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Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e12

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ jenvman

Role of forest conservation in lessening land degradation in atemperate region: The Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

Lilia Manzo-Delgado*, José López-García, Irasema Alcántara-AyalaInstituto de Geografía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, México City, D.F., Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 18 March 2013Received in revised form23 October 2013Accepted 14 November 2013Available online xxx

Keywords:Payment for Environmental ServicesMonarch Butterfly Biosphere ReserveDeforestationSanitation harvestSustainable developmentLocal communities

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ52 55 5622 4334/56E-mail address: llmanzo@igg.unam.mx (L. Manzo-

0301-4797/$ e see front matter � 2013 Elsevier Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-DeMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexi

a b s t r a c t

With international concern about the rates of deforestation worldwide, particular attention has beenpaid to Latin America. Forest conservation programmes in Mexico include Payment for EnvironmentalServices (PES), a scheme that has been successfully introduced in the Monarch Butterfly BiosphereReserve. To seek further evidence of the role of PES in lessening land degradation processes in atemperate region, the conservation state of the Cerro Prieto ejido within the Reserve was assessed by ananalysis of changes in vegetation cover and land-use between 1971 and 2013. There were no changes inthe total forest surface area, but the relative proportions of the different classes of cover density hadchanged. In 1971, closed and semi-closed forest occupied 247.81 ha and 5.38 ha, 82.33% and 1.79% of thetotal area of the ejido, respectively. By 2013, closed forest had decreased to 230.38 ha (76.54% of theejido), and semi-closed cover was 17.23 ha (5.72% of the ejido), suggesting that some semi-closed foresthad achieved closed status. The final balance between forest losses and recovery was: 29.63 ha were lost,whereas 13.72 ha were recovered. Losses were mainly linked to a sanitation harvest programme tocontrol the bark beetle Scolytus mundus. Ecotourism associated with forest conservation in the CerroPrieto ejido has been considered by inhabitants as a focal alternative for economic development.Consequently, it is essential to develop a well-planned and solidly structured approach based on socialcohesion to foster a community-led sustainable development at local level.

� 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

1.1. Environment and development: the international agenda

Sustainability has been defined as ‘a process of change in whichthe exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, theorientation of technological development, and institutionalchanges are made consistent with future as well as present needs’Brundtland Commission (1987). At the first Earth Summit on Sus-tainable Development in 1992, Agenda 21 called for the integrationof environment and development. Of particular interest was thenecessity of team work based on an integrated approach for plan-ning and management of land resources, in addition to combatingdeforestation (United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, 1992), since global figures were already discon-certing (Table 1). Twenty years after, the main outcome of the EarthSummit Conference Rioþ20 on Sustainable Development was thedocument The future we want, which renewed the commitment to

23 0222x45501.Delgado).

All rights reserved.

lgado, L., et al., Role of forest cco, Journal of Environmental

sustainable development and to promotion of an economically,socially and environmentally sustainable future for the planet andfor present and future generations (United Nations, 2012).

Global figures indicate that deforestation rates decreased from16 million ha/y�1 during 1990e2000 to 13 million ha/y�1 during2000e2010; similarly, the area of other wooded land decreased byw3.1 million ha/y�1 during 1990e2000, but byw1.9 million ha/y�1

during 2000e2010 (FAO, 2010). At the global level, the creation ofprotected areas has played an important role in restricting defor-estation and in supplying environmental services such as (1) Car-bon sequestration and storage, (2) Biodiversity protection, (3)Watershed protection, and (4) Landscape beauty (Wunder, 2005).Each requires preservation of the environment. The philosophybehind linking economic incentives to environmental services hasbeen interpreted in two contrasting ways when conservation andrural development are separate aims: Conservation of the envi-ronment will accompany any improvement of socio-economicconditions; and environmental protection will lead to landdispossession and loss of root culture (Karsenty, 2004; Karsentyand Nasi, 2004; Romero and Andrade, 2004). The latter interpre-tation is strongly related to the poverty levels at which marginal-ised groups live; they must depend upon scarce resources,

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Table 1Forest Resources Assessment 1990 e Global synthesis (FAO).

Forest & other wooded land Total 1000 ha Forest Biomass million tons Other wooded land

Total 1000 ha Annual change 1000 ha % % Of land Per cap. ha 1000 ha

Developed Countries 2,063,565 �78.6 0.01 1,432,457 27 1.07 112,598 631,108Developing Countries 3,056,663 �9874.1 0.43 2,009,912 26 0.50 327,882 1,046,751Total 5,120,227 �9952.7 0.20 3,442,369 27 0.64 440,479 1,677,859

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e122

withstand economic crises and food shortages, and adapt to com-mercial practices established by outsiders or to new socio-economic perspectives based on culture.

In 2011, the International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN) registered 157,897 protected areas, encompassing morethan 24 million Km2 and representing 16.2% of the surface of theEarth (IUCN, 2012). These numbers confirm the interest inconserving not only biodiversity but also the forest cover (Chapeet al., 2008). However, protected areas are subject to significantdeterioration through resource extraction, land use change andecotourism (Carey et al., 2000), caused by socio-economic conflictsin combination with ecosystem vulnerability associated withextreme meteorological events, the topography and the types ofvegetation (Goodman, 2003; Figueroa et al., 2011).

Ecotourism seems to be one of the most attractive options forrural communities, particularly those living in poverty. However,one of the major challenges facing ecotourism in both developedand developing countries is to maintain a balance between envi-ronmental stresses and conservation. In the Monarch ButterflyBiosphere Reserve (MBBR), Payment for Environmental Services(PES) programmes have reduced deforestation; this has contrib-uted to the conservation of the environment and to the preserva-tion of a unique physiographic setting in Mexico where themonarch butterfly hibernates, and activities associated withtourism have been developed.

Traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous peoples andlocal communities are key ingredients for conservation and sus-tainable use of biodiversity. Nonetheless, adequate strategies toimprove social well-being and to implement sustainable liveli-hoods for those groups have not been properly addressed, partic-ularly in mountain areas. Marginalization, poverty, food insecurityand malnutrition, social exclusion and environmental degradationare still major elements in these areas (United NationsDevelopment Programme, 2012).

