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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
“Abraham Lincoln entered The Black Hawk War as a captain and came
out a private.”
“Einstein was four years old before he could speak and seven
before he could read.”
“William Butler Yeats’ early school report described his
performance as ‘Only fair. Perhaps better in Latin than any other subject. Very poor in
spelling’.”
“The Kansas City Star editor fired Walt Disney because of lack of
creativity.”
“Napoleon finished near the bottom of his class at military
school, yet became one of the leading military men of all time.”
“John Lennon’s school report read: ‘Hopeless. Certainly on the road to
failure’.”
“When Thomas Edison was a boy, his teachers told his mother that
Edison’s brain was ‘addled’. The proof was his unusually large head!”
Gifted and talented students do not always develop evenly
across all areas of ability. Many in the previous list
demonstrate this, but perhaps Einstein is the classic example.
Despite his undisputed intellect, he was unable to talk until the
age of four. Due to this atypical development of the Gifted and
Talented, there is a need to go beyond the traditional ideas of
identification and to explore the educational, emotional and
psychological profile of these students.
The word gifted, when used to describe children’s
intellectual abilities, evokes varied opinions in teachers,
caregivers, and families of young children. Some attitudes are
positive, others negative, while still others are built upon
misconceptions about individuals who are gifted. (Cukierkon, et.
al., 2008)
Defining Giftedness
There are no universally agreed definitions of giftedness
and talent. Here are some of the definitions (Handbook on
Educating the Gifted, 1992):
The gifted are those capable of superior performance and
these include those with demonstrated achievement or potential
ability in one or more of the following areas:
general intellectual ability
9
specific academic aptitude
creative or productive thinking ability
leadership ability
ability in the visual or performing art
psychomotor ability
Renzulli (1981) defines the gifted as individuals who
manifest the following cluster of traits:
above average ability (including intelligence)
high creativity (implies the developmental appreciation
of innovative ideas)
high task commitment (related to a high degree of
motivation)
In a study conducted by Baldo (1987) 387 teachers, parents,
medical doctors, psychologists and gifted persons associated
giftedness mainly with the concept God-given talent. On the other
hand Camara (1989) defines the gifted as those who possess gifts
in the mental, physical, social, psychological, moral, spiritual,
psychic and other areas and utilize these for his good and that
of society’s.
10
Guilford’s (1967) model of the structure of intellect
contained four dimensions namely: semantic, symbolic, figural and
behavioural. These dimensions contain language, by which people
communicate thoughts and feelings; mathematics, by which
individuals build and construct with accuracy; music, by which
one’s spirit soar; and art, which gives sense of pleasure from
proportions and colors, and sometimes provide symbolic portrait
of the world and of feelings. It is an excess of one or more of
these abilities occurring early in the development process that
enables one to define, for time and place.
The fourth dimension – behaviour represents children who are
sensitive to or empathic with regard to the interpretation of
self and other behavior. This dimension has never received the
same attention as the other domains because of the difficulty of
providing good paper-and-pencil tests to measure that dimension.
Another shift in the concept of intelligence from the
standard reliance on verbal ability so important to schooling is
the work by Howard Gardner (1985) and his theory of multiple
intelligences. He believes that it would be useful to consider
seven distinctive types of intellectual behaviour: linguistic,
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logical, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical,
sense of others (interpersonal) and sense of self
(intrapersonal).
Silverman (n.d.) defined giftedness as advanced development in
one or more areas. This perspective is internal, child-centered and
based upon differential rates of maturation. Advanced development
is the opposite of delayed development. Some children develop
more slowly than others, but have difficulty acknowledging that
there are some children who develop more rapidly than others.
Both exceptionalities need early identification, assessment and
intervention in order to maximize these children’s potential. The
more the child’s abilities vary from the norm, the greater the
need for special provisions.
Classification of Gifted Individuals
As definitions of giftedness and talent have become broader,
the number and variety of characteristics associated with this
exceptionality have increased greatly. For the sake of
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simplicity, here are the characteristics found in the following
gifted individuals:
1. The Nurtured Gifted
a. Individuals with high IQs
Terman and his associates (Oden, 1968; Terman,
1925; and Terman and Oden, 1959) observed some specific
characteristics in 1000 children with IQs of 130 or
higher and followed their development into adulthood.
