PASTORAL PROSPECTS

OF SOUTH AFRICA

OWEN THOMAS

BLE 69’

CO LTD

TO

EARL GREYWHOSE GENUINE INTERESTPRACTICAL ENTHUSIASM AND

PUBLIC- SPIRITED EXAMPLE IN ALLMATTERS APPERTAIN ING TO THE WELFARE

OF SOUTH AFRICA HAVE ELICITED THE ENTHUSIASTICAPPLAUSE OF ALL WELL-WISHERS OF THAT VAST DOMINIONAND WHOSE ZEALOUS AND UNTIRING ENCOURAGEM ENT OF

SOUTH AFRICAN HUSBANDRY PO INT TO H IM MORE PARTICU

LARLY AS THE INDISPENSABLE PATRON OF ANY WORKWH ICH HAS FOR ITS OBJ ECT THE PROMOTION OF THEAGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL INDUSTRIES OF THATCOUNTRY THE PRESENT WORK IS CORD IALLY

DEDICATED

As A HUMBLE TESTIMONY or THE AUTHOR’Ssmcznn APPRECIATION AND

ENDURING RESPECT

SYNOPSIS

PAGE

PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

SOILS

VEGETATION

CLIMATE

HEALTH

LIVE-STOCK

PRODUCTS

LAND-TENURE AND LAND-VALUES

SYSTEM 09 FARMING

AGRICULTURE v. STOCK FARMING

DISEASES or ANIMALS

INSECTS

CO-OPERA‘

I‘

ION AND AGRICULTURAL CREDITvii

AGRICULTURAL AND

PASTORAL PROSPECTS

OF SOUTH AFRICA

OWEN THOMAS

LONDON

ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE 69’ CO LTD

I goA

TO

EARL GREYWHOSE GENUIN E INTERESTPRACTICAL ENTHUSIASM AND

PUBLIC-SPIRITED EXAMPLE IN ALLMATTERS APPERTAIN ING TO THE WELFARE

OF SOUTH AFRICA HAVE ELICITED THE ENTHUSIASTICAPPLAUSE OF ALL WELL-WISHERS OF THAT VAST DOMINIONAND WHOSE ZEALOUS AND UNTIRING ENCOURAGEMENT OF

SOUTH AFRICAN HUSBANDRY PO INT TO H IM MORE PARTICU

LARLY AS THE INDISPENSABLE PATRON OF ANY WORKWH ICH HAS FOR ITS OBJ ECT THE PROMOTION OF THEAGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL INDUSTRIES OF THATCOUNTRY THE PRESENT WORK IS CORD IALLY

DEDICATED

As A HUMBLE TESTIMONY OF THE AUTHOR’SSINCERE APPRECIATION AND

ENDURING REsPECT

SYNOPSIS

PAGE

PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

SOILS

VEGETATION

CLIMATE

HEALTH

LIVE-STOCK

PRODUCTS

LAND-TENURE AND LAND-VALUES

SYSTEM OF FARMING

AGRICULTURE v. STOCK FARMING

DISEASES OF ANIMALS

INSECTS

CO-OPERATION AND AGRICULTURAL CREDITvii

SYNOPSIS

PAGE

CoLONIzATION

NATIVES

BOERS

CAPE COLONY

NATAL

TRANSVAAL

ORANGE RIVER COLONY AND BASUTOLAND

BECIIUANALAND

RE ODESIA

POLITICAL ASPECTS OF LAND SETTLEMENT

INDEx

MAP OP SOUTH APRICA AT TEE END .

South Africa

THE physical features of South Africa are simplein themselves. As furnishing a first clue to

the interpretation of the economic history of the

country, they are highly importan tClimate, physical aspect , vital diversity of the soil,depend upon relative position , contour , and verticalrelief. The same conditions also afiect the country’sproduce . Froman agricultural and pastoral pointof view, the question of physical con formationmainlydetermines the character of South Africa .

The absence of a deeply indented coast-line deprivesSouth Africa Of that wide diversity Of Climate whichis found in Europe and North America . Those con

tinents are pre-eminent for leng th of coast-line .

Europe has onemile of sea-board for every 170 sqmiles of surface North America, onemile for every260 sq . miles : but Africa has no more than one

mile of sea-board for every 750 sq .miles of surface ,the whole continent of sq . miles beingfringed by only miles of coast . Africa, therefore,may be described at the outset as being a trunkwithout limbs, and (comparatively speaking) amaritimely inaccessible lan d of unnavigable rivers.

Africa has an entirely individual character . It isthe tropical continent . Its relative position to theraysof the sun , itsphysical shape and geological formation , are not iden tically repeated elsewhere . These

individual characteristicsmust be taken into serious

M uc

SOUTH AFRICAconsideration because they influence and aflect, not

only the production of an imal and vegetable life butalso , the human in terests of industry , enterprize , andcivilization . I in tend to deal with that portion of

the con tinent Of Africa which commonly is known as

South Africa, including Natal, Cape Colony, Rhodesia ,

Bechuanaland , Basutoland, Transvaal, Orange RiverColony , and adjacent native territories subject to theEnglish Crown . These arbitrary divisions are but

political : Nature has not distinguished themby anymarked variation Of their physical or geological features.

South Africa forms three vast terraces. The lowestof these lies along the coast in a north-easterly direction fromCapetown to themouth Of the River Zambesi : it varies from10 to 60 miles in width . Thesecond terrace lies inland of this sea-board . It risesabove the first terrace in a range, known as the Drakensberg or Quathlamba Moun tains, which runs parallelwith the coast for hundreds of miles, and forms theonly natural eastern frontier of the Orange RiverColony, Transvaal , and Rhodesia. The approachfromthe first terrace to the second isgenerally steep :but themoun tainshere and there are pierced by passesor kloo/s. The surface of the second terrace ismuchdiversified by hills, valleys, plains, varying fromand feet above sea-level to I O,500 in Basutolandand in Natal. It gradually l pes toward thethird terrace : which is a huge plateau intersected byrounded heights, lofty peaks Often boldly escarped ,projecting dolerite rocks, and intervening valleys.

This vast table-land is situate at an altitude offeet above the sea . It formsmore than three

fourths of the whole area Of South Africa . The highestpoint lies, not in the centre but, on one side . Hence ,itmay be said to consist Of two un equal l pes. Thewest side forms the long slope : the counter side on

the east forms the short slope . There are three kinds2

PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

The great range ofmountains, to which I have te m g

ferred, constitutes an importan t feature because of its

influence on the distribution Of rain . The prevailingwind is fromthe east ; and Its functlon is to bear themoisture-laden clouds fromthe Indian Ocean toward

high ridges to the atmospheric curren t ; and serveas points Of condensation , producing clouds, mist,showers, refres hing and nourishing to vegetable-life intheir vicinity : but checking the further-inland progress a .“of the same . One cannot fail to note the result, in themore withered aspect of the herbage , which is encoun

tered in travelling toward the interior , or wes tward of

arid, un til the sterile waste is reached where the annualrainfall seldomexceeds I or 2 inches . Thesemountainstraverse all the divisions Of South Africa. Froman

agricultural and pastoral point Of view, their influenceis very great . Owing to the heavier rainfall andmorehumid atInOSphere which they cause , the land in theirneighbourhood can be cultivated with success whilethe veld has a greater capability Of carrying stock,because the grass is more nutritious than elsewhere.Artificial irrigation seldombecomes necessary : conse

quently, land in these districts, beingmuch sought after,commands high prices .

Climate pres ents themost positive limit to the exist Il l-0000 d

ence of vegetable-life . An elevation of only a fewell-ate on

hundred feet (more or less) chan ges physical conditions,converting arable land into pasture or vineyards, pastureor vineyards into fores t, and (sometimes ) fertile soil into

South Africa has many lakes : but it has few sea “ml

0'

ports and fewer rivers . The chief Rivers are theZambes i , Limpopo, and Orange, with their respectivetri butaries. Most of the other so-Galled rivers aremere

3

m .

l i d-a 0-0

SOUTH AFRICA

streamlets in winter . Many Of the latter have erodeddeep channels. Some exhibit water all the year roundbutmost Of themact as freshets only in summer , andare dry in winter . There are other streams, the waterofwhich occasionally disappears in the earth , re-appearing on the surface many miles away . Other streamsagain are brackish and, consequen tly, useless either forirr igation or domestic purposes.

Dry river-beds indicate a short season Of heavy rains,which fall in torrentsand carry everything before them.

The result is denudation of the high lands. Valuableorganic and vegetable constituents Of the soil are sweptaway, and deposited in the lower-lying valleys, or borneby the floods into the sea .

The constantmovement of large flocks of Sheep , ordroves Of cattle, fromone kIaal to another , or betweenpasture and water , wears away deep paths. Suddenheavy downpours of rain on the dry parched land,instead of penetrating thesoil, seek the network of pathsmade by these animals. Thus are formed sluits and

dongas. As Often as new paths aremade , just so oftendo the irresistible deluges of the rainy season converttheminto regular water-courses.

The Eastern and North-eastern Districts of SouthAfrica derive their rains fromthe east during the summer . In winter , the north-west wind prevails, which ,emanating fromtropical deserts, is dry and Of hightemperature , and produces ex treme aridity . The Southwestern Distri cts are aflected in summer by the southeast wind, which is very dry . In winter , they are

swept by the north-wes t wind, which comes fromtheequatorialregionsof the Atlan tic and isladen withmoisture, causing the wet winter season so favourable toagriculture and pasturage in the western province ofCape Colony.

Subterranean springs exist . Many people are led to believe that an inexhaustible supply Of water liesbeneath

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SOUTH AFRICAfutile : unless there was evidence of the underlyingrock’s porosity, and of water having percolated to itthrough some fissure or porous soil.

“'m I was told that inexhaustible reservoirs of waterCOMM. COllld be tapped by boring In South Africa , because this“fl y

had ueen done already in Australia. A comparison of

amAfrica the physical configuration and geological formation of

“filmIfll the two countries will disclose salient differences pre

cluding possibility.

Am“. The water-bearing strata of Australia generally are

hearingfound at great depths, covered by impermeable rock or

.

g:tt:um clay. These underground reservoirs receive their supply

fromnatural catchmen t-areas situate at a considerablyhigher level. Therefore , when the water is tapped, itrisesmany feet above the surface, often fromdepthsof 500 or feet .

“M23“do.

I failed to find similarly favourable natural con

ditions in South Africa . The natural catchmentareas do not seemto be placed sufficiently high abovethose natural reservoirs whose locality is known at

presen t . Consequently, water froma great depth willrise to the surface in very few places. The variousMill governments would do well to undertake systematic

mu“,experiments in deep boring , so as to determine oncefor all the water-bearing capability of the colonies.

In this connectionMr . Thomas Stewart , of the Hy

Stewart. draulic Engineering Departmen t of Cape Colony , maybe quoted . In a very able article on The UndergroundWater-Supply ofSouth Africa , he says

SO far as we know , the prospects of finding large quantities of water, especially under pressure, are not

very favourable.

unclean Water sufficient for stock is found at shallow depths"gag? “ generally throughout South Africa . In travelling bywet-flu railway fromCapetown to Pretoria, it will be observed

“gm“ .

that surface-wells have been sunk at almost all the

6

PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

platelayers’ houses along the whole leng th of the line ,where enough water for domestic purposes is Obtainedat a depth Of I 5 30 feet below the surface .

There aremany natural and thermal springs.

Geologists say that there has been a gradual drying

‘

l‘

homel l l ‘lulla

up of riversandSprings. Many sources, which formerly “ a ! andwere known as yielding a good supply Of water , eitherhave diminished or have failed entirely within the last "a nhalf-century. Numerous hollows are to be found invarious parts of the country, which (in thememory ofnatives) were at one time perennial receptacles of freshwater . They are empty , and thinly coated withnauseous bitter salt . I myself saw several dry riverbeds which , only a few years ago, exhibited flowingwater in the dry as well as in the rainy season . Fromone cause or another , the springs which supplied themhave dried-up and for the last few years have failedto yield a drop of water .

I have already referred to brackish water . I alsofound several ex tensive areas of brack soil, which Itake to be the result either of brack Springs in thevicinity, or (possibly) Of the evaporation of brackishwater fromthe earth itself. Some lands had becomequite brack and unsuitable for agri culture, owing toexcessive irrigation and improper drainage . Salt “ll-“ti“

bushes, imported fromAustralia, were growing luxuriantly on these soils. These are a valuable fodder forsheep and goats. They flourish where there is butlittlemoisture and, therefore ,may be cultivated ex

tensively in districtswhere nothing else will grow .

Many of the South African Marsheshave ex ceedinglyfertile soil Both mineral and vegetable elementsare found to exist in them. Systematic drainage isneeded to reclaimandmake profitable most of thesemarshes.

Evaporation is an important matter in a countrylike South Afri ca . On many farms, dams have been

7

mullet.

IMO!

SOUTH AFRICAerected to conserve water for irrigation purposes . The

porosity Of the ground beneath , the smallness of catchment-areas, and the great evaporation , have con

tributed to annul the usefulness of many of these

The Van Wyk’s Vlei Irrigation Reservoir in CapeN Van Colony cost the Governmen t Its water

surface was about 19 sq . miles. Its holding capacitywas gallons. Its average depth wasbut I O feet . The rain fall for three successive years(1893—5 ) was only 4} inches. The catchment-areawas 240 sq . miles. Therefore, a 10

”annual rain

fallwas necessary if the damwere to be filled . But

many important facts had been overlooked . Evapo

ration , which (in this district ) was estimated at 7’

2”

a year , i .e. 2’more than the actual rainfall, was

not the least of them.

Dr . Halley made a number of experiments at St.“War

."Helena, as to the quan tity Of water which is evapo

rated daily fromthe sea . He found that I O sq . inchesof the ocean ’

s surface yielded one cubic inch of waterin 12 hours. At this rate, one sq . mile, in a

similar period , would yield cubic inches,i .e. gallons a day .

Although heavy dew falls at times , none falls exceptunder a very clear sky . The thin covering of a cloudseems to serve for keeping the earth warm,

by preventing radiation Of heat . Themoistmild cloudy daysof spring and early summer, which rejoice the heart ofthe English farmer who knows how conducive theyare to the young growths on his land, aremuchmissedin the healthy districts of South Africa .

W e

South Africa undoubtedly has been proved to beexceedingly rich in minerals. Volcanic action at a

remote period has been ex tensive but the displacement of rocks has been comparatively local. I amnot aware however, that any systematic geologicalsurvey (other than partial surveys ofmineral areas) hasbeenmade .

All soils primarily are due to the pulverization ofunderlying rocks. Few subjects can be of greater importto the farmer, than the character andmaterial of suchrocks as assist in determining the quality of the soil.The rock-formation Of South Africa is very diversi

fied. Primary rocksmay be seen rising in massesthroughout the country . They are composed of

crystallinematter, either in the formof granite, sienite,micaceous schistus, serpentine quartz, and intersectedby secondary rocks of siliceous sandstone, calcareoussandstone, limes tone, schist or in the formof shale ,rock-salt, basalt . It is not necessary to describe theconstituent parts Of each rock. Primary rocks pre

dominate Granite covers a large proportion of thesurface and is the foundation ofmost Of the secondaryrocks. The pulverized soil of the secondary groupismore fertile than that of the primary group . Limestone and basalt give the bes t result where the soil is

cruis e!

fun ction s!

"Mull“deep : but a mix ture Of the pulverizations Of all the a all 0.

various strata, brought together either by the action of strata tornon est ult

water or by cultivation , is superior (as a soil) to any able sell upother combination .

The soil is the agriculturist’s raw material. Itsproductive power makes him or mars him. In

considering the effect of soil and climate, it should berealized that the one is the direct and the other (often )the indirect result of geological conformation , which ,on this account,may be said to exercisemuch influencein the distribution of vegetable-life, and hence deservesto be considered with reference to the same . The

9

SOUTH AFRICAfarmer, who can adapt his methods to the inherentcharacteristics Of the South African soil will carryOfl the bes t Of the rewards which awai t the energy and

resourcefulness of the cultivator .

m 0' South Afri can Soils vary very considerably. Itwould serve no useful purpose to attempt to classifythemexcept in the terms generally adopted by agri

culturists, viz — Light and Heavy Soils.

Light Soil, containing sand, is so called because it iseasier to work : although its specific gravity is greaterthan that of heavy soil. Heavy Soil, containing clayand a small quan tity Of vegetable-matter, is so calledfromitsadhes ivenessand the degree of res istancewhichit oflers to the implements of cultivation although itsspecific gravity is less than that Of Light Soil. LightSoil predominates in South Africa.

Al i yah ct I have submitted several samples of characteristicsoils for agricultural analysis but the details of the

process need not be set down here. There are variousother methods by which the quality and texture ofsoilsapproximatelymay be determined. The differencebetween a gold assay and the operation of panningwill furnish a rough but apt analogy.

My reason for submitting samples forminute analysis,however , lies in the following grave fact . As the resultof numerous panning tes ts of soil taken fromnearlyall the districtsof South Africa, I have not discoveredany evidence upon which to base a favourable opinionof the soils’ staying power and reproductive capability.

Fromthis condemnation I must except certain rich(but proportionately small) alluvial deposits, whichI consider exceedingly fertile indeed, Imay say thatI never have seen any soil surpassing these depositsin reproductive power ; and I amby nomeans surethat I could indicate their equal . They are to be foundin valleys, along river-beds, and in pockets, throughoutthe coun try.

SOIL

I have found small quantities of this fertile soil inalmost every distri ct : but Rhodes ia has by far the mlarges t area. Given good seasons and other favourableconditions, thes e alluvial deposits are capable of producing crop after crop, with very indifierent cultivationand without manure, for several years in succession .

But, as I have said, this fertile soil ex ists in very small Rm i

n,

proportion andmy opinion of the general soil is un m ul l

favourable . In casemy rough and ready panning "Mtes ts should have been inadequate, I have supplementedthembyminute professional analyses for purposes of

corroboration .

One phenomenon has political as well as agricultural A Pa?”

significance . It is a fact that, wherever an alluvial agricultural

pocket is found, in the Orange River Colony an d the

Transvaal , there , almost invariably, stands a Boer in M en

the capacity of owner .

New-comers Often drew my attention to their discoveries of exceedingly fine crops in many parts of

South Africa— the proved product of the fertile soil,but of small plots of ground . These new-comers wereMedea at

wont to exercise their critical faculty at the expense ofthe farmer, whomthey denounced as being indolentand unprogres sive , because he did not cultivate at

least a part of the rolling plains surrounding his littleagricultural Golconda of only a few acres in ex tent .It wasmy invariable customto try each particular caseupon itsmerits. Close examinationmade the following “i n "I“facts clear to me. These fertile (and consequently fertile and

valuable) alluvial deposits have very clearly definedM“ i f.“

boundaries. On this side of a line, the soil has all

the qualities which are required for successful agriculture. On that side, it at once begins to give placeto the original soil which is derived fromthe naturalrock beneath . Between the alluvial soil and thenatural soil there is a vast difierence . The formerpossesses reproductive power , and (therefore) economic

I I

Men atd ull

An n -easy

Beate n

SOUTH AFRICAvalue, in a very notablemeasure : while the latter hasthe power and the value hardly at all. On the evidenceOf cr0ps produced on the two soils, I amOf opinion thatone acre Of alluvial soil is worth twenty acres Of thenatural soil.The proportion , which the valuable alluvial soilbears to the valueless natural soil, is extremely small.The rich alluvial valleys and pockets in the healthydistri cts Of Natal, Cape Colony, Orange River Colony,Transvaal, long ago have been snapped up by Boerfarmers. They repres ent the result Of sixty years’(andmore) prospecting on the part of the Boers and

early settlers , and, as a consequence of somany yearsexperience and Opportunity, the Boer to-day is the

It is not an uncommon thing to find a farmdividedand sub-divided in to very small portions. The separate owners Of each are to be seen j ealously guardingtheir cultivated plots, and leaving unnoted the Opencoun try surrounding themon every side . They haveexercised the faculties Ofdiscrimination and acquisition .

They have taken all that is worth taking .

Grass clothes the soil ; and trees and shrubs Shadeit. Stripped of these coverings, it lies exposed tothemerciless rays of a subtropical sun . Its power Ofretaining moisture then becomes greatly reducedfor the absorbent propertiesof dry air aremuch greaterthan those of soil. Humus is a great absorber and

retainer Ofmoisture it, therefore , is one of themostvaluable and indispensable constituents of fertile soil.

