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Comparing linguistic interpret ation schemes for English corpora

Eric ATWELL1, George DEMETRIOU2, John HUGHES3, Amanda SCHIFFRIN1, Clive SOUTER1, Sean WILCOCK1

1: School of Computer Studies, University of Leeds, LEEDS LS2 9JT, England; 2: Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, SHEFFIELD S1 4DP, England;

3:BT Laboratories, Adastral Park, Martlesham Heath, England EMAIL: [email protected]

WWW: http://www.scs.leeds.ac.uk/amalgam/

Abstr act

Project AMALGA M explored a range of Part-of-Speech tagsets and phrase structure parsing schemes used in modern English corpus-based research. The PoS-tagging schemes and parsing schemes include some which have been used for hand annotation of corpora or manual post-editing of automatic taggers or parsers; and others which are unedited output of a parsing program. Project deliverables include:

a detailed description of each PoS-tagging scheme, and multi-tagged corpus; a “Corpus-neutral” tokenization scheme; a family of PoS-taggers, for 8 PoS-tagsets; a method for “PoS-tagset conversion”, a sample of texts parsed according to a range of parsing schemes: a MultiTreebank; an Internet service allowing researchers worldwide free access to the above resources, including a simple email-based method for PoS-tagging any English text with any or all PoS-tagset(s).

We conclude that the range of tagging and parsing schemes in use is too varied to allow agreement on a standard; and that parser-evaluation based on ‘bracket-matching’ is unfair to more sophisticated parsers.

1. Introduction

The International Computer Archive of Modern and medieval English, ICAME, is an international research network focussing on English Corpus Linguistics, including the collation and linguistic annotation of English language corpora, and applications of these linguistically interpreted corpora. ICAME publishes an annual ICAME Journal (now in its

24th volume) and holds an annual ICAME conference (ICAME’2000, the 19th ICAME conference, was held in Sydney, Australia). Many English Corpus Linguistics projects reported in ICAME Journal and elsewhere involve grammatical analysis or tagging of English texts (eg Leech et al 1983, Atwell 1983, Booth 1985, Owen 1987, Souter 1989a, Benello et al 1989, O’Donoghue 1991, Belmore 1991, Kyto and Voutilainen 1995, Aarts 1996, Qiao and Huang 1998). Each new project reviewed existing tagging schemes, and chose which to adopt and/or adapt. The project AMALGAM (Automatic Mapping Among Lexico-Grammatical Annotation Models) has explored a range of Part-of-Speech tagsets and parsing schemes used in ICAME corpus-based research. The PoS-tagging schemes include: Brown (Greene and Rubin 1981), LOB (Atwell 1982, Johansson et al 1986), parts (man 1986), SEC (Taylor and Knowles 1988), POW (Souter 1989b), UPenn (Santorini 1990), LLC (Eeg-Olofsson 1991), ICE (Greenbaum 1993), and BNC (Garside 1996). The parsing schemes include some which have been used for hand annotation of corpora or manual post-editing of automatic parsers; and others which are unedited output of a parsing program.

2. Defining the PoS-tagging schemes

ICAME researchers have used a range of different PoS-tag annotation schemes or models. Table 1 shows how an example sentence from the IPSM Corpus (Sutcliffe et al 1996), ‘Select the text you want to protect’ , is tagged according to several alternative tagging schemes and vertically aligned.

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Table 1 . An example sentence tagged according to eight rival PoS-tagging schemes Br own ICE LL C L OB PARTS POW SEC UPe nn se lect VB V (mon tr,i mp) VA +0 V B a dj M VB VB th e AT A RT(d ef) TA A TI a rt DD ATI DT te xt NN N (com ,sin g) NC N N n oun H NN NN yo u PP SS P RON(pers ) RC P P2 p ron HP PP2 PRP want VB V (mon tr,p res) VA +0 V B v erb M VB VBP to TO P RTCL(to) PD T O v erb I TO TO pr otec t VB V (mon tr,i nfin ) VA +0 V B v erb M VB VB . . P UNC(per) . . . . . . As Corpus Linguists, we preferred to see the tagged corpus as definitive of the meanings and uses of tags in a tagset. We have compiled a detailed description of each PoS-tagging scheme, at a comparable level of detail for each Corpus annotation scheme: a list of PoS-tags with descriptions and example uses from the source Corpus. We have also compiled a multi-tagged corpus, a set of sample texts PoS-tagged in parallel with each PoS-tagset, and proofread by experts. We selected material from three quite different genres of English (see Table2): informal speech of London teenagers, from COLT, the Corpus of London Teenager English (Andersen and Stenstrom 1996); prepared speech for radio broadcasts, from SEC, the Spoken English Corpus (Taylor and Knowles 1988); and written

text in software manuals, from IPSM, the Industrial Parsing of Software Manuals corpus (Sutcliffe et al 1996).

3. A neutral tokenization scheme

An analysis of the different lexical tokenization rules used in the source Corpora has led us to a “Corpus-neutral” tokenization scheme, and consequent adjustments to the PoS-tagsets in our study to accept modified tokenization. The performance of the tagger could be improved by incorporating bespoke tokenisers for each scheme, but we have compromised by using only one for all schemes, to simplify comparisons. This results in errors of the kind exemplifi ed in Table 3, using examples from the POW scheme.

Table 2. Text sources for the multi-tagged corpus. Sentences Words Average Sentence Length London teenager speech (COLT) 60 407 6.8 Radio broadcasts (SEC) 60 2016 33.6 Software manuals (IPSM) 60 1016 16.9 Total: 180 3439 19.1

Table 3. Examples where the standardised tokenizer clashes with a specific tagging scheme (POW) Tokeniser/ Correct analysis Tagger Output in POW corpus Negatives are/OM n’t/OXN aren’t/OMN Encli tics where’s/H where/AXWH ’s/OM Possessives God’s/HN God/HN ’s/G Expressions for/P example/H for-example/A have/M to/I have-to/X

(similarly for set-up, as-well-as, so-that, next-to, Edit/Copy, Drag & Drop, Options... etc.

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4. The mult i-tagger: a family of PoS-taggers

We trained a publicly-available machine learning system, the Brill tagger (Bril l, 1993), to re-tag according to all of the schemes we are working with. As the Brill tagger was the sole automatic annotator for the project we achieved greater consistency. The Brill system is first given a tagged corpus as a training set, from which it extracts a lexicon and two sets of non-stochastic rules: contextual, indicating which tag should be chosen in the context of other tags or words, and lexical, used to guess the tag for words which are not found in the lexicon. Table 4 shows the model size gleaned from each

training set, and accuracy of the re-trained Brill tager on 10,000 words from the source Corpus. The most common errors (as a percentage of all errors for that scheme), are listed in Table 5. A more realistic evaluation of tagger accuracy across a range of text types was derived in building the multi-tagged corpus, after the outputs of the multi-tagger were proof-read and post-edited by experts in each scheme. Table 6 shows the accuracy of each tagger for the multi-tagged corpus. Al l the tagging schemes performed significantly worse on this test material than they did on their training material, which indicates how non-generic they are.

Table 4. Model size and accuracy of the re-trained Bril l multi-tagger Tagger Lexicon Context Rules Lexical Rules Accuracy % Brown 53113 215 141 97.43 ICE 8305 339 128 90.59 LLC 4772 253 139 93.99 LOB 50382 220 94 95.55 Unix Parts 2842 36 93 95.8 POW 3828 170 109 93.44 SEC 8226 206 141 96.16 Upenn 93701 284 148 97.2 Table 5. The most common PoS-tagging errors. Brown VBN/VBD 14.6% JJ/NN 4.9% NN/VB 4.2% ICE V(cop,pres,encl)/V(intr,pres,encl) 4.1% ADJ/N(prop,sing) 3.1% PUNC(oquo)/PUNC(cquo) 2.6% LLC PA/AC 4.1% PA/AP 2.7% RD/CD 2.7% LOB IN/CS 5.8% TO/IN 4.1% VBN/VBD 4% POW AX/P 4.3% OX/OM 2.9% P/AX 2.5% SEC TO/IN 6.3% JJ/RB 5.6% JJ/VB 4.8%

Table 6. Accuracy found after manual proof-reading of multi-tagged corpus TAGSET TOTAL IPSM60 COLT60 SEC60 Brown 94.3 94.3 87.7 95.6 Upenn 93.1 91.6 88.7 94.6 ICE 89.6 87.0 85.3 91.8 Parts (Unix) 86.7 89.9 82.3 86.0 LLC 86.6 86.9 84.3 87.0 POW 86.4 87.6 87.7 85.4

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5. Mapping between tagging schemes

To re-tag the old parts of speech of a corpus with a new scheme of another, we apply our tagger to just the words of the corpus. This might appear to be ‘cheating’; but earlier experiments with devising a set of mapping rules from one tagset to another (Hughes and Atwell 1994, Atwell et al 1994, Hughes et al 1995) concluded that one-to-many and many-to-many mappings predominated over simple one-to-one (and many-to-one) mappings, resulting in more errors than the apparently naïve approach of ignoring the source tags.

6. Comparing tagging schemes

The descriptions of each tagset and multitagged corpus on our website enable corpus-based comparisons between the tagsets. However, quantitative measures are not straightforward. As a simple metric, consider the number of tags in the tagset: this is generally not as simple as it first seems. Most tagsets use tags which are actually a combination of features; this is clearest in ICE (eg N(com,sing) for singular common noun), but is also implicit in other tagsets (eg LOB NN is also singular common noun, in contrast with NNS plural common noun, and NP singular proper noun). Our website lists all the tags occurring in the multitagged corpus, but this does not include rare but possible feature-combinations which happen not to occur in the corpus (eg ICE has a tag for plural numbers (as in three fifths) which is not used in our corpus). Also, Brown and Upenn tagsets have some tags which are two ‘basic’ tags combined. In Brown, these tags are for enclitic or fused wordforms (eg I’ d PPSS+HVD , whaddya WDT+DO+PPS); in UPenn, these tags are for words whose analysis is ambiguous or indeterminate (eg entertaining JJ|VBG = adjective|verb-ing-form). A general observation is that tagsets developed later in time were designed to be ‘i mprovements’ on earlier tagsets; for example, LOB and UPenn tagsets designers took Brown as a starting-point. So an informal ranking based on age (as given by definitive references) is: Brown (Greene and Rubin 1981), parts (man 1986), LOB (Atwell 1982,

Johansson et al 1986), SEC (Taylor and Knowles 1988), POW (Souter 1989b), UPenn (Santorini 1990), LLC (Eeg-Olofsson 1991), ICE (Greenbaum 1993). The ICE tagset is the only one to incorporate explicit features or subcategories, making it more readily digestible by non-expert users : informal feedback from users of our multi-tagger suggests that linguists (and others) find it easier to use tags like N(com,sing) than NN, since the division into major category and features in brackets is more intuitive. Another class of users of tagged texts are Machine Learning researchers, who want tagged text to train a learning algorithm, but want a small tagset to reduce the problem space; another advantage of the ICE tagset is that it is easy to reduce the tagset to major categories only by ignoring the bracketed features.

7. A Mult iTreebank

The differences between English corpus annotation schemes are much greater between parsing schemes for full syntactic structure annotation than they are at word class level. The following are parses of the sentence ‘Select the text you want to protect.’ according to the parsing schemes of several English parsed corpora or treebanks:

==> ENGCG-BankOfEnglish <== "select" <*> V IMP VFIN @+FMAINV "the" DET CENTRAL ART SG/PL @DN> "text" N NOM SG @OBJ "you" PRON PERS NOM SG2/PL2 @SUBJ "want" V PRES -SG3 VFIN @+FMAINV "to" INFMARK> @INFMARK> "protect" V INF @-FMAINV "<$.>"

==> L-ATR <== [start [sprpd1 [sprime1 [sc3 [v2 Select_VVIOPTATIVE [nbarq14 [nbar4 [d1 the_AT d1] [n1a text_NN1MESSAGE n1a] nbar4] [sd1 [nbar6 you_PPY nbar6] [vbar1 [v33 want_VVOMENTAL-ACT [vibar1 to_TO [v1 protect_VVIHELP v1] vibar1] v33] vbar1] sd1] nbarq14] v2] sc3] sprime1] ._. sprpd1] start]

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==> LOB-TREEBANK <== [S[V[VB[ select ]VB]V] [Ns[ATI[ the ]ATI][NN[ text ]NN][Fr[N[PP2[ you ]PP2]N][V[VB[ want ]VB]V] [Ti[Vi[ TO[ to ]TO][VB[ protect ]VB]Vi] Ti]Fr]Ns][.[ . ].]S]

==> POW <== Z CL 1 M SELECT 1 C NGP 2 DD THE 2 H TEXT 2 Q CL 3 S NGP HP YOU 3 M WANT 3 C CL 4 I TO 4 M PROTECT 1 ? .