These characteristics confirmed by Gallagher (1985)
include:
fast learning ability
interest in reading biographies
scientific inclination
reading prior to entering school
enjoyment of learning
good abstract reasoning
good command of language
poor handwriting
only child
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eldest child
born of older parents
good adjustment
good physical health
high scores on achievement tests
imagination
high energy level
More recently, other intellectual traits have been
identified as characteristics of academically gifted
children.
capacity for learning – accurate perception of
social and natural situations; independent,
rapid, efficient learning of facts and
principles; fast meaningful reading, with
superior retention and recall
power and sensitivity of thought – ready grasp
of principles underlying things as they are
quick in detection of similarities and
differences among things and ideas, able in
analysis, synthesis, and organization of
14
elements, critical of situations, self, and
other people
curiosity and drive – mental endurance,
tenacity of purpose, stubbornness, curiosity
about things and ideas; boredom with routine
and sameness (Ward, 1975).
b. Highly Creative Individuals
The 1962 Gretzels and Jackson study revealed some
important differences between highly intelligent and
highly creative youngsters. Highly creative children
tend to be nonconforming: they question, challenge, and
even psychologically threaten some teachers who do not
tolerate high levels of nonconformity.
The following characteristics of creative
youngsters have been compiled from various checklists
(Lucito, 1974; Renzulli & Hartman, 1971).
generate a large number of ideas or solutions
to problems and questions
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are uninhibited in expression of opinion,
sometimes radical and spirited in disagreement,
tenacious
display a good deal of intellectual
playfulness, fantasize, imagine, not
conforming, accept disorder, are not interested
in details, do not fear being different
rely more on own evaluations than those of
others
build a reputation for having wild or silly
ideas
display humor, playfulness, and relaxation in
their creative products
2. The Underachieving Gifted
Clark (1988) describes the underachieving gifted as
those who have shown exceptional performance on a measure of
intelligence and who nevertheless do not perform as well as
expected for learners of the same age on school-related
tasks. They are frequently seen as:
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excessively aggressive or withdrawn
having negative self concepts
Davis (1989) described the underachieving gifted as
having low self esteem, academic avoidance behaviours, poor
study habits, unmastered skills, social and discipline
problems.
3. The Disadvantaged Gifted
Disadvantaged gifted learners are pupils who come from
deprived and underserved sectors of our society. Their
primary deprivation is economic and material poverty along
with its social, cultural and psychological components.
Characteristics of the disadvantaged include:
independence of actions
fluency in nonverbal communication
imagination in thinking
learning quickly through experience
originality and creativity
responding well to media
ability to generalize learning to other areas
ability to solve problems by ingenious methods
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language rich in imagery
response to the concrete
A close look at the aforementioned characteristics of
the disadvantaged gifted show that these may even have been
offshoots of their coping mechanisms to survive in their
house and deprived environments.
Dilag (1991) studied the learning styles of accelerated
pupils selected in Silahis Centers in Metro Manila who
belonged to families with Php 3,000.00 or less for a family
of six. The results revealed that the disadvantaged mentally
superior prefers to:
study their lessons in the afternoon up to early
evening
learn by reading silently, undertaking experiments,
role-playing, problem solving, and using
instructional materials that can beboth heard and
seen
engage in group activities, and
work on an assignment or project continuously, never
stopping until it is finished.
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4. The Handicapped Gifted
The gifted handicapped are those individuals who
exhibit unusual gifts, talents in spite of physical, mental,
emotional, or experiential handicaps (Blocker-Dixon, 1977)
and exhibit the following characteristics:
limited communication skills
low self-concept brought about by negative attitude
of others, labels, and lowered expectations from
teachers and other significant adults
inadequate social skills
high level, abstract thinking skills.
Basic Traits of the Gifted
Several authors have compiled lists of traits or
characteristics that, in addition to high IQ, distinguish gifted
individuals (e.g. Silverman, 1990; Tuttle & Becker, 1980; Rogers,
1986; Roeper, 1991; Clark, 2006; Jacobsen, 2000; Sak, 2004).
