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Perspectives on Libraries as Institutions of Human Rightsand Social JusticePublic Libraries and Social Inclusion: An Update from South AfricaChristine Stilwell
Article information:To cite this document: Christine Stilwell . "Public Libraries and Social Inclusion: AnUpdate from South Africa" In Perspectives on Libraries as Institutions of Human Rightsand Social Justice. Published online: 26 Feb 2016; 119-146.Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S0065-283020160000041006
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Public Libraries and SocialInclusion: An Update fromSouth Africa
Christine StilwellInformation Studies, School of Social Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal/Inyuvesi YaKwaZulu-Natali, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
Abstract
Purpose � Since the 1994 regime change many South African public libraries have beendestroyed by the communities they were serving which raises questions about how commu-nities perceive these libraries. With the loss of activist library organizations, few insights aregained from activists or critical librarianship on how to respond. In this context, the chapterexamines public library social inclusion and poverty alleviation initiatives, and governmentconditional grants to public libraries.
Methodology/approach � Using a transformative paradigm, a qualitative approach and the-matic analysis, the chapter examines recent literature on public libraries and social inclusion,and local annual and parliamentary reports. A mini-survey yields case study material.
Findings � The findings augment the scarce store of recent evidence on South African pub-lic libraries. Most provinces had built new libraries, upgraded others, and installed informa-tion and communication infrastructure to enhance access. Problems included governance,fund wastage, and staffing. The libraries have great potential to improve their relevance forlocal communities.
Research limitations � The poor survey response rate and lack of a comprehensivenational database on public libraries limits the research. Annual reports are uneven in com-prehensiveness, making comparison difficult.
Practical implications � The chapter recommends (i) creating a national information sys-tem to monitor service delivery via the grants and enable rigorous investigation of their impactand (ii) increased government support for public library social inclusion initiatives.
Originality/value � First hand evidence from local librarians and official reports demon-strates the grants’ effect on public library promotion of social inclusion and shows what ispossible in a situation of historical inequities.
Keywords: Public libraries; social inclusion; poverty; South Africa; conditional grants
PERSPECTIVES ON LIBRARIES AS INSTITUTIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND SOCIAL JUSTICEADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 41r 2016 by Emerald Group Publishing LimitedISSN: 0065-2830DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020160000041006
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I. Introduction
The question is often asked about how communities perceive publiclibraries and how librarians should respond (Lor, 2013, 2014). The burn-ing of South African public libraries raises questions about the librarians’role, especially since the regime change in 1994: “… the burning of somany public libraries under South Africa’s new democratic dispensation isevidence that we are in need of insights from activist librarians and criti-cal librarianship” (Lor, 2014, p. 11). The Library and InformationServices Transformation Charter (South Africa, 2014), which prioritizessocial inclusion, economic development, and poverty eradication, suggeststhat many South Africans are unaware of the services and benefits thatlibraries offer. This chapter asks whether public libraries have relevancefor local communities in addressing social inclusion and alleviatingpoverty.
The research is located in South Africa because of the enormous chal-lenges involved in its 21 year transition to democracy with tensionsbetween the right to digital inclusion via public libraries and the addressingof basic survival needs. In 1994 South Africa’s first democratic governmentassumed power under the leadership of Nelson Mandela. It faced immensechallenges and, in seeking to address them, neglected public libraries(Nassimbeni, 2014). Two significant events followed expressions of alarm atthe deteriorating services in the sector. One was the catalytic interventionin local public libraries from 2000 by the Carnegie Corporation of NewYork. The other, of greater concern to this chapter, was the government’sannouncement in 2007, that a system of conditional grants for library ser-vices would be instituted.
In 1994 the National Department of Arts and Culture assumed respon-sibility for public libraries, facilitating social cohesion, and inclusivity. Acritical problem, however, lay in flawed legislation, known as the unfundedmandate, which governs the provision of library facilities. The constitutionstipulates that all libraries, excluding national libraries, are an exclusiveprovincial legislative competence, which allows for a perception amongmunicipalities that they have no financial responsibility for providinglibrary services. In 2007 the KPMG finalized a national report on commu-nity libraries in South Africa (2007). It revealed that South Africa hadapproximately 30 public libraries per million people (1537 public libraries).Some rural municipalities had no access to a public library.
In the same year the Department embarked on a new system of fundingin terms of which national government assists provinces with additionalfunding via a conditional Community Library Services Grant (South Africa,
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2012/2013). It allocated an initial amount of ZAR1.3 billion1 to publiclibraries to transform public library infrastructure with the primary inten-tion of helping the most disadvantaged areas. The rationale for the grantswas to improve access to information; develop skills in library staff andcommunities; raise public awareness of community library services; dealwith disparities in community library service provision; and promote socialcohesion and community building. The Department allocated just overZAR1 billion to the conditional Community Library Services Grant in2014 (Portfolio Committee on Arts and Culture, 2014). The Western CapeLibrary Service (2012/2013) undertook to lead a country-wide investigationinto the unfunded mandate.
The National Treasury responded to the findings of the investigation byannouncing that it would increase conditional grants substantially witheffect from the 2014/2015 financial year. The Deputy Director-General,Department of Arts and Culture, then announced in 2014 that theDepartment would allocate ZAR3 billion to the provincial library serviceswhich oversee public libraries, to transform them into more innovativesocial and information hubs (Kinnear, 2014). To determine how this canbest be done the chapter reviews public library initiatives aimed at socialinclusion and poverty alleviation, addresses local policy and funding issuesand makes recommendations for policy and practice.
II. Research Methodology
The research approach is located in a transformative paradigm and draws onSen’s (2009) views on the role played by institutions, in this case publiclibraries as social institutions, in the pursuit of justice. It also uses Sachs’snotion of capitals and focuses on the role of institutional capital in poverty alle-viation and, by implication, in social inclusion. Employing a qualitativeapproach, the chapter reviews recent literature on public libraries and socialinclusion and analyzes official documents to chart progress made. The review ispositioned against significant developments in public libraries internationally.