But , except in the alluvial deposits, there is amarkedabsence of humus in the soil Of South Africa .

Lack of grass and trees and shrubs accentuatesincapability of production . Whether the theory(that trees attract rain ) be sound or not , their rootsundoubtedly serve to pulverize the hard groundtheir foliage shelters the surface fromthe sun ; and

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SOUTH AFRICAdisturbed, in the one case while, in the other case,

the same richmould had been stripped Of its naturalcovering by the cultivator, whose unfulfilled des ignwas to turn it to economic use and to win an

agricultural profit fromit hismisdirected eflorts.

The veld does not cover the whole surface of the soilThe grass grows in tufts the intervening spaces are

bare . Torren tial rains wash away the uncoveredsoil and, with constant grass fires, tend to acceleratethe wasteful process of denudation . Thus the soilis impoverished by removal of its valuable elements,

which may be seen in flood-time in the rivers .

Irregulari ty Of soil-covering is a striking feature Ofthe country. Heights have been washed bare and

the washings deposited in other parts. Generaldenudation seems to be in progress. Organic sub

stances have been , and are being, washed-away fromthe surface of large areas. These substances only canbe reproduced by the action Of similar organismsalready existing or having ex isted . Therefore thepoverty of the soil Ofmany districts is accoun ted-for .

The rapid deterioration and exhaustion of cultivatedlands, in a climate like that Of South Africa , compelsthe serious attention of those who engage (or whointend to engage) in agri culture . Even soil whichhas a natural covering suffers to some extent but poorsoil under cultivation altogether ceases fromproduction , after two or three crops, until several fallowyears have given it an opportunity to replace its lostconstituents. Pasturage, however , though itmay not

improve, will not deteriorate the soil, except in caseswhere toomuch grass-burning is practised .

um at Very light soil ismost unsuitable for agri culture .

Wi ll“.

The grass, which it produces, is fairly good but , whenOnce the veld isploughed, and the naturalcrust broken ,

it will takemany yearsto win back th e Old condition .

CapeColony, says that an attempt at thorough cultiva

tion on the English plan has not always proved suc

cessful. He gives an illustration Of the superiority ofnative customs over EurOpes n innovations. A cropOf mealies (maize) in an Englishman ’

s field (whichhad been ploughed three times duri ng summer) wasdevoured by grubs. A Kaflir’s adjacent crop escapedfor the Kafi r only had scraped his soil. The parentgrub would appear to have found the well-ploughedfurrow amore attractive place in which to lay its eggs.

Imyself visited several Kaflirmealie-fields, in orderto find out the res son why they invariably producedbetter crops than most of the fields, in the same note“ at

district , which were cultivated by white people .

Noting an Old Kaflir, with his pick, breaking-up new Ill-t attoo.veld to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, I imagined thatonly the laziness characteristic of his race preventedhimfromdigging deeper . The soilappeared to be veryfertile ; and was from10 to 14 inches deep . I tookthe pick fromhim and, inmy Own way and accordingtomy Own ides . at that time, I began to tum-over thesoil to a depth Of8 or 9 inches . The Kafi r immediatelystopped me, saying , Na, Baas na mealie — digdeep ; and he expounded tome the whole art and

mystery Of successful agriculture as practised by theKafi r race. His premisses were as follows

(a) thatmostmoisture came frombelow(b) that, if the soil were loosened to any considerable depth,

air and the sun'

s rays would be admi tted(c) that, if hard solid ground remained below, the mealie

roots would penetrate it(I!) that the admission Of air and the sun

'

s rays, below themealie-roots, would cause evaporation of moisturecon tained in the hard solid ground

(0) that, if drought set in , the mealies thus would have no

source of moisture(I) that the hard solid ground below themealie-roots always

contained more moisture than the broken ground on

the surface ; and, in case Of drought, i t Often wouldsufi ce to preven t themealies frombeing scorched.

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SOUTH AFRICAFromwhich he very logies lly concluded that hismealie-seed required no more than a mere coveringOf soil.Sir Humphrey Davey, one of the chief authorities

on English Agriculture, in a lecture to the Board ofAgriculture, said,

Deep-ploughing may be very profitable practice in a

“rich thick loam; but in a fertile shallow soil, si tuate

“on clay or sandy subsoil, it may be ex tremely pre!

judi

At the New York Agri cultural Station of Geneva,mv“ a plot of n of an acre was divided into 10 parts

and experiments were made to determine(a) How far the amoun t of moisture (in the proportion of

soil occupied by the roots of crOps) may be influencedby treatmen t other than artificial watering

(b) What depth of surface-tillage retains the greatest amoun tof soil-water :

(c) The relative capabili ties of mulching and of tillage for

retaining soil-moisture.

It is not necessary to give details of these experi

ments but the conclusions certainly des erve consideration . It was established(a) That, by keeping the surface of the soil stirred to a depth

of only half-an-inch , the water-con ten t of the first

twelve inches was increased to a very appreciableex ten t

(b) That, the deeper the tillage up to four inches, the grea terwas the increase in water-con ten t

(c) That the rate of increase then diminishes as the depth of

(I!) That a slight mulch of half-an -inch exerts a far greater

influence in retaining water than tillage four inchesdeep.

Parkinson,

a farmer of great experi ence in England ,Ireland, and America , says of the latter country .

The land is ploughed in a skimming manner , and a

stranger will frequen tly suppose that by deeper

TIIe Experienced Farmer , p. x iv.

I 6

ploughing , the produce would be increased, but suchpractice would be injurious.

’

The exhaustion of land in South Africa is ascribed cease el

to successive and excessive cropping . Another (and “mperhaps amore well-founded) opinion is that exposureof the soil to the sun ’

s rays is themost decisive factorin the soil-history of the country .

In England , deep-ploughing most frequently is an

indication of sound farming . Theorists are invitedto consider the significant fact that the Kafi rs,merely see In

by scratching the ground with a hoe, almost invariablyharves t crops immeasurably superior to those obtainedfromdeep-ploughed lands. The depth of soil (whichought to be exposed by cultivation ) is amatter whichcalls for very eareful study because rules, which are

safe enough in application to other countri es and

climates, will be found unsuitable and even detri

mental in South Africa. Soils differ , it is true . I amwell aware that in certain districts, where the soil isa rich thick loamof good depth , deep-ploughing and

English methods of cultivation will not be foundunsuccessful. Such places are few and circumscri bed : South Afri ca is vast and wide . They are

the exceptions which prove the rule . The proofof the pudding is in the eating and, judging generallyand fromthe evidence of the crops produced , I amof

opinion that the archaic Kaflir is the best all-roundcultivator of South Africa, so far .

In categorising the defects of the soil of SouthAfri ca, the lack of phosphate must be named . Byreason of the absence of phosphate , both stock and

cereals suffer . Animalsmay be seen devouring boneswherever they can get them. Cattle are found lyingon the veld, suffering a kind of paralysis caused bywant of phosphate . Their disease isakin to rickets,the common ailment of children in the big towns ofLancashire and Scotland, for which Chemical Food

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SOUTH AFRICAcontaining phosphate invariably is prescribed . Mr .

Hutcheon , Chief of the Cape Veterinary Staff, hasdone great service to South African farmers by con

vincing themthat bone-meal is a good substitute forphosphate . Many stock-breeders now give it to theircattle , with excellent results. The only part of SouthAfri ca where natural phosphates are known to existis in the Orange River Colony, a stretch of coun try of100 x 30 x 40 miles, bordering on Basutoland . The

whole of thisarea ismore or less charged with phosphateof lime, each cubic yard of rock containing about 40 lbs.

The constan t pulverization of these rocks by the actionof the weather , and the carrying (by rains) of the phosphates thus released on to the soil, accoun t in greatmeasure for the singular fertility of this well-knownregion .

Another notable defect in South African soil is theabsence , in many parts, of a suitable subsoil. Bysuitable subsoil Imean a subsoil which (by absorb

ing water fromthe surface during the rainy seasons,and dispensing the same to vegetation during drought)is indispensable to the successful cultivation of theland .

South Africa may be said to be a barren coun try .

The exceptions to this rule lie in the more humiddistricts.

The diverse characters of the soil, its various altitudes

,the climate andmeteorological conditions, have

tended to produce a variety of herbage, shrubs, andtrees which, in many cases, are peculiar to the districtof their production . It is most usual to find the

maximumof a Species in one place but it is far fromIS

VEGETATION AND CLIMATEbeing uncommon to find represen tatives elsewhere .

The relation , between climatic conditions and occurren ce of species, is by nomeans constan t and invariable . Some plants may be seen universally spreadover the world others seemto be limited to certainnarrowly defined areas. Most species of vegetablelife, are capable of amelioration bymethodsof selection ,

cross-breeding , and cultivation and the membersof a species are capable of deviation , and frequentlydo deviate , fromthe type Of the species.

If a full and satisfactory knowledge of the vegetation of South Afri ca is to be obtained, each speciesindividually and carefully must be studied through mfg. “Iits Spring, Summer , Autumn , and Winter conditions.

The task is rendered difi cult by the facts, that indifferent parts of the country different names are givento the same species, and that little or no really scientificin formation is obtainable from the inhabitants ofSouth Africa, aboriginal or otherwise .

The grasses Of South Africa roughlymay be dividedinto two classes the Sour

,and the Sweet . These two

divisions are susceptible of almost infinite subdivision .

Most grasses exhibit long and straggling form, chieflyoccurring in tufts, altogether dissimilar to themat-like ‘

l'

eelr tern .

growth of our English lawns andmeads.

Animalswill eat either the Sweet Grassor the Sourbut a sudden change of grass, from sweet to sour ,Often produces sickness and other bad results.

Sweet grass is far more nutritious than the Sourvariety but both species are improved by being

“am“constantly eaten-down , ormown-down , at the properseasons. I have Observed that , where the rainfall Leeetlee elis evenly distributed, e.g . along the Drakensberg or

Quathlamba Moun tains, grass is generally Of a superiorand more nutritious quality . Lucerne grows ex

ceedingly well under irrigation and now is cultivatedlargely throughout the country . In some places,

19

SOUTH AFRICAwhere there is no irrigation , it is seen to flourish .

This is because the roots Of Lucerne will penetrateto a depth of 15 30 feet ; and, therefore , where therehappens to be a natural supply of water beneath thesoil, artificial irrigation becomes unnecessary.

All grasses which came undermy notice were of anindigenous nature . Imported grasses would not

always prosper, except under irrigation . In any ease

the culture Of short-rooted grasses should not be

attempted , because of the general dryn ess of thesurface soil. I did not forman entirely favourableopin ion Of the grasses of South Africa . It must besaid, however, that stock (which has been scientific

ally selected for the diflerent districts) thrives remarkably well upon the indigenous herbage Of the coun try ,

when such herbage is free fromweeds, poisonous plan tsor tulips— the latter occurring generally in districtsup to feet above sea-level. This only is thecase when the an imals are free fromthe variousdiseases which amict and too frequently thin-outthe stock of the coun try .

l in en -Tree I found theMimosu-Tree a safe indication of the"m“ pres ence of sweet nutritious grass. It also indica testhe presence of water at no great depth below thesurface . The Sugar-Bush, a stun ted useless shrub,is a certain indication of poor soil and poor herbage .

Much of the veld-grass is generally suitable forhay and ensilage for win ter feeding . There is a

great possibility of development in the direction hereindicated.

The stock-farmer of South Africa will find his futuresafety in hay and ensilage . The production of thesewill enable himto keep his stock in condition , not onlyduring the three or four months when the grass is

dry and contains no nutriment but also, during thecold weather when the animals require better fodderthan at any other time of year . There will be no

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SOUTH AFRICAor perseverance Of man to compass indeed , it aptlymight be named as a Thirteenth Labour for Herakles.

I met in South Africa certain ill-informed personswho believed in the myth of spontaneous generation

of weeds, for examme. Up to half a century ago,

it perhaps was difficult to understand how the germsof life came to occur in ce rtain situations and circumstances. Nowadays, however , the mystery is no

mystery except to those who do not enlightenthemselves (fromsources of information ahnost everywhere available) upon subjects vitally interestingto them. Yet some farmers even now believe thatworms and serpents are engendered fromhorse-hairin water, that toads Spit poison , that the scab-parasitecomes fromdirt or poorness of blood , and that weedsgrow fromno seed .

Nature has many secret methods of Spreadingweed-seeds, and of preserving themin tact in the bowelsof the earth for a considerable time . Wind is one of

the most patent of these methods. Rains and

streams are general carri ers of seeds. The Burryspecies of weed attaches its seed to the wool or hairof animals. Birds also convey weed-seeds fromplace

The growth of weeds in South Africa isamost seriousmatter . I have not seen such an assortment of weeds,annual, bienn ial, perennial , in any other coun try .

The idea Of useles snes s always is present in themindwhen a weed is spoken -of but, as amatter of fact ,every plant other than that which is intended to grow incultivated lands is a weed . I never heard of a countrywhere crOps are smothered by weeds, or where weedsgrow more quickly than in South Africa, especiallyin the irrigated districts. This one itemalone isby far the gravest in the farmer’s labour-bill Ifor very often it is a question which would be thegreater loss, to permit the weeds to choke the crop,

22

CLIMATEor to go to the expense of weeding . In face of aplague of thes e dimensions, the farmer Of to-morrowmust approach the problemscientifically .

Climate and weather are very importan t factors "mmof agri cultural success. Climate decides the species ofvegetable— and animal— life of certain areas. Weathercontributes to the successful or unsuccessful cultivation of those Species. It is possible to have a fine

climate but unfavourable weather and vice versa .

Fromthe point of view of the health-seeker , the w.“

climate of South Africa leaves little to be desired .

Fromthe agricultural and pastoral point of view theweather of South Africa is ex tremely unsatisfactory .

Theban Pindar saysAs gold stands first among a rich man ’

s goods,so stands the sun among celestial bodiesso, water among Nature’

s gifts tomen .

"

But, in South Africa, the Splendour of the sun scorchesvegetation and, the rain fall being at times unseasonable or deficient and at all times unreliable, artificialirrigation of cultivated land becomes a paramountnecessity .

The difference, between the rise of temperatureby day and its fall by night, is very great . The firstis caused by the tropical glow of the sun , and by theclearness of the atmosphere which permits the freepassage of the sun ’

s fierce rays. The second is causedby the rapidity with which the great heat of the dayis thrown back into the dry air of night . This greatrise and great fall of temperature has been likenedto an occurrence of summer and winter in the courseof every twenty-four hours. Few of those who wentthrough the South African Campaign could have failedto note these phenomena .

These circumstances must be seriously consideredby stock-farmers. Cattle, sheep, and horses, are very

23

el ert-belred

Wet and dry

SOUTH AFRICAsusceptible to cold . After a hot day, the extremeand comparatively sudden change is likely to producegrave results. The cold ismost intense at that timeof year when grass is poor and innutritious. The

animals then draw upon the fat which they haveaccumulated during the favourable season ,

in order

to keep up the heat necessary tomain tain circulationof blood . In three or four months this store of fatis exhausted ; and then it is no uncommon thing fordroves of cattle and flocks of sheep to die of literalstarvation . Shelters, and some amount of artificialfodder, then become absolutely necessary for keepingbeasts in condition through these trying seasons.

South African farmers do not approach the problemof inclement weather in a scientific manner . It isdiflicult to estimate what the actual gain would beto the stock-farmer who would take the trouble andexpense of substituting suitable shelters for the Openkraal systemnow in vogue , where the stock has not

roomto lie-down and generally is up to the hooks inmud : but I know that I would prefer to leave myeattle exposed rather to the English winter nightsthan to those of South Africa andmy reason simplyis that in South Afri ca the change fromheat to coldis so ex treme and sudden . In many parts of the

country, I found farmers who preferred short-hairedcattle to long-haired . They alleged that the coatsof the latter harboured ticks. I invariably noted thatcattle, with a fairly good coat , remained in better condition than short-haired cattle during the win termonths. Therefore , in South Africa , the stock-farmermust rear long-haired cattle or hemust build sheltersin which to protect his short-haired cattle .

The South African year may be divided broadlyintoWet Season

,andDry . The early rains come at the

beginning of summer, i .e . at the close of October .

They Increase in force and frequency until the end of

24

CLIMATE AND HEALTH

April. Fromthat time to the end of October there ISpractically no rain .

The seasons in South Afri ca occur as followsSpring September, October, November ; SummerDecember, January, February ; Autumn March,April,May ; Winter June, July, August .The seasons in the South-wes tern parts of CapeColony differ asmuch fromthose of other portionsOf the coun try as do the seasons of one Indian Provincediffer fromthose of another . South Afri ca is vastand the South-western District of Cape Colony, withits rainfall in the winter , is only a small portion of anenormous territory which (elsewhere) has itsmaximumrainfall duri ng the warmmonthsof summer . Anotherpeculiarity is notable . The wet season in the EasternDistricts is divided into two periods. Heavy rains

fall at the beginning of summer : an in terval of fineweather ensues ; and then comes the heavier rainfallgenerally ending the wet season of the year .

Importan t influence upon fruit-culture is exercised lel eeeeeet

by these variations of climate and weather. Dry epee frettsummer prevails only in a limited area . In other eeltere.

districts, where the soil is suitable for fruit-growing ,

the rains are contemporary with the ripening season .

Thus great risk is incurred in the effort tomarket thefruit in prime condition .

Some plants require great heat to bring themtomaturity . Annuals are not subject to winter cold . Someperennials, although they are very partial to warmweather , nevertheless do not snfier fromex treme coldunder which others die.

Definite zones of vegetable-life flourish at definiteelevations above sea-level. Their limits depend on

moisture and temperature . Animal-life, however, isnot somuch influenced by these conditions.

The high plateaux throughout the country are notedfor their dry and salubrious air. As a health-resort ,

25

SOUTH AFRICASouth Afries possesses many districts the climateof which cannot be surpassed . But agriculturistswould prefer a more moist and cloudy atmosphere ,as being in every way more suitable to crops and

stock .

Favourable Opinions of South Africa, as a cerealand stock-country, have been pronounced . I will cite(and strictly dissociatemyself from) one such opinion ,

formed after Six months’ stay in the country .

Youseldom, if ever , have cold east winds here, such as

we were having in England when I left last April.Your farmers need not be anx ious about fine

weather for the harvest : corn never will sprout inthe ear in such a climate as this. I consider SouthAfrica to be an ideal coun try for the farmer .

Experience teaches. Aphorismsand generalizations,which by chance may be applicable in England, donot generally hold good in South Africa .

When the wind is in the east,’

Tis good for nei therman nor beast,

says England . True : but in South Africa it is thewest wind which is dreaded and the east wind whichisvalued because it , and it alone , brings the inestimablemoisture-laden clouds fromthe Indian Ocean .

Happy is the bride on whomthe sun shines,

again says England . In South Afri ca, where a wet

day means an agricultural gain of thousands of

pounds, brides are considered happy though marriedin drenching downpours.

Both stock-farrning and agriculture in South Afrieaare serious pursuits. They are carried on underinnumerable and well-nigh insuperable difficulties .

Optimistic Opinions on the agricultural prospects of

South Africa, often have been hurriedly formed

by men who have not had time accurately to gaugethe importance of these two factors climate and

weather .

What I have said already about the extreme andrapid variations of the temperature, which are the et wpeculiar feature of the climate , willmake it easy tobe understood why an unqualified clean bill-of-health tar l eeeee.

must be denied to South Africa . The coun try on thewhole is salubrious : but only just so long as its

versatile and fickle climate is borne in mind and pre

pared-for . The change fromday to night is amatterof course but, often in themidst Of dry warmweather ,a bitterly cold day has to be reckoned-with . New

comers frequen tly neglect the caprices of the climateHence come chills, with fevers, agues, pneumonia,

and a host of similar ailments in their train . The only Imperative”way of counteracting climatic inconstancy is, no

matter how settled the weather may appear to be,always to have at hand suflicient clothing for protection against sudden changes .

Heat , on the high plateaux of South Afri ca , though some.

great , is harmless. Sunstroke , and similar forms of "W "paralysis, are unknown . It is the absence Ofmoisture Dry elf

in the air which makes it bracing and salubrious.