==> SEC <== [V Select_VV0 [N the_AT text_NN1 [Fr[N you_PPY N][V want_VV0 [Ti to_TO protect_VV0 Ti]V]Fr]N]V] ._.

==> SUSANNE <== VV0t Select select [O[S*[V.V] AT the the [Ns:o101. NN1n text text . PPY you you[Fr[Ny:s103.Ny:s103] VV0v want want [V.V] YG - - [Ti:o[s103.s103] TO to to [Vi. VV0t protect protect .Vi] YG — - [o101.o101]Ti:o]Fr]Ns:o101]S*] YF +. - O] There ae two main approaches to format : one word per line, with parsing annotations (ENGCG, SUSANNE), aimed at human proofreaders, to make it easier to scan parses and correct errors; and tree-structure captured via lisp-like bracketting (L-ATR, LOB-TREEBANK, SEC, POW), assuming the textfile is processed by a tree-viewing program for human end-user consumption. The POW format uses a numerical code capable of capturing crossing branches, but in principle encodes the phrase structure. There is even greater diversity in the parsing schemes (and formats) used in alternative NLP parsing programs. The example sentence was actually selected from a test-set used at the Industrial Parsing of Software Manuals workshop (Sutcliffe et al 1996); it is one of the shortest test sentences, which one might presume to be one of the most grammatically straightforward and uncontroversial. The following are outputs of several rival NLP

parsing programs, given the example sentence to parse:

==> alice <== Fragment No. 1 >From 0 To 5 (SENT (SENT-MOD (UNK-CAT "Select") (NP (DET "the") (NOUN "text"))) (SENT (VP-ACT (NP "you") (V-TR "want")) (NP NULL-PHON))) Fragment No. 2 >From 5 To 7 (SENT-MOD (UNK-CAT "to") (NP "protect"))

==> despar <== VB select 1 --> 8 - DT the 2 --> 3 [ NN text 3 --> 1 + OBJ PP you 4 --> 5 " SUB VBP want 5 --> 3 ] TO to 6 --> 7 - VB protect 7 --> 5 - . . 8 --> 0 -

==> principar_constituency <== (S (VP (Vbar (V (V_NP (V_NP Select) (NP (Det the) (Nbar (N text) (CP Op[1] (Cbar (IP (NP (Nbar (N you))) (Ibar (VP (Vbar (V (V_CP (V_CP want) (CP (Cbar (IP PRO (Ibar (Aux to) (VP (Vbar (V (V_NP (V_NP protect) t[1])))))))))))))))))))))) .)

==> principar_dependency <== ( (Select ~ V_NP *) (the ~ Det < text spec) (text ~ N > Select comp1) (you ~ N < want subj) (want ~ V_CP > text rel)

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(to ~ I > want comp1) (protect ~ V_NP > to pred) (. ) )

==> ranlp <== (VP/NP select (N2+/DET1a the (N2- (N1/INFMOD (N1/RELMOD1 (N1/N text) (S/THATLESSREL (S1a (N2+/PRO you) (VP/NP want (TRACE1 E))))) (VP/TO to (VP/NP protect (TRACE1 E)))))))

==> sextant <== 134 ------------------ Select the text you want to protect . 134 VP 101 Select select INF 0 0 134 NP 2 the the DET 1 1 2 (text) DET 134 NP* 2 text text NOUN 2 1 0 (select) DOBJ 134 NP* 3 you you PRON 3 0 134 VP 102 want want INF 4 0 134 VP 102 to to TO 5 0 134 VP 102 protect protect INF 6 1 3 (you) SUBJ 134 -- 0 . . . 7 0 This sentence is part of our multi-parsed corpus or MultiTreebank (Atwell 1996). The parsing schemes exemplified in our MultiTreebank include some which have been used for hand annotation of corpora or manual post-editing of automatic parsers: EPOW (O’Donoghue 1991), ICE (Greenbaum 1992), POW (Souter 1989a,b), SEC (Taylor and Knowles 1988), and UPenn (Marcus et al 1993). Linguist experts in each of these corpus annotation schemes kindly provided us with their parsings of the 60 IPSM sentences. Others are unedited output of parsing programs: Ali ce (Black and Neal 1996),

Carroll/Briscoe Shallow Parser (Briscoe and Carroll 1993), DESPAR (Ting and Shiuan 1996), ENGCG (Karlsson et al 1995, Voutilainen and Jarvinen 1996), Grammatik (WordPerfect 1998), Link (Sleator and Temperley 1991, Sutcliff e and McElligott 1996), PRINCIPAR (Lin 1994, 1996), RANLP (Osborne 1996), SEXTANT (Grefenstette 1996), and TOSCA (Aarts et al 1996, Oostdijk 1996). Language Engineering researchers working with these systems kindly provided us with their parsings of the 60 IPSM sentences. The MultiTreebank illustrates the diversity of parsing schemes available for modern English language corpus annotation. The (EAGLES 1996) guidelines recognise layers of syntactic annotation, which form a hierarchy of importance. None of the parsing schemes included here contains all the layers (a-h, in Table 7 below). Different parsers annotate with different subsets of the hierarchy.

7. Website and e-mail tagging service

The multi-tagged corpus, multiTreebank, tagging scheme definitions and other documentation are available on our website. Email your English text to [email protected], and it wil l be automatically processed by the multi-tagger, and then the output is mailed back to you. Users can select any or all of the eight schemes (Brown, ICE, LLC,LOB, Parts, POW, SEC, UPenn). The tagged text is returned one email reply message per scheme. A verbose mode can also be selected, which gives the long name for each tag as well as its short form in the output file.

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Table 7. Evaluation of MultiTreebank parse schemes in terms of EAGLES layers of syntactic annotation : (a) Bracketing of segments (b) Labelli ng of segments (c) Showing dependency relations (d) Indicating functional labels (e) Marking sub-classification of syntactic segments (f) Deep or ‘logical’ information (g) Information about the rank of a syntactic unit (h) Special syntactic characteristics of spoken language Parse Scheme EAGLES layer a b c d e f g h Score ALICE yes yes no no no no no no 2

CARROLL yes yes no no no no no no 2 DESPAR no no yes no no no no no 1 ENGCG no no yes yes yes no no no 3 EPOW yes yes no yes no no no yes 4 GRAMMATIK yes yes no yes no no no no 3 ICE yes yes no yes yes no no yes 5 LINK no no yes yes no no no no 2 POW yes yes no yes no yes no yes 5 PRINCIPAR yes yes yes no no yes yes no 5 RANLT yes yes no no no yes yes no 4 SEC yes yes no no yes no no yes 4 SEXTANT yes yes yes yes no no no no 4 TOSCA yes yes no yes yes yes no yes 6 UPENN yes yes no no no No no no 2 The service has been running since December 1996, and usage is logged on our website; up to December 1999, it processed 19,839 email messages containing over 628 megabytes of text. The most popular schemes are LOB, UPenn, Brown, ICE, and SEC (in that order), with relatively little demand for parts, LLC, and POW; this reflects the popularity of the source corpora in the Corpus Linguistics community. Apart from obvious uses in linguistic analysis, English language teaching and learning, and teaching Natural Language Processing and Artifi cial Intelligence university students, some unforeseen applications have been found, e.g. in using the tags to aid data compression of English text (Teahan 1998); and as a guide in the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence (Elliott and Atwell 2000, Elliott et al 2000).

8. Conclusions

NLP researchers have not agreed a standard lexico-grammatical annotation model for English, so the AMALGAM project has investigated a range of alternative schemes. We have trained a ‘machine learning’ tagger with several lexico-grammatical annotation models, to enable it to annotate according to several rival modern English languge corpus Part-of-Speech tagging schemes. Our main achievements are: Software: PoS-taggers trained to annotate text according to several rival lexico-grammatical annotation models, accessible over the Internet via email. Data-sets: a multi-tagged corpus and multi-treebank, a corpus of English text where each sentence is annotated according to several rival

7

lexico-grammatical annotation models. We have also collected together definitions of eight major English corpus word-tagging schemes. All are available over the Internet via WWW. We conclude that there is still work to be done on agreeing a truly generic PoS-tagging scheme; and that it is not possible, to map between all parsing schemes. Unlike the tagging schemes, it does not make sense to make an application-independent comparative evaluation. No single standard can be applied to all parsing projects. Even the presumed lowest common denominator, bracketing, is rejected by some corpus linguists and dependency grammarians. The guiding factor in what is included in a parsing scheme appears to be the author’s theoretical persuasion or the application they have in mind.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for funding this research project. We are also indebted to the numerous researchers worldwide who helped us by providing advice, data, and documentation, and by proofreading the multi-tagged Corpus and MultiTreebank. This COLING Workshop paper is an an abridged version of a full paper published in ICAME Journal, (Atwell et al 2000); we are grateful for the Journal’s permission to present our findings to this complementary Workshop audience. To get the full ICAME Journal paper, see http://www.hd.uib.no/icame/journal.html

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The I talian Syntactic-Semantic Treebank: Architecture,Annotation, Tools and Evaluation

1] S. Montemagni, F. Barsotti, M. Battista, N. Calzolar i, O. Corazzar i, A. ZampolliILC-CNR / CPR, Pisa (Italy)

2] F. Fanciulli, M. Massetani, R. RaffaelliSynthema, Pisa (Italy)

3] R. Basili, M.T. Pazienza, D. Saracino, F. Zanzotto"Tor Vergata" University / CERTIA, Roma (Italy)

4] N. Mana, F. PianesiITC-IRST, Trento (Italy)

5] R. DelmonteVenezia University / CVR, Venezia (Italy)

Abstract

The paper reports on a multi-layered corpus ofItalian, annotated at the syntactic and lexico-semantic levels, whose development issupported by a dedicated software augmentedwith an intelligent interface. The issue ofevaluating this type of resource is alsoaddressed.

Introduction

It is nowadays widely acknowledged thatlinguistically annotated corpora have a crucialtheoretical as well as applicative role in NaturalLanguage Processing. Italian still lacks such aresource. The paper describes a large scale effortto provide Italian with a multi-level annotatedcorpus, the Italian Syntactic-Semantic Treebank(henceforth referred to as ISST). Evaluation ofISST is foreseen in the framework of a machinetranslation application. Specifically developedsoftware, including an intelligent interface,supports both annotation and evaluationactivities.ISST - which represents one of the main actionsof an ongoing Italian national project, SI-TAL1 -is developed by a consortium of companies andcomputational l inguistics sites in Italy (seeauthor's affiliations above). 1], 4] and 5] are incharge of the annotation, 3] of the design and

1 SI-TAL is a joint enterprise leading towards anintegrated suite of tools and resources for ItalianNatural Language Processing, funded by the ItalianMinistery of Science and Research (MURST) andcoordinated by the Consorzio Pisa Ricerche (CPR).

construction of the annotation software and 2] ofthe evaluation of the developed resource.Expected uses for ISST range from NaturalLanguage Processing tasks (such as InformationRetrieval, Word Sense Disambiguation,linguistic knowledge acquisition) to training(and/or tuning) of grammars and sensedisambiguation systems, to the evaluation oflanguage technology systems. ISST also promisesto contribute to the start up of commercialsystems for Italian processing. Last but not least,although annotated corpora are typically builtand used in research and applicative contexts,their potential for teaching purposes has also tobe emphasised; see, for instance, their use in theclassroom for teaching syntax at NijmegenUniversity (Van Halteren 1997).The final and tested version of ISST will beavailable in year 2001. Currently, the annotationphase is started, based on the linguisticguidelines and the annotation software whichhave just been released; yet, initial specificationsremain subject to extensions and furtherrefinements on the basis of feedback comingfrom the annotation process (e.g. emergencefrom the corpus of linguistic phenomena not yetcovered by the specifications).