Annual reports from the departments which oversee South African pro-vincial library services, and reports from monitoring and parliamentarygroups, provide evidence. The author used these as data sources as there isno national database on public libraries in South Africa. There is a Directory
1At the current exchange rate one US Dollar is equal to 12.4 South African Rand.
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of community libraries in South Africa (South Africa, 2012) that provides basicinformation about the public libraries by province and includes contactdetails for them. At the national level, the author reviewed four reportsfrom the Department of Arts and Culture, one from the PortfolioCommittee on Arts and Culture, and two reports which were provided bythe Parliamentary Monitoring Group, six in all. At provincial level shereviewed reports from each of the nine provinces, except for GautengProvince, as the file for that province was damaged and she used the homepage instead. In one case a second provincial report was reviewed to gainadditional data that was lacking in the most recent one (a total of ninereports and a webpage were examined).
A mini-survey yielded current case study material. The author posted anotice on the listserv, LiasaOnline,2 in October 2014 inviting responsesfrom South Africa’s public librarians about their social inclusion initiatives.The Library and Information Association of South Africa (LIASA) hosts aPublic and Community Libraries Interest Group (PACLIG) which had 520members in 2011 (PACLIG, 2011). LIASA has 1600 members (LIASA,2014), all of whom would have access to the listserv. The PACLIG mem-bers, however, were the most likely respondents.
The survey took the form of a request for information in an informalletter explaining that the author was seeking information on South Africanpublic library initiatives related to social inclusion. It explained that theseinitiatives might entail targeting people who may be seen to be marginalizedin some way, for example, by being unemployed, living in a remote area,
2Dear ColleaguesI am trying to update earlier research on South African public libraries and any initiativesthey may have that are related to social inclusion, that is, targeting people who may be seento be marginalized in some way, for example, by being unemployed, living in a remote area,lack of access to ICT, and information generally, and having a disability that makes access tolibraries difficult, etc.
If you could let me know about such initiatives and/or send me materials as well I wouldbe very grateful and will acknowledge your contribution and also share my end results withyou.
I might have missed something you wrote for the provincial library journals, LIASA-in-Touch, or a presentation to a conference or workshop.
Kind regards,Christine
Christine Stilwell,Emeritus ProfessorSchool of Social Sciences, UKZN
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lacking access to information and communication technology (ICT), andinformation generally, and having a disability that makes access to librariesdifficult. Respondents were asked to let the author know about such initia-tives and to send materials about them. The request for information was sim-ple and straightforward as more structured, complex surveys in the past hadnot drawn any responses. This sector is difficult to obtain information from.
The survey produced 10 responses, together with documents andfurther leads. The number of responses was in keeping with earlier surveyson social inclusion undertaken by the author. The low number of responses,and the lack of access to a more comprehensive national database on publiclibraries, comprise limitations of the study. Another limitation is that theannual reports, which provide the bulk of the available of information, areuneven in comprehensiveness, and difficult to compare.
The broad themes which present the responses to the survey echo thefactors that contribute to social inclusion in the literature. The researcherused a simple level of thematic analysis to identity the themes because ofthe flexibility of this method and its suitability for informing policy devel-opment (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
III. Review of the Literature
This section presents a review of the literature by theme. The literature onpublic libraries and social inclusion that was reviewed was identified in onlinesearches of the available databases. Examples from the United States, Britainand, to a lesser extent from Scandinavia emerge strongly in the review. Thesecountries have a long record of community and critical librarianship whichhas influenced South African activist librarians, such as those in the formerLibrary and Information Workers’ Organisation (LIWO) (Lor, 2014).
A. The Role of Public Libraries
Jaeger et al. (2014) identify the expanding social role and responsibilities ofpublic libraries. Libraries serve as a place for free public internet access andsupport. They provide digital literacy and digital inclusion classes, supporte-government, serve emergency response roles, and are increasingly involvedin the provision of social services and education. Librarians struggle to meetnew needs but the range of unique programs and partnerships which theyhave created in response to these needs is astounding. Librarians providehomework help services, access to community health nurses and immigra-tion centers, and bring the delivery of fresh foods to food deserts. Libraries
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are continually adapting and innovating to meet the basic needs of theircommunities.
British public libraries have shown commitment to social inclusion butGoulding (2013) found that since 2010, the Big Society policy of PrimeMinister, David Cameron, has posed a threat to these libraries. The policyemphasizes social responsibility, rather than state control, as the force forprogress in society; people co-operate to improve life for themselves.Goulding observes that public library values resonate with many BigSociety values like community empowerment and social action, but localcouncils have used the policy to justify cutbacks and closures. Dr RowanWilliams, Archbishop of Canterbury (as cited in Goulding, 2013, p. 480),called the policy “aspirational waffle designed to conceal a deeply damagingwithdrawal of the state from its responsibilities to the most vulnerable.” Inthis climate of austerity, Goulding (2013) discusses outsourcing publiclibrary services to private companies to be run at a profit. Companies makea profit by cutting back on existing services, materials, and staff. Such skew-ing of priorities compromises the initiatives that can make a difference tothe lives of local people (Goulding, 2013). Feasible options are publiclibrary partnerships with not-for-profit organizations, and the use of volun-teers. Not all communities, however, can take on administering a complexpublic library service. Closer collaboration between library services, andshared services, can lower costs. For Goulding (2013) public library servicesare too important to too many people for them to be used as a site of experi-mentation in localism and community empowerment.
Embracing a social justice perspective, Britz, Ponelis, and Lor (2013)identify a moral imperative for society to provide the infrastructure thatallows equal opportunity to all to participate in various socio-economicdigital activities. Examples include free internet access in libraries and sub-sidizing mobile devices for people who are poor, to enable access to essentialrecords via smart phones. Qualified and trained librarians are also essentialin providing high quality health and social information, and professionalleadership (Stewart, 2014).