In the framework of the world-wide scenarios for the period2000e2050, included in the IAASTD Global Report (Rosegrant et al.,2009), it was pointed out that the impacts of changes in agricultureand demand for biofuels cause land-use changes. Total land use forthe world’s population is estimated to have increased by4 million km2 by 2050, with the rising demand for bioenergy beingone of the most significant causes. Moreover, natural forest areasare decreasing in all regions, but in developing regions such as LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, and South-East Asia and the Pacific,this decline is even greater.

Biodiversity has been decreasing for several centuries, mostsignificantly in temperate and tropical grasslands and forests.Future scenarios suggest that this tendencywill bemaintainedwithan accelerating further loss of biodiversity, and that the rate ofreduction of biomass for the period 2000e2050will be greater thanin the period 1970e2000 (Rosegrant et al., 2009).

During the past 20 years, considerable areas of forest have beenconverted in Amazonia, South-East Asia, and Central and WestAfrica. Around 40% of the global land surface is occupied by agri-culture; nonetheless, there has been no incentive to establish new

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

technologies that could increase productivity in regions such asLatin America (Thornton and Herrero, 2010).

Interpretation of scenarios for forest conservation raises diversequestions, particularly in terms of assessing the severity of degra-dation and the associated environmental, social and economic im-pacts. Sources of uncertainty in those models are also of concernand as future conservation of forest remains uncertain, the onlypractical action that can be undertaken involves the development ofstrategies for environmental protection at regional and local level.

1.2. Environmental conservation in Mexico

In Mexico, temperate forest provides a large range of environ-mental services including groundwater recharge, carbon capture,biodiversity protection and scenic beauty. However, these envi-ronmental services are affected by deforestation, illegal logging,land-use changes and forest-fires, which favour global warming,biodiversity loss, floods and hillslope instability. In the context ofeconomic need, land tenure has played an important role in theexploitation of natural resources in opposition to forestconservation.

Annual loss of forest amounted to 354,000 ha in the 1990s,235,000 ha during 2000e2005, and 155,000 ha during 2005e2010,representing an annual deforestation rate of 0.5%, 0.4% and 1.2%,respectively (FRA 2010). In the past decade, Mexico was one of thevery few countries in which the rate of deforestation followed adownward trend. The decrease is attributable to the developmentof new conservation policies to promote the sustainable use ofnatural resources by application of various programmes, mostnotably of PES (Muñoz-Piña et al., 2008) and the national refores-tation programme.

The establishment of Natural Protected Areas (NPAs) hascontributed significantly to forest conservation (Figueroa andSánchez-Cordero, 2008; Figueroa et al., 2009). At present, thereare over 25 million ha of NPAs, equivalent to 13% of the surface ofMexico. However, this designation per se does not guarantee pro-tection and conservation. At the beginning of 2000, a PES pro-gramme was created with the aim of providing economicincentives to land owners to refrain from logging in areas situatedwithin a NPA (Honey-Rosés et al., 2009).

PES is a voluntary, negotiated framework that does not involvecommand-and-control measures but has a well defined andmeasurable environmental service that is being bought by a buyerfrom a provider who secures its continuous provision, although insome cases the service needs to be intermittent and fulfilmentmustbe monitored (Wunder, 2005).

The number of implemented PES schemes has increased inrecent years, as have the benefits. Sub-programmes include hy-drological services, carbon capture, non-forest use and conserva-tion services. As a result, PES programmes inMexico have helped todecrease deforestation and illegal logging in NPAs (Alix-Garciaet al., 2010).

The concept of PES is accepted in principle, but some in-vestigations have addressed the efficiency of these programmes

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Table 2National support programmes for forest conservation in the MBBR.

N� Programme Institutions involved

1 Payment for EnvironmentalServices (PES)

National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR)

2 Payment for non-forest use Monarch Fund (a trust set up by theMexican Nature Conservancy Fund [FMCN]and the WWF)

3 Payment for conservationservices

Monarch Fund (FMCN and WWF)

4 Temporal EmploymentProgramme (PET)

Ministry of Communication and Transport(SCT); Ministry of Social Development(SEDESOL); Ministry of Environment andNatural Resources (SEMARNAT); NationalCommission on Protected Natural Areas(CONANP); National Forestry Commission(CONAFOR); Ministry of Agriculture, CattleIndustry, Rural Development, Fishing andFood Supply (SAGARPA).

5 Community surveillanceprogramme (PROVICOM)

National Commission on Natural ProtectedAreas (CONANP)

6 National ReforestationProgramme (PRONARE) ForestEcosystem ConservationProgramme (PROCOREF)

National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR)

7 Regional SustainableDevelopment Programme(PRODERS) ConservationProgramme for SustainableDevelopment (PROCODES)

National Commission on Natural ProtectedAreas (CONANP)

8 ProÁrbol National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR)

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e12 3

worldwide (de Janvry and Sadoulet, 2006; Alix-Garcia et al., 2005,2008, 2009, 2012; Corbera and Brown, 2008; Sills et al. 2009;Muñoz-Piña et al., 2008; Arriagada, 2008; Miteva et al., 2012). InMexico, positive effects of PES have been documented for casessuch as the MBBR (López-García, 2007, 2009, 2011), considered oneof the major areas requiring forest conservation. Efforts to conservethe habitat used by the Monarch butterfly for hibernation began inthe mid 1970s and led to three decrees (1980, 1986 and 2000) thatgranted it the maximum status as a biosphere reserve. The estab-lishment of core and buffer zones as a result of the second decreeallowed the local communities to reject conservation policies andtourism in the hibernation sites because these restricted exploita-tion of forest resources; hence, that second decree contributed toan accelerated deterioration of the forest (Ramírez-Ramírez, 2001).To rescue the situation, the third decree enlarged the boundaries ofthe core and buffer zones and developed new programmes,particularly PES, to benefit the local communities.