I noted three classes of white men in South Africa ,

viz .— those who were new-comers, those who were

born there of emigrant parents, and those whoseancestors had inhabited the country for ages. On

comparison , I amof Opinion that the white race losesnothing of physical strength or stature by sojourn et teeth

in South Africa .

Certain low-lying districts are infected bymalaria27

SOUTH AFRICA

for the greater part of the year . The country is

large ; and there is no occasion at pres ent for any one

to settle on those unhealthy portions. At an altitudeof feet and upwards, malaria need not be

dreaded . It is true thatmany cases of this insidiousdisease occur even in the healthiest districts. Theseinvariably are eases of transported malaria fromthe

lowlands. The scourge ismuch less virulent than it‘PMeet formerlywas . it seems to abate and disappear at the

advance of civilization and the cultivation of the soil.Cape Colony and Orange River Colony aremalaria

Leeetlee et free. Natal, with the exception of a few distri cts,also is free . The Transvaal, Bechuanaland, Rhodesia,

have enormous areas free fromfever : but a verymalignant type ofmalaria infests their lowlands.

a eumonia is at times very prevalent it deservesto be classed among the characteristic diseases of

South Africa. It chiefly is eaused by the inconstancyDeeu of the climate, of which I have written above . In

the vicinity of themines, the fine dust fromthe tailingsappears to impregnate the very air. It is a cause ofthroat-irri tation and pulmonary disorders.

Typhoid or Enteric Fever was quite an epidemicduring the War ; and numerous subsequent eases

have occurred . It is one of the zymotic or filth

g. l ltl . diseases. Under the late regime, it was due to utterabsence of sanitation and absolute disregard of allthe laws of clean liness. During the Campaign theeflects beeamemanifest by reason of the great numberof human beings whose lives were sacrificed . At thepresent time, the typhoid or enteri c bacillus thrivesonly in the towns where the sanitary arrangementsare still very imperfect . In the country districts,this foul disease is unknown .

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SOUTH AFRICA

evolution and differentiation of cattle is unquestionable. Natural influences and natural laws should berecognised , and taken-advantage-Of, by the eareful

and judicious selector : because , when Nature is on

his Side , success reasonably may be expected and

certainly may be attained . It is difi cult to deliverpeople fromthe foolish prejudice which eauses themto war against Nature . They see the eflect of

natural conditions : but theywill not give amoment’sthought to the cause of the efiect. Consequen tlytheir case is hopeless. Dr . Johnson says that it isNature’s delight to counterchang e the plans and purposes ofman . That certainly is true, when men payno heed to Nature’s laws.

In England there are about 23 recognisedbreeds of cattle . More than half that number are

reared in certain loealities : beeause of their specialadaptability to those loealities. They are, in fact ,now recognized as the peculiar cattle of the distri ctin which they are bred and each breed thri ves bestin its prOper distri ct . Perhaps they are not the cattleof their owner’s fancy . Probably the owner of Shorthorns would prefer Aberdeen-Angus or the ownerof Devons, Herefords : but, from an economiealpoint of view, the tried and proved eattle of the distri et suit the distri ct best . A sagacious farmer ,therefore, always will take natural conditions of soil,vegetation , and climate into Consideration , beforemaking a selection of cattle or Sheep . It Is true that ,with artificial food and shelter, almost any cattlemaybe reared successfully in ahnost any district : butthe process is not an economical one. AdamSmithsays that, bymeansof glasses, hot beds, and hot walls,very good grapes ca n be raised in Scotland ; and

very good wine too, can bemade of them: but withabout thirty times the expense at which at leastequally goodwine can bebrought fromforeign countries.

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LIVE STOCK

Even in South Africa , a study of the economy ofwarmth comes cheaper than the equivalent of warmth

As well as climate, the physical and geologieal

conditions of every country exercise great influencein determining the characteristics of cattle . Youatt,one of our greatest authorities on cattle, says

In purchasing cattle, whether in a lean or fat state, the

farmer should on no accoun t procure themout ofricher or better grounds than those in to which he

in tends to turn them. He should select themeither

fromthe neighbourhood, or fromsuch breeds as

are best adapted to the nature and the si tuationof the soil.

”

(1)

Sinclair and Barlow and other authorities state the

That this doctri ne is by no means a new-fangledand fantastic notion may be seen fromthe works ofvarious ancient writers on husban dry, such as M .

Terentius Varro L . Jul . ModeratusColumella(AD Palladins Rutilius Taurus (AD

Oxen ought not to be brought fromfertile plains to

to avoid it.

Cattle, bred upon the ground, are much better thanforeigners : for the former are not put to the trialeither of water or food or air , or incommoded withthe si tuation and customs of the country, as the

latter are which are brought fromfertile plainsto rough moun tainous lands. For this reason. if

we are obliged to bring oxen froma place at a

distance, care must be taken to bring themfromsuch grounds. as our

I t is better to buy cattle fromneighbouring grounds,because these are put to no trial by the change

“of air : or, if this cannot be done, to bring themfromlike ground toYouatt, Complete Grad er, p. 87.

Varro, De ReRustica , I . xx . 2 .

(3) Columella, De Re Rusfica, VI . 11. 12.

( t ) Palladins, DeReRusticaN . xi. 3.

31

SOUTH AFRICAA comparison of the relative conditions of Englan d

and South Africa perhaps will assist in the formingof an idea as to the importance of selecting breedswhich are suitable to the latter coun try , and of a

scientific knowledge of the actual district in whichcattle are to be reared .

Great Britain and Ireland have an aggregate area

of sq .miles. The two highest moun tains areSnowdon in Wales feet) , and Ben Nevis in

Scotland feet ) . All our stock is raised at an

altitude of under feet , except in a few eases

where sheep graze on the moun tains during a few

months of the year . Most of our diflerent breeds of

cattle are absolutely necessary to meet the naturalconditions of their respective localities. We knowthat cultivated grasses will not grow at a higher altitude than feet . We know that the range ofclimate and temperature is less in altitudes of under

feet than in altitudes of feet . And

from this knowledge we deduce that it would be

absurd to attempt to rear a breed of Shorthorns on

Snowdon or Ben Nevis. Temperature Changes as we

ascendmoun tains. Stock , which is acclimatised to thedifierent altitudes, is superior to stock not so acclima

Far otherwise is the case of South Afri ca . Its area ,

“ a.“ of about sq . miles is more than ten

times larger than ours. Its altitudes vary fromsea

level to feet with an additional feet formoun tains : whichmeans that cattle are required tothrive in temperatures varying from105

°-110

° Fah r .

to freezing point . The scientific English stock-farmerwill understand the paramoun t importance of selectin gnone but such cattle as be suitable to these widelydifiering conditions. South Africa requires at the

very least as many breeds of cattle as the MotherCountry : indeed, if the areas of the two coun tri es

32

LIVE STOCK

are taken as the basis of the calculation , South Africashould require a great many more breeds. I do not

wish to press the latter point unduly : but I cannot butcondemn those who advocate the theory of a Singlebreed for all South Africa . No pecuarial expertpossibly could urge that one breed would be foundmore suitable than a variety of breeds selected fortheir special adaptability to the distri ct in whichthey were to be reared . Yet the thing has been said,by responsible as well as irresponsible persons in and

out of South Africa . Some place their trust in Shorthorns and some in Devons : some fancy Frieslandsand others Herefords : while the Australian naturallyplumps for Australian cattle. Nor ought I to omitto mention the man who has his eye on commissionfor cattle-buying ; and who advocates the Madagascarbreed . His view was weighed in the balance of theTransvaal and was found terribly wanting. Thisexpert (sic) had said that Madagascar cattle, if

imported, would be immun e against all diseases.

Instantly some hundreds were imported ; and, within

a fewmonths, 70% died . The history of all the cattlediseases by which South Africa has been , and 13 being,scourged has its origin in the importation of foreigncattle . The dates are coincident . South Africa hadits own breeds of cattle before a white man set footin the coun try ; and the natives knew of no cattledisease till foreign cattle came . In Rhodesia, whereKing Lobengula kept six hundred thousand cattle,disease did not ex ist until after the Occupation of1893 when importation was initiated . And, at themoment of writing, South Africa can boast (if she

chooses ) of all the known cattle-plagues of the world,the result of ignorant opposition to Nature’s laws.

I know that some imported cattle have done wellin South Africa , not without artificial food and

Shelter but it is a notorious fact that such breeds33 D

SOUTH AFRICA

gradually lose all resemblance to, and characteristicsof, their imported ancestors. The cattle of Texas, imported by the Spaniards AD 1500, have lost everytrace of that breeding which their ancestors possessedso highly : while the same species of cattle in Spainto-day maintain equal rank with any in Europe.

Certain farmers, who had imported cattle for breeding purposes, saved themfromthe ravages of the

War by sending themover the Border into Eng lishterritory . I inspected a nice breed of what the ownercalled Shorthorns. They had been kept pure since

Ileebert their dams’ and sires’ importation , four or five cattlegenerations ago and they provided an excellen texample of natural adaptation toenvironment . Climaticand other influences had produced a breed of shorthorns, in which ahnost every proper characteristicof the breed

, as known in England, was lost . The

handsome head, in telligent expression , docility, archedribs, well-covered hips, prominent hind-quarters,short neck, short legs, short horns, and themellowishtouch of the Shorthorn , all were absent in this breed .

The pure progeny of pure progenitors literally hadbeen forced in to the mould provided by the naturalcircumstances of the coun try . They had been obligedto forage for themselves in summer and winter . Theyhad been deprived of Shelter fromthe sun that shinethby day , and fromthe low temperature of night . Theresult was as I have indicated a breed which borenone of its characteristics, an altogether unshorthornedbreed of Shorthorns. Nature had determined boththe process of tr

ansformation , and its outcome . It

himto a faded tulip planted where a cowslip wouldhave flourished .

ltetlvesettle. If South Africa had been without native eattle,

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LIVE STOCK

I should have addressed myself to this subjset fromanother point of view. But it is not . Probably thenative cattle are not purely indigenous : but theycertainly were there as long ago as A .D . 1650, whenthe early settlers reached the Cape ; and this fact, Iimagine , may be taken as constituting (what I willcall) prescriptive autochthoneity . The chief breedsare the Afri kander, Damaraland, Zulu, Hottentot,Mashona, and Angoni .The Afrikander is a dark-red beast with very “0 ”fl"

large gay upstanding horns, exhibiting a typicalspecimen of adaptation . Like his owner, the Boer , theAfrikander Ox is precisely what the coun try hasmadehim. He is the in evitable product of the rigorousoperation of natural laws. He can exist , and eventhrive, on what nourishmen t the veld oflers. In

compari son with other species under similar circumstances of existence , the Afrikander always will bein better condition . He is a sturdy trekker, strong,active, and reliable . His power of endurance isremarkable . For transport and the butcher, hescarcely can be equalled :he certainlycannot be excelled,providing that his circumstances are no worse thanthose of other breeds. The Afrikander breedmay not

be the best for dairy purposes as a general rule goodstock-eattle are not . The Afrikander ox has the weakness which is characteristic of all South Africananimals, viz . , the light hind-quarters, flat ribs, longlegs, long neck, long body, big coarse bone , and altogether incompact form. His carcase weighs 600

650 lbs. He will thrive and put on more flesh thanany other breed of cattle under Similar conditions.

Hence, I amof opinion that , for a general breed, itwould be difficult to surpass the Afrikander .

The Mashona cattle are small, and best suited tothe country fromwhich they take their name . Iag ree withMr. Selous who describes themas beauti

35

SOUTH AFRICAful little cattle . They have many things

their favour . They fatten rapidly, putting meatthe valuable points. Their bone is small. They haveamellow touch , prominent yet placid eyes,moderatelylong neck , a fairly good spring in the ribs, rather roughshoulders, short head ; and their carcase weighs350-

400 lbs.

The Angon i cattle resembles the Mashona in somerespects but they are smaller , and have a hump wellplaced on their shoulders. The head is inclinedto be large in proportion to the body . The neck isthick and of good dimensions : the shoulders are

well buried in the carcase , which is more barrelshaped than that of any other South Afriean cattlewhich I saw . The chest is wide and of fair depththe hips are rounded and the loins prominent . Thelegs are fine and fleshy down to the hock the ribsiwell

arched with a great distance between the hock-boneand the last rib . The quarters are fai rly long and

straight : the tail well on a level with the back,dropping squarely . The ears are thick : the eyesprominent : the skin thin , and touch mellow, withfine glossy hair and the carcase weighs about 300 lbs.

I saw several of these cattle on Dr . Sauer’s farmnearBulawayo. Their owner informed me that he hadhad themfor some time and that , since their arrival,they had put-oua great deal of flesh . They certai nlywere in the pink of condition at the time when Iinspected them. It was said that these cattle wereimmun e against Redwater ; and Dr . Sauer sen tsix of themto Bulawayo, so that theymight be subjected to infection . Dr . Koch , under whose care theywere at Bulawayo, said that four of the six contractedthe disease and died , but that two did not take it ,and thereforemust be regarded as immune agai nst it .

Some of these small Angoni cattle arewonderful rn ilkers.Mr . S . Lewis of Bulawayo toldme that he knew of one36

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SOUTH AFRICAbreed . They have a sound constitution : theynatural foragers : they have been acclimatising for

ages ; and are now in perfect harmony with their

environment . Cattle of coarse breed thrive betteron harder fare than well-bred cattle . They shouldforman excellent nucleus for breeds, which are boundto prove a credit to the coun try and a source of substantial profit to the breeder . Mr . Burrows, a well

known authority on farming , says that the breeder ’

s

most important consideration ought to be the adaptability of his stock to the situation and climate , tothe soil which he cultivates, and to the crops whichhe can grow . I strongly advisemen , who have specialaptitude for cattle-breeding, to take up this importantmatter of establishing South African breeds fromthecattle of the coun try . It soon would becomemanifestthat no importation of foreign cattle is required ;and that diseases would diminish rather than increase .Any serious attempt

, to lift these cattle to the

high plane of value which is their natural right , of

course must include substantial encouragement inNON -DOOR the shape of prizes at the various shows throughout

the country . A herd-book also is an important ess ential. I was pleased to note that the Rhodesian farmershad adopted the very sound and sagacious policy ofoffering, at their shows, much higher prizes for Afrikander cattle than for any other breeds.

Imported Shorthorns, Devons, Herefords, Dex terKerrys, Jerseys, Guernseys, Frieslands, are to be

met-with on farms chiefly in Cape Colony and Natal.They are goodmilkers and good feeders, when they arethoroughly understood by their owners. They do

well, when they escape disease , and when they are as

well cared for as in England : but they gradually tendto lose their original characteristics. Of importedcattle, the Holstein or Frieslands are the best all

round breed . They originally were imported from38

LIVE STOCK

North Holland and West Fries land . They are largeheavy animals, with good formindicative ofmilkingqualities. They are hardy, white and black in colour ,and more remarkable for the quan tity than for thequahty of their milk .

Importation of cattle never will have lasting and

satisfactory results, except perhaps for crossing purposes ; and only then when the importer is preparedto provide circumstancessimilar to those of the countryfromwhich the cattle are imported . This conditionof success, fromits costly nature , appears to me tonegative the notion of importation , except for the

special purpose of judicious crossing . Different breedsdiffer considerably in aptitude to feed . South Afri cais not the country for heavy cattle or heavy sheep .

Beasts ofmediumsize have proved, and will continueto prove , themselves unquestionably the better suitedto the climate and other natural conditions. Farmers,who are devoid of South Afri can experience , and whoprobably ignore the advice of those who have suchexperi ence, have found-out to their cost that it does notpay (in the matter of stock-raising) to play at cross

purposeswith Nature . What South Africa wants, andmust have, is a breed of cattle which can thri ve underexistent conditions of climate and food . ImportedEnglish cattle, scions of a stock which has been fedhighly and tended carefully for generations, hardly canbe expected to take kindly to the veld , to forage forthemselves throughout the year, to adapt themselvesto the ever—changing temperature . It must not be

forgotten that such cattle , by'

customof generations,have acquired the habit of expecting food to be handedto them. It is part of their nature. They cannotShift for themselves, as do the native cattle of SouthAfri ca . Darwin says

"That habit and customhas some influence, I must behave both fromanalogy and fromincessan t advice

39

SOUTH AFRICAgrven infagricultural works, even in Itho

°

ancien t

Encyclope dias of China,fto be very careful in tramp

porting animals fromone district to another : for

i t is not likely that men Should have succeededin selecting SO many breeds and sub -breeds, wi th

‘

constitutions specially fitted for their own distr ict.

The resultmust , I think, be due to habit. On the

other hand, I can see no reason to doubt that

natural selection will con tinually tend to preservethose individuals which are born with consti tutionsbes t adapted to their native coun tries.

”

Instinct and Habitmay be, or may not be synonymous terms but it isunnecessary to attempt defin itionhere . I ammore concerned with the diversities of

instinct as a mental quality of animals. It is an

accepted fact that cattle (as well as other animals)inherit domestic instincts, which Often are totallydifierent frominstincts inherited in amore or less wildstate. Not only the mental qualities but also the

ex ternal formof our selected domestic animals varyto a much greater ex tent than that of natural selection . Instincts are useful, providing that circumstan ces be unchangeable : but such instincts at the

least must embarrass an animal which suddenly iscompelled to submit to a total change of circumstances.

The instincts of South Afri can cattle differ radicallyfromthe instincts of English cattle . This is a poin tnot wi thout in terest to those who contemplate theimportation of cattle to South Africa . In the lattercountry , the natural instincts, acquired by the fittestsurvivals of the struggle for li fe, are most suitablefor the circumstances in which they are found and,

on them,may be builded the solid foundation of an improvedbreed. ItwouldtakemanygenerationsofEnglishcattle to acquire, by inheri tance, the instincts whichare vitally essential to the cattle of the South Afri eanveld. Therefore ,out of the successivevarietiesprovidedby Nature in the indigenous droves of South Afriea ,

themost suitable cattle for that country will be raised .

osjnusut. The Objection , which some farmers have to the40

LIVE STOCK

native cattle, is that they do not give much milk .

The majority of these cattle are accustomed to produce only sufi cient milk for their calves, and for

adding to their own flesh against the lean monthswhen they are compelled to draw-upon their accumulated reserve of fat in order to keep up their constitution . If our best milkers were turned-out to rear a

calf and if the remainder of themilk were left , suchcows would develop milk-fever and die. With us,milking is the rule . In South Africa it is the exception . Consequently, South African cows producemilk sufficient for their necessity, and notmuchmore.

Nature has her laws. If the South African farmerwan tsmoremilk , hemust obey those laws carefullyselect the most suitable cattle for the purpose and

keep—on breeding, until he becomes possessed of the

milch-kine of his desire.

The question of blood demands care and attention .UM

Regarding South African cattle, there is an untoldtreasure , in the old breedswhich the coun try possesses,only awai ting development . At present, the SouthAfri can farmer lacks patience , and aptitude for selec

tion fromthe cattle at his door which would producethe very varietiesmost suitable to his requiremen ts.

He nourishes the vain desire of starting his stockfarmwith cattle, which English breeders and Englishconditions and a cen tury of time have raised to theirpresent high standard . In order to have cattlewhich are as suitable to African conditions as Englishcattle are to English conditions, the African stockfarmer must follow the lines of Bakewell and othernotable breeders he must start where they started,i .e. at the beginn ing . Kindlier and better treatmen t Treatment.soon would change the disposition of the Afri cancattle . The kind disposition of most of our well

known breeds is due en tirely to the kind treatmentto which they have been accustomed for generations.

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SOUTH AFRICAThat breed of cattle (which presents the highestdegree of variability) is the most favourable for themethodical breeder : because it gives himmorematterandmore Scope for selection . Also, it is well to bearin mind that the larger the number of cattle somuchthe larger is the variety . Wherefore , number is of

great importance to the breeder . Hence, smallbreeders (who confine themselves to dealing with a

limited number of cattle) do not succeed so well as

those who deal with larger droves. It is well-knownthat our English donkeys are among the worst-bredanimals in the country and have made so li ttleprogress, because they are kept only by poor people,and in such small numbers, that the vari eties (whichNature produces) cannot be taken -advantag e of as

is the case in other countries, where donkey-breedingis carried-ou systematically and on the grand scale .

This rule applies also to cattle . It is the farmer whomaintains large droves, or who selects fromhis neighbours’ droves aswell as fromhis own , who achieves thebest results.