The following section describes some of the public library services thatpromote social inclusion.
1. Health Information
A collaborative effort between a private, not-for-profit health informationdelivery organization, and the state library organization, offered publiclibrary health information programs in Delaware. Health librarians wereembedded in the public libraries and assisted with evaluating health
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information, confidential reference services, education, and health program-ming. They developed staff’s health reference skills and improved collections.In 2009 funding constraints led to the closure of the program (Flaherty &Grier, 2014).
2. Services to Immigrants
Public library services for immigrants create social capital (see definitionbelow) and foster inclusion (Miller, 2014) through services such as classes inEnglish as second language, and classes in computers and citizenship (Varheim,2011). Immigrants reported receiving help from library staff, having sponta-neous conversations with strangers, and planning meetings with others, all ofwhich enhanced social capital (Audunson, Essmat, & Aabo, 2011).
3. Services to People with Visual Impairments
For Nassimbeni and de Jager (2014) a National Library for the Blind(NALB) initiative in Eastern Cape, South Africa, made a great contributionto the lives of some of the most disadvantaged and excluded members ofsociety. People with visual impairments gave evidence of the transcendentvalue of libraries, found in the beneficial effects that libraries deliver (Town,2011). This value, seemingly derived from interaction with the library, con-stitutes benefits that were not foreseen (Nassimbeni & de Jager, 2014).
4. Rural Library Services
Real, Bertot, and Jaeger (2014) analyzed data from the 2011/2012 Publiclibrary funding and technology access survey. In two-thirds of US communities,the public library is the only source of freely available public internet accessinclusive of public access computers. Rural libraries offer fewer support ser-vices and, on average, have weaker technological infrastructure. They lagbehind urban and suburban libraries in terms of up-to-date technologiesand hardware; technical support; staff time; bandwidth; user access toresources for personal advancement; technology training; staff expertise tohelp patrons find and apply for jobs online; and assist with accessing gov-ernment services online. For this reason Real et al. (2014) argue that revisedlibrary funding models must remove the primary burden from strugglinglocal governments, and increase state and federal contributions. This adviceresonates with South African public libraries and their funding issues.
Rural public libraries in Serbia offer support to farmers using branch ormobile libraries which were equipped with computers and internet access
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(Fairbairn & Lipeikaite, 2014). A survey in central Serbia found that villa-gers were poor but wanted to modernize agricultural production and increasetheir income. Some were successful, innovative farmers, but they needed toexchange knowledge, information, and experience. The project revitalizedfour village libraries that had fallen into disuse during the war and equippedthem with computers, internet connections, and increased book and journalholdings on agriculture. Librarians provided ICT training on agriculturalweb-portals, and online produce markets. At library educational events farm-ers could meet experts and learn new agricultural methods. The number ofvisitors to the libraries rose dramatically in the project’s first year and farm-ers’ perceptions of the service were overwhelmingly positive.
5. Enhancing Food Security
In addition to fresh food deliveries to the food deserts described by Jaegeret al. (2014), a library farm at Onondaga Public Library, Cicero, New York,tackles concerns about obesity levels. People living in low income areas areat high risk because they lack transport to sites where they can obtain heal-thier foods. They also need to become food literate (Burkhart, 2014). ASolano County community garden project educates youth about healthy eat-ing, lifestyles, and self-sufficiency. Burkhart (2014, p. 8) explains that pub-lic libraries should have food gardens because they need to expand theirmission to include more “library as place” social planning. Food gardensaddress issues such as welcoming the community, sustainability, and educa-tion, directly. Food gardens are not new. In 1979 the San Francisco PublicLibrary, used a development grant to transform a neglected lot into a culti-vated community garden. Selepe and Hendriks (2014) confirm the beneficialimpact of such gardens on nutrition. Children’s caregivers participated in agarden project that was not library linked but it demonstrated thatimproved access to food, including vegetables, enhanced diversity in thechildren’s diets.
B. Social Exclusion and Inclusion
There have been discussions of social exclusion since the mid twentieth cen-tury. In the 1990s in Britain the term was used to define poverty, or socialand economic inequality (Birdi, Wilson, & Cocker, 2008). Social exclusionis a multidimensional phenomenon that contains individual, socio-economic, institutional, organizational, and political elements. It is dynamicand impacts in different ways to different degrees at different social levels.It is a process which involves systematic denial of entitlements to resources
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and services, and of the right to participate on equal terms in economic,social, cultural, or political spheres (Islam, 2015).
Birdi et al. (2008, p. 579) explain that social exclusion concerns itselfwith identifying barriers to participation whereas social inclusion focuses onovercoming barriers. Poverty occurs alongside social exclusion and attemptsto combat poverty can foster social inclusion. Stilwell (2014) drew onSachs’s (2005) ideas on how to end poverty, and achieve economic develop-ment. Sachs provides a structured approach to economic development andemphasizes the importance of the communications infrastructure. Thischapter endorses the importance of this infrastructure, including libraries,to economic development, alleviating poverty and, by implication, fosteringsocial inclusion.
The multiple dimensions of social exclusion are economic (poverty,unemployment); social (isolation, homelessness); political (disenfranchise-ment, disempowerment); neighborhood (urban and rural deprivation); indi-vidual (illness, lack of social/educational skills); spatial (the institutionalizedand marginalized); and group (black and ethnic minorities, disabled, andelderly, etc.) according to Percy-Smith (as cited in Hicken, 2004, p. 45).