Deforestation and illegal logging in the core zone has decreasedconsiderably. However, noncompliance due to lack of support forthe owners of the Crescencio Morales community gave rise toillegal logging of 207 ha between 2006 and 2007, the equivalent of63% of the changes in forest cover in that year. In contrast, somecommunities such as those living in the Cerro Prieto ejido tookadvantage of the environmental programmes to improve the forestconservation state of the MBBR.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the conservationstatus of the Cerro Prieto ejido in the MBBR by an analysis of thetrends of deforestation and degradation during the period 1971e2013, taking as an indicator the variability in the density of forestcover and the conservation programmes implemented before andafter the reserve was decreed in 2000.

2. The Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR):sustainable development at local level

2.1. MBBR: geographical setting and social structure

Oyamel fir (Abies religiosa) forest in the Trans-Mexican VolcanicBelt in central Mexico is regarded as one of the most importanthibernation habitats for the Monarch Butterfly Danaus plexippus.The butterfly colonies therewere first discovered in 1974 (Urquhart,1976). In 1978, a reserve and wild fauna refuge was established(Diario Oficial de la Federación, 1980). In 1986, 16,110 ha betweenthe States of México and Michoacán were officially incorporatedinto the Reserve. It comprised 4490 ha for the core and 11,690 ha forthe buffer zone. Activities in the former were restricted to scientificresearch, whereas productive economic activities under environ-mental protection laws were permitted in the latter (Diario Oficialde la Federación, 1986).

Forest owners were affected and deforestation increased in theregion (Honey-Rosés et al., 2009). In an attempt to confront andsolve social conflicts that had arisen, at the end of 2000 the Mon-arch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR) was established; it con-sisted of 56,259 ha divided into three core zones with a total area of13,551 ha and a buffer zone of 42,678 ha (Diario Oficial de laFederación, 2000).

The three core zones formed were: North, 588 ha, Central,9264 ha, and South, 3729 ha (López-García, 2007). With the aim ofprotecting the mole salamander Ambystoma rivulare, considered tobe a threatened species, a presidential decree in 2009 againmodified the MBBR; core and buffer zones included 13,555 and42,704 ha respectively (Diario Oficial de la Federación, 2009).

There are 40 owners of land in the MBBR: 22 ejidos, 10 indige-nous communities, 6 private owners, Michoacán state (1 property)and the federal government (1 property) (Honey-Rosés et al., 2009).

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

The main colonies of monarch butterflies are in the Chivati-Huacalhills, Sierra El Campanario and Sierra Chincua in Michoacán Stateand on Pelón hill in the State of México. Six tourism centresattended by ejidos owners have been created in the areas adjacentto the butterfly colonies, where thousands of national and foreignvisitors arrive every year. Since the MBBR was created, eight envi-ronmental programmes have been implemented (Table 2). Annualinvestment to secure forest conservation and improve socio-economic wealth of communities varied from 120 thousand to 22million Mexican pesos (Reyes and Contreras, 2005).

2.2. The contribution of small communities to forest conservation:Cerro Prieto ejido, MBBR

The Cerro Prieto ejido in the Angangueo municipality, in thenorth-eastern sector of Michoacán State (Fig. 1), consists of a set-tlement and a forest area. The settlement was founded in 1928 by14 families over an area of 72 ha in Ocampo municipality. In 1969 itwas endowed with 301 ha of mountain and grassland in thewooded zone of Sierra Chincua, 20 km from the settlement. Since1986, the ejido has been included in the north of the NPA (Merinoand Hernández, 2004).

The forest sector of Cerro Prieto ejido is between 3100 and3400 m asl. There is hilly, steep terrain of volcanic origin togetherwith lowlands; andosols derived from volcanic ash are the mostwidespread soils (INEGI, 2009). The presence of numerous springs,streams and head-waters is a sign of the importance of waterinfiltration and capture. The Cerro Prieto ejido has a surface area of301 ha: 242.40 ha (80.5%) in the core zone and 58.60 ha (19.5%) inthe buffer zone (Fig. 1).

The conditions favour the growth of temperate forest(Rzedowski, 1978): a semi-cold and sub-humid climate, withsummer rainfall, mean monthly temperatures ranging from 9� to11 �C, and annual total precipitation of w1200 mm. Oyamel(A. religiosa) forest covers 65% of the total surface above 3100 m asl,with tree heights mainly of 20e40 m (Cornejo-Tenorio and Ibarra-

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Fig. 1. The Cerro Prieto ejido in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e124

Manríquez, 2008). Oyamel-pine and pine-oyamel forests grow at2400e3100 m asl over 20% of the area; this is a transitional zonebetween A. religiosa and Pinus spp. The forest is randomly distrib-uted on gentle slopes and steep hillsides (Pinto-León, 2000). To alesser extent, there is also pine-oak forest (2%, 3200e3240 m asl),Juniperus scrubland (1.27%), and natural grassland (9%). The vege-tation within the transitional neo-arctic and neo-tropical biogeo-graphical areas includes taxa such as Abies, Pinus, Quercus, Alnus,Salix, Senecio, Eupatorium, Stevia, and Bidens anthemoides (Arriagaet al., 1998).

Most of the inhabitants of the ejido are male adults. 70% of allinhabitants have no legal rights in the ejido. Forest resources areused mainly for tourism and sanitation; ejido owners are the solerecipients of the income from these operations and are the onlypeople participating in the decision-making at community level. InCerro Prieto, there is practically no other type of social organizationapart from the ejido assembly (Merino-Pérez, 2004).

Monarch butterfly colonies are in the NW part of the ejido.Tourism activities started during the 1997e1998 winter season(Merino-Pérez, 2004). Two years later, handcrafts and restaurantservices were introduced (Granet and Fonfrède, 2005), and weresubsequently improved with the support of the National TourismFund (FONATUR). At that stage, the Cultural Centre for the Con-servation of Sierra Chincua was created (CONANP, 2010; Secretaríade Turismo, 2010).

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

Therewere 469 inhabitants in the Cerro Prieto ejido in 1995, and627 in 2010 (INEGI, 1995, 2010). Incipient primary and tertiaryeconomic activities have developed. Agriculture is practised duringthe rainy season and tourism-related activities occur fromNovember to March, during the hibernation period of the Monarchbutterfly. Emigration of people to Mexico City, Toluca and even theUSA is common among themale community. Womenmake a livingfrom handcrafts and backyard agriculture.