The principle of selection is far frombeing a hypothetical one ample proof ex ists of what our notedbreeders have accomplished . A study of our domes ticanimals will convince naturalists as to how great thepower ofman has proved to be in its accumulation ,

by his successive selection of varieties. In Saxony ,the principle of selection is regarded as being of primeimportance, especially among themerino-Sheep farmers.

There, the selectors of breeding-stock are professionalmen . The Sheep are placed on a table, to be studiedand examined and judged , like sculpture by RoyalAcadernicians. Ex ternal features, not internal con

struction , gives scope to the selector ; a nd no goodcan be obtained unless there is a definite object inview . When once the standard is settled, the rulesof classification become simplified . Now what obj ect

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LIVE STOCK

has the South African farmer in view ? A trek-ox ?A slaughter-ox ? A small ox , or a mediumox , or

a large ox ? Does he want an ox fitted for existenceon the natural conditions of the veld , the capacityof which he himself thoroughly has grasped ? Or

has he a type of Shorthorn or Devon or Hereford inhismind If this be the case, is he prepared to provide the artificial fodder which undoubtedly was themeans of raising such stock to their high perfection inEngland ? Or does he wan t milch-kine Or cattlewhich will rear calves while fattening themselves ?All these questionsmust be answered before the farmeris justified in adopting any one breed, or selectingfromthe variety of breeds which surround him.

The man , who is going in for Stock-farming, mustfirst make-up hismind whether he will deal in stockcattle or in dairy-cattle. If the former , then themilkand butter-producing qualities must be sacrificedif the latter , then the pointswhich the butcher favoursmust be abandoned . There are principles which are

appropriate to the various kinds of stock . It is thelong and con tinuous breeding , on one definite planfor one defin ite object , which generally attains success.

Themilk and butter-producing qualities of cattle can

be regulated , just as surely as their capabilities forlaying-ouflesh .

The abominable customof chasing cattle , exciting Abe-Issuemilch-kine with whips and dogs, which is usual in ea ten .

many parts of South Africa , has very deleterious effectson themilk-production .

It is an historical fact that rational andmethodical M el

animal-breeding goes hand in hand with the social

and economical status of a people . Where civilization does not reign , there the domestic animals preserve their original characteristics : the primitivebreeds remain primitive, and are not improved in any

way by judicious selection . In the end, this system(or non-system) produces degeneration .

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SOUTH AFRICA

So long as the South African farmer remains nu

decided in his own mind , as to whether he wan tseither a breed of cattle possessing milking qualitiesor a breed which will command the appreciation of the

butcher , just so long will he continue to make littleor no progress with his stock . In the case of themanwho has a good strain of Afrikander or Angoni cattle,neither of which are very good milkers nor have anySpecial points for the butcher , there is only one thingin all the world for himto do. He must choose thebreed which he intends to establish ; and breedsteadily to it . There is no other way .

Interbreeding sometimes is condemned on the groundthat it tends to physical imperfection : but generalexperi ence seems to point to the contrary . Most ofthe celebrated English breeders have been Close in -and

in breeders. It will suffice to cite Bakewell (thefounder of the long-horn breed) , Pri ce (one of themostsuccessful breeders of Herefords) , Collins, Mason ,

Maynard, Sir Charles Knightly, etc. (who broughtShorthorns to their present perfection ) . The breederneeds to study the matter very closely ; and, when

he finds better cattle of the same breed as his own in

other hands, he Should acquire themat any pri ce .

Some say that the best results are obtained bycrossing various breeds. Good results undoubtedlyhave been obtained by thismethod but our best andproved breeders strongly were opposed to cross

breeding, except among closely allied sub-breeds.

These men could detect the slight differences whichwould go absolutely un-noted by the inexpert observer .

The South African farmer thinks that the weightof his cattle will be augmented . Augmentationensues : but it is augmen tation of bone unaccompanied by any corresponding improvement in otherpoin ts. This systemis condemnable, in that it producesmongrels for bulk , or size, does not constitute

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SOUTH AFRICAEngland is the cradle of the world’s cattle-breeds.

Her cattle are the result of scientific breeding and

intelligent care. If the importers of English cattletreated their imports as English breeders would treatthem, the success ofEnglish farmerswould be emulatedand repeated butmany failures have been due to thevain assumption that artificially-bred cattle will thriveunder conditions which naturally-reared cattle hardlywill pull-through . Let the South Afri can farmer , whofancies English-bred cattle and whose circumstancesdo not permit himto care for themas the Englishbreeders would , ponder these things.

As far as my judgment of the English breeds isconcerned , I amof opinion that preference should begiven to the importation of Herefords for the purposeof crossing with native cattle . Herefords are te

markably good feeders they lay on flesh abundan tlyin proportion to the food consumed : their aptitudeto fatten is favoured by their general placidity of

temper . They come early to maturi ty : they haveproved themselves good trekkers their progeny, nomatter what the crossmay be, displaysmore of theHereford characteristics than of the cross. They are

smallish in size, but very compact . In the Argen tin eand in North America, Shorthorns have been discardedin favour of Herefords. They are not phenomenallygood dairy-cattle : but , for general purposes, no

English cattle aremore suitable to cross with Africanthan the Herefords.

To try to run a cattle-ranch with dairy-cows , and

to try to run a dairy with selected stock-cattle , areequally futile pastimes. The really good dairy-cow isnot a goodmother to a calf because she will give himtoo much milk . Consequently , when winter comes,she herself suffers, having disposed ofwhat should havebeen her reserve of sustenance . Cows, which have toface South African conditions all the year round with

46

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out artificial food, must be able to lay-on fles h and

fat during themilking period otherwise they will notbe able to pull-through. For dairy

-purposes, thecharacteristics must be artificial to a certain ex tent .The milking characteristics of a breed is the resultof abnormal development The well-known milkproducing breeds are deepmilkers simply because theyhave been bred-up to that end. Each point can bedeveloped in exact proportion toman ’

s effort pointsfor the dairy , or for the shambles. The farmer’s stockis perennially repeating itself, improving , or deteriorating .

Either a dairy-breed or a stock-breed could be obtained successfully fromthe native cattle of SouthAfrica, upon condition that the breeder has a specialaptitude for breeding, taste for classification of his

stock, power Of judicious selection , and that he willmake a eareful study of the soil, climate, and vegstation ,most suited to the requirements of his animals.

Such stock, in a short time would be one of themostvaluable assets the coun try could possess : for thesecret of the future prosperity of South Africa hes in

the stock-farming industry.

Among the various kinds of sheep and goats, theMerino an d the Afrikander or Fat-tailed sheep, andthe Angora an d Cape goats, are the best known . Sheepand goat-farming is one of the leading industries ofSouth Africa . Much greater progresswould have beenmade in it , had not diseases brought great losS tofarmers. Scab and Heart-water are among the worstof thes e plagues ; and I regret to say that the formercertainly, and the latter probably, could have beenstamped-out long ago if the Governmentsof the countryhad been more energetic and persevering .

In most sheep-farming districts, the Merino-sheephold the first place. They are well adapted to theconditions of the country : they possess a sound con

47

“del l.

WIN -"fl .

Ole-s ees

Weal.

As splelee.

SOUTH AFRICAstitution ; and are good feeders. The original breedwas imported in the early part of the nineteen th cen tury :although a few specimens had been imported earlier .

The first importations were not very successful ; and

some years passed before Reitz Van Buda and Jourbetimported a fresh lot . These enterprising farmersmadea great success and, in a few years’ time, they wereselling no less than 500 Merinos a year to neighbouringfarmers. At that time, disease of any kind was unknown . Not until 1869 did the scourge known as

Wire-Worm, kill 60 70% of the lambs every year ;and, fromthen till now, the disease never has been

out of the country .

The farmers of the early days were very progres sive .

Valuable prizes were given to breeders of the bestsheep and horses. Shows were held ; and the ex

hibition of stock was much to the advantage of the

farming industry in general.The flock-master’s objective has been the production

of wool and fine wool for choice. Little atten tionhas been paid to the carcase for the price of meatun til a few years ago, was comparatively low . Then ,

also, wool fetched amuch higher price than now . But

at present there is a general tendency to study the

carcase as well as the wool.South Africa possesses several very fine flocks of

Merinos. Much attention has been paid to breedingbut the acme of perfection has not yet been reached .

The sheep-farming industry will repay all the carewhich the farmers and the Government choose to

bestow upon it for it is a permanent industry; and

should go on increasing and improving .

The Afrikander sheep is the Sheep of the coun try .

Like the Afrikander cattle, it is the aboriginal breedwhich was in South Africa before the whiteman camethere. In the first instance, both sheep and cattleseemto have been the Hotten tots.

48

LIVE STOCKThe Afrikander Sheep also is called the Fat-tailedSheep, from the very remarkable formation of its

caudal appendage . The tail aloneweighs from7to 20lbs. and it is composed of amass of fat, which sometimes is melted down to serve as a substitute forbutter . The sheep itself is a hardy hairy leggy lopeared breed and ismuch fancied by the butcher andby the Karoo farmer . The latter likes it, because it isnot so susceptible of disease as other species, and

because its hair does not collect weeds and dirt as isthe case with wool.Angora goats were imported into Cape Colony

50 55 years ago. Some good well-bred tribes are to

be found in the Eastern and Midland Provincesotherwise progresshas been rather Slow and only a fewfarmershave established well-known breeds. Enormousprices have been paid, and still are paid, for goodrams formany of the imported rams did not turn-out

well, and often didmore harmthan good to the tribe .

Many of the Angora breeds in the country are descendedfromCape goats, which are in the habit of sheddingtheir hair periodically.

In common with Sheep-farming, Angora goatfarming ought to become a much more importantindustry than it is. The Governmen ts of the variouscolonies can render valuable assistance by eradicatingScab and other diseases, compelling unprogressivefarmers to fence their land so that the progressivefarmersmay pursue this promising industry in legitimate security . It is a gross injustice to the latterthat their earnest eflorts, to secure for their stockimmunity against disease, Should be frustrated by thenoncurant indolence and apathy of the former . Thismatter isonewhich calls for authoritative interventionfor it is the duty of authority to protect the worthyfromthe unworthy .

There are otherminor breeds of goats,much coarser49

SOUTH AFRICA

in hair andmeat than those which I have desig nated.

The goat is the native’s favourite animal ; and con

sequently exists in various species and various colours.

Such goats, however, are not as profitable as the

Angora : but, because they are hardier and betteradapted to every altitude and every kind of vegetation ,

they are exceedingly numerous.

“Mi lThe present systemof kraaling sheep and goats at

nightmust be extremely detrimental to the wool, hair,and constitution and, so long as the kraal-systemisin vogue , so long will the country have a hotbed of

disease on every farm.

ltereee. South Afri ca has not been able to retain the re

putation for horse-breeding which it once possessed.

During the last three decades, the tendency has beento breed horsesmore for their swiftness than for powerand constitution . Nevertheless the country posses sessome good horses, which aremore sui table for SouthAfrica than any horses which can be imported . The

The cape origin of the Cape Horse is not certainly known . Mr.

Sartees, who is a notable authority, says that theoriginal breed of horses at the Cape was a crossbetweena Barb of Northern Africa and a Persian Arab . Norecord, of the in troduction of the former, exists at the

presen t time but there is some evidence which provesthat the Dutch East India Company in troduced thelatter . Horses were imported fromEngland in 1792

and, later , some Spanish horses were landed in SouthAfrica . The breed gradually improved : but still a

few defects remained . About 1815 , more Englishhorseswere imported and importation was con tinuedevery year till about 1850. The imported horses weregood ; and their introduction greatly enhanced thevalue of the breed . The Cape Horse became wellknown and recognized , especially in India : to whichcountry a large number were exported annually. Thisprofitable industry might have been con tinued to the

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pres en t day, had it not been for themalfeasance of thespeculator . This nefarious person contri ved to dupethe horse-breeders of the Cape, by importing (aspedigree horses) animals which were the castaways of

English studs. These were disposed of at enormousprofit . It is well-known that at least one such horsewas bought in England for five guineas, andsold at theCape for five hundred . South Africa soon became thereceptacle for all the equine rubbishwhich speculatorscould pick-up in England. Hence, the Cape Horse began to deteriorate, and no longer was required in India.

Notwithstanding all his faults, the Cape Horse T“to-day is the best horse in the country . His weak “Mweek

points are

( I ) a rather heavy and straight shoulder

(2) a long arm, and too shor t a leg

(3) light bone, and hind—quarters invari ably too light.

H is good poin ts are( I ) he is an excellen t forager

(2) he is handy , hardy , and a wonderful stayer .

Mares are not much used . They are kept solelyfor breeding purposes. This practice is indefensible , l. Max.

for the simple reason that many hereditary diseasesdo not develop except under stress of hard work . Thesediseases lie dorman t in the unworked mare and, in Der-restthat dormant state, they are conveyed fromthe damto the foal . Farmers often experience severe disappointment when a colt, which is just beginning to doa little hard work, exhibits symptomsof spavin , roaring,ring-bone, etc . and they generally put it down to t hesire, because the damnever has displayed unsoundness.

I particularly noted the behaviour ofmares during theWar . Sometimes whole troops of themwere roundedup andmade to work : but, after a few days underthe saddle, they invariably developed the hereditarydiseases which were dormant in them.

5 1

SOUTH AFRICA

Some noted horse-breeders in Cape Colony and

Orange River Colony, who have paid special attentionto this industry, have achieved excellent results. But

the majority of farmers are careless and casual to a

degree, allowing themost unsightly and certainly themost unsound horses to serve theirmares. Of coursethere is great difficulty in keeping the mares fromthese miscellaneous and wandering pes ts, simplybecause the country is imperfectly fenced . The

Governments do not find it feasible to carry—out sys

tematic fencing on so gigantic a scale ; and, as veryfew farmers are at present in a position to fence theirown farms, some other methods of dealing with thenuisance must be invented . It might be regulatedthat every colt over 18 mon ths old must be gelded,unless the Veterinary Surgeon certifies to soundnessand fitness to servemares. Such a regulation wouldabolishmany of the weedy beasts now roaming aboutthe coun try . These can only be described as animals,which an English farmer (on seeing themIn the samefield with hismares) would shoot at sight .

“W I could not wish for a better saddle-horse than theCape Horse and as everything is favourable to horsebreeding in SouthAfrica outside the horse-sicknessareas,I think that it promises to become (oncemore) one ofthe chief industries of the coun try .

Most of the mules and donkeys are importations.

One of the best mules in South Africa is the Cape or

Colon ialmule, a small and compact little animal, wiryconstitutioned, and a great forager . The country ofiersvery suitable conditions for the breeding ofmules and

00030” for donkeys. I aminclined to think that donkeys will betetere

used for transportmuchmore in the future than in thepast , especially in low-lying districts where horsesickness and the tsetse-fly act as a barrier against theemployment of horses and cattle. The donkey’snatural immunity against horse-sickness is a pointgreatly in his favour .

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Pereles

AM

SOUTH ‘AFRICA

living in the hills, foraging by night, and hiding byday. I saw a large number in the hills near Aliwal

North . At one time they had belong ed to a farmer'

In

the district but, when he wen t to the War , the pigs

des erted his farm-yard , and were then as wild in the

hills as the wildes t of wild-pig . They had developedso extraordinar ily strong an instinct of self-preservation ,

that there was no chance of touching themexcept witha rifle-bullet . A farmer in the district told me thatit wasmuch easier to get at a herd of deer than at these

porcin e atavists.

Black pig has been foundmore suitable for theSouthAfrican climate and vegetation than any other species .

A cross of Tamworth x Berkshire is about the bes t,owing to their colour , and their compact rotund form.

When the animal and a better systemof feeding it areunderstood, the industry should make rapid progmon its own merits an d I believe that it will be foundto be one Of themost profitable branches of farming .

Many farmers, in Natal and elsewhere, rear pig in

vleis (marshes) allowing themto burrow for roots and

to bury themselves in the soft ground, and giving theman occasional feed ofmealies on the banks of the obi .

Oneman toldme that he had about 200, to whomhegave very little corn and every week he was ableto select several for themarket

,where they fetched a

good price . He said that nothing paid himso well,

or gave himso little trouble . The sows littered twicea year, each sow producing an average of 22 pigs a

year. He regarded hispiggeriesmuch in the same wayas anotherman would regard his rabbit-warren . The

Operation was entirely automatic . There was no

trouble in rearing , feeding, or sheltering . It was toall inten ts and purposes a clear profit transaction .

The price of pork and bacon is exceedingly high inthe townsof South Africa ; and there is amuch greaterdemand for these commodities than for vegetables .

54

LIVE STOCKThe reason is thatmany townsfolk have small gardens,wherein they raise their own vegetables but neitherpig nor pigstye is seen in any town . The only drawback to the pork and bacon-trade is the fact of thenatives being keepers of pigs. Every one knows thatthe native pig is a scavenger , the filthiest beast in thecountry ; and this knowledge prevents people frombuying native pork at any price, and causes themtolook very much askance at any pork or home-curedbacon at all, unless they can be satisfied of its origin .

The South African native never thinksof feeding eitherhis dog or his pig . Indeed there is very little differencebetween the two animals : both being always in a

state of semi-starvation , ravenously hungry, frightenedof their own shadows, cursed and kicked by all. Therefore, before the people of South Africa can be inducedto take kindly to home-grown pork and bacon , it will

be necessary to have it branded by the feeder , if notby a Government Inspector . That is the only way inwhich suspicion can be allayed, and the native pigprevented fromspoiling a promising industry , as hedoes at present .Poultry farming ismuch neglected though there

are various breeds of poultry in South Africa and a

few specialbreeders. The favourable andun favourablelocalities have not yet been studied with a view to

suiting breeds to situations and, consequently ,muchunnecessary disappoin tment and discouragement havefallen to the farmers. It is the old story of rule-ofthumb, of unscientific methods. A farmer fancies a

breed which he sees in an other district . He importsit to his district . Nature wipes it off the farm. Thefarmer vents surprise an d indignation . It never occursto himto consider how far he himself was culpable , inneglecting to note that the soil and conditions of thedistrict, fromwhich;hebrought the fowls, weretotally differen t to those of the district towhich he brought them.

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Poultry.

M“.

SOUTH AFRICASome poultry thrive on ' heavy clay-soil others onlythrive on light soil . In the former class, I noted thatyellow flesh andyellow legs (Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas)were the best . The white flesh and white legg ed birdsdid not do so well on heavy soil. In some distri ctswere Minorcas, Andalusians, and Black-Orpingtons.

A judicious cross of the Black-Orpington with anotherbreed seemed to me to be the best-all-round fowl forSouth Africa . Messrs. Cooke have es tablished verysuccessful poultry-farms in Natal andTransvaal . TheirOrpington poultry-breed is the best in the coun try.

Columella gave advice about poultry . He con tendedthat the foot of a fowl of the best breeds ought to havefive toes.

Poultry do not go scot-free fromdisease in SouthAfrica . There is an obscure ailment which earries 05a large number in wet weather and fleas, which collectround the fowl’s eyes, also cause considerable mortality while other dreaded diseases are, Fowl-choleraand Pip. Imported poultry ismore immune againstsome of these afflictions than home-bred poultry,especially in Mashonaland , where themortality amongthe native fowls is very high . Turkeys aremore orless susceptible of all poultry diseases but geese andducks are immune.

Eggs and poultry at all times command high pri ceseggs frequently cannot be bought at any price . Thosewho are fortunate with their poultry always can coun tupon a ready sale and remunerative returns.

I amconvinced that , without very great care andattention , it is quite impossible to increase one’s stockof poultry beyond a certain limit . Those who attemptit, invariably suffer . The wiseman contents himselfwith keeping a few, tending themwith care and hereaps [reasonable and by no means contemptiblerewards. A man , who had farmed poultry on an

ex tensive scale in America,toldme that there he had

56

LIVE STOCKasmany as 500 800 turkeys with an equal numberof fowls : but that , in Africa , he failed to get morethan 25 turkeys at any one time with about double thenumber of poultry . He said that invariably, whenthese numbers were increased, some pest or diseasewould empty his run . Consequen tly he had to be

satisfied with a small and healthier lot . Anotherfarmer toldme that he found it remarkably beneficialto have a dark roosting place for poultry . He hadbuilt a Special fowl-house, whence he could shut outlight . His poultry went early to roost and were not

permitted to enter the run until well-on in the day .