Library literature identifies various drivers of social exclusion and inclu-sion. For social exclusion Train, Dalton, and Elkin (2000), Wavell, Baxter,Johnson, and Williams (2002) and Lockyer-Benzie (2004) see low educa-tional attainment, low literacy levels, low economic status, unemployment,poor public transport, and ill-health as drivers. Haggis and Goulding(2003) and Lockyer-Benzie (2004) note the importance of infrastructure foraccess to ICTs, and mitigating the digital divide. Petr (2004) addresses alack of basic information; Benstead, Spacey, and Goulding (2004) focus onrural areas, and Stilwell (2011a, 2011b) includes food insecurity as a driver.
Factors, or drivers that promote social inclusion, have access to ICTsand information, educational level, employment, economic status, healthand food security, location, and ready access to transport (Lockyer-Benzie,2004; Benstead et al., 2004; Haggis & Goulding, 2003; Petr, 2004;Stilwell & Munyua, 2009; Stilwell, 2011a; Train et al., 2000; Wavell et al.,2002). Birdi et al. (2008) include staff attitudes and empathy regardinginclusion objectives. Stilwell (2014) links the drivers of social inclusion tovarious types of capital and the Global Libraries (n.d., p. 1) confirms thataccess to the internet through public libraries enables individuals to searchfor employment, access government programs, learn skills through onlinecourses, research health issues, and interact socially. Table 1 depicts the dri-vers of social exclusion and inclusion.
Addressing social exclusion involves focusing on capacities, not defi-ciencies (Gehner, 2010). Library staff must recognize that socially excluded
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groups have assets and they should build on existing initiatives in commu-nities (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993).
C. Measuring the Public Library’s Contribution to Social Inclusion
Despite advances in evaluation, many librarians struggle to prove the worthof their services (Davis, 2014; Town, 2011) but various measures can beused to assess their impact on social inclusion. Sumsion, Hawkins, andMorris (2002) measured the economic value of public library services to theuser. Liu (2004) investigated the relationship between public libraries, lit-eracy, and economic productivity using path analysis. Albright andKawooya (2007) and Nassimbeni and Shabangu (2015) focused on librariesand Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Contributions by Sigleret al. (2011) and Bertot et al. (2011) are also included in this section asthey demonstrate the valuable research into the public library’s role that is
Table 1Drivers of Social Exclusion and Inclusion
Drivers of exclusion Drivers of inclusion
• Low educational attainment, lowliteracy levels, unemployment,low economic status, poor publictransport, ill-health (Lockyer-Benzie, 2004; Train et al., 2000;Wavell et al., 2002)
• Education, employment, access totransport, health, access to ICTs,and information, location(Benstead et al., 2004; Flaherty& Grier, 2014; Haggis& Goulding, 2003; Lockyer-Benzie, 2004; Petr, 2004; Realet al., 2014; Stilwell & Munyua,2009; Stilwell, 2011a; Train et al.,2000; Wavell et al., 2002)
• Lack of ICT infrastructure,digital divide (Haggis& Goulding, 2003; Lockyer-Benzie, 2004)
• Food security (Burkhart, 2014;Fairbairn & Lipeikaite, 2014;Jaeger et al., 2014; Stilwell,2011a)
• Lack of basic information (Petr,2004)
• Capacity and empathy of publiclibrary staff (Birdi et al., 2008)
• Location (rural environment)(Benstead et al., 2004)
• Focus on people’s capacities(Gehner, 2010; Kretzmann& McKnight, 1993)
• Lack of food security (Stilwell,2011a, 2011b)
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possible when researchers have access to a large, comprehensive nationaldataset. Skelly’s (2013) study was based on statistics from the United Statesfor the same reason: The US data included many features of public libraryuse that could not be found elsewhere. There is a great need for a nationaldataset of this sort in South Africa to enable the monitoring of service deliv-ery by public libraries.
Sigler et al. (2011), using data from the 2010�2011 Public library fund-ing and technology access national survey, demonstrated how early supportof ICT access via public libraries enabled use of the internet to extendpublic libraries’ social role. US public libraries have become the primarycommunity-based access point for people with no access, limited access, orlacking the digital literacy to access information online, or apply for vitalsocial services. Although even in the best of times public libraries are a vitalresource for people experiencing economic duress, Sigler et al. (2011, p. 21)cite the “Librarian’s axiom,” to show that economic downturns lead toincreased usage of public library services. People rely on these services forinternet access and training, and job and social support applications increas-ingly. Libraries assist with access to gaining employment, to job databases,civil service exam materials, with constructing resumes, online applicationsfor jobs and e-government services, use of e-government websites, andfilling in government forms online. This extension of the public library’srole in the United States ironically coincided with a decline in state andlocal governments’ tax revenues and financial uncertainties. The prolifera-tion of the mistaken belief that the internet, Google, and e-books madespending on libraries unnecessary seemingly prompted reluctance to investin public libraries.
In 2010, however, US public libraries were dealing with more peoplewith mental health issues and basic needs of shelter and food. Librarianswere caught in the middle, with decreased hours of service, shortages ofwork stations, staff and staff expertise to assist users with employmentinformation. Over half of the urban, suburban and rural libraries reportedinadequate staffing as a significant barrier to meeting the employment-seeking needs of patrons (Sigler et al., 2011). Bertot et al. (2011), usingdata from the 2010 to 2011 national survey, found that public librariesformed partnerships with government agencies, not-for-profit and otherorganizations, to provide e-government services. Other partnerships facili-tated the delivery of healthy food to areas with no grocery stores withinwalking distance, and to a vocational rehabilitation program for homelesspeople (Sigler et al., 2011). Sigler et al. (2011) conclude that no single sta-keholder, that is governments, employers, or libraries, can individuallymeet the service and resource requirements of communities, particularly
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during a severe economic crisis. Libraries are essential community providersof e-government access and employment services.
