I go to college every
morning?
Present Continuous
I am playing
cricket at the
moment.
I am not playing
cricket at the moment.
What are you doing at the moment?
Simple Past She wrote this letter last night.
She didn’t write this letter last
night.
What did she do last night?
Past Continuous
I was watching TV when
you called.
He was not working when she arrived.
What were you doing
when I called?
Future with Going to
They are going to visit the Safari Park.
They are not going to
invite the guests.
Where are you going to
stay?
Simple Future
I will meet you at the
airport tomorrow.
He will not be able to
come.
Will they visit us soon?
Present Perfect
I have seen her three times this
week.
She has not been to Multan.
How long have you worked at
mobile company?
Present Perfect
Continuous
She has been
waiting for over three
hours.
They have not been
studying for long.
How long have you
been working on that
problem?
Past Perfect
I had already
eaten before they came.
She had not been to Rome
before that trip.
Had you ever seen such a crazy lady
before that?
Past Perfect Continuous
She had been
waiting for three hours
when he finally
arrived.
I had not been sleeping
for long when I heard the doorbell
ring.
How long had you been
playing tennis when she arrived?
Future Continuous
I will be cooking dinner when you arrive.
They will not be living in Paris this time next
year.
What will you be doing next week at
this time?
Future Perfect
We will have lived
here for twenty
years by 2020.
She will not have finished
her homework by the time we arrive.
How long will you have lived in UK
by the end of next year?
Future Perfect
Continuous
Before my exams I will have been
studying for 7 months.
I will have not been
studying for 7 months
before exams.
How long will I have
been studying
before my exams.
Active and Passive Voice Present Indefinite
I play cricket. Cricket is played by me
Present Continuous
I am playing cricket.
Cricket is being played by me.
Present Perfect I have played cricket.
Cricket has been played by me.
Past Indefinite I played cricket. Cricket was played by me.
Past Continuous I am playing cricket.
Cricket was being played by me.
Past Perfect She had played cricket.
Cricket had been played by me.
Will I will play cricket.
Cricket will be played by me.
Can I can play cricket.
Cricket can be played by me.
Active Passive The man repaired the bike.
The bike was repaired by the man.
She hates school. School is hated by her.
Enjoy the match. Let the match be enjoyed.
I know the reason. The reason is known to me
He will paint the third floor.
The third floor will be painted by him.
I can offer you tea. Tea can be offered to you by me.
Do you like it? Is it liked by you?
Did they pay their fee? Was their fee paid by them?
You had received your mail.
Your mail had been received by you.
He was given a new pen.
A new pen was given to him.
The Red Cross is helping the needy.
The needy are being helped by the Red Cross.
They will have set up a new factory.
A new factory will have been set up by them.
The peon had already rung the bell.
The bell had already been rung by the peon.
Who solved the sum? By whom the sum was solved?
Do many students use the library?
Is library used by many students?
Post the letter. Let the letter be posted.
Finish it now. Let it be finished now.
Forget it. Let it be forgotten.
Do not make a noise. Let not a noise be made.
My car was stolen. Someone stole my car.
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Narration (Direct Indirect) Narration means to say something.
Two-ways of Narration
1 Direct Narration 2. Indirect Narration
Two Parts of Direct Sentence: Reporting Verb "Reported Speech”
Direct: Raza said, "I am stranger here. Indirect: Raza told that he was stranger there.
Difference between Direct & Indirect Sentence:
No. Direct Indirect
1 Direct Sentence is the exact words of the speaker
Indirect sentence is the words of the teller or reporter
2 Direct sentence is in comma
Indirect sentence is not in comma
3 Direct sentence has two parts
Indirect sentence has one part
4 Direct sentence Tense cannot be changed
Indirect sentence Tense can be changed
Changes for Direct & Indirect Narration
1. Change of Comma Reporting Verb Reported Speech
Simple Sentence that Interrogative 1 (HV) if, whether Interrogative 1 (WH) No change, Imperative to Universal truth that Suggestive / proposal that Optative to
2. Change of Tense Reporting Verb Reported Speech Present (say) Present =No Change Present (say) Past =No Change Present (say) Future= No Change Past Tense (said) Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Present Continuous Past Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Present Per. Con. Past Perfect Cont. Past Indefinite Past Perfect Past Continuous Past Perfect Cont. Past Perf. Cont. No Change In Future Tense
Will Shall Would
3. Change of Verb Is are am Was/were Was were Had been do does Did
Shall will Would Can Could May Might First form Second form Second form had + third form 4. Change of Words This That These Those Here There Now Then Today That day Yesterday The Previous day Tomorrow The next day Say Tell Said Told
5. Change of Person Person Change
First Person (S) Subject of RV Second Person (O) Object of RV Third Person (N) No Change
Assertive Sentence or Statement
1. If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the tense in the reported speech is not changed. Direct: Nabil says, "I am fine." Indirect: Nabil says that he is fine. 2. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the reported Speech is changed into the corresponding past form. He said, "I want to go." He said that he wanted to go. He said, "I am reading a book." He said that he was reading a book. 3. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, and the verb of the reported speech is in the past indefinite tense, it (the verb in the reported speech) is changed into the past perfect tense. Direct: He said, "I wrote the book." Indirect: He said that he had written the book.
4. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, and the verb in the reported Speech is in the past continuous, it (the verb in the reported speech) is 'Changed into the past perfect continuous tense. Direct: He said, "I was reading a book." Indirect: He said that he had been reading a book. Note: The use of the conjunction that between the reporting speech and the reported speech is not a must in the indirect speech.