1 Architecture of ISST

ISST has a three-level structure ranging oversyntactic and semantic levels of linguisticdescription. Syntactic annotation is distributedover two different levels, namely the constituentstructure level and the functional relations level:constituent structure is annotated in terms ofphrase structure trees reflecting the ordered

18

arrangement of words and phrases within thesentence, whereas functional annotationprovides a characterisation of the sentence interms of grammatical functions (i.e. subject,object, etc.). The third level deals with lexico-semantic annotation, which is carried out here interms of sense tagging augmented with othertypes of semantic information. The threeannotation levels are independent of each other,and all refer to the same input, namely amorpho-syntactically annotated (i.e. pos-tagged)text which is linked to the orthographic file withthe text and mark-up of macrotextualorganisation (e.g. titles, subtitles, summary,body of article, paragraphs). The final resourcewill be available in XML coding.The multi-level structure of ISST shows twomain novelties with respect to other treebanks:• it combines within the same resource

syntactic and lexico-semantic annotations,thus creating the prerequisites for corpus-based investigations on the syntax-semanticsinterface (e.g. on the semantic typesassociated with functional positions of agiven predicate, or on specificsubcategorisation properties associated with aspecific word sense);

• it adopts a distributed approach to syntacticannotation which presents several advantageswith respect both to the representation of thesyntactic properties of a language like Italian(e.g. its highly free constituent order) and tothe compatibility with a wide range ofapproaches to syntax.

2 ISST input

2.1 Corpus composition

ISST corpus consists of about 300,000 wordtokens reflecting contemporary language use. Itincludes two different sections: 1) a "balanced"corpus, testifying general language usage, for atotal of about 210,000 tokens; 2) a specialisedcorpus, amounting to 90,000 tokens, with textsbelonging to the financial domain.The balanced corpus contains a selection ofarticles from different types of Italian texts,namely newspapers (La Repubblica and IlCorr iere della Sera) and a number of differentperiodicals which were selected to cover a highvariety of topics (politics, economy, culture,science, health, sport, leisure, etc.). The financial

corpus includes articles taken from Il Sole-24Ore. All in all, they cover a 10 year time period(1985-1995).

2.2 Morpho-syntactic annotation

Syntactic and lexico-semantic annotation takesas input the morpho-syntactically annotated text.Morpho-syntactic annotation was previouslycarried out at ILC in the framework of theEuropean projects PAROLE (Goggi et al. 1997)and ELSNET (Monachini and Corazzari 1995).The text was automatically tagged; the outputwas manually revised by a team of linguists. Theadopted morpho-syntactic tagset conforms to theEAGLES international standard (Monachini andCalzolari 1996).Annotation at this level involves identificationof morphological words with specification ofpart of speech, lemma, and morho-syntacticfeatures such as number, person, gender, etc.Morphological words typically stand in a one-to-one relation with orthographic words with twoexceptions, namely: i) the case of more than onemorphological word which forms part of thesame orthographic word (as in the case ofcliticized words, e.g. dammelo 'give+to_me+it');ii) the case of more than one orthographic wordwhich make up a single morphological word nototherwise decomposable (as in the case of multi-word expressions such as ad_hoc, al_di_là'beyond', fino_a 'up_to').

3 ISST annotation schemata

3.1 General requirements

The design of each individual annotation schemaunderlying ISST and their interrelations areintended to fit a li st of basic requirementsfollowing directly from the typology of foreseenuses. They include:a) usabil ity in both real applications and

research purposes;b) compatibility with different approaches to

syntax, both dependency- and constituency-based, either adopted in theoretical orapplicative frameworks;

c) applicability on a wide scale, in a coherentand replicable way;

d) applicability to both written and spokenlanguage (this requirement does not apply tothe actual ISST but it is foreseen in view of

19

possible resource extensions to spokenlanguage data).

Within ISST, requirements a) and b) are satisfiedby distributing the annotation over differentlevels (mainly for what concerns syntacticannotation) and, for each level, by factoring outdifferent information types according todifferent dimensions.Different strategies are pursued to meetrequirement c). This is achieved at the level ofindividual annotation schemes by first providingwide coverage and detailed annotation criteriaand then by avoiding as much as possiblearbitrary annotation decisions (i.e. uncertaintycases are preferably dealt with throughunderspecification or disjunction over differentinterpretations). c) has also consequences on therelationship between different annotation levels:redundancy is avoided as much as possible; i.e. agiven information type has to be specified onlyonce, at the relevant annotation level (e.g.grammatical relations such as subject and objectare only specified at the functional level).Finally, d) is guaranteed by the independence ofsyntactic annotation levels: spoken data, whichare typically fraught with ellipses, anacolutha,syntactic incompleteness and other relateddisfluency phenomena cannot be easilyrepresented in terms of constituency. Bycontrast, the level of functional analysis - whichin ISST has an independent status - naturallyreflects a somewhat standardised representation,since it abstracts away from the surfacerealisation of syntactic units in a sentence, thusbeing relatively independent of disfluencyphenomena and incomplete phrases.

3.2 Syntactic annotation

Most treebanks, currently available or underconstruction for different languages, adopt aunique syntactic representation layer, followingeither a costituency-based approach (see, amongmany others, Marcus et al. 1993, Sampson 1995,Greenbaum 1996, Sandoval et al. 1999) or adependency-based one (e.g. Karlsson et al.1995), or a hybrid one combining features ofboth (e.g. Brants et al. 1999, Abeil lé et al. 2000).ISST departs from all of them since it adopts amulti-level structure.To our knowledge, the only multi-level treebankis the Prague Dependency Treebank (PTD,Bémová et al. 1999), but in this case the

different annotation levels refer respectively toa) the surface dependency relations and b) theunderlying sentence structure. By contrast, ISSTadopts a monostratal view of syntax, and thusboth syntactic annotation levels are ratherintended to provide orthogonal views of thesame surface syntax. These views, thoughcomplementary, are developed independently ofeach other.This bi-level approach to syntacticrepresentation is particularly suited to deal witha language like Italian, which allows forconsiderable variation in the ordering ofconstituents at the sentence level. In fact, bydecoupling functional information from theconstituent structure, the treatment of wordorder variation does not interfere in any waywith the representation of functional relations,i.e. the encoding of the latter becomes entirelyseparate from the order of contituents in thesentence.

3.2.1 Constituency annotationIn ISST, constituency annotation departs fromother constituency-based syntactic annotationschemes (e.g. the one adopted in the PennTreebank) in a number of respects, due to: a) thepeculiarities of Italian as a free constituent orderlanguage; b) the distributed organisation ofsyntactic annotation in ISST.Constituency annotation in ISST

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uses aninventory of 22 constituent types (see tablebelow). Specialized constituent names are usedfor a number of complements or adjuncts, inorder to help the mapping with functionalannotation.

Consttype

Meaning Classif

F sentence structuralSN noun phrase, including its

complements and/or adjunctssubstantial

SA adjectival phrase, including itscomplements and/or adjuncts

lexical

SP prepositional phrase lexicalSPD prepositional phrase di 'of' lexicalSPDA prepositional phrase da 'by,

from'lexical

SAVV adverbial phrase, including itscomplements and/or adjuncts

substantial

IBAR verbal nucleus with finite tenseand all adjoined elements likecliti cs, adverbs and negation

substantial

SV2 infinitival clause substantialSV3 participial clause substantialSV5 gerundive clause substantial

Consttype

Meaning Classif

FAC sentential complement lexicalFC Coordinate sentence (also

elli psed and gapped)lexical

FS Subordinate sentence lexicalFINT +wh interrogative sentence lexicalFP punctuation marked,

parenthetical or appositionalsentence

lexical

F2 relative clause lexicalCP dislocated or fronted sentential

adjunctsstructural

COORD Coordination withcoordinating conjunction ashead

lexical

COMPT Transitive/Passive/Ergative/Reflexive Complement

structural

COMPIN Intransitive/UnaccusativeComplement

structural

COMPC Copulative/PredicativeComplement

structural

From the point of view of their relations tofunctional labelling, syntactic constituents aredivided up into two main subgroups (see column3 of the table above): functional constituents andsubstantial constituents. This subdivisionreflects theoretical assumptions which arederived from the Lexical Functional Grammartheory. In particular, functional constituents areinternally subdivided into structural constituents(used to set complements apart) and lexicalconstituents (headed by a lexical head with orwithout semantic content). Structuralconstituents also contain F and CP where F hasthe task of indicating the canonical sententialconstituent and CP indicates the presence ofsentential adjuncts, or some discontinuity in theutterance.At the same time, the fact that in ISST functionalrelations are dealt with at a distinct level insteadof being defined in terms of constituentstructures allows ISST to dispense with emptyelements such as null subjects or traces, thusmaking annotation more intelligible. In fact, therelevant information is recovered at thefunctional level, through a relation linking thedisplaced element to its head. Therefore,syntactic phenomena such as pro-drop, ellipsisas well as cases of discontinuous or noncanonical order of constituents (topicalisation,wh-questions, etc.) are not accounted for interms of empty categories and coindexation ase.g. in the Penn Treebank but rather at thefunctional annotation level.

Constituency annotation of ISST is worked out ina semi-automatic way. First, the text is parsed bya Shallow Parser (Delmonte 1999, 2000) whosetask is that of building shallow syntacticstructures for each safely recognizableconstituent. In uncertainty cases, no attachmentis performed at this stage in order to avoid beingcommitted to structural decisions which mightthen reveal themselves to be wrong. In fact, it ispreferable to perform some readjustmentoperations after structures have been built ratherthan introducing errors from the start. Then, theoutput of the shallow parser is manually revisedand corrected.

3.2.2 Functional annotationFunctional annotation in ISST is carried out bymarking relations between words belonging tomajor lexical classes only (i.e. non-auxiliaryverbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs),independently of previous identification ofphrasal constituents. Advantages of this choiceinclude, on the theoretical front, the fact thatISST can be used as a reference resource for awider variety of different annotation schemes,both constituency- and dependency-based ones(Lin 1998). Moreover, on the applicative side,head-based functional annotation iscomparatively easy and "fair" to be used forparsing evaluation since it overcomes some ofthe well-known shortcomings of constituency-based evaluation (see, among others, Carroll etal. 1998, Sampson 1998, Lin 1998). Last but notleast, head-based functional annotation isnaturally i) multi-lingual, as functional relationsprobably represent the most significant level ofsyntactic analysis at which cross-languagecomparability makes sense, and ii ) multi-modal,since it permits comparable annotation of bothspoken and written language.FAME (Lenci et al. 1999, 2000) is theannotation scheme (originally developed in theSPARKLE project LE-2111 and then revised inthe framework of ELSE LE4-8340) adopted forfunctional annotation in ISST, which has beenrevised and integrated to make it suitable forannotation of unrestricted Italian texts. Thebuilding blocks of FAME are functionalrelations, further subdivided into dependencyrelations and other relation types dealing withcoordination phenomena and clause-internal co-referential bonds. Only the former are describedbelow for sake of paper length.

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A dependency relation is an asymmetric binaryrelation between full words, respectively a headand a dependent. Each dependency relation isexpressed as follows:

dep_type (lex_head.<head_features>, dependent.<dep_features>)

where dep_type specifies the relationshipholding between the lexical head and itsdependent. At this level, either the head or thedependent can correspond to elliptical material;this makes it possible to deal with pro-dropphenomena and other types of ellipticalconstructions.Dep_types are hierarchically structured to makeprovision for underspecified representations ofhighly ambiguous functional analyses (seeabove). The typology of dependency relations,hierarchically organized, is given below.

dependencyendency

subject complement

modifier argument

predicative non-predicative

direct_object indirect_object oblique_object

In the proposed scheme a crucial role is playedby the features associated with the elements ofthe relation, which complement relationalinformation. Features convey, for instance,information about the grammatical word(preposition or conjunction) which possiblyintroduces the dependent in a given relation, orabout the open/closed predicative function ofclausal dependents (in this way controlinformation is also encoded).Functional annotation in ISST is thus modularlyrepresented, i.e. it is structured into relationaland feature information, each factoring outdifferent but interrelated facets of functionalannotation. This modular representationprovides the prerequisites for ISST to be used asa reference annotation scheme which iscompatible with a wide range of theories andthus mappable onto different syntacticrepresentation formats (for more details on theintertranslatability of FAME into other syntacticrepresentation formats see Lenci et al. 1999,2000).