Sey, Coward, Rothschild, Clark, and Koepke’s (2013) report on The glo-bal impact study of public access to information and communication technologies(2007�2012) covers the impact of public access to ICT, in libraries, tele-centers, and cybercafes. It focused on Botswana, Chile, and the Philippines,with less emphasis on Lithuania and South Africa. The report confirmeddigital inclusion, which provides information access and ICT skills, as acore impact. Public libraries reach large cross-sections of society, and thosewho lack regular access to computers and the internet. Patrons experiencedbenefits including education, employment, and communication with friendsand family. Users valued the free services and staff assistance, and nonusersclearly recognized the value of public libraries. As public libraries are not asubiquitous as other forms of public access in most countries, the report sug-gested that libraries combine their information expertise with the greaterreach of entities like post offices. Davis’s (2014) cost-benefit analysis quanti-fied the value that individuals placed on public access to ICT in publiclibraries, internet cafes, and telecenters in Bangladesh, Brazil, Chile, Ghana,and the Philippines. In Chile, libraries were valued most highly.
Miller’s comparative study explored the potential of public libraries tocreate social capital in Edinburgh and Copenhagen. The concept of socialcapital is related to social inclusion. On account of its inclusivity, the publiclibrary is believed to be a place with the potential for social connectivity,and the creating of social capital (Miller, 2014). Three main factors affectedthe library’s potential to create social capital: library building and space,library staff and volunteers, and links that the library had with the commu-nity. Aabo, Audunson, and Varheim (2010) see the library as a metameetingplace which is used as a measure of its role as a facilitator of meetings whichtake place outside the library. Library managers gave examples of library-run groups meeting outside the library, including knitting group outingsand a group with visual impairments visiting a book festival.
In Alberta, Oliphant (2014) explored the relational value of publiclibraries to find out whether they build social capital, support communities,and facilitate civic engagement, and, if so, how this is done. Her investiga-tion included researching public perceptions of libraries. Library nonusersin Alberta had lower levels of educational attainment, income, and employ-ment, and lived further away from the library. A significant predictor oflibrary use was the presence of children in the household. The survey find-ings demonstrate the value library users and nonusers place on publiclibraries as places for relaxation, refuge, reading, and study, and a safe spacefor socializing. The public’s perceptions of the authority of resources in
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a public library differed from those of resources found on the internet, butinternet use was associated positively with public library use.
Skelly’s (2013) systematic review of the literature on public library usecovered the library as place, interaction with librarians, attendance at pro-grams, use of book stock, and public internet-enabled computers. She askedwhat kind of relationship exists between different aspects of public libraryuse and economic development. She took economic development to beemployment, health, education, social capital, and savings. Using quantita-tive methods she tested whether public libraries impacted on any of thesevariables and found that the circulation of library books contributes posi-tively to all aspects of economic growth and development. Her use of exist-ing data necessitated a two-part split of the study into results from aninternational dataset, and data from the US which included more features ofpublic library use. Here, the relationship between public library use andeconomic growth and development was not a consistently positive one. Useof public computers, for example, had a negative relationship with grossdomestic product. Other services, such as visits to the library, contributedin a positive way. Skelly, Stilwell, and Underwood (2015) conclude that therelationship between the economy and public library use is complex. Itinvolves a variety of economic aspects and ways in which public libraries areused. What emerges clearly is that there is a relationship between the econ-omy and public libraries that policy makers and librarians should bear inmind.
D. Public Libraries and Social Inclusion in South Africa
Stilwell (2011a, 2011b) used a survey to identify public library social inclu-sion and poverty alleviation initiatives in South Africa. She conducted thesurveys in 2009 and 2010 via two listservs, LiasaOnline and Sabinews. Thecombined survey results revealed (i) public libraries were making efforts inareas of great need in both rural and semi-urban areas, through providingaccess to container and mobile libraries; (ii) local public libraries had triedto tackle information needs associated with basic survival, hunger, unem-ployment, and ignorance about career choices, and illiteracy; (iii) there weresignificant developments at national level, such as addressing funding issuesthrough the draft Community Libraries Bill, the provision of ICT trainingand access, and a collaborative partnership between public libraries andSouth African Library for the Blind (SALB) in the Digital AccessibleInformation System (DAISY) project. Hart’s (2007) article on publiclibraries and social capital provided further support for the public library’srole in social inclusion.
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Some of the initiatives contributed to social inclusion by inculcatingliteracy, reading skills and ICT skills, enhancing education, and improvingemployment prospects. To generate more evidence Stilwell (2011b) sug-gested the use of composite dashboards with a range of indicators todescribe the status, or change in status, of factors which impact on thedevelopment of a given economic or social system. This approach allowsspecific, flexible targets to be set for specific criteria and it suits policydevelopment. Stilwell (2014) tackled the development of such measureswith regard to the public libraries’ role in fostering social inclusion andalleviating poverty. She used easily sourced statistics to describe the statusof a selected site, and a heat map to depict the results. Her planning toolcan be used to inculcate government and public support for the publiclibrary’s role in social inclusion.
The Electronic Information for Libraries-Public Library InnovationProgram (EIFL-PLIP) methodology measures the contribution of small,resource-constrained libraries to the well-being of communities like that ofMasiphumele, Western Cape, South Africa. The Program gathers baseline evi-dence about library use at the outset of a new service and collects impact evi-dence a year later. EIFL-PLIP asks libraries to identify links between servicebenefits and the well-being of individuals and communities. The approachprovides evidence of numbers of people with new ICT skills, found jobs, andpositive perceptions of service. It can be implemented by librarians in-housewith minimal data collection resources (Fairbairn & Lipeikaite, 2014).
IV. Policy, Funding, and Progress: South African PublicLibraries
The South African Library and Information Services Bill (South Africa, 2013)addresses the unfunded mandate described earlier. The Bill aims to provide aframework to (i) ensure consistency in the delivery of public library and infor-mation services in the country; (ii) put measures in place to ensure redress ofthe inequalities in the provision of public library and information services;and (iii) provide principles, norms, and standards for public library and infor-mation services. In the Bill the term “provincializing the service” describesmoving responsibility for library services from municipalities to provinces asmany municipalities lack capacity to administer the libraries.