Cognition
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As already implied by high IQ, gifted persons (GPs)
excel at reasoning and problem- solving (Davidson, 1986;
Keating & Bobbitt, 1978; Sternberg, 1986). But they show
more than a propensity at tackling puzzles: they are able to
generalize from specific cases, seeing the deeper patterns
to connect seemingly unrelated phenomena. They quickly grasp
complex and abstract concepts, such as in mathematics or
science, and their general comprehension is far advanced.
Their thinking is deep, broad and at a high level of
abstraction.
Yet, they do more than reason abstractly and logically:
they have a very rich and vivid imagination (Piechowski,
Silverman & Falk, 1985). Together with their capacity to
connect and integrate, this gives them a remarkable
creativity. Perhaps most noticeable is their constant
production of original, unusual ideas, coming up with things
that other people would never have thought of, or seen the
relevance of. Their mind seems constantly busy, moving very
quickly, and often on multiple tracks at the same time.
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Not just their thinking, but their learning seems to
run in a higher gear (Bloom, 1982; Hollingworth, 1942;
Robinson, Roedell & Jackson, 1979; Terman & Oden, 1947).
They quickly and eagerly assimilate new knowledge, and they
have an excellent memory for the things they have learned
(Freeman, 1985; Guilford, Scheuerle, & Schonburn, 1981).
This is perhaps most noticeable in their extensive
vocabulary (Borkowski & Peck, 1986; Terman & Oden, 1947) and
facility with words and language in general.
Perception and Emotion
Gifted people are very perceptive (Sak, 2004), showing
an excellent sense of observation. They notice things that
others are not aware of, and their overall perception of the
world seems quite different, in the sense of richness and
detail, from the one of ordinary people. Thus, what someone
else may see as just a chair or a stone, a GP may see as a
subtle play of light, texture and perspective, the way a
professional artist may have been trained to perceive it.
They are often sensitive to small changes in the
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environment, such as temperature differences, or an itchy
label in the collar of a shirt.
This high sensitivity (Mendaglio, 1995; Clark, 2006;
Piechowski, 1991; Tuttle & Becker, 1980) is not just sensory
but affective: GPs tend to undergo intense feelings and
experiences, which may be elicited by situations to which
others hardly react. This brings to a peculiar weakness or
vulnerability typical of many gifted people, which Dabrowski
(1972; Dabrowski & Piechowski, 1977; Piechowski &
Cunningham, 1985; Gallagher, 1985) has called
overexcitability. This can be defined as an excessive
response to stimuli, and may occur in different domains:
psychomotor, sensual, emotional, imaginational, and
intellectual. GPs in general can become easily excited or
passionate about an idea, a feeling or something they
imagine. This unusual strength of feeling is sometimes
called (emotional) intensity (Piechowski, 1991; Piechowski &
Colangelo, 1984; Silverman & Ellsworth, 1980; Whitmore,
1980).
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Their rich sense of observation and multitasking mind
allow them to see simultaneously many sides to any
situation, and consider problems from different viewpoints.
In general, one may say that they have a high tolerance for
ambiguity and complexity (Piechowski, 1991; Roeper, 1991),
i.e. they feel little need to reduce their perception to a
simple black-or-white categorization. Their ease with
ambiguity and paradox also shows in their excellent, but
unusual sense of humor (Getzels & Jackson, 1962; Shade,
1991; Terman, 1925), in which they often relativize a
situation by looking at it from an unorthodox angle.
Motivation and Drive
Together with strong passions, GPs also have a high
drive (Winner, 2000) and great deal of energy. This shows
itself in their capacity to sustain their concentration on
the topics that interest them. Once they get interested,
they can be very persistent (Feldhusen, 1986; Tuttle &
Becker, 1980) and have a long attention span (Rogers, 1986;
Witty, 1958). The downside is that they can sometimes work
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themselves to exhaustion. Their high level of activity may
make it difficult to relax, as they cannot stop thinking
(Roeper, 1991).