In the Cerro Prieto forest, in commonwith the rest of the MBBR,forestry practices were prohibited for more than 25 years (1943e1973). However, after the ejido obtained its forested areas, exploi-tation of the forest began. This was regulated by the MelchorOcampo Union of Ejidos, a state organization that processedforestry permissions and concessions until 1991. Later, the ejidobecame part of the Alliance of Ejidos and Communities of theMBBR, which has supplied technical forestry services since 2000.Forest exploitation used specific methods (the Mexican Method ofPlanning Mixed-age Forests, MMOBI, and the Selection Method)with the aim of improving the forested biomass of oyamel,retaining trees of differing age classes, from seedlings to matureindividuals, with each class occupying a similar area; also, trees thatare diseased, damaged, or misshapen are culled, together withadults that are isolated (Merino and Hernández, 2004). Until 2000,sale of a total stand, authorized solely in the buffer zone, was asubstantial resource. During 1997e2000, on average 914 m3 were

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e12 5

felled per year. In the period 1997e1998, extraction of timberyielded 598,000 Mexican pesos, the equivalent of 16,163 pesos foreach ejido or the minimum annual salary. Part of the forestry profitswere used for public works: restoration of classrooms in the pri-mary school, construction of a sports ground and a Roman Catholicchurch (Merino-Pérez, 2004).

After the 2000 decree, the Cerro Prieto ejido stopped loggingand participated in new programmes of forest conservation. Fromthen onwards, it has participated continuously in two programmes:payment for not harvesting from the forest, and payment for con-servation services, both funded by the Monarch Butterfly Fund, atrust fund created by FMCN/WWF (García-Serrano et al., 2007). Thecommunal and voluntary participation of the ejido members sup-port two complementary programmes: security and reforestation.The members also sometimes participate in programmes of tem-porary employment and sustainable regionable development.

3. Material and methods

3.1. Photointerpretation

Evaluation of the changes in density of forest cover usedpanchromatic photography for 1971 and 1994, produced by theNational Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information Tech-nology (INEGI) at scales of 1:50000 and 1:20000 respectively. Forthe period 1999e2013 digital colour photographs were used with aspatial resolution of 0.6 to 0.4 m/pixel, taken with different cam-eras. The digital photographs correspond to the annual and two-yearly aerial surveys of the MBBR undertaken by the World WideFund for Nature (WWF) for the years 1999, 2009 and 2013.

Use of GIS ArcGIS 9.3 georeferenced the digital photographs, inTIFF format, on a digital model of the land, scale 1:20000, withcontour lines every 20 m, in UTM projection and NAD 27 datum,positioning some 30 control points on a flat relief and 40 on steepterrain (Ramírez-Beltrán, 2010). To georeference the panchromaticphotographs they were first scanned in TIFF format. Then GISERDAS was used to construct an orthocorrected mosaic for eachyear, with a mean quadratic error of 7 m (Ramírez-Beltrán, 2010).

Five classes of density of forest cover and two classes of land usewere derived from the photointerpretation on the basis of texture,colour tone, tree shade and separation between the crowns of theforest canopy observed in the stereoscopic model. Areas with >76%cover were classed as closed, formed by trees whose crowns weretouching (UNESCO,1973), andwhich could also be in a good state ofconservation; at the other extreme, areaswith a treedensityof<10%were classed as deforested (FAO, 2010); between these two ex-tremes, those with 51e75% cover were semi-closed, with 26e50%cover semi-open, and 11e25% open, a variation that could be asso-ciatedwith a process of degradation (López-García, 2011). Grasslandand rocky terrain without vegetation, locally known as “peñas”[crags] were considered to be categories of land use without trees.

Taking as reference the classes of forest cover, photointerpre-tation proceeded, using a mirror stereoscope and the stereo pairsfrom 1971, supported by the map of land use and vegetation, scale1:250000 (INEGI, 1984). A transferoscope (Carl Zeiss) transferredthe polygons to a topographic map, scale 1:50000, therebyobtaining a preliminary map of cover classes, This map was digi-tized with ArcMap to obtain the map of digital covers in vectorformat in order to calculate the attributes of each polygon (classand area).

3.2. Maps of cover density

In order to standardize the process of classification, the 1971map of forest cover density and land usewas updated prospectively

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

with ArcMap for the subsequent years. First, the 1971 vector mapwas superimposed on the orthocorrected 1971 mosaic; with thehelp of visual interpretation and keeping a scale of 1:10000, theboundaries of some polygons were identified and adjusted. The1971 vectors were then superimposed on the later 1999 mosaic,and by means of visual analysis new polygons were drawn in areasthat showed changes in forest cover density. Superimposition of thetwo maps revealed the polygons of change. A detailed analysis ofthe changes allowed identification and elimination of areas lessthan 2 ha, which had arisen through imprecise digitalization. Inturn, maps of forest cover were produced for 1999, 2009 and 2013,resulting in five maps for the period 1971e2013.

To find the relationship between change and vegetation type,each of the maps of cover density was superimposed on thevegetation map (López-García, 2009) so that each polygon of coverdensity acquired vegetation type as an additional characteristic,and the vegetation with the most change could be identified.

The maps of cover density were superimposed consecutively toquantify the successive changes: 1971e1994; 1994e1999; 1999e2009 and 2009e2013. The results were organized in matrices ofchange. The earliest data were organized in rows and the mostrecent in columns: the cells of intersection indicate the areawith nochange; cells above the intersection indicate loss of density, whichcan be related to a degradation process (when a category at a higherlevel passes to a lower level) or to deforestation; and cells below theintersection indicate increased density (natural regeneration orreforestation).

3.3. State of forest conservation

On the basis of the cover density classes, three categories wereestablished to determine the state of forest conservation:conserved, semi-altered and altered. “Conserved” combines closedand semi-closed classes (>51%), whose conserved state representsthe possibility of achieving recuperationwithin a short time. “Semi-altered” combines the open and semi-open densities (11e50%),whose semi-altered state could represent recuperation in thelonger term. “Altered” represents a degree of alteration whererecuperation would be achieved only after a very long time.