Annotation at the functional level is carried outmanually.

3.2.3 Annotation examplesThe sketchy description of the syntacticannotation schemes provided above iscomplemented here with annotation examples.The two ISST syntactic annotation levels, theconstituent structure and the functional ones, aredeveloped independently; in spite of this fact,they are strictly interrelated and complementeach other.In order to show the peculiarities of the twoannotation levels and their interrelations, let usconsider the ISST annotation of the followingItalian sentence, Giovanni sembra arrivaredomani 'John seems to arrive tomorrow':

� Constituent structure annotationf-[ sn-[Giovanni],

ibar-[sembra],sv2-[arrivare,

savv-[domani]]]

� Functional annotationsogg (sembrare, Giovanni)arg (sembrare,

arrivare.<status= aperto>)mod (arrivare, domani)sogg (arrivare, Giovanni)

Note that the subject relation holding betweenarr ivare and Giovanni in the functionalannotation does not find an explicit counterpartat the level of constituent structurerepresentation since subject raising is not treatedat that level.Depending on the expected uses, the twoannotation layers can be accessed and examinedindependently. However, due to thecomplementarity of the information contained inthem, combined views on the developedresource can also be obtained. For instance,projection of functional information onto theconstituent structure results as follows:

f-[ sn-sogg[Giovanni],ibar-[sembra],sv2-arg[arrivare,

savv-mod[domani]]]

where each constituent category is marked,whenever possible, with a functional tag. This isone of the many possible combined views which

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can be obtained on the ISST syntacticallyannotated corpus.

3.3 Lexico-semantic annotation

3.3.1 BasicsThe strategy set-up for annotation at this leveltakes advantage of two previous experiments ofsemantic tagging carried out at ILC in theframework of the SENSEVAL initiative (Calzolariet al., forthcoming) and of the ELSNET resourcestask group activity (Corazzari et al., 2000).In ISST, lexico-semantic annotation consists inthe assignment of semantic tags, expressed interms of attribute/value pairs, to full words orsequences of words corresponding to a singleunit of sense (e.g. compounds, idioms). Inparticular, annotation is restricted to nouns,verbs and adjectives and corresponding multi-word expressions.ISST semantic tags convey three different typesof information:1) sense of the target word(s) in the specific

context: ItalWordNet (henceforth, IWN) isthe reference lexical resource used for thesense tagging task (CPR et al., 2000). IWN,developed from the EuroWordNet lexicon(Alonge et al. 1998), includes two parts, ageneral one and a specialized one withfinancial and computational terminology;

2) other types of lexico-semantic informationnot included in the reference lexical resource,e.g. for marking of f igurative uses;

3) information about the tagging operation,mainly notes by the human annotator aboutproblematic annotation cases.

Note that through the taxonomical organisationof IWN word senses an implicit assignment ismade to the semantic types of the IWNontology. In this way, ISST sense tagging canalso be seen as semantic tagging.Starting from the assumption that senses do notalways correspond to single lexical items, thefollowing typology of annotation units isidentified and distinguished in ISST:us: sense units corresponding to single lexical

items (either nouns, verbs or adjectives);usc: semantically complex units expressed in

terms of multi-word expressions (e.g.compounds, support verb constructions,idioms);

ust: title sense units corresponding to titles ofany type (of newspapers, books, shows, etc.).Titles receive a two-level annotation: at thelevel of individual components and as asingle title unit.

3.3.2 Annotation criteriaEach annotation unit is tagged with the relevantsense according to IWN sense distinctions. Inorder to meet requirement c) in section 3.1above, arbitrary sense assignments, which mayoccur when more than one IWN sense applies tothe context being tagged, are avoided by meansof underspecification (expressed in terms ofdisjunction/conjunction over different IWNsenses).The other lexico-semantic tags allow to mark:• a us or usc used in a metaphoric or

methonymic or more generally in a figurativesense: e.g. la molla di una simile violenza'the spring of such a violence' where molla isused in a metaphoric sense. The distinctionbetween lexicalized and non lexicalizedfigurative usages can be inferred from theassigned IWN sense: non lexicalizedfigurative uses are linked to the literal sense;

• a us semantically modified throughevaluative suffixation (e.g. appartamentino'small flat', concertone 'big concert');

• the semantic type (i.e. human entity, artifact,institution, location, etc.) of proper nouns,either us (e.g. pds 'the pds party' issemantically tagged as a 'group') or usc (e.g.Corno d’Africa 'the Horn of Africa' isassigned the sematic type of 'place');

• the usc subtype, e.g. compound (e.g. prestitoobbligazionario 'loan stock'), idiom (e.g.mettere i puntini sulle i 'to dot one’s i’s'),support verb construction (e.g. dare aiuto 'togive assistance');

• the ust subtype, i.e. title of an opera (e.g. Ilbarbiere di Siviglia), of a newspaper (e.g. LaNazione) or of something else.

In this way, the annotated corpus provides morethan a list of instantiations of the senses attestedin the reference lexical resource. Through theadded value of this additional information, theannotated corpus becomes a repository ofinteresting semantic information going fromtitles and proper nouns to non-lexicalizedmetaphors, metonymies and evaluative

23

suffixation, and in general to non-conventionaluses of a word.Finally, notes about the tagging operation aremainly used to ease and speed up the annotationprocess and its revision: the human annotatorcan keep track of problematic cases (e.g. casesof indistinguishable IWN senses, of ambiguouscorpus contexts, etc.). Input of this type mayalso be useful for discussion with the team ofIWN lexicographers with a view to prospectiverevisions and updating of the lexical resource.As to the annotation methodology for this level,in order to ensure that polysemous words andusc are tagged consistently, the annotation ismanually performed ‘per lemma’ and notsequentially, that is, word by word following thetext.

3.3.3 Annotation examplesLet us exemplify the annotation strategyillustrated in the previous sections with a fewsemantically tagged corpus occurrences.An example of an annotated us is given below:the target word is ferite 'wounds' in the contextcurare le ferite del mondo 'to cure the wounds ofthe world'. In the annotation window, the targetword is assigned the sense number 2; the featurefigurato=metaf marks its metaphoric use in thespecific corpus context.

Annotation of semantically complex units (usc)is exemplified below for the multi-wordexpression essere alle corde 'to be hard-pressed':

The blue box covering the text shows that it hasbeen marked as a usc; the annotation windowspecifies its sense number (1) in IWN and itstype (idiom).Finally, an example is given below for titlesense units, or ust. It can be noticed that thebook title Europa 1937 'Europe 1937' isannotated both at the level of its constitutingwords (see Europa) and as a single unit of typetitle of a book (tipo=semiotico). Obviously,sense information does not apply to ust.

4 The multi-level L inguistic AnnotationTool

The labour intensive annotation task demandsfor tools devoted to access efficiently the largeamount of textual data and the relatedannotations. In this perspective, both a datamodel and effective graphical representationsare mandatory.GesTALt is the annotation tool defined for ISSTwhere an object oriented data definition hasbeen preferred for its flexibil ity. Specific datamodels and graphical representations are definedso to comply with the different needs of thethree levels of annotation. Building upon thesedata models, level-oriented subsystems aresettled. The tool is also designed to ease thecontrol of intra-level and inter-levels coherence.

4.1 The linguistic data base

The model of linguistic data is designed withinthe object oriented formalism. The defined dataare directly used in the object oriented databaseunderlying GesTALt. For each level ofannotation, a specific container has to bedefined. The system (and its subsystems)manages a collection of documents, the corpus:this relation is represented in a class hierarchy.

24

Moreover, the different level interpretationsassociated with sentences in the corpus aremodeled respectively via the class of objects. Togive the flavor of the object modeling oflinguistic structures, we present here thehierarchy describing constituent annotation (i.e.the class synt_int).Constituency annotation is based on treestructures where both internal nodes and leavesare constituents (const). Leaves are called basicconstituents (b_const), while internal nodescomplex constituents (c_const). The resultantsynt_int sub-hierarchy is depicted in Fig. 1.

Synt_I nt

C onst i tuent

B _C onst C _C onst

Fig. 1 Syntactic interpretation

Complex constituents are collections ofconstituents, either basic or complex ones. Aconstituency-based syntactic interpretation isthus the complex constituent representing theinterpretation of the whole sentence. This notionis modeled by the relation between the c_constclass and the synt_int class in the hierarchy.

4.2 The visual representation ofannotation

Managing large sentence annotations iscumbersome. Effective graphical representationsare needed both for the annotator and the user.Their aim is to ease the navigation in intricateinformation.Constituency-based annotation schemes are treestructures. Graphical tree representations aim toease the user interactions with the treestructures, i.e. the display, retrieval and updatingof annotation.The visual representation defined is a strip tree(see Fig. 2) which resembles standard bracketedrepresentations and provides an intuitive andeasy to modify hierarchical view of theconstituent structure.

Fig. 2 Strip tree

Functional annotation is visually represented interms of graphs, where functional relations aredrawn as arcs linking the head and thedependent. The insertion/deletion of ellipticalmaterial is another essential feature of this toolmodule.Finally, lexico-semantic annotation, whichproceeds per lemma, does not pose specificrepresentation requirements, while browsing atthis level needs the parallel use of the IWN tool.

4.3 GesTALt architecture

The GesTALt annotation workbench is theresultant system, constituted by a pool ofcooperative subsystems. The system managesthe linguistic database sketched in section 4.1and allows its output in the XML standard.The system is a suite composed by specificapplications: SinTAS for constituent annotation;FunTAS for functional annotation; SemTAS forlexico-semantic annotation; and ValTAS forevaluation and correction of inter- and intra-level annotations.FunTAS, SinTAS, and SemTAS are stand aloneapplications. The synthesis of the threesubsystems is obtained in ValTAS that need allthe capabilities spread in the subsystems. Thetechnologies adopted for the development(object-oriented design), in conjunction with anad-hoc architectural design, allows an easy reuseof the functionalities developed for thesubsystems in the global (i.e. ValTAS) system.The overall GesTALt architecture is shown inFig. 3 (overleaf), where components arerepresented as boxes, and interactions as arrows.The creating/translating flow of the object-oriented database (GestTALt–OODB) is sharedby the subsystems. Information is extracted fromand injected in XML containers via specificwrappers (Wrapper-in and Wrapper-out) . TheGestTALt–OODB is the object oriented databasewhere the annotation of the different levels isstored respectively by FunTAS, SinTAS andSemTAS, together with the morphologicallyannotated corpus used as input by all annotationmodules.

25

Si n T A SM an a ger

F u n T A SM an a ger

Sem T A SM A na ger

G esT A L tO O D B

Si n T A SG U I

F u n T A SG U I

Sem T A SG U I

V alT A SM an a ger

Si n T A S G U I

W r ap p er-O u t

A n n otated Cor p u s(X M L F i les)

W r ap p er-I n

M or p h o-A n al yzedCor p u s (X M L F i les)

Fig. 3 GesTALt architecture

Each subsystem, but ValTAS that include all, iscomposed by specialized components. Thegraphical user interfaces based on the specificrepresentations are depicted in the generalarchitecture (FunTAS GUI, SinTAS GUI,SemTAS GUI and ValTAS GUI, respectively).Furthermore, the different ways of interactionwith the database impose the design of specialmodules devoted to ad-hoc navigation of thehierarchy (FunTAS Manager, SinTAS Manager,SemTAS Manager, and ValTAS Manager).

5 Treebank Evaluation

The information stored in ISST, in particular inthe financial corpus, wil l be used to improve anautomatic Italian-English translation system,PeTra Word 2.0â , developed by Synthema andalready on the market.PeTra is based on the Logical Grammars ("SlotGrammars") formalism (McCord 1980, 1989)and is composed of three main components: theItalian language analyser (morphologic analyser,monolingual dictionary and syntactic parser), thetransfer component (bilingual dictionary andstructural transfer rules) and the Englishmorphologic generator. We expect to improve:dictionaries, Italian grammar and transfer rules.

5.1 Changes to the dictionary content

Adding the missing entries: PeTra's dictionarycoverage will be enlarged through addition ofmissing specialised entries and through

improvement of already contained entries.Associated translations will be added to thebilingual dictionary.

Inserting new multi-word expressions: the multi-word expressions annotated in ISST will berevised and added to the dictionary either interms of single entries or of particularconstructions associated with componentwords, considering the system constrains.