Whatever their specific interests, they are all driven
by intense curiosity, by an overwhelming desire to know and
understand (Bloom, 1982; Cox, 1977; Freeman, 1985). From an
early age they are typically avid readers (Cox, 1977; Gross,
1993; Robinson, Roedell, & Jackson, 1979), who will absorb
information of all kinds. They have a very broad range of
interests, but may be overwhelmed by the diversity, not
knowing what to investigate first. As such they may seem to
lack focus, apparently getting bored as soon as they have a
rough understanding of a domain, and moving on to the next
one. Yet, at a deeper level, they continue looking for
connecting patterns, for meaning and understanding. Thus,
they are seekers for ultimate truths, for the meaning of
life (Lovecky, 1994).
A GP typically develops a far and wide vision of how
things might be or ought to be, and a sense of destiny or
mission (Lovecky, 1992), as the one who is to realize these
24
visions. The goals they set for themselves are typically
very ambitious (Winner, 1996), and may look unrealistic or
unattainable to others. They enjoy difficult challenges, and
have a penchant for taking risks, that is, explore
situations where the outcome is everything but predictable.
This may get them in serious troubles of a kind that other
people find difficult to imagine. Another downside of their
ambition is that they can be too perfectionist (Clark, 2006;
Whitmore, 1980), setting such high standards for themselves
and others that they are in practice disappointed. The fear
of failing to achieve these standards may also keep them
from finishing a concrete piece of work, such as writing a
book or thesis, as their preparation for it never really
seems good enough.
Social Relations
Their intrinsic motivation makes them less dependent on
rewards and punishments, praise and criticism given by
others. This characteristic of being driven by their own
goals rather than by those imposed by society has been
25
called “entelechy” (Lovecky, 1992). It makes them very
independent or autonomous. It also makes them question rules
and authorities (Schetky, 1981; Sebring, 1983; Whitmore,
1980). They are particularly prone to find the gaps and
inconsistencies in the conventional view. They often ask
embarrassing questions, to which people do not know what to
answer. They love ardent discussion and the play of question
and answer, argument and counterargument. They are generally
non-conformist, preferring to reach their own understanding
of an issue rather than to accept the view of the majority
or of a higher authority such as church, government, or
intellectual establishment.
The downside of this non-conformism is alienation.
Gifted people usually feel different (Roedell, 1986), and
out of step with the rest of society. Other people, although
they may look up to them for leadership, do not really
understand them, and generally do not appreciate their
intensity, perfectionism, questioning, and being “too
smart”. As a result, GPs have a sense of being alone in the
world. Yet, they do not try to compensate for their
26
intrinsic loneliness by desperately seeking company. They
rather have a need for solitude, and for periods of
contemplation in which they are not disturbed by others
(Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993; Ochse, 1990).
As such, most GPs are categorized as introverted.
The above may have suggested a picture of rather
egocentric individuals who do not care much about others.
However, the opposite is true: GPs tend to be very
compassionate and have great empathy for other people
(Lovecky, 1994). They can feel along with others, and help
them understand themselves in the process. They have a
strong sense of fairness, and clear moral convictions
(Gross, 1993; Hollingworth, 1942; Silverman & Ellsworth,
1980; Terman, 1925). They tend to be outraged at injustice
(Rogers, 1986; Silverman & Ellsworth, 1980), and try to work
for a better society. They strongly value integrity and
honesty.
Causes of Giftedness
Haring (1990) writes on causes of giftedness...
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As a general rule, the more gifted students are identified
in programs that draw from higher socioeconomic groups from
preschool populations. Students from the dominant culture perform
better on the paper-and-pencil tests often used to identify
gifted individuals. In addition, the behaviour and performance of
gifted young children can be often seen as different from those
of their young peers, thus facilitating identification.
Gifted and talented youngsters can be found at every
economic level and in every stratum of society, in all cultural,
ethnic, and racial groups. Although there are three factors do
seem to contribute: heredity, pre-natal, and perinatal care, and
early childhood environment. Various authorities have expressed
the view that heredity – a purely biological factor – does play a
role although no perfect correlation exists between the
intelligence of parent and the intelligence of their children
(Jensen, 1969). Prenatal and perinatal care often reflects the
home environment of the family, with poor care more frequently
reported at low socioeconomic levels. Hunt (1961) and White
(1977) have both noted and discussed the importance of early
environmental stimulation. According to Hunt, environmental
28
stimulation is particularly important during the first 2 years of
life if optimum development is to occur, a fact underscored by
the negative effects of deprivation of environmental stimuli
during early childhood. The interaction of heredity and
environment seems to be a key in the development and nurturing of
giftedness.