3.4. Verification in the field

FromNovember toMarch during 2009e2013, field surveys weremade to verify the distribution of cover with vegetation type. Inaddition, densities in 10 sample sites were verified to obtain in-formation on the number, height and perimeter at breast height oftrees, from which could be calculate the diameter and the basalarea. Sampling covered a total of 2.8 ha and represented all densityclasses except the deforested class. The surveys corroborated theinformation on change, or allowed corrections when necessary.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Vegetation and land-use changes (1971e2013)

During the 42 years 1971e2013, the forest cover density of theCerro Prieto ejido remained unchanged in 228.52 ha (75.92% of thetotal area). Similarly, the grassland and rocky outcrops, which cover29.13 ha (9.68%), remained unchanged. The remaining forestshowed degradation in 18.27 ha (6.07%) and deforestation in11.36 ha (3.77%), but recuperation in 13.72 ha (4.56%) (Table 3 andFig. 2). The areas of closed and open canopy had decreased at anannual rate of�0.17% and�0.06% respectively, while those of semi-closed and semi-open canopy had recovered at an annual rate of0.11% and 0.02% (Table 4). These results confirm that the

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Fig. 2. Density of forest cover: 1971 and 2013.

Table 3Changes in density of forest covers (ha) between 1971 and 2013. Shade ¼ Forest cover density unchanged.

1971e2013 Closed Semi-closed Semi-open Open Deforested Grassland Crag Total

Closed 222.59 11.58 3.67 1.78 8.19 247.81Semi-closed 2.36 1.52 0.78 0.46 0.26 5.38Semi-open 0.67 2.99 2.46 0.95 7.07Open 4.55 1.02 1.00 0.77 1.96 9.30Deforested 0.21 0.12 0.80 1.18 2.31Grassland 28.67 28.67Crag 0.46 0.46Total 230.38 17.23 8.71 3.01 12.54 28.67 0.46 301.00Losses 11.58 4.45 2.24 11.36 29.63Recovery 7.79 4.13 1.80 0.00 1.18 13.72Total 7.79 15.71 6.25 2.24 12.54 43.35

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e126

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest conservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental Management (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Table 4Annual change rate in the Cerro Prieto ejido, MBBR (1971e2013).

Density Surface Annual change rate

1971 1994 1999 2009 2013 1971e1994 1994e1999 1999e2009 2009e2013 1971e2013

ha ha ha ha ha ha/y�1 % ha/y�1 % ha/y�1 % ha/y�1 % ha/y�1 %

Closed 247.81 223.89 196.52 237.35 230.38 �1.04 �0.42 �5.47 �2.44 4.08 2.08 �1.74 �0.73 �0.41 �0.17Semi-closed 5.38 17.01 43.18 14.69 17.23 0.51 0.20 5.23 2.34 �2.85 �1.45 0.64 0.27 0.28 0.11Semi-open 7.07 10.69 9.51 8.12 8.71 0.16 0.06 �0.24 �0.11 �0.14 �0.07 0.15 0.06 0.04 0.02Open 9.30 15.96 19.20 3.86 3.01 0.29 0.12 0.65 0.29 �1.53 �0.78 �0.21 �0.09 �0.15 �0.06Deforested 2.31 4.32 3.46 7.85 12.54 0.09 0.04 �0.17 �0.08 0.44 0.22 1.17 0.49 0.24 0.10

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e12 7

establishment of the Biosphere Reserve, in combination with thenew conservation programmes, has diminished the losses andcontributed to forest recovery.

Individual periods differed in the losses and recoveries recorded.Overall, the periods 1971e1994 and 1994e1999 had more lossesthan recoveries; in 1999e2009 recovery was greater than loss; andin 2009e2013 the losses exceeded the recoveries. An analysis ofeach period is presented below, with possible causes and effects.

Table 5Interannual changes in density of forest covers (ha) the Cerro Prieto ejido, MBBR: 1971e

Closed Semi-closed Semi-open

1971e1994Closed 223.50 13.21 3.26Semi-closed 2.75 1.18Semi-open 5.91Open 0.39 1.05 0.34DeforestedGrasslandCragTotal 223.89 17.01 10.69Losses 13.21 4.44Recovery 0.39 1.05 0.34Total 0.39 14.26 4.78

1994e1999Closed 196.37 26.17Semi-closed 17.01Semi-open 0.15 9.38Open 0.13DeforestedGrasslandCragTotal 196.52 43.18 9.51Losses 26.17 0.00Recovery 0.15 0.00 0.13Total 0.15 26.17 0.13

1999e2009Closed 191.94 0.84 1.47Semi-closed 35.39 5.92 0.05Semi-open 0.69 3.84 3.83Open 8.40 4.09 2.77Deforested 0.93GrasslandCragTotal 237.35 14.69 8.12Losses 0.84 1.52Recovery 45.41 7.93 2.77Total 45.41 8.77 4.29

2009e2013Closed 229.91 3.34 0.30Semi-closed 0.47 13.76 0.32Semi-open 7.96Open 0.13 0.13DeforestedGrasslandCragTotal 230.38 17.23 8.71Losses 3.34 0.62Recovery 0.47 0.13 0.13Total 0.47 3.47 0.75

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

During 1971e1994 there were more losses than recoveries incover density. The closed category decreased from 247.81 to223.9 ha at an annual rate of change of�0.42% (Table 4). In contrast,the other categories increased to varying degrees, the largest beingfrom 5.38 ha to 17 ha for semi-closed, an annual rate of 0.20%(Table 5). The losses were related to the permits for forest exploi-tation over the whole area up to 1986; after that, they were grantedonly for the buffer zone, which accounted for more than 53% of the

2013. Shade ¼ Forest cover density unchanged.

Open Deforested Grassland Crag Total

6.52 1.32 247.811.45 5.381.16 7.076.83 0.69 9.30

2.31 2.3128.67 28.67

0.46 0.4615.96 4.32 28.67 0.46 301.009.13 2.01 0.00 0.00 28.790.00 2.31 0.00 0.00 1.789.13 4.32 0.00 0.00 30.57