He had noted that poultry, which roosted in the treesround the house, were being disturbed continually and

their sleep broken . EHence he devised a plan whereby ,in a dark room, noises, the glaringmorning sun , to saynothing of the bitterly cold night , could not possiblymolest them; and he strongly asserted that , in hisexperience, unbroken rest resulted in more eggs and

fuller flesh . I ambound to say that I deemthis theorymost ingen ious and ex tremely rational ; and I haveno hesitation in recommending its general practice.

Visitors to South Africa cannot fail to note, especially in towns and villages, that the fowls seemto beawake all night . Cock-crow regularly takes place at

about 11 pm. A solo-bird begins : duets and triosand quartettes follow after and the oratorio concludeswith a chorus which , on quiet n ights, can be heard formiles. And throughout the night , any disturbance of

the fowls, leads themto supply encores lasting 5 10

minutes apiece . These phenomena, together with theskinny aspect and scarce egg of the South African fowl,leadme to reach the foregoing conclusion . And I willadd that, when poultry farming is governed by scien

tificmethods, which will ward-off disease and obviatepresent disadvan tages, South Africa will become as

suitable and as profitable a coun try as any other forthe poultry-farmer .

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Ah snelee

Products of the Country

T is difficult to estimate the quan tity of cereals “0 etetletlee

grown in South Africa, owing to the absenceof any reliable statistics ; and, on the same account ,it is still more difi cult to calculate the yield of thevarious crops. The farmer’s method is to measurethe yield by the return of so-many-fold of the seedsown . Such a systemof calculation is always in

definite, and is oftenmisleading ; and the unfortunateresult is that it is by nomeans easy (and, as a rule,impossible) to find out the actual cost of production .

Wheat is grown chiefly in the Eastern and Western Wha t areas.ProvincesofCape Colony, the Eastern district ofOrangeRiver Colony, in the neighbourhood of Potchefstroom,

Rustenburg, Marico, Lydenburg, in the Transvaal,and in certain parts of Rhodesia and Natal.The best wheat is grown under irrigation during the

wintermonths : but the yield falls far short of that ofmore favourably situated coun tries. I was told by a

practical farmer in South Africa, that an average yieldof 7bushels an acre was considered good . Now theEnglish average is 309 bushels an acre and althoughit is true that many districts of the great wheatexporting countries (Canada, Australia, America, and

is grown without artificial irrigation ,the cost of pro

duction is diminished enormously .

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SOUTH AFRICAWheat , grown in dry land in any part of SouthAfrica in the summer , is very liable to rust and

mildew .

Mealies and Kaflir-corn grow in almost any soil.

They are summer crops ; and are grown ex tensively , especially by the natives. These last are

gradually extending their Scope of Operations and thisdenotes an augmented supply for the market whenbettermeans of transport becomes available. But , on

the other hand, mealies and Kafiir-comsoon exhaustthe soil ; and there are few areas (apart fromthe

alluvial) where more than three successive crops ean

be grown . The present custom, both for the whiteman and the Kafli r , is tomove-on to new soil when

the Old becomes exhausted and to return a few years

later when it has recuperated (fromthe air) its lostconstituents. Locusts, hailstorms, and excess ivedrought , are the only drawbacks with which thecultivator ofmealies and Kaffir-comhas to contend .

The price of mealies fluctuates considerably and

altogether unreasonably . In travelling throug h the

country after the War , I frequently had occasion to

buymealies. Wherever I went , I had no difficulty ingetting themfromthe natives at any price between73. and 105 . a bag : but the storekeeper in the samedistrict would charge me up to 453. I actually pai d453. at a store in the Haenertsburg in the Transvaaland I immediately afterwards discovered that a

transport-rider had bought 15 bags at 103. a bagfromthe natives in the same place . One storekeeper ,who did a large business in the Northern Transvaal,toldme that he was accustomed to take bagsofmealiesfromthe natives in exchange for blankets, or someother Kafli r truck, worth 13. or 13. 6d. He also saidthat every native grew (on an average) ten bags of

mealiesmore than he needed for the consumption of

his own family and that , if the natives got a better60

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SOUTH AFRICA

50 - 60 acres had been plan ted. The ofi cer in charge

toldme that he had set 300 tons, and that he in tendedto set more . I confess that I do not know whatreturn one ought to expect from50- 60acres in SouthAfrica : but I should imag ine, in this particular case,that it would amount to half the seed planted , and

perhaps less. Two crops often are grown in one year,where irrigation is possible . Some of the potatoes are

good-eating : but, as a rule, that floury quality , whichis so much appreciated in this tuber, either is lostby bad cooking , or is not Characteristic of the SouthAfrican potato. The seeds are renewed every year.

Home-grown potatoes do not answer very well for seedpurposes ; and hence a large trade in seed-potatoesis done with England and Germany. Thes e are

imported in small boxes and they often arrive at theirdestination in a very unfit state for planting . One

notable feature of the South Afri can potato is its lackof keeping qualities. Many farmers are obliged to

find a market for their potatoes within a few days

of digg ing otherwise they become soft and stringy .

Wild cotton grows luxuriantly in some parts of

South Africa , more especially in Rhodesia. The

natives use it for making cloth, shawls, etc. The

material, as theymake it, is rough in tex ture, but it isvery durable. They dye it with various colours, whichthey extract fromplants and shrubs in a primitivemanner .

The Rhodesian Admin istration ismaking experi

ments in the cultivation of Egyptian and Americancotton . When I visited Rhodesia in April, 1903, theplantswere in a healthy and vigorouscondition . Cotton ,

as a product has somany advantages, not only as a

fibre but also, as a fodder and a fertilizer ; and it

should be a most remunerative crop to grow whereland is obtainable at a small cost . The cotton industryhas an exceedingly bright future.

6 2

PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRYTobacco is cultivated ex tensively in South Africa Teheeee.

for home consumption . So far , the export trade hasnot been developed . Many varieties are grown . As

the soil varies, so does the tobacco vary in quality lettehle

and flavour . Most of the nitrogenoussoilsare adaptable sells.

to tobacco-culture . At present , the best soils are

supposed to be in the Rustenburg district of theTransvaal and tobacco, grown in theMagaliesbergValley, is deemed the best . This tobacco is preparedby Messrs. Hartley, Bros. , and others, who havemadea Special study of growing, curing, andmanufacturing Hersey,

it in the most modern and scientific manner . Mr .

Hartley toldme that they had no difficulty in disposingof asmuch as they could manufacture that it wasthe intention of his firmto develop the industry as

much as possible and that , but for the War and theconsequent total destruction of their plant , they alreadywould have made greater headway . I was told alsothat most of the soils were suitable for Tobaccoculture : but that the ordinary farmers did not paysufficient attention to the curing of the leaf . Thefarmers, on whomMessrs. Hartley, Bros. depend fortheir supply , are the bright exceptions to this rule .

Much tobacco is grown in Cape Colony , Natal and Teheeee

Rhodesia . That which is produced in the EnkeldoornDistri ct of Rhodesia is equal to any which is grownin the Transvaal . but it has not yet attained a similarpublic reputation .

It is the antiquated method of growing and curing ”mmwhich is the chief hindrance to the tobacco industry.

Most of the farmers know nothing ofmodernmethodsthey are slow in acquiring knowledge, satisfied withtheir well-worn groove, not particularly anxious to

learn the better way . The Governments of the variouscolonies ought to take thematter in hand, and appoint M'm'“

experts to instruct the farmers In the bestmethods of

growing and preparing Nicotiana Tabacumfor export63

SOUTH AFRICAtrade. The present price of it is too high and thepresent quality of it is not sufficiently uniform con

sequently it cannot be expected to find remunerativemarkets in Europe or elsewhere , till thes e defects are

remedied . While in South Africa, the smoker appre

ciates the flavour of South African tobacco . I t hasone advantage to the heavy smoker : owing to the

absence of saltpetre fromits preparation , it can besmoked all day without any ill-effect ; and it neverburns the tongue. My own experience was that , whenno other tobacco was obtainable (as often was the caseduring the War ) one acquired a taste for it ; and

presentlypreferred it to tobaccoofEnglishmanufacture.

I must add, however, that , after I left South Africa,

it did not seemto retain the flavour which had beenits recommendation . Near the coast , it certainlybecame moist , clogg ing the bottomof the pipe withan earthy kind of composition .

Dr . Sucksland, a German scientist , has put-forth thetheory that the flavour of tobacco is due tomicrobeswhich impregnate the herb . After various experi

ments, he proves that the aroma of Virginia Tobaccois caused by amicrobe peculiar to Virginia and thatthe sweet aroma of a Havafia also is due to useful andobhgingmicrobes peculiar to Cuba . His experimen ts inimpregnating foreign tobacco with Virginian microbessucceeded in imparting to the same the peculiarVirginian flavour . He extracted the microbes fromfermenting Havana leaves and replaced themwithGerman microbes, causing the Havaiia to posses s theputot usually associated with German tobacco. IfDr . Sucksland

’

s theory should prove to be of un iversalapplication , there ought to be no difficulty about thefuture of South African tobacco. Acquired tastes are

not much admired in these days, when everyone is ina frantic hurry and hasno time for leisurely acquisition .

The essential flavour of South Afri can tobacco, whi ch64

PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRYis an acquired taste, can be exchang ed quite easily forthe fashionable flavour of Virginia or Havafia, by thesimple process of importing the Havafia and Vi rginiamicrobes to South Afri ca , where allmicrobes vigorouslyflourish . Therefore, South Afri ca tobacco yet mayrule themarket .At present tobacco-growing is one of the mostprofitable industri es, in districts where there is sufli teheeee

cient demand at a fair price, and where the climateand soil are favourable . These last are the mostimportant factors in Tobacco-culture . Judging frommany expert opinions on South Afri can conditions, Isee no reason why vast areas should not be profitablycultivated and a superior brand of tobacco produced .

But this special culture requires a thorough knowledgeof soils,manures, speciesof the herb, and of themethodsof planting , cultivating , drying, and curi ng . Whenthese problems fully aremastered, there is no reasonwhy the South African leaf Should not obtain an

enormous vogue throughout the EmpireNeglect of the industry of forestrymust be included

in the category of sins of omission on the partof the governments of the defunct Boer republics.

Near the towns some good work in this direction hasbeen accomplished by individual enterprize but thefarmers’ homesteads boast only of a few trees, whichhelp to denote the situation on the lonely veld . In

many parts of these colonies, all that can be seen is theAustralian Blue-Gum, and a few wretched specimensof peach-trees.

There are no forests here . Large areas are covered Tremed

with shrubs and stunted trees, which areuselessexceptfor firewood . Both in theTransvaal and in the OrangeRiver Colony , natives and settlers have been permittedto ex terminate all trees of any value . No attempt atte-afiorestation has beenmade , except in a few districtswhere Messrs. Lewis and Marks have done some very

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good work in a successfulmanner . The plantationsin the vicinity Of Johannesburg prove that the coun tryis most suitable for trees. A few yes rs

’

growth is

astonishing . In six or eight years, common trees

(such as the Australian Blue-Gum) attain an enormousheight . Certainly this timber is not valuable : but

the trees are useful for shade and shelter fromthe

dusty winds.

The Cape Colonial Government has an established

Forestry Department , which has done and is doingex cellent work . According to the Official Handbook,the indigenous and heavy-timber area of CapeColonycomprises about 550 sq . miles. This area is beingex tended . Knysna , on the coast , is the largest forestarea : next comes the Amatols mountain in the

Eastern Province ; and there are patches of forest

in Griqualand East .Natal also has a Fores t Department , and an area

of about 300 sq . miles of indigenous fores ts . Manylarge areas are being planted with Black Wattle

(Acacia mimosa ) which has become a source of con

siderable revenue to the Colony : the bark beingmuchin demand, on account of its containing a very large

percentage of tannin .

Rhodesia has large and valuable forests, which are

guarded carefully fromthe destructive instincts of thenatives. In Matabeleland alone, Rhodesia possessesforests which have an area of about sq . miles.

The great teak-forest in the northern part ofMatabeleland is quite unique ; and there are also some other

forests at Gwelo and Selukwe , wheremapani .mangwe,and stinkwood grow well. Thislast timber also growsin Natal and Cape Colony .

South Africa abounds in scrub-forests, such as addobush , doomboom, and other thorny bushes of littlevalue except for shade and firewood . Not only nativesbut whitemen are clearing the coun try of its trees and

6 6

PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRYshrubs and bushes. I noted whole districts which , atone time , were covered with trees, but are now as bareas an egg . The demand for firewood is great ; andtrees are sacrificed wholesale . There is little or no lnclination to consider the future Of the coun try or of itspopulation . Sufi cient Unto the Day is the TimberThereof, is themotto of the arboricide. It hasbecomea sort of second nature withmost farmers to cut downevery stick of timber on their holdings and to ride itinto the nearest town for sale as fuel.Most of the South African soils are suitable for trees.

The seasons, wet in summer and dry in winter , alsoare suitable to all trees except fruit-trees. Landwhich is exhausted by cereals, never is exhausted bytrees. On the other han d, trees undoubtedly add

fertility to the soil, by carpeting it with leaves con

taining constituents of fertility ex tracted, not fromit but , fromthe air . I discussed the possibilities, ofsuccessful agriculture in South Africa, with a manwho was ex tremely sanguine about its prospects. Hewas amazed , when I said that the soil was'

poor exceptin alluvial pockets and he pointed to sOme rows of

trees, which had been planted a few years before, and A teteeee

were flourishing luxuriantly, remarking that none buta fertile Soil could produce such trees.

The fact is that (given a suitable soil) a tree requireslittlemore fromthe surface of the globe than a foothold— enough penetrable soil through which to thrustits tender enzymes or ferments, which latter will pierceand pulverise granite . When as much as that isgranted, the tree derives one-fourth of its sustenancefromthe rain and the atmosphere . Hence I concludethat there are very few places in South Africa whichare unsuitable for trees.

The aflorestation of ster ile distri cts, and the teM es

afiorestation of districts which have been deprived el ereetetlee

of trees, are matters which need a great deal more67

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companies. It is the duty of the Governmen ts of

South Africa to emulate the examfle set by CapeColony and Natal, and to create properly equippedForest Departmen ts. The vast areas, which ofier

little or no Scope for agriculture, pasturage ormining ,will afiord a splendid field for fores try. And anyjudicious outlay combined with systematic and expert

efiort in this direction , not only would serve importantnational interests but would justify itself by direct

financial returns.

Froma commercial point of view, themost imwrt

ant fruticose product is the rubber-vine and the

rubber-tree . The former is found in abundance alongthe streams in the northern districts of South Africa,especially in the northern provinces of Rhodesia. It

is a creeper, which clings to and winds round other

trees for support . The natives extract the rubber byan incision made in the rind. The ground-rubber isa root , verisimilar to the rubber-vine it grows under

a small shrub . In order to ex tract the rubber , theroot is beaten -up and boiled . The natives use the

most indiscriminate and reprehensible methods of

digging, tearing-up acres of land and ruining the youngroots. The greatest rubber-industry is wes t of R.

Zambesi , where a large native-trade is carried-ou.

Adequate attention has not been given to dairywork in South Afri ca . The Cape Governmen t ismaking an eflort to educate the farmers in this important industry : but the results so far are not satis

factory . The late Free State Governmen t, someyears ago, appoin ted an expert to demonstrate in a

practicalmann er the art andmystery of butter-making .

Very good results ensued . In Cape Colony there are

two or three creameries : their progress is slow, but

not unsatisfactory . I found the creamery at Queenstown fully equipped with modern utensils and appli

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tlhltern

SOUTH AFRICAno other water save that of the stagnan t dam, in

which cattle, horses, and pigs, remained for hoursevery day, staling andmessing .

In Denmark and Normandy, and other coun tries

where butter-making has reached a scien tific pitch of

perfection ,milch-kine can drink only the water whichis provided in clean pails. Also, they all are tethered ;and are allowed to graze only that grass which will

produce the best butter. Hence the superi ority ofDanish butter in the Eng lishmarket of to-day .

But one need not go as far as South Africa for

examples of the disgusting practice to which I havealluded. Many farms i n the United Kingdomhavea stagnant pool beside the shedding and it is not

uncommon to seemilch-kine (on being let-out in the

winter-momings, after 12 and more hours munching of dry hay) , rush to the stagnant pool to quenchtheir thirst . There aremany farmers who, owing tosuch practice, are unable to find a market for theirbutter.

Unless the farmers of South Afri ca realize the

necessity of providing pure water for their cattle,travelling dairies and dairy experts can do little todevelop the dairy-industry . Also, a better breed of

milch kine must be selected and formed . If thesetwo points receive atten tion , lessons In butter-makingwill be very useful ; and then the industry will flourishon its ownmerits. For the country and its conditionsare suitable for dairy work.

The South Afri can farmer can blame no one but

himself for his inability to oust the foreigner fromthe South African butter-market . He must learnthe art of producing a butter of uniformquality. Itstands to reason that , as every farmer’s wife has a

different system, the quality of the product vacillatesbetween indifferent and bad and it is not likely thatamiscellaneously flavoured butter will take the place

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PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRYOf that of uniformquality which is imported in largequantities. The South African consumer has acquireda taste for foreign butter , which can be procured of

identical quality throughout the country and throughout the year . It is not likely that he will discardcertain ty for the uncertainty (generally disagreeableand often revolting) of the homemade butter .

But, when the scientific dairy-farmer takes the

industry in hand, and when some systemis adoptedfor grading and distributing butter of uniformqualityall the year round, only then will South Afri ca regainher market, and develop one of her most promisingindustries. As things are, Boer butter is generallyused for greasing waggon wheels in the country : orfor very in feri or cooking In the towns.

In this connection I will mention that Rhodesiaappears to offer more favourable Opportunities tothe dairy farmer than the other colonies. The grassis succulent . the water is pure and plentiful ; andthe prices of land I shall set forth in the succeedingchapter .

7!

Land Tenure and Land V alue

HE terms and conditionsupon which land is hiredor leased in most of the South African colonies,

are not based upon any established Land-Laws. The

rule is a perfectly primitivemethod of procedure. Theowner and the hirermake their own terms the formergets asmuch as he can get for hisland , and betrays littleor no interest in the state of the said land before thetermination of the tenancy : while the hirer gives as

little as he can give for the land , and takes fromitall that he can take during his

.

tenancy . If once youmake the farmers feel that they have no secure interest(beyond its annual produce) in the land which theyoccupy youwill have poisoned husbandry at its very

This systemplaces a premiumon badfarming. Theland is exhausted rapidly andmust be abandoned tothe recuperative action of Nature for several years.

Consequently, improvement in buildings, fencings,and general farming, is not thought-of. It is no

matter for surprise that, under this systemof tenure,the tenan t-class (which consists chiefly of bijwoners)should be the poorest class of whites in the country.

South Africa has its Poor Whites Problem and

swarmswith a class of squatterswho are inmany waysworse off than the Kaflirs. Just and fair Land-Lawswould have encouraged this class to improve theirholdings and their own position . As things are, theyare generally mere tenan ts-at-will. Some are subject

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s notice while others have barely a dayto pack-up their belong ings and be-ofi elsewhere. The

houses which they inhabit on such conditions, bettercan be imagined than described. Having no securityof tenure, they have no permanent interes t in theirholdings , and I may say that I failed to see that (atcommon-law in South Afri ca) the tenant-farmer hasany right whatever to compensa tion for any improvemen t or work of husbandry . On the con trary , he at

all times is liable to have his improvemen tsconfiscated,or to be ex tra-rented on themby an unscrupulous

land-owner . Certain farming customs,which have be

chiefly with water-ri ghts, fencing , commonage. etc.

The best and simplest systemof tenure undoubtedlyis that of absolute ownership of the land which amanoccupies. The personal interest of the absolute owner

is that his land shall become as valuable as he can

make it . The interest of a company , or of an absenteelandlord, ismerely that the rent shall be as high as

In a coun try like South Afri ca, which hasmillimsof acres awai ting development, the utmost freedomof

purchase by farmers ought to be encouraged in everypossible manner . All authorities (on the wealth of

nations) pronounce this principle the most beneficialto a nation .

In South Africa, the absence of prescri ptive customand just Land-Legislation hasmarked awidedistinctionbetween the land-owning farmers and the tenan t-atwill farmers. The real grievance is, not that thetenants have lost the value of their improvements(for few,

if any, ever weremade) but, that liability tosuch loss generally prevents themfrommaking such

improvemen ts as would be profitable to themselvesand to the country at large .