Nature and Characteristics of the Filipino Gifted
Based on the general findings in a study, Baldo (1987)
presented a profile the Filipino gifted as follows:
The Filipino gifted is one has been specially endowed with
God-given talent. He is generally called talented, “genius”
or “intelligent.” Sometimes he is referred to as “brainy”
and “bright.”
Filipino giftedness is best manifested in how one thinks,
acts and speaks. The gifted is thus expected to engage in
worthwhile tasks or those that are in line with God’s
teachings, moral laws or social mores.
The Filipino gifted is expected to contribute to nation
building. His most important contribution is in the realm of
29
inventions, science and leadership. The least important are
in athletics and visual arts, particularly painting.
If one were to characterize a Filipino gifted person, he is
most likely to have the following attributes:
With respect to the cognitive and intellectual domains,
he is one who learns easily and fast, is active and
alert, creative, keen observer, curious and
inquisitive, practical and applies what he learned.
He also reads a lot, has a good memory and good study
habits. He can express himself very well, demonstrates
superior performance and uses reason in solving
problems.
As a person, the Filipino gifted is a systematic
worker, honest, broadminded, friendly, cheerful,
ambitious, and does not accept defeat easily.
The Filipino gifted has also a number of negative
attributes. He is shy, talkative, stubborn, and
temperamental.
A similar study conducted by DECS-NCR (1988) gives the
following general characteristics of Filipino gifted children:
30
They are generally above average to very superior in
intellectual ability.
They possess above average skills in creativity and
leadership.
They manifest above average emotional-social, physical
health-psychomotor and motivation-interest traits.
Giftedness versus Talent
Originally the words gifted and talented were often used
interchangeably, or at times the concept of “talent” was seen as
being in some way lesser compared with the idea of giftedness.
For example Morelock (1996) referred to a hierarchal
categorization with “talent” referring to specialized aptitudes
that are assumed to be unrelated – and inferior – to general
intelligence and giftedness. In the mid 1990’s, the term
“talented” was often used to replace “gifted” which was thought
to have connotations of “getting something for nothing”, or being
specially chosen in some way. Freeman (2000) and Winstanley
(2004) both comments that the term “gifted” often seems to have a
religious overtones of gifts bestowed by God. Winstanley also
31
remarks that this also implies moral connotations to do with
being gifted, as if the child has a responsibility to apply
themselves and not to waste their abilities. The term “able” and
variations of it are used frequently in the educational
literature as it is felt to be more appropriate and less motive.
Winstanley (2004) notes that the term “able” is often prefixed by
words such as “more”, “very”, “severely” or “profoundly”, in
order to create subtle distinctions that are often neither
objective nor useful. She advocates using the term “highly able”
for the majority of the able pupils and “exceptionally able” for
those who are particularly outstanding.
Gagné (1991) differentiated between the concepts of gifted
and talented by defining giftedness as above-average competence
in human ability, and talent as above-average performance in a
particular field. Giftedness refers to human aptitudes such as
intellectual or creative abilities. Talent however is
demonstrated in an area of human activity such as mathematics,
literature or music.
Educational Provisions for Gifted (Porter, 2005)
32
Prejudice
Gifted children are given special provisions when they
‘deserve’ them, whereas in special education, children
with learning difficulties receive special provisions
when they need them.
Many teachers are indifferent to or even actively
hostile towards gifted learners • There is confusion
between the right to equal development, and the equal
right to develop.
Myths
Many adults are reluctant to assess children’s skills
on the grounds that this will distort the children’s
emotional development.
The concept of ‘multiple intelligences’ has been
misinterpreted to imply that everyone is gifted at
something and therefore no one needs special
provisions.
Some believe that, as gifted children are already
learning at advanced levels without extra support, they
will continue to do so.
33
Priorities
Many believe that, although giftedness is a priority,
it cannot be provided for until all children with
learning difficulties are being catered for.
Some argue the opposite: that gifted children are a
national resource to be treasured and therefore deserve
educational adjustments.