When the provinces were delineated in 1994, Gauteng, Free State,Western Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal inherited and maintained institutionalcapacity to perform the public libraries’ function. The other five provinceshad to develop this capacity from scratch and this has affected their ability
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to spend the conditional grants (South Africa, 2013). The provinces alsohave differing policies regarding provincializing (Table 2). The Free Stateand KwaZulu-Natal are committed to provincializing; Gauteng, EasternCape, and Western Cape are committed to responsibility resting with muni-cipalities; and Limpopo, Mpumalanga, North West, and Northern Caperemain undecided (South Africa, 2013). All nine provinces have made someprogress in establishing and upgrading libraries.
The national Department of Arts and Culture reports did not indicatewhere new and upgraded libraries were located after 2012 and 2011, respec-tively, but gave the total number for the year. Figures from other reportsindicate that some newly established libraries in 2013 were located as fol-lows: Free State and North West two; Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natalone; in 2014 the Western Cape reported one new library. Some upgradedlibraries were located as follows: in 2012 in Mpumalanga, three; in 2013Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, two; and in 2014 Western Cape, nine.
Table 2New and Upgraded Public Libraries: 2011�2014 and Provincializing
Number ofpublic libraries
Newly established Upgraded Total—SouthAfrica
Province 2011 2012 2013 2014 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Eastern Cape 1 32 186Free State 4 18 171Gauteng 3 1 4 233KwaZulu-Natal 4 1 220Limpopo 2 4 15 21Mpumalanga 3 2 13 108Northern Cape 3 1 12 236North West 4 4 22 105Western Cape 1 347Total 25 13 14 16 116 51 37 55
1627
Notes:ProvincializingMunicipality responsibleUndecided
Sources: Adapted from Mnkeni-Saurombe and Zimu (2013, p. 8), Mpumalanga (2012/2013), PortfolioCommittee on Arts and Culture (2014), South Africa (2012/2013).
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There were 1627 public libraries in South Africa by 2015 (Mpumalanga,2012/2013; Portfolio Committee on Arts and Culture, 2014; South Africa,2012/2013).
By 2012 the grant had enabled the upgrading or installing of ICT infra-structure, provided for staff training, book stock, audio-visual and e-resources,and literacy initiatives. The Parliamentary Monitoring Group (PMG, 2011/2012), reporting on the performance of the grant, revealed that expenditure asa percentage of adjusted budget per province was as follows: Eastern Cape80.1%, Free State 96.8%, Gauteng 99.4%, KwaZulu-Natal 100.8%,Limpopo 61.9%, Mpumalanga 93.9%, Northern Cape 99.9%, North West75%, and Western Cape 100%. The highest underspending was by Limpopo,due to problems with corporate governance which resulted in the NationalTreasury assuming the administration of five of its departments.
Other key challenges for the provinces were delays in tender adjudication,supply chain management, and responses from the Department of PublicWorks; tardy supplier deliveries and targets for certain indicators being toohigh. The PMG (2013/2014) reported that fruitless and wasteful expenditureby the national Department had risen from ZAR4.7 million in 2011/2012 toZAR9.3 million by 2013/2014. Some funds were paid for services that werenever rendered. Recommendations were that provinces (i) investigate the useof a single library design for new library buildings; (ii) use alternative imple-menting agents; (iii) consider alternative service delivery approaches, such asmobile libraries and modular structures for short-term intervention; and (iv)establish project management capacity (PMG, 2011/2012).
The impact of the conditional grant, however, requires much more rig-orous investigation (Mnkeni-Saurombe & Zimu, 2013) and a comprehensivenational dataset is needed to make this possible.
V. Listserv Survey 2014: Findings and Discussion
In March 2014 the government announced the ZAR3 billion grant for pub-lic libraries. This section reports on the survey of local social inclusion initia-tives to identify insights into how these funds could best be used. This thirdlistserv survey took place in October, 2014. Ten responses were received.Three were expressions of interest; another was a promise of further details.Other responses included a recommendation to scrutinize departmentalannual reports; details about a proposed reading project in Tshwane,Gauteng, and news about a reading project in Hout Bay, Western Cape.Three respondents gave detailed responses that are captured in the case stu-dies, including a national SALB initiative; Atteridgeville Community
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Library, and eThekweni Municipal Libraries (EML). Table 3 plots the surveyresponses to which material from the literature and annual reports (EasternCape, 2012/2013; Free State, 2012/2013; Gauteng Province, n.d.;KwaZulu-Natal, 2013; Limpopo, 2012/2013; Mpumalanga, 2012/2013;North West, 2012/2013; Northern Cape, 2012/13; Western Cape, 2011/2012, 2012/2013) has been added, hence the responses total more than 10.
The annual reports varied greatly in comprehensiveness. It could beexpected, for example, that most provinces would target the elderly. The2013 Gauteng annual report’s electronic file was damaged so the authorexamined its webpage.
Table 3 shows the basic information which was gleaned from thereports. Initiatives addressed those with disabilities, the elderly, immi-grants, rural areas, literacy, numeracy and reading, the provision of toylibraries, food security, entrepreneurship, and livelihoods. Most provinceshad expanded services by building new libraries, especially in rural areas,upgrading others, and installing ICT infrastructure to provide public access.Many had provided rural mobile services. Seven provinces provided servicesfor people with visual impairments.
VI. Case Studies
The case studies include (i) a national initiative for people with visualimpairments. Data were drawn from an article sent by a respondent andother literature; (ii) two case studies derived from survey responses anddocuments provided, supplemented by annual reports and the literature.KwaZulu-Natal provided a most comprehensive annual report which isused in the last case study to show the extent of service provision possiblein terms of social inclusion.