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LAND TENURE AND LAND VALUESWhen aman holdsa farmat a rent which is less than

the full value of the land, (whether the lowness of suchrent be due (a) to the improvements made by thetenan t with his own capital , skill, or energy, or (b) to ageneral rise in land-value caused by the enhancedprosperity of the coun try, ) that man , en joying thereasonable and fai r securi ty of his tenure , knows thathe has a property which he eithermay enjoy himself,ormay transfer to a nominee for a consideration . Afarmer, who has improved his farm, will find no dimculty in disposing-Of his tenant-rights ; but a tenantat-will finds itmore to his interest to leave his farmina worse condition than that in which he found it.

There is no in justice in a law , which secures to thefarmer due compensation for such improvementsmadeby himas are of equal value to his successor . On thecontrary , it is thoroughly just : because it is mostbeneficial to the tenan t and the landlord , as well asto the country .

Some English tenant-farmers formerly were verymuch at the mercy of unscrupulous landlords ; butsince the Agricultural HoldingsAct of 1851 , the Landlegislation of England gradually has been improved .

Customs of compensation to tenan ts on quitting theirfarms grew up little by little . Many of these subsequen tly became embodied in Acts of Parliament ;and were made compulsory. The principles of theAgricultural Holdings Act of 1875 were that the basis,on which a tenant could lay claimto compensation ,

was his actual outlay on improvement . that suchimprovement would be deemed exhausted after a

certain number of years, the amoun t of compensation(to which the tenant was entitled) decreasing yearly,

until such time as it was thought that the improvemen thad become exhausted and that the tenant himselfhad recouped the expenditure which he hadmade . In

theory , this Act was all that could be desired : but, in

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practice, it was found that its permissi ve clausesrendered it uselese ; and it was repeeled by the Ad

of 1883, which made compensation for improvementscompulsory , and was itself amended by the Ad 0]1900. The principles of the 1875 Ad based the amountof compensation on the outlay . The 1883 Ad based

the amoun t of compensation on what might fairlyrepresent the value of the immovement to the in

coming tenant, thus entirely doing away with the

scale laid-down in the 1875 Ad . The 1900 Ad fol

lowsmuch the same principle as the 1883 Ad : butdivers items are added (Schedule I . ) to the list of

improvemen ts for which a tenan t may claimcompensation .

Having sketched a rough outline of the general

principles of the various Land-Laws of England, I will

add that I do not deemit possible or practical to”a: advocate the same Land-Laws for South Africa at then

h ue-tel . present time . I do consider, nevertheless, that legislation of some kind is absolutely necessary for the

welfare of a country teeming with a white population ,

which ismore suited to a rural life than to any other,but which is without means to buy land : for, underthe present systemof tenure, no great inclination isshewn to adopt an occupation which discouragesthri ft, enterpri ze, and energy. Theminer’s spade isthe Aaron ’

s Rod which devours all others. SouthAfrica is rich in minerals and precious stones ; and

greater attention is naturally paid to mineral values.

When more attention is paid to the agricultural andpastoral industries — the only permanen t industriesthen the hirer of landwill enjoy, or at least ought toenjoy, an agreement embodying the principlesof the three

Ti n e n . Fs, viz. , Fixity of Tenure, Fair Ren t , and Free Sale.

an“ ; South Africa is essentially a stock coun try . The

quality and quantity of the grass necessitate largefarms. Fromten to twenty acres of land are required

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SOUTH AFRICAfarmer ; and a South Afriean farmer, who only had

a -acre farmwould be his equal. There is thereason . and the only reason , why the Boers are not

satisfied with less than acres. They eannot live

on less— un til thesoil and the climate and themarketscompletely are transformed.

It eannot be said to be an evil that larg e farms, orthat small farms, should preponderate : but a compulsory law, enforcing the creation of farms of equalsize , would have disastrous results. People, who propound the theories which are being pmpounded inSouth Afri ca , can have paid no attention to the experience of centuri es , which teaches that where the law

has endeavoured to make the ex treme the rule (i .a.

large holdings, or small) it signally has failed ; and

that when the balance of aflairs isupset, it is no ea symatter to put it back again . The size of South Africanfarms ought to be settled by those who know the sol

and conditions of the country. It is a matter foragricultural and pastoral experts ; not for earnest

philanthropists or politieal faddists. Is it conceivable

that South Afri ean mine-owners would submit to a

law which divided their mines, and assi gned to each

mine , (say ) ten stamps, or twenty stamps, and no

more No. Then let the agricultural and pastoralindustri es be dealt-with as in telligen tly as theminingindustry .

11. a“ . According to the principles of the Roman-Dutch“u Law. Law, the Boers, who are lords of the family posses

sions, hold the same in trust for their children . The

Boer’s children are cc-proprietors with him; and

the landed property cannot be parted without the

consent of all themembers of the family . The law of

primogeniture has no supporters in South Afri ca , beingdirectly at variance with those pri nciples of equalitywhich were the recogn ized laws of all primitive communities . Consequently, the eldest son of a Boer is

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LAND TENURE AND LAND VALUESin no difierent position to the youngest . The theoryand practice of the Boer is that everymember of thefamily should own land, nomatter how small an area.

The term landlor is ex tremely oflensive to thesepeople . They like to be the masters of the soil onwhich they live ; and they have the greatest possibleaversion frombeing tenants.

Having observed the efiect of the Boer principle ofequality when carried into practice , I amobliged toexpres smy disapproval of it . The systemof dividingand sub—dividing farms is a short-sighted system for,

at the third or fourth generation , it becomes an absur

dity . I already have stated that farms of less thanacres are not very desirable holdings ; and it

must be obvious to all (save those who will not see)that the division of a -acre farmin to 10 or 12

portions, and the sub-division of each of these portionsinto say ten or twelve sub-portions, has a tendency to W e;

bring the farming class into a state of abject hopelesspoverty . The temporary owner has little or no

encouragement to make improvements, ex tensive orotherwise he knows that, when the farmis divided ,the homesteadwill bemuch too large and too expensivetomaintain when only a ten th or a twelfth of the landbelongs to it . And, as for tenant farming, the Boersystemis simply fatal to it for no tenan t would careto settle-down on a farmwhich will be split-up intofragments on its owner’s death .

The argument , in favour of the law of primogenitureas it exists in England, isvery strong. English tenantfarmers know that the es tate will remain intact , whoever may become the owner of it . Primogenituremakes for confidence among the tenan try of England .

The heir to a large landed estate, trained fromhis

youth tomake himself worthy of his position , is fortified by the knowledge of the confidence reposed rn himto discharge his duties to the best of his abilities . As

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SOUTH AFRICAa rule, he is a keen farmer . He keeps a good stock of

animals, by which his tenants benefit . He takes an

intelligent and substan tial in teres t in village, school,

church , loeal boards, etc . He possesses influence,which is often of great service to the tenantry and to

all whose chief he is. He has themeans to keep-upthe family establishment in the country where he hasso large a stake . Rural England would be a blankwithout her landed gentry. No other coun try in the

world has produced such a concrete embodimen t ofwhat the Romans ealled Virtus — the sumof allcorporeal andmental excellencies ofman . But the.other coun tries have not the law of primogeni ture.

Inmany of the rural districts of South Africa , therei t“

is no one who, by birth and edueation and financial

position , is capable of taking the lead in loealmatters,— who can afford to smile at parochial frowns andfavours. The presen t tendency is therefore to leveldown , not to raise-up, to grind-down individuality

vm and genius tomatch the average . The des cendan ts ofthe old Voertrekkers are in a far humbler and poorer

position to—day than their forefathers ever were and,

not only that , but the old brave spirit of the pioneer issadly to seek . The division of the land at the father'sdeath is generally the eause of long family feuds and

a house divided against itself cannot stand .

”Ye1

the transfer or sale of land is exceedingly easy throughout the country, except in caseswhere several in terest:have to be considered . The transfer-fees are reason

able and the transfer-deed isas simple asA B C : butconsidering thatmost of the farms were a free g ift trthe original owner, it is astounding to see how heaviljthey aremortgaged at the present time . In the division of farms it was formerly the customto appeal trEx -president Kruger , when the family were unable

.

tr

agree . It is said that two brothers oncemade such anappeal. And 00mPaul answered themsa ying , I

LAND TENURE AND LAND VALUES

ye both will acceptmy decision , I will settle thematterfor you.

”And the contending brothers promised to

accept HisHonour’sdecision . And OomPaul answered sale-u ll.

themyet again , saying, Thou, Jan , art the elder ;and to thee is it given to divide the land . Go therefore , and divide it into two parts and put up beaconsas themanner is. But thou, Andries, art the youngerand, when thine elder brother shall have divided theland , to thee is given to choose which portion thouwilt take for thine own share, whether this or that .”And behold it was so.

It is the customfor Boers’ sons to leave their fathers’ l eerfarms and to take up their abode with their wives’parents. If they do not get , or inherit, a farmof theirown before their fathers-in -law die, they settle downon those portionswhich their wives inheri t . A wretchedhovel is erected here and fromwretchedness to

wretchedness is the slow but steady and certain trendof the rural inhabitants of Boer colonies. Sub-divisionwas amatter of convenience . Poverty and ignorancehavemade it amatter of necessity and justice . Farmerspossess nothing but their farms. They cannot providefor their children in any other way . At least theythink so : for they know of no other way of living,except on the land .

Hence, it is the duty of the Governments of SouthAfrica to shew another and a better way : first, byintelligent legislation secondly, by encouragement toindividual enterprise thirdly, and chiefly, by theexample which is better than precept . This is part ofthe whiteman ’

s burden ,

”which the whiteman has

not shirked as yet .It ismost difficult to determine what may be the

intrinsic value of agricultural and pastoral land inSouth Afri ca, and how such value is to be estimated inany particular case . The course adopted in England,where all factors can be estimated , is to find out the

8 1

SOUTH AFRICA

production per acre, or thequantity of stock which tufarmwill carry . The cost of production ismlculatedand themarket-value of stock and produce averaged

The diflerence between the two (i .a. cost of productior

and market value of produce) represen ts the profit

which is apportioned to the tenant for his skill, his

labour , and his capital. The balance is regarded as thr

sumpayable yearly to the owner as ren t . Suchmt

capitalised at somuch per cent , represen ts the valur

of the farm.

For es timation of value, this rule cannot yet brapplied in South Afri ca. The factors cannot be cal

culated. Quantity of produce per acre and cost ofproduction , the stock-carrying capaci ty of the veld invarious districts, these are (shall I say negligible

factors upon which even the Experts employedmthi

so-many-fold of the seed sown , is indefinite and oftermisleading.

There is at present no valid mode of valuing an

agri cultural or pastoral farm. The purchaser or tenant

be formed on happy-go-lucky surmises .

Except in Rhodesia and Bechuanaland , all SouthAfrican land is greatly inflated in pri ce. The causes

are twofold(a ) the activity of themineral-speculator an d the

company-promoter

LAND TENURE AND LAND VALUESThe fashion in mineral values has a strange influenceupon farm-pri ces. Farms in the Transvaal commandhigher prices than neighbouring farms in the adjoiningcolonies. A river , a fence, or even an imaginary lin e,may make a substan tial diflerence in the relativevalues demanded for two adjacent farms. A farm,

which is situate in the Transvaal, is apparently (byvirtue of the sole fact of position ) a better gamblingcounter than one situate elsewhere .

In fact the pecuniary value of a farmhas no relationto its agri cultural or pastoral value . It is concernedwith something altogether different , something indefinable, fictitious, speculative . But , as the positiveand undeniable need for agri cultural expansion grows,there is bound to be a constan tly increasing tendencytowards the free sale of surface rights as distinct frommineral-ri ghts. The following table of values, takenat randomin the various South Afri can Colonies, willgive an approx imate idea of the present value of landin the respective colonies.

CAPE COLONY .

mediumprice of dry land 35/ an acre

Outshorn r5Tarka 40/Un iondale 40/Irrigated land, £51 100 an acre.

(N .B.— These are average pri ces taken fromCape Colony

for Settlers (Mr . A. R. E . Burton , issued by the CapeGovernmen t.Average Price of mediumland in Cape Colony , an

acre.

83

SOUTH AFRICAORANGE RIVER COLONY .

Best land 50/ an at

Governmen t purchase for Land-settlemen taverage

Inferior land

acre.

NATAL.

Bes t landMediumlandNatal Land and Colonizhtion companyAverage P rice of land in Natal, 38/ an acre.

TRANSVAAL.

(I have selected prices of farms in the Transvaal whmen might be expected tomake a living . There are so

farms, which command a price of £15 an acre,

consequence of their proximity to the mineral area a

there are other farms in unhealthy districts which can

bought for 5/ to 10/ an acre. But neither of these 1classes of farms are suitable for settlers.

— O . T . )

Lichtenburg mediumdry landStanderton

Pretoria

PietersburgRustenburgHeidelburgPotchefstroomKlerksdorpLydenburgWaterbergGovernmen t purchase for Land-settlemen t

.

average 25Average P rice of mediumland in the Transvaal.

acre.

RHODESIA.

Enkeldoorn Distri ct : Farmon ofler : good soil and w:

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SOUTH AFRICAIf we omit the Free Grants (quoted above) and theGovernment offer of land at 9d. an acre, theAVERAGE

PRICE of good farms in RnonnsrA works out at

an acre.

This, in comparison with the prices in the othercolonies , holds out infinitely better prospects for thesettler , asmay be seen fromthe appended table of

average pricesCape ColonyOrange River ColonyNatal

Transvaal

Rhodesia

I have compared the various soils, the various

grasses, the relative positions of farms in connectionwith railways and sea-ports. It appears that the

difference mainly consists in the price (not in the

quality) of the land .

Before theWar , Rhodesia had the late Boer republicsas her political neighbours. Th ey were armed to the

teeth . Since the Peace of 1902 , however , Rhodesiais isolated no longer . She is connected with the sea

port of Beira by railway and she has also a throughrailway fromCape Town . Consequently her positionis improved enormously . She now commands all the

South African markets and has facili ties for the

export of surplus products.

Without wishing to prophesy, I must say that , inview of the foregoing facts, it will not surpriseme tosee land-values in Rhodesia trebled within the n exttwenty years.

The average prices in the Transvaal and Orang e River

Colony were estimated immediately after the declaration of

peace in r902. They are now ( 1904)much lower .

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Systemof Farmn igT is easy (but it is not always safe or des irable) tocondemn the South Afri can farmer’s system.

Comparisonssometimesare drawn between themethodsof the English farmer and those of the South Afri can ,

to the detriment of the latter .

Little reliance ought to be placed on opinions hastilyformed by inexperienced travellers, fromhasty generalizations, often in accordance with foregone conclusions, which , just as often contradict each other . Ifanyone will take the trouble to study the elementaryprinciples of South African farming together with thenatural conditions which govern its practice , it willbe seen that many of the new theories, which latelyhave been advanced, are opposed diametrically tothe experience gained by many years’ cultivation of

the soil in a climate which, to the inexperienced , isfaultless but, to the expert the cause of his greatestanxiety and often the means of his greatest loss.

Experience is a good school : but the fees are generally very bigIt is certain , however , that the South African farmermight obtainmore advan tage for himself, his farm, his

country, by being more progressive . So many husbandmen seemto have settled-down on their farms,trusting to the enormousareas of land which they hold,and the kindness of nature, to do everything for themand regarding the soil as being inexhaustible requiringonly an occasional rest to recoup its lost fertility .

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Ignore-t s!

SOUTH AFRICAThere is a lack of inquisitiveness among South

Afri can farmers. They do not attempt to realize theactual relation of the animal-kingdomto the vog etable-kingdom, and the dependence of both upon the

soil. They have gained experience of a kind, whi chundoubtedly is of value to them but it is the rule-ofthumb principle which guides them, not the scientific ,accurate, and sure . They know which is the best soilfor producing a certain crop and they know the bestkind of grass for stock : but they do not know whythese things are so . They know that , at certain timesof the year, this or that grass is unsuitable , but theyhave not taken the trouble to enquire in to the cause .

They know that a certain soil will produce a certaincrop ; and that certain stock will thrive on certaingrasses and not on others : but they are ignoran t ofthe constituents of the soil, whichmake it bear a cr0pwhen another soilwill not do so and they are ignoran tof the substance whose presence makes some grassesnutri tious, and whose absence leaves other grassesinnutritious. In short , they are well able to recognize effects : but they do not know the causes whi chproduce the eflects. Consequen tly, being ignoran t ofthe causes, they are unable to govern them and,

therefore , they are unable to produce des ired eflects

at will. Their systemof farming is based on certainexperience and experience gained in one districtoften is of little value in another . Thesemen , on the

whole, live comfortably : their experience (such as it

is) is valuable and absolutely necessary : but a littlemore investigation would enable them to becomemasters of the systemwhich as yet is in its infancy .

Vergil recognised the value of this inquisitiveness as

long ago as the days of Caesar Augustus.

Before we plough a field [he says] to which we are

strangers, wemust be careful to attain a knowledg eof the winds, fromwhat point they blow at par

88

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SOUTH AFRICAIt would benefit South Africa if every farmer could

have cheap and easy access tomeans of ascertaining ,

by chemical analysis, the constitutents of his soil.

I saw one farmer putting a costly ar tificialmanure on

landwhich , judg ing fromrocksunderlying it andvegetation which grew upon it, was charged fully (if not

ex cessively) with the very ingredients which he wasadding to it . An analysis of this soil, proved this tobe the case . An erroneous notion is afloat to the eflectthat artificial manure is a cure-all.” Some of the

more intelligent farmers told me that, having triedartificialmanures with unsatisfactory results , they hadlost all faith in them. This caused me no surprise :for the total absence of any compulsory and authori

tative guarantee of quality, on behalf of themaker or

agent of artificialmanures, enables any unscrupulousperson to palm-off absolutely worthless rubbish on theunsuspecting farmer . In England, we long ago foundout the necessity of passing very stri ngent laws inconnection with all fertilizers. Such laws are impera

gm u. tively necessary now in South Africa ; and people whoevade their clauses ought to bemulcted tn very hea vypenalties. Baron Liebig says that all soils con tain a

maximumof one or several nutritive substances ; and

that it isby themin imumthat the cr0ps are governed ,be it lime, potash, nitrogen , or any other constituen t .When the South African farmer’smethods really are

systematized, and embrace a knowledg e of the con

stituents of the soil which are necessary to producecertain crops, he will be sparedmany disappointmentsand losses.

The subject of seed receives insufi cient attentionfromSouth Afri can farmers,many of whomwill acceptan inferior quality of seed if it works-out at a shillingor so less an acre than the superior quality. It shouldbe remembered that the best seed obtainable is nevertoo good , and that price alone is no criterion of value.

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SYSTEM OF FARMING '

Shape, colour , smell, weight , purity, and germinatingcapability, all require careful investigation . Thefarmer would find it greatly to his interest to investhalf-a-crown or so in a low-power pocket microscopic lens (the Codrington ) , which would assist himgreatly in detecting in feri or seed . The practice, ofmixing old seeds with new , is very common in SouthAfri ca : this often will accoun t for a cr0p

’

5 failurewhich , otherwise , would be ascribed to climatic conditions. But , when all is said and done, there reallyis only one infallible test for seed ; and that is bytrial of germinating capability in properly preparedtrial-beds. The Governments of South Afri ca mightrender great assistance to farmers by the establishment of institutions like the Aynsome Laboratory of

Grange-over-Sands, which is under the managemen tof Professor J . Stewart Remington .

Under the present unsatisfactory circumstances,the best way of employing Kamr labour on the landis embodied in the system generally used by theSouth African farmers. The arrangement is that theKamr, in addition to a smallmonthly wage , is allowedto have a proportionate interest in the farm, a few

cattle , sheep, and goats, and a small patch of arableland for cultivation . This system ensures, withincertain limits, the bes t and certainly themost permanentlabour of the lazy and unreliable Kaflir . The bes tfarm-workers in the coun try are Italians the nextbes t are the Coolies ; and,

generally speaking . the A is! ti lti

Kafi r is a bad third .