1.35 223.8917.01

1.03 0.13 10.6915.52 0.31 15.961.30 3.02 4.32

28.67 28.670.46 0.46

19.20 3.46 28.67 0.46 301.002.38 0.44 0.00 0.00 28.991.30 3.02 0.00 0.00 1.583.68 3.46 0.00 0.00 30.57

0.73 1.54 196.520.42 1.40 43.180.77 0.38 9.511.94 2.00 19.20

2.53 3.4628.67 28.67

0.46 0.463.86 7.85 28.67 0.46 301.001.92 5.32 0.00 0.00 9.600.00 2.53 0.00 0.00 56.111.92 7.85 0.00 0.00 65.71

3.80 237.350.14 14.690.16 8.12

3.01 0.59 3.867.85 7.85

28.67 28.670.46 0.46

3.01 12.54 28.67 0.46 301.000.00 4.69 0.00 0.00 8.650.00 7.85 0.00 0.00 0.730.00 12.54 0.00 0.00 9.38

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Table 6Land-cover changes estimated for the Cerro Prieto ejido, MBBR, between 1971 and2013.

Canopy Density 1971 2013 Forest 1971 2013 Changes1971e2013

(%) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)

Closed >76 247.81 230.38 Oyamel 185.13 175.91 �9.22Oyamel-Pine 32.63 29.13 �3.50Pine-Oyamel 18.30 17.68 �0.62Pine 5.28 2.60 �2.68Pine-Oak 1.31 0.23 �1.08Juniper 5.16 4.83 �0.33Subtotal 247.81 230.38 �17.43

Semi-closed

51e75 5.38 17.23 Oyamel 1.75 7.16 5.41Oyamel-Pine 1.34 3.34 2.00Pine-Oyamel 0.00 0.71 0.71Pine 0.71 4.26 3.55Pine-Oak 0.00 0.58 0.58Juniper 1.58 1.18 �0.40Subtotal 5.38 17.23 11.85

Semi-open

26e50 7.07 8.71 Oyamel 1.86 3.42 1.56Oyamel-Pine 0.74 0.82 0.08Pine-Oyamel 0.29 1.6 1.31Pine 1.48 0.15 �1.33Pine-Oak 1.44 1.46 0.02Juniper 1.26 1.26 0.00Subtotal 7.07 8.71 1.64

Open 11e25 9.30 3.01 Oyamel 5.14 1.82 �3.32Oyamel-Pine 2.99 0.00 �2.99Pine-Oyamel 1.03 0.00 �1.03Pine 0.14 1.19 1.05Pine-OakJuniperSubtotal 9.30 3.01 �6.29

Deforested <10 2.31 12.54 Oyamel 0.96 6.52 5.56Oyamel-Pine 0.00 3.96 3.96Pine-Oyamel 1.13 0.32 �0.81Pine 0.00 0.17 0.17Pine-Oak 0.22 0.70 0.48Juniper 0.00 0.87 0.87Subtotal 2.31 12.54 10.23

Grassland 28.67 28.67Crag 0.46 0.46Total 301.00 301.00

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e128

ejido area. The gains were among the effects of the programmesfocused on conservation of the habitat of the Monarch butterfly.

During 1994e1999, the losses in cover density continued toexceed recoveries. The losses of closed, semi-open and deforestedcategories continued: 196.52 ha, 9.51 ha and 3.46 ha respectively, atannual rates of �2.44%, �0.11% and �0.08%. The semi-closed andopen categories continued to increase and reached 43.18 ha and19.20 ha respectively, an annual change of 2.3% and 0.3% (Tables 4and 5). Losses of forest were related to forest exploitation and thebeginning of tourist activities in 1997 which led to massiveextraction of timber for the construction of cabins and firewood forfood outlets. Although conservation programmes continued todevelop, they were not enough to stop the degradation of the forestcover.

These trends during 1994e1999 were similar to those in allejidos and communities that constituted the Special Reserve thatwas decreed in 1986 without reference to conserving the habitat ofthe Monarch butterfly. To counter these negative trends, theBiosphere Reserve was decreed in 2000 and this established newboundaries for the core and buffer zones. In the Cerro Prieto ejido,the core zone was extended and permits for exploitation werereplaced by payment for not harvesting forest products.

During 1999e2009 there were more gains than losses in coverdensity. Closed cover increased from 196.52 to 237.35 ha, at anannual rate of 2.08%. The other categories decreased considerably;for example, semi-closed cover fell from 43.18 to 14.69 ha, at anannual rate of 1.5% (Tables 4 and 5). On the other hand, the defor-ested area increased considerably, from 4.61 to 7.86 ha. This trendtowards recovery is attributed to the increase in the core zone(75%), the suspension of permits, and the implementation of newprogrammes for conservation, community surveillance and refor-estation. The notable recovery in the closed category was due inlarge part to the recovery of semi-closed cover. However, the in-crease in deforested area was due to clandestine felling in thefederally owned land on the northern border of the ejido.

During 2009e2013, losses were greater and recoveries wereless. The closed category changed from 237.35 to 230.39 ha, at anannual rate of �0.73%. The deforested area increased from 7.85 to12.52 ha and the other categories changed only slightly (Tables 4and 5). PES continued to operate, but some unexpected circum-stances affected the plant density: some trees were torn up bystrong winds, and some were infested by pests. In response,removal of the affected trees was authorized. Another developmentwas the construction from November 2010 of new tourist in-stallations; this necessitated the harvesting of timber.

In the study area, the forest was dominated by a closed coverthroughout the period. However, the other covers changedconsiderably between 1971 and 2013 (Table 6); the various policiesof harvesting and conservation before and after the establishmentof the MBBR have in turn favoured forest exploitation, tourism, PES,reforestation and forest sanitation.

Overall, the results suggest that extraction of forest productswas greatest in closed oyamel forests, followed by those of oyamel-pine and pine-oyamel. The decrease in closed cover was influencedby the presence of infested trees and by meteorological events inthe later years. The conservation programmes initiated in 2000probably favoured the recovery of these forests, whose effects in alittle more than 10 years have favoured an increase in semi-closedand semi-open forest cover.