A. South African Library for the Blind (South Africa, 2012/2013;N. Kaunda, personal communication, November 4, 2014;Nassimbeni & de Jager, 2014)
The national SALB, in the Eastern Cape, works with public libraries on accessto information for people with visual impairments. In 2009, SALB’s directorproposed a project in partnership with the Department of Sport, Recreation,Arts and Culture, Eastern Cape, to create access to libraries and reading mate-rial for people with visual impairments. SALB adopted a new approach byphysically locating services in existing public libraries in rural communitiesand promoting the new services to potential users. Previously, it serviced its
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Table 3Areas of Focus for Social Inclusion in South African Public Libraries: 2014
Focus NLB KZNincludingEML
Gautengincluding
Atteridgeville
FreeState
WesternCape
includingHout Bay
EasternCape
NorthernCape
Mpumalanga NorthWest
Limpopo
Disability—visualimpairment
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Elderly ✓ ✓
Entrepreneurshipand livelihoods
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Food security ✓
Health ✓
ICT access ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
SLIMS ✓ LIMS LIMS ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Immigrants ✓
Literacy/numeracy/reading
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Rural and semiurban areas—mobile services
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Notes:✓= Existing initiative; LIMS = Library Information Management System not specified; SLIMS = Sita Library Information Management System.
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constituency from a central hub, using postal services to deliver materials(Nassimbeni & de Jager, 2014). Assistive devices, DAISY players, designedfor people with visual impairments were provided. DAISY’s functions enableusers to search, insert bookmarks, and navigate text.
The project provided a free DAISY player on permanent loan to eachregistered mini-library user. The project coordinator offered computer soft-ware training to both library staff and users. Classes comprised basic com-puter literacy and training in the use of Job Access with Speech (JAWS),which enables audio output of printed text, and in the text enlarging soft-ware, Zoomtext. The 7 original sites expanded to 11 digital mini-librariesin this province, with seven more being established. Nassimbeni and deJager (2014, p. 250) comment that when these mini-libraries were firstmooted for the rural areas, “many of the visually impaired reacted with dis-belief, thinking that libraries were the exclusive domain of the sighted andnothing to do with them … their lives have been enriched well beyondwhat might be expected from the provision of new library facilities andmaterials in rural areas.”
By 2013, seven sites had completed introductory training for staff, peo-ple with visual impairments and volunteers in KwaZulu-Natal. InMpumalanga, seven libraries had been selected as mini-library sites; distri-bution of DAISY players and reading materials had commenced, and train-ing was in the pipeline (Nassimbeni & de Jager, 2014). Overall 38 librarieshad established services for people with visual impairments as part ofSALB’s project in the Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga and Northern Cape.North West purchased equipment in preparation for establishing services inpublic libraries (South Africa, 2012/2013).
B. Gauteng Province Community Library and Information Servicesand Atteridgeville Community Library (M. Moroamodishi, personalcommunication, November 11, 2014; April 23, 2015; GautengProvince, n.d.)
Gauteng Province Community Library and Information Service renderslibrary services in partnership with municipalities. The Directorate, Libraryand Archival Services provides the policy and operational framework for233 community libraries. Municipalities are responsible for the operation oflibraries. The Directorate transfers funds to municipal libraries tostrengthen their ICT infrastructure, thereby enabling them to provide freeinternet access and computer access (Gauteng Province, n.d.).
The libraries focus on social cohesion and socio-economic development.All libraries provide educational support to students including resources,
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study space and literacy assistance. Unemployed youth can search and applyfor jobs and bursaries online. Libraries run library and reading outreach pro-grams via satellite services in old age homes, day care centers, prisons, hospi-tals and places of safety. Libraries have established library vegetable gardens aspart of a poverty alleviation program. Programs include reading competitions,pre-schooler pre-literacy skill sessions, spelling bees, and science literacy. Afamily literacy program targets mothers, helping them to integrate books intoa baby’s life. Poetry, public speaking, and debating competitions foster dra-matic performing and critical thinking skills (Gauteng Province, n.d.).
In May 2014, the Atteridgeville Library implemented a SkillsDevelopment Outreach program. Mahlodi Moroamodishi, the AtteridgevilleLibrarian, identified a need for skills development for youth. She organized anoutreach event in partnership with Projekt23 (2012) and National YouthDevelopment Agency (2014). Projekt23 aims to create environmental awarenessand sustainability and to promote entrepreneurship and business skills in youth.The program offered the youth training in skills related to farming, horticulture,business, business proposal writing skills, job hunting and readiness, career gui-dance, book writing, communication, entrepreneurship, project management,problem solving, and decision making. It also offered the youth bursaries to con-tinue their education and grant money to start their own business. This was afirst step toward the improvement of the youths’ socio-economic status, enablingthem to become “future trend-setters of whatever field they may pursue.”
A collaborative project of library staff and the Blink & Shine BookClub for Kids, the Rose Happy Elderly Care Project, devoted 67 minutes toa center for the elderly to celebrate Mandela Day in July, 2014. In the samemonth, the Atteridgeville Librarian visited Phelindaba High School whereshe trained the Saulsville Librarian and school library task team leaders inthe library system, providing a model school library policy. Later in Julythe librarians helped to establish a school library, assisting with training thetask team in cataloguing, shelving, cleaning books, membership, bar codingand labeling materials. A follow up meeting with the school was planned.
C. KwaZulu-Natal Provincial and Public Library and InformationServices, Mbazwana Community Library and eThekwini MunicipalLibraries (EML) (KwaZulu-Natal, 2013; S. Deoraj, personalcommunication, December 22, 2014)
In 2013, KwaZulu-Natal’s Department of Arts and Culture reported thatthey had funded 220 public libraries. In terms of the policy of provincializ-ing libraries the province would manage and control all new librariesdirectly. The eThekwini Metro also funds 45 public libraries. It receives
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conditional grant funding for library materials and ICT provision(KwaZulu-Natal, 2013).