South African farmers have only a few implementsof husbandry , and little knowledg e of manipulatingthem. It is generally the Kafiir who has the handlingof them; and, his intelligence being of amostmea grekind, many good and useful tools are cast aside forsomething of more primitive construction which hecan manage without undue mental exertion . I was

91

SOUTH AFRICAastonished to see what little care was bestowed uponfarming implements, after their actual period of use

was over . Most farmers leave themexposed on the

lonely veld, where a growth of weeds covers themtillthe following season . It would puzzle any but thepractised eye of the man accustomed to the veld todetect implements thus concealed by vegetation and

rust. Needless to say that, as no attempt ismade tohouse and clean these implements at the end of the

season , the depreciation in their value and usefulnessis very great .

“m The waggon with its span of oxen is an institutionasnecessary to the South Afri can farmer ashisdwellinghouse . He takessome pride in his tum-out ,

”which ,

with a cape-cart , a few ploughs, and a home-madeharrow, represen ts his implements of husbandry .

His systemis singularly imperfect but it suits him.

He lives : he is happy : he is conten t : I sometimesA a s amwas saddened by the sight of a holding of a few acres

occupied by a strong healthy man with a wife and

perhapsa dozen children only one-third of the holdingunder cultivation , and that often of a wretched kindtwo-thirds undergoing a long rest after over croppingthe entire holding smothered with weeds : the manidly looking-on between the time of plantingmealies ,

pumpkins, and potatoes, doing perhaps a little diggingto day , and a little weeding the-day-after-to-morrow,

only a few days’ labour in all, fromplanting time toharvest . Ignorance is the cause of such idleness.

Theman adopts a systemwhich is in accordance withthe routine followed by his larger neighbours. Whileimitating them, he is in ferior to them: because hehas less lan d, less capital , fewer tools, less scope forenergy . Consequen tly he is very much worse-off.

ll lllereaee. But he slouches along life’s road , apathetic, indifierent ,utterly without proper pride in the appearance of

his place, utterly oblivious of the well-being of his

92

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SOUTH AFRICAA sew of the rainy season . I questioned himon thematter ,

se-er'r errorand statedmy opin ion that lucerne , sown on such land

I“ at that time of year , could give but very poorresults. His reply was that it was the customin NewZealand to sow lucerne at all times of the year ! In

New Zealand, be it noted , the rain -fall amounts to60 80 inches a year, and is evenly distributed :

in this particular district , the average rain -fall is21 inches in four months with eight dry mon ths tofollow . Now no Boer , and indeed no one withexperience of the coun try , would do so very vain a

thing as to sow seed after the rainy season was over .

The fruit-farmers perhaps are the most progressiveclass. Some of themconduct operations on an entirely

“w scientific system. The late Cecil Rhodes laid out someexcellent fruit-farms and employed experts tomanagethem. The neighbouring fruit-farmers have profitedby the invaluable example and experience here ex

hibited, which no doubt was preciselywhat the greatand prescientmind of Cecil Rhodes intended .m Before concluding this general condemnation of the

systemat present governing the agriculture of SouthAfri ca, it ismy duty to state that I have not omittedto note certain farmers (scattered here and therethroughout the country), who till their land and

manage their stock on scien tific prin ciples, whichenable themto surmoun t the many obstacles to pro

“m gress : while their intelligence and energy have suc

ceeded in constructing a systemwhich improves, notonly their own position but also, the soil which theycultivate . Thus I amled to pronounce the presentcondition of husbandry in South Afri ca as being not

altogether hopeless. There is a leaven which is working , there rs the nucleusof a scientific systemin existence '

and, in time , the ignorance , idleness , and

mismanagement, which are the rule , will become theexception .

PM

94

Agriculture 715 . Stock-FarmingREVIEW of the agricultural prospects of South The can for

Afri ca would be unfruitful, if it did not consider “W u

the conditions of those vital questions which brieflymay be summed-up in the time-worn expressionSupply and Demand.

”

Tomake thematter plain , a somewhat rough comparison may be suggested . The premier position of

the Transvaal Gold-Industry is due to the fact that ,throughout the gold-min ing area some 40miles inleng th — the precious metal is distributed with suchregularity as to make it possible to estimate (withwonderful accuracy) the amoun t of gold contained inany given mine . In Australia and America , wherethe same industry is concerned with the exploitationof quartz-reefs (which contain scattered pockets) ,gold-mining is a highly Speculative undertaking . TheTransvaal Gold-Industry is the first of its kind in theworld. In res pect of agriculture , however, the positionof South Afri ca as compared with that of Australiaand America is precisely reversed .

The soil of Australia and America has a more uniformly high value throughout all the wide areas whichthey present for treatment by the agriculturist foul“ sells.

while the soil of South Afri ca, in so far as it possessesany element of reproductive power and economicvalue, exists only in pockets. Therefore, it is unreasonable to coun t upon South Afri ca as being likelytomake a bid for export-trade . Ex istent conditions

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Ferd:

SOUTH AFRICA

are against her . Themarket for agricultural produceis defined by the demand of local consumers. But

it is a very seriousquestion , and pregnant with sign ificance, whether the South African farmer would beable in the future to supply even the local demand at

lower prices than those which satisfy his foreign rival.

The foreign producer farmsvirgin soilof great fertility .

He employs superior labour , and cheaper labour ;and his climate ismore suitable for cereals. He workslarger areas, which can be treated by themostmodernimplements of husbandry . He is a wholesale manufacturer of agricultural produce . He is privileged byocean -rates for the whole distance, which do not exceedthe ordinary railway-rates for the same tonnage fora distance of 300

—400miles on the South African

railways. Therefore the foreign producer is distan tfromthe South African Market only in the abstractsense of the word space for in effect he is competing side by side with the South Africanfarmer .

England, by bitter experience, has learned whatreally is meant by competition with Australianand American agriculture . The English farmer aforetirne was the most scientific and successful wheatgrower in the world . He farmed the best possiblesoil, in the best possiblemanner , with the best possibleresults. Now, in many instances, he has been compelled to abandon his farm because it no longer couldbe made to grow wheat , which was able to competein price with foreign wheat . In the Eastern Coun ties,many farms completely were exhausted in the attemptto grow wheat at low prices ; and, to-day they are

neglected, and may be rented for a nominal sum.

The English scientific farmer, with cheap and skilledlabour , and a suitable soil and climate, failed in competition with Australia and America . The SouthAfrican farmer enters a similar competition , under

96

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A rsenal !

SOUTH AFRICAJohannesburg and other market-centres of SouthAfrica, to fall below the cost of production .

To forestall those who may be moved to cavil atthe foregoing blun t pessimism, I will institute a comparison by way of justification . The present whitepopulation of Johannesburg , the leading market of

South Africa— roughly may be estimated at

Before the South African Campaign , the total whitepopulation of the Transvaal was estimated at about

comparable (let us say ) to that of a smallEnglish town like Bolton with its inhabitantsfor, when all is said and done , Bolton is a somewhat

insignificant little town in England , and plays a veryunimportant part in determining the English pricesof farm-

.produce Again , the total white populationof Cape Colony, Natal, Orange River Colony, Transvaal,and Rhodesia together, is not more thancomparable (let us say) to that of Liverpool. Further ,a small coun ty like Cheshire, with an area of only

acres, carries a population of personsbut yet Cheshire’s demand for agricultural producedoes not tend to affect the price of the same to anymarked extent . And, it alsomust be borne in mindthat , of the total white population of South Africa(to say nothing of the natives) , a very large proportionalready are producers, and not exclusively consumers,of farm-produce .

It was interesting and instructive to analyze the stateof the local produce-market before the War . The

prices, ruling in September 1899 in Johannesburg andPretoria, furnish much material for commen t . For

instance , there can be no doubt about the demand of

Johannesburg for vegetables and yet the supply of

this itemoften exceeded the demand . It was then no

uncommon thing to purchase , in the open market , asackful of assorted vegetables for one or two shillings.

My own investigationsweremade a fewmonths after98

AGRICULTURE vs. STOCK-FARMINGthe conclusion of the Campaign Only a small proportion of the Boers had returned to their farms. Few

of themhad had time or opportunity to raise producefor themarket . Yet, at such a time and under suchcircumstances as these , vegetables of all descriptionswere sold at prices which must have been below thecost of production There are sea sons in Afri ca , as

in other coun tries, when certain vegetables and fruitcannot be produced. It therefore often happens thatexceptionally late or early produce realizes abnormalprices . It is at such times that people, who do not

understand the conditions under which the late or

early produce was grown , complain of high prices.

I spent a wholemonth in studying the question ofthe supply and demand of the Johannesburg producemarket : because the market is the key-note of the

farmer’s prospects : but, themore I studied the conditions of this leadingmarket , somuch themore didI become convinced that South Africa presented no

favourable prospects to the agriculturist handicappedby the high price of land and labour . The marketmaster of Johannesburg informedme that , at the timeofmy visit , the farmers were selling their produce atless than the cost of transport , to say nothing of thecost of production . The latter, therefore , was a freeg iftmade by the necessitous farmer to the independentbuyer . He amrmed that it was a common thing to seefarmers diving in to their pockets to get money (inaddition to that which they had received for theirstud ) in order to pay for transport . It should beremembered that, formonths after the Peace of 1902,many farmershad nowaggons of their own and wereobliged to hire.

I discussed the condition of the Johannesburg produce Ageld-alas

market with one of themembers of a gold-min ing firmin that vicinity . Likemostmen in South Africa whoare connected with the remunerative gold industry, he

99

to.“

SOUTH AFRICAhabitually regarded all other industries through thegold-spectacles of the Rand and he could not realizethe facts, in connection with demand and prices of

farm-produce in Johannesburg, which I laid beforehim. In order to convince him, I told himthat , if hewould send his servantwith a full-sized sack to the nex tday’smarket , I would undertake to buy for a crownan assortment of vegetables which the servant wouldnot be able to carry home . My offer was accepted .

In themorning , I tookMr . Freeman of the Johannesburg Stock-Exchange with me to the market . We

got a full-sized sack, and the strongest native whomwe could select . As all the produce was being soldby auction in small lots, I was obliged to follow thesalesman fromone stall to another . I bought twelvehuge vegetable-marrows for 6d. a large bundle of

carrots, 6d ditto , onions, 6d. three cabbages, 6dtwen ty-four bundles of beet-root , 6d eighteen bundlesof radishes, 3d. bundle of lettuce , 6d. twelve cucumbers, 6d : turnips, 6d. : sundries, 6d. Total , 4s. 9d.

The sack had to be sewn -up ; and, as the stalwartnative was quite unable to carry it, it was taken homeon a trolly . My friend had its contents valued byhis cock, who stated that the retail price usually paidfor that quantity of vegetables would amount to£1 113. 6d

On the 28th of January, 1903, I specially notedeverymovement of the Johannesburg produce-market .Supply was verymuch in excess of demand . A largequantity of produce could not be sold even at a sacrifice.I wasaccompanied byMr . A . Tomaselli , an Italian vegetable-farmer and one of the only two commissionagents in themarket . The information , which he gaveme, was extremely pertinent . He had been in businessfor eleven years. He had as good a soil for vegetablefarming as anyone in the Transvaal. Before the War,

he had sold potatoes on the Johannesburg market atIOO

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SOUTH AFRICAto 103. a bag . A few weeks later , a farmer fromthe Middelburg district sold all his potatoes for 7s. 6d.

a bag , a price which hardly paid the high cost of transport and the market charges. One of the largestfarmers in Cape Colony once sold a quan tity of potatoesfor 3os. a bag . Finding the Speculation likely to beprofitable , be increased the production the followingyear and had bags to sell but he was obligedto sell themat 33. 6d. a bag . Mr . Freeman , to whomI already have referred, told me of a friend of his

who bought a Scots cart-load of carrots for his horsesin Johannesburg at 1s. 6d. a load . The quality of all

these vegetables was invariably good but I neverhave been to a market where green -stuff sold at theprices which ruled in the chiefmarket of South Africaon the 28th of January, 1903.

I frequently was told that the population of SouthAfrica would double , as themines developed . I haveno doubt but that , in five years’ time , there will be anaugmented demand for food-studs. Meanwhile , Iamrestrained, by the dictates of common sense , fromurging the farmer to produce agricultural commodities which are of a perishable natureWhatever may be the ultimate number of the

industrial population , there is at present no great scopefor agriculture in South Africa . The local demandfor agricultural produce can be said to have its limits.

Any ex tension of these likely to occur in the near future,easily can be measured and as easily met . Let theRecalcitran t Optimist visit the Johannesburg producemarket any day between 7a.m. and 10 a .m. and hewill experience a simple objcot-lesson . But he mustnot distort themeaning ofwhat he sees, by a divagationto the prices obtained by themiddle-man for thesegenerally are 200% to 600% in excess of the pricesactually obtained by the grower .

It is a favourite device to poin t to statistical returns102

AGRICULTURE vs. STOCK-FARMINGof the imports of farm-produce . The argument is a

simple one. That which now is imported may begrown by the energetic farmer .

” South Africamustfeed itself. Themeasure of imports is themeasureof the farmer’s opportunity .

”And so on ; and so

forth .

The Handbook for Settlers (recently issued by the A W i lde-rLand Settlement Experts employed by the TransvaalGovernment) places the value of now-imported farmproduce , which could be raised in the Transvaal,at Th is estimate includes manufacturedand unmanufactured timber, manufacturedand unmanufactured leather , biscuits,

I confess that , in the whole course of mycareful and systematic investigation of South Africa ,

I have not yet seen the class of farmers who are ableto turn their present holdings and the appurtenancesthereof in to cabinet-making, saddlery , or biscuitmanufactories. The habits of a life-time and theabsence of the necessary techn ical instruction , appearto me to preclude the possibili ty of such versatileproceedings ; and I fear that few farmers will be

found who are in a position to produce the importsnamed above . But the same Experts continue tobleat as follows

This is sumcient to indicate themarket that is likely toprevail for farm-produce of every description , when the

normal conditions that ex isted prior to the war are again

reached. There appears to be no reason why in the near

future the agriculturists of the new colonies should not onlysupply their own local markets and perhaps share those of

the neighbouri ng states who are large importers of foreign

produce, but it is probable that products for which the

country is specially adapted will find the European marketsavailable. It is of course impossible to grasp the extent of

themarkets in the future as population increases but , as tothe present with which we are chiefly concerned , a great

demand already ex ists for all that the countryman can pro

duce and every capable settler may profit by the Oppor

tunities that are oflered to him.

”

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SOUTH AFRICA

Am Now these inaccurate conclusions were drawn fromtotally erroneous premisses, at the very time when Iwas visiting the Johannesburg produce-market , as

described above . If the governmen tal Expert , whois responsible for so culpable a deviation fromfact ,had taken the trouble accurately to investigate particulars, concisely to gauge the relation of supply todemand (as hemight have done on the proper spot anyday), he never could have stated such conclusively andun iversallymisleading fallacies.

Facts are facts and only fools refuse to face them.

l est-atlas. The importation of grain into Cape Colony and Natal ,and the exportation of the same fromOrange RiverColony, exhibit ex treme and notable fluctuation .

Cape Colony was obliged to import grain and flour in1883 to the value of

188518891890 £ 231 ,000.

1894 £ 11898 £ 1,ooo,ooo.

Natal was obliged to import grain and flour in1894 to the value of

1896

1898 £ 1

The Orange River Colony exported grain in1896 to the value of

1898

Such ex treme fluctuation in an old Colony like theCape clearly displays the uncertainty of the crops.

Cape Colony has some of the best agricultural land andmost scientific farmers in South Africa . Its rainfallis comparatively regular , its climate is comparativelyfavourable . Beside the enormous area of wheatlands in the Western Province , there are

acres under irrigation ; and yet , in spite of these104

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South

mmthe

SOUTH AFRICAexpertswere deputed to visit Australia , for the purposeof investigating the systemand conditions of the

Australian farmer . Mr . Walter Hulse , the largest andperhaps themost experienced farmer in Cape Colony ,together withMr . A . J . Viser,manager of the Governmen t Experimen tal Farmat Stellenbosch , spent severalmonths travelling in Australia . Their Report, whichwas a lengthy one, exhaustive , interesting, andmostinstructive , was presented to both Houses of Parliamen t in Cape Town . The first paragraph says

We had pictured Australia generally as a land of drought

and sandy plains, with a narrow coastal fringe of fertile land.

We fully expected to find the Cape had equal physical advantages, and that the circumstances, of our annually importingfromthembread-stuffs to the value of on an average four

thousand pounds’

worth, would be found to arise fromthe

progressiveness of the Australian and the supineness of the

Cape Colonial. Our preconceived ideas were wrong , we

much regret and our first glimpse of the country revealed

the sad truth that, in an agricultural race, we should be

distanced from the start. Having travelled over 1

miles of agricultural land, and talked cereals to infinity, we

were of the same opinion , i .e. that especially in wheat pro

duction ,— unles s the handicap were a heavy one, we should

not compete. To make it clearer , a careful study of the

map of Cape Colony will shew what a fractional proportion ,

certa inly not more than fi ath part, could be put underwheat with a prospect of getti ng remunerative returns, say

consisting of acres , could practically be converted

into one vast field of luxuriant wheat. Mr .Marshall themost noted and successful rust-resistent wheat-grower in

Australia, informed the commissioners that he never had

irrigated an acre of wheat in his life and he did not see

proaching the pri ce of unwetted wheat. He considered the

wheat-farmer of Australia a poorman , as a rule poorer thanhis labourers.

”

In summing up, Messrs. Hulse and Viser, after takinginfin ite trouble and pains, say

Having travelled over more than miles of Aus

tralian soil, and having had every opportunity of talking106

AGRICULTURE vs. STOCK-FARMINGto the farmer and holding his plough, we perhaps not

unnaturally feel some ri ght to speak with authori ty on the

cost of whea t-production in Australia in con trast with the

cost in Cape Colony . It is with deep regret that we t e

iterate our conviction that wheat cannot be produced inCape Colony nearly as cheaply as in Australia. This, we

state in spite of the dicta of theorists, whose knowledge of

what they do not understand is based on the perusal of

some statistical reg ister . It is absurd and fallaciousreasoning that because Australia (which has twenty inchesof rain ) produces 10 bushels of wheat to the acre and sells

at 2s. 6d. per bushel, the Cape farmer is held up to ri dicule

because he can’

t or won’

t do likewise. We have at someleng th pointed out that we found Australia less subject toclimatic and other drawbacks than the Cape that the

rarn (though generally not heavy) fell in the autumn ,

winter , and spring , leaving the harvesting season drythat hundreds of sq . miles of stone-less soil in one stretch

could all be put under wheat : and that the land could all

be rented from3d. an acre upwards. We also shewed that

the Australian would not know a locust froma lizard

and, finally, that he considered harvest as a natural sequence

of planting whereas, in this Colony , the chances are equallydivided between a crop and a failure and a harvest . To

expect to compete on level terms with the great wheat

producing territories of Canada, North America , Argentine,or Australia, ismadness.

Mr . Bourdillon , an authority on agriculture in the

Orange River Colony , in a pamphlet issued by the dlllon.

present Government of that Colony , states that

There is no doubt that the prospect for farming here inthe O .R .C. is good : but, in saying this, I have also to

admit that the country is one of great trials and disappoint

ments. The cr0ps are looking splendid— a flight of locusts

turns up and clears everything , leaving the land as brownas fallow ground . A twelvemonths’

drought sweeps awaythe earnings of 3 or 4 previous years. The chief draw

backs to agri culture in this division (1) are droughts, which

however are never so severe as in other parts and the

other ex treme of semi-tropical torrents of rain . There is

no doubt that the fact of the rainy season being con

temporary with the reaping season is a great draw-back .

‘

(Conquered terri tory) . the best agriculturaldistrict 1n SouthAfr ica.

107

SOUTH AFRICAIn the low-lying lands, reapers are sometimes caught bysudden storms which render themin an hour ormore quiteinaccessible while corn has been known to sprout in the

standing ear. Since I forwarded the ori g inal articles

for publication in the Times, I have seen several papers, onthe prospects and possibilities of this Colony , by men who

have been through the country on military service. It has

struck me that generally much of the cri ticismhas beenmade without due consideration of the abnormal state of

the country , and with only a superficial knowledge of its

climate and natural conditions. The fact , of large tracts

of good soil remaining uncultivated , is generally severelycri ticised . Amuch larger area of these flats is ploughed formealies and Kamr-corn than used to be the case and it is

probable that something more may be done in this waybut, that those tracts outside the distri ct before des ignatedas suitable for wheat-lands can be profitably cultivated , is

a mistaken impression . Once in every 12 or 15 years,in all probability , the whole country (if prepared ) , couldbe ploughed , and would produce an almost incredibleamount of grain on the other hand there would bemanyyears, when the ground would be so dry and hard, that a

plough could not enter the soil and some years would produce no crop, even after the seed was in the ground and I

amsure the general average would not be a remunerativeone. Even if the economic problem, of how to keep together the han ds, cattle, and implements, for a supremeeffort, could be solved, it would be impossible to foretell

when a good year is to fall.”