Improving lexico-semantic hierarchy: by usinglexico-semantic annotation, the semantic-hierarchical dictionary structure will berevised: the semantic attributes are especiallyused for the lexical transfer disambiguation.

5.2 Analysis Rules

The current grammar has a good coverage (i.e.88% on unrestricted texts), but it is li kely thatmany structures in the ISST corpus will beanalysed incompletely or incorrectly: the corpusis a specialised one and it may containconstructions which are not used in standardItalian. ISST will be examined to check thegrammar coverage: accessing ISST on the basisof functional relations, which correspond to theslots, will allow to study the features and theConstituents, in order to determine the possiblestructures and encode the proper rules.The translation tests will also allow to determinethe sentences which are not recognised by thecurrent grammar: the rules will be modified byretrieving the “similar” structures contained intoISST. The access to ISST will be made throughthe sentence being examined in order to obtainthe two syntactic annotations, study them todetermine the uncovered structure and otherpossible annotations of the same type inside thecorpus, and finally analyse them to decidewhether and how to apply possible changes.

5.3 Transfer Rules

By analysing all of the new elements includedinto the analysis rules and revising thetranslation tests, the set of rules which forms thesyntactic transfer can be improved.

5.4 Results Evaluation

The result validation will be made by comparingthe translations of texts in the ISST financialcorpus. These translations will be obtainedbefore and after the system tuning. Theevaluation will verify the improvement obtained.

26

The software, which will be a support productfor the evaluator, will allow to interactivelyaccess to the source text and the relatedtranslations, and assign a score based on fixedcriteria. The evaluation system will alsoautomatically evaluate the amount of unknownwords and not closed trees.

References

Abeill é A., Clément L., Kinyon A (2000) Building atreebank for French, in Proceedings of LREC-2000, 31/5-2/6 2000, Athens, pp. 87-94.

Alonge, A., Calzolari, N., Vossen, P., Bloksma, L.,Castellon, I., Martì, T., Peters, W. (1998) TheLinguistic Design of the EuroWordNet Database inSpecial Issue on EuroWordNet. Computers and theHumanities, 32, 2-3, pp. 91-115.

Brants T., Skut W., Uszkoreit H. (1999) Syntacticannotation of a German newspaper corpus, inProceedings of the Treebanks workshop,Journée(s) ATALA sur les corpus annotés pour lasyntaxe, 18-19 juin 1999, Université Paris 7, Paris.

Bémová A., J. Hajic, B. Hladká, J. Panenová (1999)Syntactic tagging of the The Prague dependencyTreebank, in Proceedings of the Treebanksworkshop, Journée(s) ATALA sur les corpusannotés pour la syntaxe, 18-19 juin 1999,Université Paris 7, place Jussieu, Paris.

Calzolari N. and Corazzari O. (forthcoming)Senseval/Romanseval: the framework for Italian.Computers and the Humanities, Dordrecht.

Carroll J., E. Briscoe, A. Sanfili ppo (1998) ParserEvaluation: a Survey and a New Proposal, inLREC-1998 Proceedings, Granada, Spain, 28-30May, pp. 447-454.

Corazzari O., Calzolari N., Zampolli A. (2000) AnExperiment of Lexical-Semantic Tagging of anItalian Corpus. LREC-2000 Proceedings, Athens.

Corazzari O., M. Monachini, 1995, ELSNET: ItalianCorpus Sample, ILC-CNR, Pisa.

CPR, ITC-irst, Quinary (2000) ItalWordNet: Retesemantico-lessicale per l’ italiano. SI-TAL,Specifiche Tecniche di SI-TAL, ManualeOperativo, Capitolo 2.

Delmonte R. (1999), From Shallow Parsing toFunctional Structure, in Atti del Workshop AI* IA"Elaborazione del Linguaggio e Riconoscimentodel Parlato", IRST Trento, pp.8-19.

Delmonte R. (2000), Shallow Parsing AndFunctional Structure In Italian Corpora, LREC-2000 Proceedings, Athens, June 2000.

Goggi S., L. Biagini, E. Picchi, R. Bindi, S. Rossi, R.Marinelli (1997) Italian Corpus Documentation,LE-PAROLE WP2.11, ILC, Pisa.

Greenbaum S. (ed.) (1996) English Worldwide: TheInternational Corpus of English, Oxford,Clarendon Press.

Van Halteren H. (1997) Excursions into syntacticdatabases, Amsterdam, Rodopi.

Karlsson F., Voutilainen A., Heikkila J., Anttila A.(eds.) (1995) Constraint Grammar, a language-independent system for parsing unconstrained text.Berlin e New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

Lenci A., S. Montemagni, V. Pirrelli , C. Soria (1999)FAME: a Functional Annotation Meta-scheme forMultimodal and Multi -lingual Parsing Evaluation,Proceeding of the ACL99 Workshop on Computer-Mediated Language Assessment and Evaluation inNLP, University of Maryland, June 22nd .

Lenci A., S. Montemagni, V. Pirrelli , C. Soria (2000)Where opposites meet. A Syntactic Meta-schemefor Corpus Annotation and Parsing Evaluation,LREC-2000 Proceedings, Athens, June 2000.

Lin D. (1998) A dependency.based method forevaluating broad-coverage parsers, NaturalLanguage Engineering 4(2), pp. 97-114.

Marcus M., Marcinkiewicz M.A., Cantorini B.(1993) Building a Large Annotated Corpus ofEnglish: The Penn Treebank, ComputationalLinguistics, 19(2), pp. 313-330.

McCord M.C. (1980) Slot Grammars. ComputationalLinguistics, vol 6, pp 31-43.

McCord M.C. (1989) Design of LMT: A Prolog-based Machine Translation System ComputationalLinguistics, vol 15, pp. 33-52.

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Sampson G. (1995) English for the Computer,Oxford, Clarendon Press.

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28

Where Should Annotation Stop?

Geoffrey SampsonUniversity of Sussex

ABSTRACT

The paper asks how much structural detail it is reasonable to include in a detailed general-purposegrammar annotation scheme. I argue that there is no principled answer to that question; even grammaticaldistinctions which in general are clear and linguistically central will often be “distinctions without adifference” in particular examples. The discipline which offers the closest intellectual precedent forlinguistic treebank-compilation activity, biological systematics, is disanalogous from our work in thatrespect.*

* This research was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council (UK).

Detailed v. skeleton analytic schemes

Any scheme for structural annotation of corporamust embody decisions about how much detail toinclude.

Some groups explicitly aim at “skeleton parsing” ,marking much less grammatical detail thanlinguists recognize a language as containing. Inmany circumstances, this will be a sensiblestrategy. If one’s chief goal is to have as large aspossible a quantity of analysed material, fromwhich reliable statistics can be derived, thenskeleton parsing is more or less unavoidable.Automatic parsers may be able to deliver skeletonbut not detailed analyses, and human analysts canproduce skeleton analyses quickly. Furthermore,for some natural language processing applicationsskeleton analysis may be all that is needed.

But attention also need to be given to detailedstructural analysis. All the grammar in a language,surely, serves some function or another for users ofthe language – it is not just meaninglessornamentation. There are many diverse potentialapplications for automatic NLP, some of whichhave scarcely begun to be developed, and it wouldbe rash to assume that this or that aspect of

language structure can safely be ignored because itwill never be relevant for any practical NLPapplication. If some minor details of structuremight be significant for research in the future, thenthe sooner we begin devising standardized, explicitways of registering them in our treebanks(structurally analysed corpora) the better, becausethe business of evolving usable, consistentschemes of structural classification and annotationis itself a challenging and time-consuming activity.

To draw an analogy from the biological domain,much of the range of very lively researchdevelopments currently taking place in geneticsand cladistics depends on the fact that biologistshave a detailed, internationally-recognized systemfor identifying living species, the foundations ofwhich were laid down as long ago as theeighteenth century. Linnaeus and his successorscould not have guessed at the kinds of researchrevolving round DNA sequences which arehappening in biology nowadays, but modernbiology would be hampered if their species-identification scheme were not available.

Since the 1980s, my team has been developing astructural annotation scheme for English (a firstdraft of which was published as Sampson (1995))

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which aims at rigorous explicitness and maximumcompleteness of detail. We have also beencompiling and circulating treebanks which applythe scheme to language samples, but the level ofdetail of the analytic scheme means that thetreebanks illustrating it are small compared tosome of those nowadays available – we accept thisas a necessary cost of our strategy. To quote thedocumentation file of our SUSANNE Corpus(f t p: / / ot a. ox. ac. uk/ pub/ ot a/ publ i c /susanne/ ):

The SUSANNE scheme attempts to provide amethod of representing all aspects of Englishgrammar which are sufficiently definite to besusceptible of formal annotation, with thecategories and boundaries between categoriesspecified in sufficient detail that, ideally, twoanalysts independently annotating the same textand referring to the same scheme must producethe same structural analysis.

Comprehensiveness and rigour of analyticguidelines are ideals which can never be perfectlyattained, but there is some evidence that theSUSANNE scheme is recognized as having made auseful advance; for instance, Terence Langendoen(President of the Linguistic Society of America)commented in a review that its “detail … isunrivalled” (Langendoen 1997: 600).

If one’s aim is a comprehensive detailed ratherthan skeleton analytic scheme, then a questionwhich arises and which does not seem to have beenmuch discussed to date is where to stop. How doesone decide that one has exhausted the range ofgrammatical features which are “sufficientlydefinite to be susceptible of formal annotation”?

The trainability cr iter ion

In practice, one factor that may impose limits ondetail is what it is practical to teach annotators tomark reliably. Even if an annotation scheme islimited to standard, traditional grammaticalcategories, it is hard to overestimate the difficultyof training research assistants to apply it to real-lifelanguage samples in a consistent manner. Someannotation projects are explicit about ways inwhich training considerations shaped their notation

scheme. Meteer et al. (1995), defining thedysfluency annotation scheme of the SwitchboardCorpus, make remarks such as “annotators werebasically unable to distinguish the discoursemarker from the conjunctive use of so” , “actuallyalso proved impossible for the annotators to markconsistently and was jettisoned as a discoursemarker part of the way through” .

But, although what one can and cannot trainannotators to do is obviously an importantconsideration in practice, it is hard to accept it as aprincipled boundary to detail of annotation.Sometimes, annotators’ failure to apply adistinction consistently may be telling us that thedistinction is unreal or inherently vague. But thereare certainly other cases where the distinction isreal enough, and annotators are just not good atlearning it (or a principal investigator is not goodat teaching it). Usually, leaders of annotationprojects are senior and more linguisticallyexperienced than the annotators employed by theprojects, so taking trainability as decisive wouldmean systematically ascribing more intellectualauthority to the inexpert than to the expert.

Limits to expert decision-making

In principle, what junior annotators can learn to dois a secondary consideration, which is likely todepend on factors such as time available fortraining and individual educational background, asmuch as on the properties of the language itself.More scientifically interesting is the fact thatsometimes it seems difficult or impossible todevise guidelines that enable even linguisticexperts to classify real-life cases consistently.

If some grammatical distinction is hard for anexpert to draw in a majority of cases, then probablywe would all agree that that distinction is best leftout of our annotation scheme. An example mightbe the distinction, among cases of the Englishpronoun they, between the original use referring toplural referents, and the newer use, encouragedrecently in connexion with the “politicalcorrectness” movement, for a singular referent ofunknown sex. This probably deserves to be calleda grammatical distinction; note for instance that“singular they” forms a reflexive as themself rather

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than themselves, as in the following BritishNational Corpus examples:

Critics may claim inconsistency, but the personinvolved may justify themself by claiming totalconsistency. FA9.01713

… the person who’s trying not to drink so muchand beats themself up when they slip back andget drunk! CDK.02462

(These are not isolated oddities; traditionalists maybe surprised to learn that 23 of the 4124 BNC textseach contain one or more tokens of the formthemself, which seems quite a high numberconsidering that singular they is unquestionably farless frequent than plural they.) But (although Ihave not checked this) it seems likely that in a highproportion of cases where they is in fact being usedfor “he or she” , there will be few or no contextualcues to demonstrate that it is not used with pluralreference – sometimes even for the speaker orwriter it may be intended as nonspecific withrespect to number as well as sex. So I would notwant to add a distinction between singular andplural they to our annotation scheme, and I imaginefew colleagues would advocate this for general-purpose linguistic annotation schemes. (If anannotation scheme is devised for some specializedpurpose, there is obviously no saying whatdistinctions it may need to incorporate.)