Some believe that gifted children will not ‘reach their
potential’ unless they receive gifted provisions.
Special Education Rationale
This rationale accepts that, as is the case for many
children who have disabilities, the needs of some gifted learners
are not routinely being met in regular classrooms and therefore
these children require additional provisions.
Thus, the aim of differentiating the curriculum for gifted
learners is to meet their needs as these are manifested now,
regardless of how the children might develop in future.
Issues for Gifted Learners
34
Boredom
Gifted learners can be intolerant of not being allowed
to use their brain and may disengage or become disruptive if
the work is not challenging enough for them.
ensure that tasks provide optimum challenge
explain the rationale for the task
highlight how the task will help to meet their
needs
allow them to proceed at a quicker pace
Holistic (conceptual) learners
Conceptual learners nd it dif cult to learnfi fi
sequentially but instead need to see the ‘big picture’.
Their learning style may not match the typical teaching
style, which can lead to accusations that they ar enot
gifted after all, have learning dif culties, or are notfi
applying themselves (are ‘lazy’).
ground detail in the big picture
keep demands for repetition and rote learning to a
minimum
35
reduce the written workload
Confronting challenge
Gifted learners may not nd the content of theirfi
learning challenging until the rst years of school, offi
high school, or of university. Because they think so
quickly, they may not be aware of the processes that they
use to learn. Therefore, when they rst encounterfi
challenge, they may believe that they have ‘got dumber’ and
must therefore accept that they can no longer achieve at
hight levels.
highlight the learning processes that they use
Perseverance
Gifted learners can be one-trial learners and therefore
are not accustomed to sustaining attention on one activity.
When they cannot learn instantly, they often assume that
they are not capable at that task, and give up.
36
teach the difference between learning and
practicing
explain that some skills cannot be learned
instantly but are incremental
Imposter syndrome
Gifted learners often believe that they achieve well
‘by uke’ and fear that one day others will discover thatfl
they are not really smart after all.
explain about their style of giftedness
remind them that their giftedness is real, even
when some others are smarter than them
Perfectionism
Parents and teachers can often assume that gifted
learners will be equally capable at everything and therefore
that any poor school result is a sign of ‘laziness’.
External pressure to achieve will at everything when they
37
have speci c gifts can instil in children socially-fi
prescribed perfectionism.
become familiar with their pro le of giftednessfi
accept – and help them to accept – their uneven
skill levels
deliver informative feedback that focuses on their
personal progress, rather than judging or
comparing them to others
Curriculum Differentiation
As is true for special education, any particular
intervention may or may not be relevant or appropriate for an
individual gifted learner. There is no ‘one size ts all’fi
prescription for gifted education. Nevertheless, four aspects of
teaching can be adjusted: the learning environment, teaching and
learning processes, curricular content and products.
Environmental Adjustments
The main environmental adjustment is to supply a
developmentally appropriate placement. The rst way to achievefi
38
this is through ‘acceleration’, which refers to early entry to
school, grade skipping or subject skipping. Pull-out extension
programs, in class enrichment and ability grouping are other
means to provide appropriate placements.
Acceleration
The aims of acceleration are:
Academic: avoid boredom (along with any resultant
motivational and behavioural difficulties),
promote good study habits, to capitalise on
children’s interest and motivation
Social: giving students access to intellectual
peers who share their advanced interests and
abilities
Emotional: validating the child as a gifted
learner
Its effects are:
Academic: double the academic gains achieved by
in-class enrichment, although students may still
39
require extension even after grade or subject
skipping
Social: most students who have been grade-skipped
or who enter school early adjust well socially
(sometimes after initial awkwardness) and report
that they prefer to be with their older classmates
Emotional: acceleration may make no difference to
children’s overall emotional adjustment (causing
neither an improvement nor a decline); although
exceptionally gifted learners suffer from being
held back
Early exit: the resulting early exit from school
is not a problem: accelerants continue to do well
into university and beyond
Pull-out extension programs
Strengths Weaknesses
The children will be Sessions can be sporadic
40
spending time with a
teacher who is vitally
interested in able
learners.
They can receive
activities that inspire
engagement.
Extension activities can
instigate self-selected,
self- initiated,
independent learning.