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5. If the Direct Speech describes a universal truth, constant fact, habitual Fact, geographical fact and quotations, the verb in the reported speech remain unchanged: Direct: The teacher said, "The earth moves round the sun." Indirect: The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun. 6. The First Person of the direct speech is changed into the person the man spoken to and the third person does not have any change:’ Direct: They said to us, "He will meet you." Indirect: They told us that he would meet us.
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Interrogative Sentence:
(a) Reporting verb is changed into ask or enquire of. (b) If or whether is used as a linking word. (c) The auxiliary verb in the reported speech is used after the subject. (d) If the sentence begins with who, which, what, how, when, where, why etc., these are not changed and if or whether is not used. Note: The indirect speech becomes a statement and no question mark is used. Nadim said to Nadia, "Are you reading now?" Nadim asked Nadia (or enquired of) if she was reading then. The man said to Shahid, "What is your name?" The man asked Shahid what his name was.
Imperative Sentence
Structure of indirect speech a. Reporting verb is changed into tell, command or order, request - or beg or entreat or ask, forbid, according to the sense of the speech b. Reporting verb and Reported speech are joined by Infinitive ‘to Direct: He said to me, "Do it now"? Indirect: He told me to do it then. Direct: The captain said, "Soldiers, march on". Indirect: The captain commanded the soldiers to march on.
Optative Sentence:
a. The Reporting verb is changed into wish or prays. b. The Optative form is changed into a statement. c. ‘That’ is used as a linking word. Direct: He said to me, "May you be happy". Indirect: He wished that I might be happy. Direct: Mr. Khan said, "May Allah save me". Indirect: Mr. Khan prayed that Allah might save him.
Exclamatory Sentence:
a. The reporting verb is changed into exclaim, cry, shout etc. according to the sense. b. New words and phrases like. with joy/in joy, with sorrow/ in sorrow, in wonder etc. are used to express the meaning of exclamation. If the sense of exclamation is not clear, such phrases are not used. c. That is used as a linking word. d. The changed from becomes a statement. Direct: The man said, "Alas! I am undone". Indirect: The man cried out in sorrow that he was undone. Direct: He said, "Hurrah! We have won the game". Indirect: He exclaimed in joy that they had won the game. Direct: He said to me, "What a funny boy you are"! Indirect: He exclaimed in joy that I was a very funny boy. Direct: He said, "What a fool I am“! Indirect: He cried out with sorrow that he was a great fool. [Note: 'great' is used before a noun] Direct: He said, "What a long journey"! Indirect: He exclaimed that it was a very long journey.
Exception: Direct: He said, "Who knew that it would happen"! Indirect: He said that nobody knew that it would happen Direct: He said, "By God! I have never done it". Indirect: He swore by God that he had never done
it.
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Discussion Skills To discuss on a topic you will have to learn some skill. Here are some points that should be used at the time of discussion.
Clarifying • Could you go over that again? • I’m afraid we don’t really understand
what you said. • I’m not sure we all understand what
you mean.
Controlling People Who Talk Too Much • Let’s hear what some others have to
say. • I think you’ve got a good point there.
Why don’t we find out what other people have to say?
Keeping the Discussion Moving • Perhaps we should go on to the next
point. • We have only a few minutes left, so
could we move on? • Are there any more comments before
we move on to the next point?
Keeping the discussion on the Subject • That’s interesting, but it raises a
different point. Could we come back to that later?
Reaching Agreement and Summing Up • Do we agree that......? • So, to sum up, we’ve decided .......
Vocabulary For Listening Actively Asking for Clarification • Sorry, but I don’t understand what you
mean • Could you explain what you mean by
...? • Are you saying that .........? Clarifying (Your Comments) • I mean ....... • In other words, ........ • The point I’m trying to make is .....
Vocabulary For Exchanging Opinions Asking for an Opinion • What do you think of .........? • What’s your opinion of ........? Giving an Opinion
• In my opinion, ......... • Personally, I think that ........ • As far as I’m concerned, ......... Agreeing (usually used by the ‘discussion leader) • (b) You’re right. • (c) I think so, too. • (d) I agree with you. • (f) I completely agree with you.
Expressing Reservations (usually used
by the ‘discussion leader) • Yes, but..... • Yes, but the problem is.... Disagreeing • I don’t really agree with you. • Yes, that may be true, but.....
Vocabulary For Taking Turns Getting Attention
To indicate that you want to speak, you can use nonverbal signals such as leaning forward or raising your hand. You can also gain the attention of the group members during a pause by saying : • May (could) I ask a question? • May (could) I say something here? • May (could I make a suggestion? or : • I have a question I’d like to ask. • I have a point I’d like to make. Interrupting If you feel that an interruption would be appropriate, you can wait for a pause in the conversation and then say : • Excuse me, but........ • Pardon me, but........ • Excuse me for interrupting, but....... • Sorry to interrupt, but........ Keeping Your Turn • Excuse me, I’d just like to finish this
point. • If you could wait for a second, I’m just
about to finish my point. • Could I please just finish my point? Continuing after an Interruption • Anyway, ....... • As I was saying, ........ • In any case, ....... • Going back to what I was saying,...... • As I was saying, .........
Vocabulary for Asking for Opinions (Name), would you like to give us your opinion about ....... (Name), what’s your opinion about ..... (Name), I wonder if you’d like to comment on….