More problematic are the many grammaticaldistinctions which can often be made easily, andwhich may seem to the linguistic expert (andperhaps to less expert annotators) rather basic tothe structure of the language, but which inparticular cases may be hard to draw. Whatproportion of instances of a distinction need to beindeterminate, before we regard the distinction astoo artificial to include in our annotation scheme?

Structural ambiguities in spoken language

Much of the recent work of my team has dealt withspoken language (we have been compiling theCHRISTINE spoken British English treebank,ht t p: / / www. cogs. susx. ac. uk/ user s/geof f s/ RChr i st i ne. ht ml ). Indeterminatestructural distinctions are particularly noticeable in

speech. Rahman & Sampson (2000) drewattention to a number of cases where distinctionsthat are fundamental with respect to writtenEnglish turn out to be blurred in the spokenlanguage. For instance, direct v. indirect quotationis conceptually or logically a very clear distinction,which has considerable human significance(relating for instance to different kinds of accuracyobligations on those who quote). In writtenEnglish the distinction is made very sharp, not justthrough wording but through punctuation. Yet inspoken English direct v. indirect quotation is not ayes-or-no distinction at all, but at most a cline.The language has several features which markmaterial as direct quotation or as reported speech,but it is common for these features to be mixed, sothat a quotation is more or less direct but notentirely one or the other. A BNC examplediscussed in Rahman & Sampson (2000) was:

well Billy, Billy says well take that and thenhe’ ll come back and then he er gone and paythat KCJ.01053-5

– where, among the underlined items, theintroductory well, the imperative take, and present-tense (wi)ll rather than (woul)d point towardsdirect quotation, but he (rather than I, referring toBilly) points towards indirect quotation. In spokenEnglish, this kind of direct/indirect quotationambiguity is so pervasive that it is tempting to seethe distinction as an artificial, unrealistic one (sothat, in terms of SUSANNE annotation symbols,no contrast would be maintained between Fn, for“nominal clause” , and Q, for “quotation” ) – thoughthe distinction is so important logically that we didnot take this line in the CHRISTINE Corpus.

However, structural ambiguities in speech are notthe most significant cases for present purposes.Applying any annotation scheme to spokenlanguage inevitably leads to numerous unclaritiescaused by the nature of speech rather than thenature of the scheme. Analysts typically workfrom recordings with little knowledge of thesituation in which a conversation occurred or theshared assumptions of the participants. Often,patches of wording are inaudible in the recording;speakers will mis-speak themselves, producingwording which they would not themselves regard

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as good examples of their language; their “bodylanguage” will be invisible to the analyst; and ifanalysts work from transcriptions, even intonationcues to structure are unavailable. In thesecircumstances there will often be doubt about howto apply even a very limited, skeleton annotationscheme.

Limits to wr itten-language analytic refinement

The real problem relates to unclarities in applyingan annotation scheme to published writtenlanguage, where the wording is as well disciplinedas writer and editor can make it, and the onlybackground assumptions shared by writer andreader are those common to members of theirsociety and hence available to annotators too.

Let me illustrate via a range of examples drawnmore or less at random from one written BNC textwhich I happened to be working with (inconnexion with our new LUCY project,ht t p: / / www. cogs. susx. ac. uk/ user s/geof f s/ RLucy. ht ml ) at the time of writing thispaper. (The sample is extracted from a novel aboutlife in the French Foreign Legion. As Englishprose, I would judge it to be well-written.)

There are in the first place various passages whichare genuinely grammatically ambiguous, e.g.:

I had set my sights on getting a good position intraining so that I would be sent to the 2èmeRégiment Étranger de Parachutistes.EE5.00933

– is the so that I … sequence a constituent of thesent clause or the getting clause (was being sent tothe Deuxième Régiment the motive for settingsights, or the potential result of getting a goodposition)?

They were kicked senseless and then handedover to the Military Police who locked them upin the roofless regimental prison before theywere handed over to the Colonel of theRegiment for interrogation and questioning.EE5.00912

– is the before clause part of the locked relative

clause, or is it a constituent of the then handedover clause near the beginning (is the handover tothe Colonel described as following the prison spellor as following the handover to the MilitaryPolice)? In both cases, the alternativeinterpretations would correspond to differentannotation structures in the SUSANNE scheme,and surely in any other plausible linguisticannotation scheme.

Where a passage is genuinely ambiguous, weexpect an expert to be unable to choose betweenalternative annotations – that is what “ambiguous”means in this context. Consequently, inability tochoose in these cases is not a ground for suspectingthat the SUSANNE scheme is over-refined.Notice, though, that even though many linguistswould agree that the examples are genuinelyambiguous, these are not the kinds of ambiguitywhich might be resolved by asking the writer“what he really meant” – in the second case, forinstance, the handover to the Colonel in factfollowed both the handover to the Military Policeand the prison spell, and there is no reason tosuppose that the writer intended one interpretationto the exclusion of the other. This is a frequentsituation in real-life usage.

In many other cases, the SUSANNE annotationscheme requires the analyst to choose betweenalternative notations which seem to correspond tono real linguistic difference (and where the choiceis not settled by the rather full definitions ofcategory boundaries that form part of the scheme),so that one might easily conclude that the notationis over-refined – except that the same notationalcontrast seems clearly desirable for otherexamples. Here are a handful of instances:

Passive v. BE + predicative past participle

The SUSANNE scheme (§4.335) distinguishes thepassive construction, as in I doubt … whether theword can be limited to this meaning …, from caseswhere BE is followed by a past participle usedpredicatively, as in … the powers … were far toolimited. What about the following, in a contextwhere earth is being shovelled over a man:

When his entire body was covered apart from

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his head, … EE5.00955

I see no distinction at any level between a passiveand a BE + predicative particle interpretation ofwas covered here; does that mean that it was amistake to include the distinction even inconnexion with “clear cases” such as thosepreviously quoted?

Phrase headship

The SUSANNE system classifies phrases in a waythat depends mainly on the category of their headwords, which is commonly uncontroversial. In theexample:

If we four were representative of our platoon,… EE5.00859

it is clear that we four is a phrase, subject of theclause, but I see no particular reason to choosebetween describing it as a noun phrase headed bywe, or a numeral phrase headed by four.

Co-ordination reduction v. complete tagma

In the example:

He had wound up in Marseilles, sore anddesperate, and signed on at Fort St Nicholas.EE5.00855

the first clause contains a pluperfect verb grouphad wound. It is normal for repeated elementsoptionally to be deleted from conjoined tagmas, sosigned might be either the past participle of anotherpluperfect form from which had was deleted, or apast tense forming the whole of a simple pastconstruction. This again seems in this context adistinction without a difference. Yet simple past v.pluperfect, and past tense v. past participle, areelementary English grammatical distinctions likelyto be recognized by any plausible annotationscheme.

Interrogative v. non-interrogative how

A subordinate clause beginning with aninterrogative is commonly either an indirect

question (I know why …) or a relative clause (theplace where …). But if the interrogative form ishow, there is also a usage in which the clausefunctions like a nominal clause, with how more orless equivalent to that:

… shouting about the English and how theywere always the first to desert … EE5.00902

It was frightening how hunger and lack of sleepcould make you behave and think like a realbastard. EE5.00919

The shouting in the first example was presumablynot about the manner of English legionnaires’ earlydesertion but about the fact of it. The secondexample is more debatable; it might be about eitherthe fact of hunger and no sleep affecting one’spsychology, or about the insidious manner inwhich this occurs. This is an instance where theSUSANNE scheme avoids recognizing adistinction which is arguably real; the scheme doesnot allow how to be other than an interrogative orrelative adverb, and therefore treats the howclauses as antecedentless relative clauses with howfunctioning as a Manner adjunct, even in theformer example. But I could not give a principledreason for failing to recognize a distinction here,when other distinctions that are equally subject tovagueness are required by the annotation scheme.

Multi-word prenominal modifiers

Where a sequence of modifying words precedes anoun head, if the SUSANNE scheme shows nostructural grouping then each word is taken asmodifying the following word or word-sequence(Sampson 1995: §4.9). But a noun can bepremodified by a multi-word tagma, in which casethe modifier will be marked as a unit: cf. Hegraduated with [Np [Ns first class] honours [P inoil technology] ] … GX6.00022 – first class is anoun phrase, the word first is obviously notintended as modifying a phrase class honours.However, consider the examples:

the nearby US Naval base at Subic BayEE5.00852… handed over to US Immigration officials …

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EE5.00854

The words US Naval could be seen as theadjectival form of US Navy, which is a standardproper name; and US Immigration is perhaps alsocurrent as a way of referring to the respectivebranch of the American public service. Yet at thesame time, the base at Subic Bay is a naval base,and among naval bases it is a US one; andsimilarly for US immigration officials. If there areno grounds for choosing whether or not to grouppremodifying words in these cases, does that makeit over-refined to recognize such a distinction incases like first class honours?

(In fact the SUSANNE annotation scheme containsan overriding principle that only as much structureshould be marked as is necessary to reflect thesense of a passage, and this principle could beinvoked to decide against treating US Naval, USImmigration as units in the examples above. Butideally one would hope that an annotation schemeshould give positive reasons for assigning aparticular structure and no other to any particularexample, rather than leaving the decision to bemade in these negative terms.)

It would be easy to give many more examples ofstructural distinctions which are clear in somecases but seem empty in other cases. Perhaps theexamples above are enough to illustrate the point.

I have no definite solution to the problem posed bycases like these. I do not believe that any neat,principled answer is available to the question ofhow refined a useful general-purpose structuralannotation scheme should be; it seems to me thatthe devising of such schemes will always besomething of a “black art” , drawing on common-sense rules of thumb and instinct rather than onlogical principles.

But, if that is true, it is as well that those of usinvolved with corpus annotation should be awarethat it is so. People who work with computers tendoften to be people who expect a logical answer tobe available for every problem, if one can find it.For treebank researchers to put effort into trying toestablish the “ right” set of analytic categories for alanguage would lead to a lot of frustration and

wasted resources, if questions like that have noright answer. The main purpose of the presentpaper is to urge any who doubt it that,unfortunately, there are no right answers in thisarea.

Annotation practice and linguistic theory

One group of academics might suggest that thereare right answers: namely, theoretical linguists.For theoretical linguists it seems axiomatic thatwhat they are doing in working out thegrammatical structure of a language is not devisinga useful, workable set of descriptive categories, butdiscovering structure which exists in the languagewhether linguists are aware of it or not. Whatmakes the structure “correct” is eithercorrespondence to hypothetical psychologicalmechanisms, or (for linguistic Platonists such asJ.J. Katz, e.g. Katz 1981) the fact that languagesare seen as mathematical objects with an existenceindependent of their users.

For some of the problem cases discussed above, itis plausible that linguistic theorizing might yieldanswers to classification questions which Idescribed as unanswerable. It would not surpriseme if some linguistic theory of headship gave aprincipled reason for choosing one of the words ofthe phrase we four as head. (It would also not besurprising if another linguist’s theory gave theopposite answer.) For some other cases it is lesseasy to envisage how linguistic theory mightresolve the issue.

But linguistic annotation ought not to be madedependent on linguistic theorizing, even in areas ofstructure where theoretical linguists have answers.That would put the cart before the horse. The taskof linguistic annotation is to collect and registerdata which will form the raw materials fortheoretical linguistics, as well as for applied naturallanguage processing. If linguistic theory is to beanswerable to objective evidence, we cannot waitfor the theories to be finalized before decidingwhat categories to use in our data banks.

The most we can reasonably ask of an annotationscheme is that it should provide a set of categoriesand guidelines for applying them which annotators

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can use consistently, so that similar instances arealways registered in similar ways; and that thecategories should not be blatantly at odds with thetheoretical consensus, where there is a consensus.We cannot require that they should be the “correct”categories. To return to the biological analogy:studies of DNA sequences at the end of the 20thcentury are giving us new information about thetheoretically correct shapes of the “ family trees” ofanimal and plant kingdoms. It would have beenunfortunate for the development of biology ifLinnaeus and his colleagues had waited for thisinformation to become available before compilingtheir taxonomic system.