Recognition of their gifts
can enhance the children’s
self-esteem.
The opportunity to engage
with intellectual peers
can reduce their social
isolation.
It is dif cult tofi
integrate the content of
pull-out sessions with the
regular curriculum.
In the children’s absence
from the classroom, the
regular teacher cannot
teach something vital,
lest they miss it.
Knowing that the child is
receiving enrichment in
the pull-out program can
excuse the regular teacher
from making any routine
curricular adjustments.
The children are gifted
all the time, not only
during pull-out sessions.
For cultural or social
reasons, some children
41
will not want to be
singled out and therefore
refuse to attend.
In-class enrichment
Strengths Weaknesses
Children do not have to be
singled out as gifted.
Their learning is
integrated into a coherent
whole.
The children’s full
inclusion models
acceptance of diversity.
The classroom is not
disrupted by their exit.
Teachers are seldom
trained to offer
appropriate enrichment or
extension to gifted
learners.
Doing so is particularly
demanding when there is a
wide spread of abilities
within the class.
If teaching is not truly
enriched, gifted children
can be frustrated at the
slow pace of instruction.
Gifted learners in regular
42
classrooms often suffer
the ‘Robin Hood’ effect of
having instruction denied
them while less able
children receive teacher
attention.
Gifted children can lack
intellectual peers within
a same-aged cohort.
Within-class ability grouping
Strengths Weaknesses
Ability grouping gives
gifted learners access to
high quality interaction
with intellectual peers.
Working with intellectual
peers improves gifted
children’s achievement,
attitude to learning,
Some object to ability
grouping on the grounds
that it discriminates in
favour of the more able
students. This is true
only of streaming,
however.
Groupings must vary
43
social skills and self-
esteem.
Students in the less able
groupings do not
experience any decline in
achievement or self-
esteem.
Breaking into groups does
not disrupt classroom
processes, as is the case
for withdrawal (pull-out)
sessions.
In collaborative tasks,
ability grouping can
minimize both free riding
by less able students and
dominance by able students
that can often occur with
mixed-ability grouping.
according to the nature of
the task; otherwise groups
can become competitive
with each other.
For cooperative
activities, group learning
is best suited to tasks
that call for open-ended
conceptual learning;
otherwise gifted learners
can be more ef cient whenfi
working alone.
When using ability
grouping for cooperative
tasks, students need
training in collaborative
social skills.
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Giftedness is characterized by a complex of traits extending
far beyond aptitude for IQ tests. A typical summary of these
traits can be found in Silverman’s (1990) Characteristics of
Giftedness scale, which has been shown to reliably distinguish
gifted from non-gifted children.
Silverman’s (1990) Characteristics of Giftedness scale, proposing
typical traits used to identify gifted children.
Good problem
solving/reasoning
abilities
Rapid learning ability
Extensive vocabulary
Excellent memory
Long attention span
Personal sensitivity
Compassion for others
Perfectionism
Intensity
Moral sensitivity
Unusual curiosity
Perseverant when
interested
Preference for older
companions
Wide range of interests
Great sense of humor
Early or avid reading
ability
Concerned with justice,
fairness
At times, judgment seems
mature for age
Keen powers of observation
Vivid imagination
High degree of creativity
Tends to question
authority
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High degree of energy Shows ability with numbers
Good at jigsaw puzzles
Most of these traits clearly support the potential for
exceptional achievement. For example, to succeed in difficult
enterprises you need ambition, passion and perseverance; you need
to be able to imagine or envision things beyond the ordinary; you
need to be sufficiently independent to overcome skepticism and
resistance; you need to be able to see how different elements fit
together to form a novel whole.
Yet, giftedness is more than the sum of traits necessary to
succeed: it is a coherent “Gestalt”, or personality type,
including traits that appear indifferent or even detrimental to
the chances for success. For example, while intellectual non-
conformism may be necessary for true innovation, social non-
conformism may make it more difficult, as you always need the
help of others to succeed. Sensitivity, overexcitability and
isolation make the gifted more vulnerable, while their compassion
and sense of humor seems at best irrelevant to exceptional
46
achievement (one might rather assume that selfishness and
seriousness would make it easier to achieve one’s ambitions).
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