4.2. Field verification

This confirmed that oyamel forest, with A. religiosa as thedominant species, occupied the largest part of the study area. In thisplant community there were trees with diameters (DBH) ranging

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

from 1 cm to >90 cm, a range that is attributable to the variousforestry programmes developed before and after the establishmentof the MBBR, including the extraction of timber and firewood, non-harvesting, reforestation, natural regeneration and forest hygiene.

Sampling investigated the relationship between tree diameterand cover density. Since the forest with closed cover extended overmore than 80% of the area, sampling covered plots of 2.3 ha. Insemi-closed, semi-open and open stands, sampling covered plots of0.5 ha.

In the closed forest, tree diameter was 10e60 cm in 64.41% oftrees, >60 cm in 9.94%, and <10 cm in 25.65%, these being plantedseedlings or new recruits. This distribution suggests that the forestin these sites has degraded somewhat, at the same time as naturalregeneration has occurred (Fig. 3).

In the semi-closed forest, tree diameter was<10 cm in 57.66% ofthe oyamel plants (seedlings or new recruits), 10e60 cm in 40.09%,and >60 cm in only 2.25%. This suggests that these forests haddegraded considerably but are now in the process of recovery.

In the semi-open forest, diameter was 10e60 cm in 85.23% oftrees,>60 cm in 13.64%, and>10 cm in 1.14%. This suggests that theforest has been subjected to a process of exploitation that hasremoved the trees of largest diameter, although there is a smallamount of recovery through seedlings or new recruits. The

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Fig. 3. Diametric structures of the forest in the different densities of forest cover in the Cerro Prieto ejido, MBBR.

Table 7Changes in forest cover density and conservation state, 1971e2013. Conserved ¼combines closed and semi-closed classes; Semi-altered ¼ combines the open andsemi-open densities; Altered ¼ deforested.

Classes Surface (ha) Conservation state

1971 1994 1999 2009 2013

Closed 247.81 223.89 196.52 237.35 230.38Semi-closed 5.38 17.01 43.18 14.69 17.23

253.19 240.90 239.70 252.04 247.61 Conserved(84.12) (80.03) (79.63) (83.73) (82.26) (% of the ejido)

Semi-open 7.07 10.69 9.51 8.12 8.71Open 9.30 15.96 19.20 3.86 3.01

16.37 26.65 28.71 11.98 11.72 Semi-altered(5.44) (8.85) (9.54) (3.98) (3.89) (% of the ejido)

Deforested 2.31 4.32 3.46 7.85 12.54 Altered(0.77) (1.44) (1.15) (2.61) (4.17) (% of the ejido)

Grassland 28.67 28.67 28.67 28.67 28.67Crag 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46Total 301.00 301.00 301.00 301.00 301.00

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e12 9

presence of trees of large diameter probably constitutes animportant seed bank.

In the open forest, diameter was 10e60 cm in 83.33% of trees,>60 cm in 10.42%, and >10 cm in 6.25%. This suggests that theseareas have been subjected to some exploitation, but that some treesof large diameter have remained and favour regeneration.

Quantitative analysis of the sample sites showed little correla-tion between tree diameter and the forest cover assessed byphotointerpretation. However, it was helpful in confirming thelosses and recoveries in the study area.

Surveys of the area as a whole showed evidence of clandestinefelling near roads, and also signs of reforestation and of infestedtrees.

4.3. State of forest conservation (1971e2013)

From 1971 to 2013 the state of forest conservation showed nosignificant inter-annual changes. Nonetheless, at the end of theanalysed period those changes were more evident. Throughout theperiod, conserved forest occupied the largest surface, followed bysemi-altered and altered forest.

The area in a conserved state changed with time. During 1971e1994 and 1994e1999 it tended to decrease, and this was followedby an increase and finally by a tendency to decrease. In 1971 itcovered 253.19 ha (84.12%), but by 2013 it had decreased to247.61 ha (82.26%); the changes occurred between 2009 and 2013(Table 7), were occasioned by forest hygiene measures and by theissuing of permits for extracting timber for construction of newtourist installations.

The area of the semi-altered state also varied over time; in 1971it covered 16.37 ha (5.44%) but increased in the next two periods toreach 28.71 ha (9.54%) by 1999. It subsequently decreased consid-erably, to 11.72 ha (3.89%) in 2013 (Table 5). This variation appearsto be closely related to the effects of programmes of harvesting andconservation that were developed before and after the establish-ment of the MBBR.

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

The area occupied by forest in an altered state tended to increaseover time. In 1971 it covered 2.31 ha (0.77%), and by 2013 it hadgrown to 12.54 ha (4.17%); the greatest changes occurred during2009e2013 (Table 5) owing to authorization of forest hygienemeasures to eliminate infested trees and to extract timber forconstruction of new tourist installations.

The state of forest conservation is not only dependent on thequality and performance of current environmental services. Ac-cording to CONAFOR (2010), forest insect and disease managementhas been required in areas of Michoacán state including the MBBR,since the bark beetle Scolytus mundusWood has been implicated inthe death of oyamel. In 2008, 2009 there were between 10,000 m3

and 28,000 m3 of damaged trees, with the municipality of Ocampobeing one of the most affected; removal of trees from 2746 m3

aimed to prevent pest introductions and spread. Consequently, asanitation harvesting programme was established to identify othersusceptible areas.

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

Fig. 4. Oyamel forest, Cerro Prieto ejido.

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e1210

S. mundus infests oyamel trees that are under some form ofstress. All sizes of trees are attacked. Predisposing conditionsinclude root disease, air pollution, and drought (Tkacz et al., 1998).In the MBBR the appearance of this pest was associated with waterstress generated by low precipitation. In 2008 there were only800 mm of rain, whereas in 2006 and 2007, precipitation had beenas high as 1200 mm. The material removed by sanitation felling iscommonly used for sawn logs and cellulose production (Garduño-Bernal, 2011).

In the Cerro Prieto ejido, S. mundus infestations were found in2007. Consequently, sanitation harvesting of 1019 m3 of damagedtrees was allowed within a period of three years (2010e2012).Forest technicians were in charge of the felling in the sectors of LaCañada and Monera, to the west of the ejido, and also to the east ofEl Establo plain (personal communication: Javier Martínez,Commissioner of Cerro Prieto ejido, 17 November 2012).