A disanalogy with biology

I have alluded to the analogy with biologicalsystematics; questions about how many and whatgrammatical categories treebankers shouldrecognize have many parallels with questionsabout how many and what taxa should berecognized by biologists. Since our treebankingenterprise is rather a new thing, it is good to beaware of old-established parallels which may helpto show us our way forward.

But although the classification problem is similarin the two disciplines, there is one large difference.We are worse placed than the biologists. For them,the lowest-level and most important classificationunit, the species, is a natural class. Thesuperstructure of higher-level taxa in Linnaeus’ssystem was not natural; it was a matter ofcommon-sense and convenience to decide howmany higher-order levels (such as genus, phylum,and order) to recognize, and Linnaeus did notpretend that the hierarchy of higher-ordergroupings corresponded to any reality in Nature –he explicitly stated the contrary (cf. Stafleu 1971:28, 115ff.). But for most biological purposes, theimportant thing was to be able to assign individualspecimens unambiguously to particular species; thehigher-order taxonomy was a practicalconvenience making this easier to achieve. Andspecies are real things: a species is a group ofindividuals which interbreed with one another andare reproductively isolated from other individuals.There are complications (see e.g. Ayala 1995: 872-3, who notes that in some circumstances the

objective criteria break down and biologists haveto make species distinctions by “commonsense”);but to a close approximation the question whetherindividuals belong to the same or different speciesis one with a clear, objective answer.

In grammar, we have no level of classificationwhich is as objective as that. So far as I can see,whether one takes gross distinctions such as clausev. phrase, or fine distinctions, say infinitivalindirect question v. infinitival relative clause, wealways have to depend on unsystematic commonsense and Sprachgefühl to decide which categoriesto recognize and where to plot the boundariesbetween them.

It feels unsatisfying not to have a firmer foundationfor our annotation activity. Yet anything whichenables us to impose some kind of order andclassification on our bodies of raw language data issurely far better than nothing.

References

Ayala, F.J. (1995) “Evolution, the theory of” .Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., vol. 18,pp. 855-83.

Katz, J.J. (1981) Language and Other AbstractObjects. Rowman & Littlefield (Totowa, NewJersey).

Langendoen, D.T. (1997) Review of Sampson(1995). Language 73.600-3.

Meteer, Marie, et al. (1995) DysfluencyAnnotation Stylebook for the SwitchboardCorpus. ht t p: / / www. l dc. upenn. edu/myl / DFL- book. pdf

Rahman, Anna & G.R. Sampson (2000)“Extending grammar annotation standards tospontaneous speech” . In J.M. Kirk, ed.,Corpora Galore: Analyses and Techniques inDescribing English, pp. 295-311. Rodopi(Amsterdam).

Sampson, G.R. (1995) English for the Computer:the SUSANNE Corpus and Analytic Scheme.Clarendon Press (Oxford).

Stafleu, F.A. (1971) Linnaeus and the Linnaeans.A. Oosthoek’s Uitgeversmaatschappij(Utrecht).

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CS 1: ROOT

CP[std,−dep]

NP[std]

NPap

NAMES

Cat[name]

H[name]

NAMEbase

Maria�

Cbar[fin]

V[v,fin]

Vmorph[v,fin]

sieht

VP[v,−h,inf]

NP[std]

NPap

NAMES

Cat[name]

H[name]

NAMEbase

Hans

PERIOD

.

" Maria sieht Hans.�

"

’ sehen <[1:Maria] , [101:Hans] >’PREDdeclSTMT−TYPE

MOOD indicative , TENSE presTNS−ASP

’ Maria�

’PRED

firstNAME−TYPENTYPE

PERS 3, GEND fem, CASE nom, NUM sg1

SUBJ

’ Hans’PRED

firstNAME−TYPENTYPE

PERS 3, CASE acc , GEND masc, NUM sg101

OBJ

27

���6�����#�M���K�&�$�c���A�;�W�[�w�#���(�w���#���E���b�k�c�&�-�d�(�����9 K¡u�c¢�

CS 1: ROOT

CP[std,−dep]

NP[std]

NPap

NAMES

Cat[name]

H[name]

NAMEbase

Maria�

Cbar[fin]

V[v,fin]

Vmorph[v,fin]

sieht

VP[v,−h,inf]

NP[std]

NPap

NAMES

Cat[name]

H[name]

NAMEbase

Hans

VP[v,−h,inf]

PP[std]

P[prae]

mit

NP[std]

DETP[std]

D[std]

dem

NPap

Cat[noun]

COMPD[noun]

Fernglas

PERIOD

.

CS 2: ROOT

CP[std,−dep]

NP[std]

NPap

NAMES

Cat[name]

H[name]

NAMEbase

Maria

Cbar[fin]

V[v,fin]

Vmorph[v,fin]

sieht

VP[v,−h,inf]

NP[std]

NPap

NAMES

Cat[name]

H[name]

NAMEbase

Hans

PP[std]

P[prae]

mit

NP[std]

DETP[std]

D[std]

dem

NPap

Cat[noun]

COMPD[noun]

Fernglas

PERIOD

.

���6�����#�v£9�K�&�W�[�w�#���(�w���#�R�3�E���b�k�c�&�-�d�(�����9 Y¡u�c¢�v¤m�X $¥��(¤�¦§�(�&¢9¨c©i���

ªW�d�w«����#�y���c�#�R�r¬3«��R�#�3�w«��y�R���#�#�R�(�g�#���c���6���u�6��R�#�#�����R�����#­i®¯�#��°�°��#�R�#�#�R�²±E�i��³>�E�����&´��cµ¶°�­6�c³Z�w«���R���#�#�R�(�y�#���c���6���m���9�R�U«=��·��1�c�G��¸�¹#�R�(�U¬3�i�w«��������c�#�&�Wµx�c�#º��6���G�6�k»=�#�[�1°>���#�i�w�6���½¼&³|�w«��¶�#�R­6�(·c�c�¾�

¿�À µx�c�#ºÁ���c�Â���c�#�6­i®Ã¸>�N�����c�(�w�i·c�)�w�R�ĸ¾®Å�w«��«���µx�c�N�c�����c���)�w���RƪW�Ç�w«��Ä�cµM¸��6���������C�&´��cµ¶°�­6�Å°��#�R�#�R�¾�w�R�È�6�

£9Æ�£9³S�W¬]�É�#���c���6�������6�È�-�c�(�Ä«=��·��ʸ>�R�R�Ë�#��°9�

ÌcÍ

" Maria sieht Hans mit dem Fernglas. "

’ sehen <[5:Maria] , [103:Hans] >’PREDdeclSTMT−TYPE

MOOD indicative , TENSE presTNS−ASP

a:2 adj−semPTYPE’ mit <[151:Glas] >’PRED

’ Glas ’PRED

’ Fern ’PRED201MOD

PERS 3, CASE dat , GEND neut , NUM sg151

OBJ

128

ADJUNCT

’ Maria ’PRED

firstNAME−TYPENTYPE

PERS 3, GEND fem, CASE nom, NUM sg5

SUBJ

’ Hans’PRED

firstNAME−TYPENTYPE

a:1 [128:mit]ADJUNCT

PERS 3, CASE acc , GEND masc, NUM sg103

OBJ

29

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65

Automatic procedures in tectogrammatical taggingAlena BÖHMOVÁ

ÚFAL MFF UKMalostranské nám. 25

118 00 Prague, Czech [email protected]

Petr SGALLÚFAL MFF UK

Malostranské nám. 25118 00 Prague, Czech Rep.

[email protected]

Abstract

This paper describes a specific part of thePrague Dependency Treebank annotation, thestep from the surface dependency structuretowards the underlying representation of thesentence. The first section explains thetheoretical basis of the project. In Section 2 allthe procedure of conversion to thetectogrammatical structure is summarized andSection 3 presents in detail the present stage ofthe automated part of the conversion procedure.

1 Introduction

A semi-automatic syntactic annotation of a partof the Czech National Corpus in the PragueDependency Treebank (PDT) has among itsaims the possibility to check the theoreticalapproach chosen (Functional GenerativeDescription, see [2]), as well as to establish abasis that could serve as a suitable starting pointfor a large-scale monographic analysis of thenumerous problems of the sentence structure ingeneral and of the grammar of Czech inparitcular which still require empirical research.Such an analysis is expected to be helpful atleast in three respects:(i) to make a relatively complete description ofCzech into a realistic task,(ii) to fill lacunes present in the prelimnary formof the annotation procedures formulated up tonow, and(iii) to proceed towards a procedure that wouldbe automatized to a maximally high degree.We do hope that our paper may be useful inattracting more attention not only to the need ofan annotation reaching the underlying sentencestructure (rather than just the usual ’surface-structure’ parsers, which may help in naturallanguage processing, although not that much in

achieving the aims of a theoretical linguisticdescription), but also to a deep-reachingcomparison of different approaches to syntax.We are convinced that dependency-based syntaxwith its maximally economical tree structuresmay be of particular interest for the aims ofcontemporary computational linguistics. Thisholds especially of an approach in whichfunction words are classed together withinflectional morphemes as corresponding toindices in complex node labels, rather than tospecific nodes, and in which also other aspectsof the underlying, tectogrammatical, structureare established. Moreover, a comparison of theproblems concerned in syntactic annotationprocedures for languages of different typescertainly can be important if general theories oflanguage description are looked for andcompared with each other; such a theory shouldshow the core of linguistic structure to beeconomical enough both to help explain theeasiness of mother tongue acquisition and to beimplementable in computers.A language with rich inflection and with a highdegree of "free" word order, such as Czech,cannot be handled by primarily using cues basedon cooccurrence with neighboring items, butrequires specific procedures for thedisambiguation of morphemic units(prepositional and simple case forms, agreementforms, etc.), which hardly could be fullyautomated. The work on such procedures has ledto our conviction that many insights of classicalstructural linguistics may still be highly useful,although they have not been duly reflected intheories using an approach based onconstituency (that originated with Bloomfieldiandescriptivism). Considering syntacticdependency (which is being developed on thebasis of the work of L. Tesnière) to constitutethe primary layer of sentence patterns, we work

66

with a structure that corresponds to extremelyflat constituency patterns, and we use nononterminals in the dependency trees. Instead ofnotions such as NP or AP, the dependencyapproach shows just items dependent(immediately or not) on a noun or an adjective,respectively. A detailed discussion oftectogrammatics, which cannot be included intothe present paper, can be found in [2], [4].

The following strategy of annotation has beenfound useful, and this may hold also for manyother languages: The first phases of theannotation of PDT are (i) the morphemicrepresentations and (ii) the dependency trees onan intermediate (’surface’) analytic level, i.e.analytic tree structures (ATSs, see [1]), where (i)has to use a combination of statistical andstructural methods to obtain a reliable automatictreatment, and (ii) has to be carried outmanually. While (i) and (ii) have been discussedelsewhere, the present paper is devoted to asubsequent phase (iii), the transduction(conversion) from ATSs to (underlying) syntaxitself, i.e. to tectogrammatical representations,which should be provided for 10 000 sentencesduring the year 2000 (at its start, 100 000sentences have obtained their ATS annotations).

The main points of the transduction include:

(a) deleting those nodes of the ATSs whichcorrespond to function words and to mostpunctuation marks, with an indication of theirfunctions in the form of indices of thecorresponding lexical (i.e. autosemantic, ratherthan auxiliary) occurences; as an exception, weuse nodes for coordinating conjunctions (asheads of the coordinated constructions), thusworking with underlying representations in thespecific form of ’tectogrammatical treestructures’ (TGTSs); (b) assigning every lexicaloccurrence the appropriate syntactic functors(which distinguish more than 40 kinds ofsyntactic relations, i.e. of kinds of valency slots,e.g. PAT (patient or objective), ADDRessee,LOCative, MANNer) and morphologicalgrammatemes (marking the values of tense,aspect, modalities, number, etc.), as well assyntactic grammatemes (values such as ’in, on,under, among’ with Locative or Directional);

(c) restoring those nodes of TGTSs which aredeleted in the surface form of the inputsentences;

(d) indicating the position of every node in thetopic-focus articulation (TFA) with a scale ofcommunicative dynamism, represented asunderlying word order (see [2], [3] for adiscussion of TFA).