The province provided ICT infrastructure, computer library assistantsor cyber cadets and internet access to 62 libraries. It installed internet cafesin eight more libraries in 2013. It offered free public access to ICT andinternet as well as assistance from cyber cadets. It extended the updatedautomated Sita Library Information Management System (SLIMS) to 42public libraries which provided access to wider resources. In addition itintroduced e-book access in libraries. A “Read and Grow” initiative for chil-dren provided support for reading and writing clubs in libraries. Sevenlibraries had implemented digital services to people with visual impair-ments. A poster program for youth targeting sexual and social pressures,substance abuse, and depression reached some one million youth in 2013.The program included Department of Health information and advice ses-sions and the distribution of pamphlets and book marks listing contactnumbers for youth crisis centers (KwaZulu-Natal, 2013).
This province uses mobile library buses to serve remote rural areas inthe short term. In 2013 four mobile library trucks and 22 mobile libraryunits became operational. Each truck has a collection of 5000 books, audiovisual material, toys, and three computers providing access to the internet.Video facilities enable the showing of digital versatile disks for children.Library assistants help users download government information and forms,and provide photocopying facilities. A generator provides power for lights,computers, sound systems and air conditioning. This service is popular withyouth (KwaZulu-Natal, 2013).
A deep rural library which opened at Mbazwana in 2012 was the firstlibrary to be totally under the Department’s control. It also functions as adepot and supplies books to more than 10 rural public libraries in the districtsof uMkhanyakude, Zululand, and Uthungulu. This library contributes toimproving the matriculation pass rate in the Umkhanyakude district, therebypotentially increasing the number of economically active people in the area. Alibrary to be built at Nkungumathe will be the first prototype study library,with a focus on space and facilities for distance learning students who arestudying at tertiary institutions. It will be equipped with internet access andappropriate library material. This province implements the national ExpandedPublic Works Program by drawing unemployed people into productive work,so that they gain skills while they work, and increase their capacity to earnfrom building libraries, museums, and arts centers (KwaZulu-Natal, 2013).
Situated in a large urban metropolitan area in KwaZulu-Natal,eThekwini Municipal Libraries have social cohesion programs which targetmarginalized communities and the elderly. The Central Library supports
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four creches for immigrant children in the central business district, provid-ing toys, books and other library materials. Two of these creches serveimmigrants from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the other twoserve Zimbabwe and Burundi immigrants respectively. A FrancophoneLibrary works with the Alliance Francaise to provide materials for French-speaking adults and children.
Branch libraries offer Business Corners for use by unemployed people.These include free internet access and the use of computers to create docu-ments and apply for jobs online, as well as a book collection on how todraw up resumes and so on.
VII. Conclusion and Recommendations
The chapter reviews evidence from local librarians and librarianship interna-tionally where services have focused on the public library’s role in socialinclusion. It identifies the drivers of social inclusion focusing on core aspectsof service: rural libraries, immigrants, people with disabilities, health infor-mation, food security, and on measures of the public library’s impact onsocial inclusion. It addresses the question of whether South African publiclibraries have relevance for local communities. It found evidence of manytypes of social inclusion initiatives.
Conditional grants funded the interventions to a large extent and the casestudies provide in-depth examples. The provinces give evidence of new andupgraded libraries which serve as hubs for public access to ICTs and informa-tion, including increasingly, people with visual impairments. Services fosteryouth skills acquisition, and assist with gaining employment. Initiativesaddress the elderly, immigrants, rural areas, literacy, numeracy and reading,science competency, food security, and entrepreneurship and livelihoods. Oneprovince provides health information and support to youth.
The chapter identified problematic funding issues and recommenda-tions for policy and practice are made. It identified corporate governanceissues and the wasting of funds for remedial action. Despite setbacks, theconditional grant system in South Africa goes some of the way towardimplementing Real et al.’s (2014) recommendation that the primary burdenfor public libraries be removed from stressed local governments by increas-ing state and federal contributions. The system of provincializing librariestakes this process further and assists struggling local communities on alonger term basis.
Although the system of grants has not been investigated systematically, itis clear that the grants have played a significant role in promoting social
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inclusion via public libraries. Provision to remote areas has improved greatly.More needs to be done in certain provinces, and in Limpopo, particularly, toachieve library and information services for all communities across the nineprovinces.
Problem areas are setting credible targets; managing the grant in someprovinces; project management skills; and stabilizing staffing with perma-nent appointments of suitably educated and trained librarians. The nationalDepartment of Arts and Culture has no information technology system tomonitor service delivery via the grants at provincial and local governmentlevels and this should be a priority.
In 2013/2014, the national Department of Arts and Culture spentZAR9.3 million on fruitless and wasteful expenditure (more than half of itnot declared) which calls for redress (PMG, 2013/2014). This amount wouldfund thousands of books, computers, and staff salaries. Library support forhealth and AIDS programs could be prioritized with the funds saved.
Collaborative efforts across several government departments couldaddress the difficulties experienced in the grant system. These are delaysfrom Departments of Public Works, needing alternative implementingagents, improved supplier delivery, and eradication of supply chain manage-ment delays (PMG, 2011/2012, 2013/2014).
The study offers an overview of social inclusion initiatives in SouthAfrica. More detailed, current information about public libraries and theirachievements is needed. Additional qualitative evidence would assist othersembarking on social inclusion initiatives. The annual reports are uneven incomprehensiveness, and difficult to compare. A national dataset on publiclibraries would enable quantitative and mixed methods research. In the con-text of worldwide austerity measures noted by Sigler et al. (2011) andGoulding (2013) the conditional grants offer a powerful example of what ispossible in a situation fraught with historical inequities. The chapter urgesfurther government support for the public library’s role in social inclusion,both locally and abroad.
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