4.4. Local sustainable development and forest conservation: lookingahead

The success of ecotourism in small villages such as the CerroPrieto ejido in the MBBR can be linked to the efficiency of PES,which in turn can be measured by the scheme’s permanence,environmental standards and constant improvement in conserva-tion status. PES effectiveness, and thus improvement in ecotourism,might also be driven by social cohesion at local level, since the lattercould be accomplished by engaging small groups in environment-based activities leading to sustainable development. Thisendeavour would require the integration of local needs with thelong-term potential of their local environmental assets and forestresources.

A cohesive social community requires a common vision, goodcommunication, mutual respect, trust, a sense of belonging, soli-darity, commitment, certainty of equality and sharing of re-sponsibilities; the opinion of each member is positively valued andopportunities provide benefits for the entire community. Conse-quently, quality of life for community-led local sustainable devel-opment should be attained by building social cohesion based on theconstruction of a social, economic and cultural vision for the localarea. That vision ought to be created by local people and partner-ships considering rooted ideas and values understood and sup-ported by local people (Local Government Association, 2004).

An environmentally based forest community that is headingtowards local sustainable development relies on the capability of itsmembers to obtain incentives from the forest, by keeping the op-timum equilibrium between conservation and development. Kusel(2001) suggested that besides the biological condition of the forest,the relationship of the community with the forest depends upon(1) the extent to which commercial activities are permitted andpromoted, (2) the extent to which forest-related jobs includingtourism are available and maintained, (3) the stated terms for jobsavailability, and (4) the extent to which there is a market for theforest products or tourism activities.

Rural development has been defined as “the process ofstrengthening the liveability in rural areas according to quality oflife, landscape identity, economic viability and quality of the bio-physical environment” (Elands, 2000). This involves a permanentequilibrium between the physical and cultural landscapes and theimprovement of socio-economic structures based on the interac-tion among social, cultural, human, physical and financial capitals.

Community capacity includes physical, financial, human, cul-tural and social capitals. Physical elements and resources of a givencommunity constitute the physical capital; skills, education, expe-riences and capabilities form the human capital. Financial capital isthe capital and credit available at local level. Social capital is infused

Please cite this article in press as: Manzo-Delgado, L., et al., Role of forest cMonarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, Journal of Environmental

with myths, beliefs, and norms, and it concerns the ability andwillingness of inhabitants to work collectively to accomplishcommunity goals (Kusel, 2001).

5. Concluding remarks

During the period 1971e2013 there were no changes in the totalforest surface of Cerro Prieto ejido in the MBBR. Nonetheless, sig-nificant changes occurred among different cover density classes,with the increase in closed forest cover being the most valuable. Ofparticular interest was also the reduction of semi-closed cover andits conversion to closed cover, which can be interpreted as a forestrecovery. Recovery was mainly in the oyamel, oyamel-pine andpine-oyamel stands (Fig. 4).

This analysis of the Cerro Prieto ejido demonstrated three majorissues that need to be addressed for the whole MBBR, and perhapsextended to other NPAs. The first is the contribution of PES inreducing deforestation and enhancing environmental conservation.The second is ecotourism at the local level; this is derived from PESbut at the same time is driven by similar strategies of conservationof the environment, and is a potential source of economic devel-opment. Finally, forest disorders such as infestation by S. mundusseem likely to increase as a result of environmental stress caused bypresent and future patterns of climate change. Another potentialsource of degradation linked to the changing climatic conditions isthe environmental impact of natural hazards such as floods andlandslides.

Notwithstanding the difficulties and social problems caused bythe restriction of productive activities during the early stages ofprotection of the Monarch butterfly habitat in 1986, the forest areaof the Cerro Prieto ejido has been preserved. The largest recovery offorest was in 2009, nine years after the decree of 2000. Payment forEnvironmental Services has accomplished a significant synergy byvaluing community participation in the use and conservation offorest in a sustainable manner. Biodiversity has been maintained,and habitat conservation and consequent groundwater rechargeare examples of the positive impact of PES in the MBBR.

Quite commonly, widespread poverty and natural resourcedegradation are associated with fragile resources and scarceness ofassets. However, in the case of the MBBR, forest conservationsupported by PES programmes has contributed to a reduction indeforestation. Although poverty reduction is seldom combinedwith nature conservation, the Cerro Prieto ejido is a case whereefforts to implement sustainable development are feasible. The

onservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: TheManagement (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.11.017

L. Manzo-Delgado et al. / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2013) 1e12 11

establishment of key strategic objectives based on local identity,roots and culture and natural resources would allow local com-munities to build a long-term process in response to market op-portunities and conservation formulae; their response could have asignificant impact on the dynamics of ecosystems within the MBBRprotected area.

Several components can facilitate beneficial investments forpoor communities: (a) availability and knowledge regarding suit-able and productive technologies; (b) tenure security, access rightsand local supportive institutions; (c) the capacity of farmers tomobilize resources and (d) supportive macroeconomic policiesproviding the necessary incentives for conservation management(Scherr, 2000). The community of Cerro Prieto ejido could addressthese underlying issues by strengthening their current collabora-tive partnership with the federal and local authorities. The au-thorities need to provide high-quality training and equal access toopportunities that may alleviate poverty and feelings ofpowerlessness.

Global environmental change is one of the major topics on theinternational agenda, and it has both scientific and decision-making perspectives. Land-use and land-cover changes are majorconcerns for the present and especially for the future. The need forsocio-environmental settings goes beyond the global dimension.Local communities ought to play a significant role by contributingto the construction of a world in which sustainable development isbased on social cohesion, adaptation to environmental pressures,and innovation. Specifically, a balance between environment anddevelopment would be based on adequate interaction among so-cial, cultural, human, physical and financial capitals.

The immediate task is without doubt the strengthening of thesocial structure and the empowerment of local communities so thatcurrent challenges do not obstruct the road towards achievingsustainable development through the up-scaling of experiencesand lessons learned from the local to the global dimension.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) for the aerialphotographs provided for PES assessment and to Ann Grant forEnglish editing of the manuscript.

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