2 Automatic par ts of transduction:

The transduction from ATSs to underlying treeshas the following three parts, the first of whichis discussed in more detail in Section 3:

(i) an automatic ’pre-processing’ module,

(ii) a manual part, which changes the analyticfunctions (esp. Subject, Object, Adverbial,Attribute), into corresponding functors (only themost basic cases are changed automatically);nodes for the deleted items are ’restored’ (mostlyas pronouns); the TFA indices for focus,contrastive and non-contrastive topic arespecified; a ’user-friendly’ software enables theannotators to work with diagrammatic shapes oftrees;

(iii) a subsequent automatic module adds first ofall

(a) information on the lexical values of restorednodes in unmarked cases in which the (marked)values have not been specified in (ii): esp. incoordinated constructions the values of the(symmetric) counterparts in the givenconstruction are added;

(b) certain values of syntactic grammatemes(esp. where a preposition allows for a reliablechoice);

(c) at the same time, the gender and numbervalues are cancelled whenever they only indicateagreement (as with adjectives in most positions),and

(d) the remaining nodes corresponding tocommas, dashes, quotes, etc. are deleted.

In the next months, the automatic procedure issupposed to be enriched in various respects,such as the build-up of the lexicon (with entriesincluding the valency frames), word derivation,

67

and the degrees of activation of the ’stock ofshared knowledge,’ as far as derivable from theuse of nouns and pronouns in subsequentutterances. Several types of grammaticalinformation, e.g., the disambiguated values ofprepositions and conjunctions, can only bespecified after further empirical investigations,in which, whenever possible, also statisticalmethods will be used. In any case, the annotatedcorpus will offer a suitable starting point formonographic elaboration of the problemsconcerned.

3 The first par t of the automatictransduction

3.1 TGTS descr iption

Every node of the TGTS contains all theinformation inherited from the ATS, and newattributes are added.The t r l emma attribute contains the lemma ofthe node. The t r l emma of a single node (evenif the node is hidden, i.e. marked as absent in theTGTS) is equal to its analytical lemma assignedin the ATS. The compound nodes that representmore than one word of the surface sentence areassigned the t r l emma attribute in the followingway:• Verbal nodes: lemma of the autosemantic

(lexical) verb.• Compound prepositions, conjunctions and

numeratives: t r l emma is composed of thelemmas of the parts of the item (e.g. thethree nodes representing numerative 1150‘ tisíc sto padesát’ are joined into one nodewith t r l emma = ‘ tisíc_sto_padesát’ ).

• Newly added nodes are assigned eitherproper lexical values (in case of filleddeletions - mostly pronouns), or technicallexical values, such as ‘Gen’ for the generalparticipant, ‘Cor’ for the coreferential nodeof a controlee, or ‘Neg’ for negation.

The morphological grammatemes are capturedusing the attributes of: gender, number, degreeof comparison, tense, aspect, iterativeness,verbal modality, deontic modality, sentencemodality.Next to the morphological grammatemes thereare attributes describing the position of the node

at the tectogrammatical level: topic-focusarticulation, functor, syntactic grammateme,type of relation (dependency, coordination,apposition), phraseme, deletion, quoted word,direct speech, coreference, antecedent and someother, technical attributes. The attribute‘ function word (f w)’ is used for storing thepreposition or conjunction of the word for thelater resolution of the syntactical grammatemes.The attributes ‘deep order (dor d)’ and‘sentence order (sent or d)’ are used todistinguish between the sentence surface wordorder and the deep word order.

3.2 The steps of the procedure

3.2.1 Auxiliary verbs, i.e. verbmod attribute

The verb is conjoined with its auxiliary nodesinto a complex value of a single node, placed inthe highest position in the relevant subtree. AllAuxV nodes are hidden. The verb is assigned thevalues of the grammatemes of tense and verbmodality on the basis of the lexical values ofthese auxiliary nodes. The lemma of theautosemantic verb is put into the trlemmaattribute of the remaining node, which isassigned the grammateme values depending onthe AuxV dependent nodes.The tables below show what assignments aremade in the automatic procedure for the verbalnode. Table 1 contains the rules applied to thenodes for autosemantic verbs, the rules arecaptured in the table rows in the sequence theyare being used. If all the conditions are fulfilledfor some node, the rule is applied. E.g. thesecond row of the table reads as follows: If theverb daughter node is labelled either with thelemma “být” or“by” , disregarding the possiblepresence of “se” (which was already handled byrule 1), and the morphological tag of the verbbegins “VR” (symbol for preterite tense), thenassign the verb attribute t ense the value ANT.

68

Presence of dependent node with

lemma

Morph.

tag of

the verb

Assigned

attr ibutes

no být(to be)

by(cond.)

se, f=AuxT

1 - - yes - trlemma => attach‘_se’ to thetrlemma of theverb

2 no no - VR tense => ANT

3 no no - VU tense => POST

4 no no - other tense => SIM

5 no yes - - tense => SIMverbmod =>CDN

6 yes yes - - tense => ANTverbmod =>CDN

7 yes no - - tense => ANT

Table 1. Verbs

Examples:

(i) Î�Ï2ÐRÑ Ð.Ò .VR se.AuxT =>trlemma=Ó�ÔÖÕR× ØÁÔ Ù�Ú8Õ (rule 1)tense=ANT (rule 2)

E: (it) opened

(ii) ÛtÜ.ÝÁÞ .VR by.AuxV se.AuxT =>trlemma=ßtàRáÁâ ã�ä8å (rule 1)tense=SIM, verbmod=CDN (rule 5)

E: (he) would learn

(iii) byl.AuxV by.AuxV spal.VR =>trlemma=spáttense=ANT, verbmod=CDN (rule 6)

E: (he) would have slept

(iv) mohla jsem být (æ�çRè�é8ê�ëRì íRî�ëtrlemma=spat ittense=ANT (rule 7)deontmod=POSS

E: (I) could have been seen

3.2.2 Modal verbs, i.e. deontmod attribute

The modal verb is merged with the autosemanticverb depending on it in the ATS. Thetransduction procedure consists in three steps:the tree is rearranged in that the modal verbdepends on the autosemantic verb, the value forthe attribute deontmod of the latter verb is

assigned its value according to the lexical valueof the modal verb, and the modal verb node isdeleted.

Modal

verb

English

transl.

Auto-

semantic

verb form

f of

the verb

deontmod

assigned

chtít want infinitive object VOL

muset must - DEB

moci,

dát_se

can - POSS

ï�ð ñ be

allowed

- PERM

ò«ó ô õdovést

can infinitive object FAC

mít should infinitive object HRT

Table 2. Modal verbs.

3.2.3 Prepositions and conjunctions, i.e. fwattribute

Every preposition node is deleted and its lexicalvalue is stored in the attribute f w of the noun.The preposition will be used for the future (atleast partly automatized) determination of thevalue of the syntactic grammateme of the noun.

Every subordinating conjunction node is deleted.Its lexical value is stored in the f w attribute ofthe head verb of the subordinate clause.Conjunctions for coordination and apposition areused in the tectogrammatical tree as the heads ofthe coordinated clauses.

3.2.4 General actorThe reflexive particle ‘se’ has three possibleanalytical functions in a Czech sentence. Theanalytical function value AuxT is assigned to areflexive ‘se’ having the function of lexicalderivation (of a middle verb). As shown in Table1, ‘se’ is conjoined with the lemma of the verbin such case. If ‘ se’ was assigned the function‘AuxR’ at the analytical level, it expresses ageneral actor of the verb. The node is preserved,its attribute t r l emma is filled with the ‘Gen’value and its functor is ‘ACT’ . If 'se' wasassigned the function 'OBJ', it gets the functor'PAT'.

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3.2.5 Quotation marks, i.e. quot attribute

The sentence is searched for quotation marks. Ifa whole clause having the form of a sentence isinserted into a pair of double quotes, its verbobtains the value ’DSP’ (direct speech) on theattribute quot . If only one token of a doublequote appears in the sentence, the attributequot of the head word(s) of the stringcontaining the quote is assigned ‘DSPP’ value(direct speech part). Otherwise, the head word(s)of the string enclosed in quotes is/are assignedquot = ’QUOT’ (quoted word).

3.2.6 Punctuation

All punctuation nodes (which have the analyticalfunction ‘AuxX’) are hidden except for thefollowing two cases:• the node for a comma placed in the position

directly following a noun is left in the tree toenable the annotators to decide about thetype of the adjunct (restrictive ordescriptive),

• a comma node that is a bearer ofcoordination or apposition is not deleted, asfar as this function can be recognized fromthe ATS.

The t r l emma attribute of undeleted commanode is filled with Comma value.

3.2.7 Node for negation

Every verb is checked. If its morphological tagcontains the symbol for negative verb, a newnode is created with the lexical (t r l emma)value ‘Neg’ and functor ‘RHEM’ (rhematizer,i.e. focus sensitive particle).

3.2.8 Other attribute assignmentsBased on the morphological tag inherited fromthe analytical level of description, the values ofthe following morphological grammatemes areassigned: gender , number , t ense, degcmp(degree of comparison), aspect .The sentence modality is captured in thesent mod attribute of the head node of eachclause. We assign the sentence modality of thehead word of a simple sentence, of the main

clause of a complex sentence and of allcoordinated clauses in compound sentences. Thesentence modality attribute value is determinedby the final punctuation mark of the wholesentence and by the verb modality of the mainverbs of the sentence clauses. The rules aredescribed by Table 3.Suppose we have a sentence composed ofcoordinated clauses X i: X1, X2, ...., and Xn.

position

in clause

Xi

final

interp.

verb

modali

-ty

sentence

modality

of Xn

other

conditions

verb

modality

assigned

Xn(verb

? - - - INTER

in thelast or in

! - - - IMPER

the onlyclause)

. - - - ENUNC

X1, ....,

Xn-1

- - INTER - INTER

For n>1 - IND - - ENUNC

- IMP - - IMPER

- CDN - X i

containsö ÷�øÉù«ú(E:’ let’ )

DESID

- CDN - otherwise ENUNC

Table 3. Sentence modality assignment

As for functors, their value is resolvedautomatically in the following three cases. ValueACT (actor/bearer, underlying subject) isassigned to every subject of an active verb. Ifthere is a single object depending on an activeverb, its node is assigned functor PAT (patient,objective). The head verbs of the sentences areassigned the functor PRED (predicate).Example:(i) Sestra.Sb û8ütý�þ ÿ��Äý .A souseda.Obj.

ACT PATE: sister spotted the neighbour

3.2.9 „ Default“ values

Unresolved syntactic and morphologicalgrammatemes are assigned their default value bythe procedure. By the default value weunderstand ‘NIL’ value for attributes that cannotbe assigned any value for the given node (e.g.case for verbal nodes), or it is chosen to express

70

the uncertainty for the annotators (e.g. value"???" for unresolved f unc attribute).

3.3 Example of input and output

Sentence: ���������� ������ ��� ���That should (itself) change.

Meaning: That should be changed.

ATS:

TGTS:

References��������� �"!$#&%�')(*��+,+,-/.�021,!$3�4/!�5,67�98;:<5/=��?>@=�!$>?�?3$3 :

annotated corpus: The Prague DependencyTreebank. In: Issues of Valency and Meaning.Studies in Honour of Jarmila Panevová (ed.A�BDCFEHG�IKJKL�M?N,O/P?QSR�T,T,EVUXW,Y,Z*U�[/\,Q�E^]`_�I?a,b/cedKarolinum.f g,h&i�j k"l$m?n,o,pSqFrts*u�v/v,w,x

Issues of sentencestructure and discourse patterns. CharlesUniversity.

[3] Haji y ová E., B. H. Partee and P. Sgall(1998) Topic-Focus Articulation, TripartiteStructures, and Semantic Content.Dordrecht:Kluwer.z {,|F}�~/�?�$����� �e�F�e��� �"�$�?�,�,���?�,����e���?�,�@�,�,�,���*���,�,�/�The meaning of the sentence in its semanticand pragmatic aspects, ed. by J. L. Mey.Dordrecht:Reidel - Prague:Academia.

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Mixed Initiative Annotation MethodologyUsed in the Alembic Workbench

Invoke machine learning to derive annotation rules

Training & Test Corpus

Source Texts

Apply phrase-finding rulesto raw text

Manually annotate raw text

Manually correctmachine-annotatedtext

Rule Sets I f ...

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