That cereals of a kind can be grown on dry or irri

gated lan ds in South Afri ca is unquestionable. But

itmust not be forgotten that the land ,which has been

growing cereals in the past , considerably has deteriorated in the cereal -districts of Cape Colony and the

Orange River Colony , as well as in other parts of thecoun try, where con tinual cultivation has been carriedon withoutmanuring the land . I noted large areas inthe best wheat-district of Cape Colony which , owingto their exhausted state, could not be expected to returnthe seed put into them. The samemay be said of someof the best wheat-lands of the Orange River Colony .

Thaba Pacha (for example) , is a district which thoroughly has been exhausted by successive and exces sive

108

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SOUTH AFRICAon its capital , and not on the interest thereof . The

same might have been said of the landlords in the

eastern counties of England, who lived on the highrents of farms which were forced to grow wheat in thedays of high wheat-prices and who now draw low

rents, or no rents at all, fromland which is exhaustedand unproductive . Under protective tariffs, and

excessive railway-rates fromcoast to interior, cerealsonly can be grown profitably in South Africa at theexpense of the soil. Nomargin is left for refertilization . Thus, as well as the gold-mining industry , thefarming industry draws on the capital of the coun try .

In amatter of this kind , not a short view but a longview must be taken not the view of a generation ,

but of generations.

The deadly practice , of transforming the land intowheat-land, fortunately was arrested in England bythe low price of wheat . Farmers, therefore, werecompelled to turn their energies toward stock-farming .

Thus the land is given a chance of recuperation .

Every sane agriculturist must know the fatuity of

attempting to grow cereals, for export or for homeconsumption , unless there be stock on the farmor

means of gettingmanure . Otherwise very few yearssumec to exhaust the soil’s vitality, which ages of restwill not always renew. The South Afn’

ean farmeradopts the obsolete English systemof alternate cropping and resting . The English farmer long ago

realised that the necessary resting-period graduallybecamemuch longer than the cropping period . Thenscience suggested alternate cropping and manuring .

But artificialmanure does not cure the soil : itmerelyprolongs the agony and delays the final syn cope.

Deterioration proceedsmore slowly : but it does prooecd . Artificial manures con tain but few of thesubstances needed for plant nutrition and are applicable only to those cr0ps which require more of a

rro

AGRICULTURE vs. STOCK-FARMINGcertain ingredient than the soil ean g ive . Farmyard Value at

manure, on the other hand, is a generalmanure and

con tainsmost of the constituents required by ordinarycrops. Artificialmanures are quicker in their actionthan farmyardmanure . They at times are useful asauxiliaries to the latter but, when exclusively used ,they ultimately would exhaust the soil of a sub

tropical coun try like South Africa . They perhapsmight act for a few seasons but they would be as thewhip and spur to a tired horse , making himgallop a

few furlongs and drop dead before themile . When ,

however , the soil has its natural covering of grass ;and when that is eaten down by stock , the fertility(if not increased) certainly ismain tained .

Suppose that the demand forfirm-produce, the "W 8

fertility of the soil, and themeans 0 maintain ing thatfertility , were all favourable to the South Africanfarmer . Would it be advisable (froman economicpoint of view) for himto grow cerealsLet it be taken for granted that the South Afr icanfarmer can grow cereals at a cost of 25 more than theAustralian farmer : but that he can raise stock at thesame cost as (or possibly less than that of) any otherfarmer in the world . Then , in spite of the fact thatthe tarifi on imported cereals makes it possible to

grow themat a small profit , would it no’

t be moreprofitable to g ive up cereals altogether, and to go-inwholly for stock-raising The advantages of thelatter course are obvious. The farmer’s energy wouldbe concentrated on the industry which shews thegres test return his purchasing power would be

increased : his land would maintain (and probablyincrease) its fertility his capitalwould not be reduced ,but profitably employed : protective tariffs on the

food-stuffs of the people could be abolished (and cheapfood would mean cheap labour for developing the

coun try’

s mineral wealth and other industries)I I I

mmlng.

SOUTH AFRICAimportedmeat no longer would be required and the

community at large would benefit by having goodwholesome fresh unfrozen home-grown meat in

short , the farmer would rise fromhis present status,of robber of the soil and employer of useless labour ,to that of custodian of his coun try ’

smost valuableasset , his coun try ’

sbenefactor, and his own best friend .

All this comes within the scope of the South Afri canfarmer, if he will confine himself to and study everydetail of one industry, growing just sufi cient foodstufis for his own family,marketing his surplus stock ,exchanging the results of his labour instead of

endeavouring (as at present) to be an agricultural andpastoral Jack-of-all-trades . For, as a stock-coun try ,

South Africa can excel but asan agricultural coun try,it is an accen ted failure .

The prospects of agriculture in South Africa easilycan bemeasured . Agriculture is governed by the lawof Diminishing Returns,” it gradually reaches a stagewhen produce does not increase in proportion to theincrease of labour . South Africa can employ her

labour better in industries , which are governed by thelaw of Increasing Returns — industries in whichevery increase of labour addsmore than a proportionateincremen t of production To the theorist, who dealsin passive hearsay and dreaming by rote,” agriculturein South Africa is a contemplative occupation pro

ductive of ideal satisfaction and quite barren of anypractical benefit The ordinary farmer wan ts in teres ton hiseapital tangible reward for hislabour amended,and the risk which he undertakes. Agriculturalsuccess in South Africa is ex tremely rare . Very fewfarmers indeed havemade it profitable . But Afriean

tunes . Stock-farmers, and perhaps mixed farmers,I 13

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SOUTH AFRICA

the Board of Agriculture. Some husbandmen are

exclusively stock-farmers : others engage in agriculture oua small scale as an aux iliary to stock-farming : but few are found today in England who are

ex clusively agriculturists. Those few are agriculturistsperforce. They have no alternative. Their land isnot suitable for laying-down as permanent pasture ;and consequently they are obliged to adopt the rotationsystem. This class of farmer might perhaps havetheir hard lotmitigated by a duty of 2s.

-

4s. a quarteron corn but themuch larger class of farmers, whohave turned their land into pasturage and have acquiredthe art of stock-farming , could not be induced to

change stock-farming for agriculture even though thecurren t year’s average price of wheat , i .e. 24s. 9d. a

quarter, were raised by artificial means to sos. a

quarter . It would not be worth their while . Farmersare, not Idealists, but Realists. If they can makemoremoney by stock-farming, they are not averse frompermitting the foreigner to supply themwith a cheaploaf, so long as he also supplies themwith cheap fodderfor their stock . Com-

growing in England today is

not the industry which it was fifty years ago. If then ,

our rulers and governours who are advocates of

Protection wish to favour theman who is now on the

land, a duty on imported cattle andmeat would seemto be very much more to the point than a duty on

corn .

In this respect , the position of South Africa resemblesthat of England . The farmer has not an optionbetween agriculture and stock- farming . On the con

trary, the nature of the land and the nature of the

climate dictate the nature of his occupation . Only theman devoid of knowledge, either of agriculture or of

stock-farming, presumes to choose goes-in headlongfor one or the other on his arrival in South Africa ;and eventuates in dismal failure . Themore sagacious

1 14

AGRICULTURE vs. STOCK-FARMINGadopt the industry, which is likely to be profitablebeeause it is in accordance with natural conditions.

If this be stock-farming, the man of common sensewill say Let wheat be grown elsewhere : I preferpaying 6d. formy loaf to growing it on my farmat a

There is a deman d for corn there is a demand forbeef and mutton , in South Africa . There also is a

demand for gold and iron . Cultivation of corn is

possible at a price so is themanufacture of iron (inwhich the country abounds) possible at a price . Thehusbandman finds stock-farmingmore profitable thanagriculture the industrialist finds the production of

gold more profitable than themanufacture of iron

The stock-farmer does not object to the importationof corn , and the gold-industrialist does not object tothe importation of iron , so long as the imported cornand iron be cheaper than the home-production of thesame. And the men who are engaged in thes e industries ought to know what suits them.

Husbandry is no new industry : but the oldest inthe world . The ancien ts, who had brought it to a highpitch of perfection , deemed it the most honourable,mostwholesome, andmost delectable of all occupations.

Those English husban dmen , who have acquired a

knowledge of stock-farming, and who successfully havelaid-down their land to pasturage , have no wish toadopt agriculture in its place . The general Opinion ,

of all engaged in stock-farming in every part of theworld where conditions are suitable, is that (of the twoindustries) it is themore profitable . The agriculturistis obliged tomarket his productswithin a certain timeafter their production , whether themarket he favourable or un favourable . If he fails to do so, storage anddeterioration in quality and quan tity inevitably reducetheir value and often-times annul it altogether . On

the other hand, the judicious stock-farmer, who does115

SOUTH AFRICAnot overstock his farm, and who always has a reserveof grass or fodder, can afford to keep his stock un til afavourable opportun ity for marketing it . I did not

meet a single bonafide agriculturist in South Africa ,

who could tell me that he had made a profit on an

average of seven years’ produce . The agriculturistgenerally, and especially in South Africa , is a needyhard-pressedman ,

leading a hand-to-mouth existence .

He only can realize hisproduce after the an nual harvest .All the rest of the year he is often in the hands of thedealers who supply himwith seed and goods and his

choice of time to sell, as well as the price which he getsfromthe dealer who has a mortgage on his crops,cause himnothing but annoyance and generally cruelloss. Again , the stock-farmer (who needsmoney forcurrent expenses) can sell any number of head of stockat any time whereas the agriculturistmust sell: hisproduce in one lot at one time .

When these things, with the relative hindrancesproper to the two industries , are weighed and con

sidered by the practical and experienced farmer, it isno wonder that stock-farming should be pronouncedmore profitable and in every waymore agreeable, asan occupation on the land . This view is borne out

not only bymodern husbandmen , but the ancients alsowere of the same opinion The severe CatoMajor theCensor (B.C . 234

— 149) is cited by Columella .

‘ In

response to the ques tion , What was the part of

husbandry by exercise of which aman quickly couldbecome rich Cato replied , By grazing cattle well.Being asked again , By what part aman might get atolerably good income he replied . By grazingcattle indifferently well. Columella continues,

It grievesme to tell what further was sai d by this wise

man on being asked, What was the third profitable thing in

l(L . JuniusModeratus Columella. Lib. VI . proof.)

1 r6

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SOUTH AFRICAsuch are the qualities of the soil, that few know whatit refuses and what it promises,” says Columella . Asmall herd of cattle well selected is more profitablethan a large herd neglected . Generations of SouthAfrican stock-farmers have been propagating inferiorbreeding-stock thereby diminishing the value of futurestock. They have often forced, upon stock, conditions which are contrary to the laws of nature, aimingat large breeds of sheep or cattle, where small breedswould have been more advan tageous becausemore inaccordance with surroundings fromwhich sustenancewas to be drawn . There has been a general lack of

self-reliance, not only in the farmer in relation to

himself but also to the country . Want of capital,and above all, want of skill in the selection of breedingstock , alsomust be named as contributing tounsuccess

Darwin says, Nature gives successive variationsman adds themup in certain directions useful tohimself.” The few points, which I have designatedas defects in the South African farmer , are defectswithin his power to remedy. I amnot inclined to

condemn himbecause he is not on the same level withour English stock-farmer . Indeed , I will say that hehas made greater strides, under extremely adversecircumstances, thanmight have been expected . Thereis, and has been formany years, a class of sheepand cattle farmerswhohavemadewonderfulprogresswith their stock : and it reasonably may be an ticipated that , when the country has had similar advan

tages to ours in England, in the way of frequent stockexhibitions and freedom fromdisease, the SouthAfrican farmer will not be far behind us.

The chief hindrance to the establishmen t of valuablebreeds of eattle in South Africa, is the prevalence ofanimal disease . I have dealt with this subject at someleng th in another chapter and I point out that this

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AGRICULTURE vs. STOCK-FARMINGserious obstacle is one which the Governments of the

It is difi cult to estimate the quantity of the cerealsgrown in South Afri ca and stillmore difi cult to caleulate the yield of the various cr0ps : while the farmers’indefinite andmisleadingmethod , of invariablymeasuring the yield by so-many-fold of the seed sown ,makesit quite impossible (owing to the many variations of

soil and seed) to arrive at the cost of production and

the farmers’ profit . Such , however, is not the casewith stock-farming. Circumstances have enabled meto arrive at a very fair estimate of what a stockfarmer’s profitmay be , under the ordinary conditionsof the coun try .

The Rev. Charles D . Helm, who was a missionaryin Rhodesia for fifteen years before the Occupation ,

toldme that he alwayshad kept a drove of cattle and

that disease of any kind was unknown before 1896 .

In 1896—1897, however , rinderpest slew all his cattle

except 11 cows, I young 0x , 17 calves (bulls and

heifers) . Of these , he sold 2 cows. In 1900, lungsickness afi icted the cattle in his district ; and heinnoculated all his stock , losing 6 head fromthe effectsof innoculation . In January 1902, he had a drove of47cattle, 8 of which were that year’s calves. As theredwater (African Coast-Fever) was Spreading, he sold20 head at (what he called the low price of) £9 eachfor slaughter-cattle and £6 103. for the year-old cattlethe usual price for slaughter-cattle being {I12 to £14.

He said that grazing was practically free and thatgood farms of acres and upwards could be rentedfor a nominal price . He himself paid no ren t for theland on which his cattle grazed and a native droverat 103. a month was his only expense . Dr . Sauerhad 50 head of cattle after the rinderpest in 1897. In

the beginning of 1903 they had increased to 150 head .

Good grazing land in Rhodesia can be purchased in1 19

SOUTH AFRICAblocks at 1s. 6d. to 3s. an acre . According to thequality of soil and size of animals, 10 to 20 acres a

head is considered sufficient to keep cattle all theyear round . Therefore , the cost of the land (at 5interest on capital) is equal to about 2s. for the keepof a beast a year : the land which is worth 3s. beingable to carrymore eattle than that which is worth1s. 6d.

I have had various statemen ts fromvarious parts ofSouth Afriea . All agree that it is themost wonderfulrecuperative country known . If it were not for thediseases, suflicient stock could be raised at so small acost as tomake an export trade possible and profitable .

For some years, diseases of different kinds have leftthe farmers with barely sufficient breeding stock :but , if the droves (which were destroyed by diseases)had been spared, South Africa to-day would be overflowing with sheep and cattle .M The carcase weight of Afrikander cattle is 600— 650

lbs. ; of Mashonaland cattle 350—450 lbs. ; of Angonieattle 300 350 lbs. According to the best authorities,if disease were absent , cattle in Rhodesia could beraised successfully to the above weight at an outlay of253. to 5os. a head . Imen tion Rhodesia (with whichI may include certain parts of Bechuanaland in CapeColony) because these are the only two coun trieswheresuitable pasturage can be obtained now at a fewshillingsan acre . The price of land in the other coloniesmakesstock farming, on any considerable scale, out of thequestion at the presen t time but, as the value of landcomes down , (and it inevitably must) , these colonieslater-ouwill offer similar propitious prospects to the

W as-ts stock-farmer .

“W“ Notwithstanding all which 1 have said above, I wishit clearly to be understood that I cannot possiblyrecommend the investment of money in eattle, in

South Afri ca , until the authorities make a more120

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SOUTH AFRICAof Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, can be bought for 23.

to 53. an acre, there stock-farming safely may berecommended as being possible and profitable .

122

Diseases of Animals

OUTH AFRICA has almost all the diseaseswhich have afilicted other coun tries, and per

haps a few which are peculiarly her own . In regardto the first , shemay trace hermisfortune and troubleto the uncon trolled importation of cattle fromin

fected countries. In regard to the second as well as

to the first , she only has her totally inadequatemethodof action to blame . Further , contrary to all ex

perience elsewhere, stock-diseases in South Africa are

on the incres se . In South Africa, an imal diseaseis in the saddle and rides mankind : whereas it ismankind who ought to he the rider . The forces of

circumstances are grouped against man whereasman ought to be grouped against circumstances.

Nevertheless, I do not deemthe predicament of

South Africa to be desperate . We , in England , havegone-through far greater trials, in the way of cattleplagues, than has South Africa . It was not until wehad spentmillions ofmoney and sacrificed thousandsof cattle , that we became able to boast of our presentclean bill-of-health . It has been a g igantic task,and one which never could have been accomplishedwithout the voluntary and whole-hearted cc-operationof the farmers and the inhabitants of the country withan intelligen t unanimous Board of Agriculture and a

sympathetic Govermnent . This cc-0perati0n enabledthe omcials, who were responsible for the eradication

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SOUTH AFRICAof disease , to organize and build-up step by step a

systemof defence and attack with the result that ,today , we may say with a great deal of certaintythat it would be as difficult for a cattle-disease to beimported, and to escape detection at the outset , as

for a foreign invader to land upon our shores. Englishstock-farmers have unbounded confidence in the capability of the Veterinary Department . They now

carry-on their industry of stock-raising in perfectsecurity . But stock-raising in England fifty yearsago was a far more precarious occupation than it is

today in South Africa . This statement may bedoubted by persons who have had rather bitter ex

perience of South African Farming, and by those wholook-upon that coun try as the hotbed of every animaldisease . Therefore , it is a matter of importance toSouth Africa that its presen t condition in regardto these diseases, should be compared with that of

other countries , and thoroughly understood . Untilthis has been done , until evidence has been heard, itwould be improper and premature to pronounce a

condemnatory verdict .I will speak briefly of the history of anirnal-disease

in England . In 1744, cattle plague (Rinderpes t )was introduced by the importation of two infectedealves fromHolland . It raged throughout the coun try

,

slaying cattle by hundreds except in the Principalityof Wales, where the black Welsh cattle were found tobe immune against it . These cattle are the descendants of the old British stock : but the cause of theirimmun ity is not known . Nine years later , in 1757,the plague appears to have spent itself ; and no

more is heard of it in England until recent times.

During the last forty years, it has been importedtwice fromRussia and once fromGermany . Thestrict and stringent measures, which were adoptedon each occasion , finally stamped it out .

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The value s!

England.

SOUTH AFRICAit was endeavouring to legislate with a view to combating and stamping-out animal diseases. But

the farmers looked coldly on ; and, in most cases,resented scientific in terference. Many of themopenlysaid that they sufiered less loss fromthe diseasesthan fromthemeasures adopted for their eradication .

In fact , the Chairman of the Central Farmers’ Club ,with a represen tative of the Scots farmers, attendedbefore a Committee of the House of Commons to

protes t against these measures, which they denominated impracticable and unnecessary . I lay greatstressupon this curious attitude of the English farmersof the last century because a verisimilar and equallymistaken conservatism (the Idola Theatri of

Bacon ) is the obstacle to progress among SouthAfrican Farmers of to-day . I have taught (or triedto teach) elsewhere the ex treme desirability of pro

fiting by the experiences and blunders of our forefathers.Mr . Cope, the chief veterinary omcer of the EnglishBoard of Agriculture , estimates that , between 1870

and the eradication of Foot-and-Mouth-Disease ,

cattle “ fell with ” that disease ; and

were attacked by pleuro-pneumonia , while theauthorities slaughtered healthy cattle as havingbeen in contact with in fected cattle. Such figures as

these should lighten the heart of the South Africanfarmer : for nothing is so consolatory to a loser as

news of the losses of others. They should alsomakehimearnestly desire a scientific system, which willbe themeans of clearing his country as England hasbeen cleared . For England to-day is freer fromdisease than any country in the world, a fact whichplaces greater value on her export breeding cattlefor importers of such stock .

Besides the foregoing diseases which we haveeradicated, England still has Scab, Anthrax , Swine

126

DISEASES OF ANIMALSfever , and Glanders, which are sporadic , and are

stamped-out directly they appear . We also haveTuberculosis prevalen t ; and it is to be regretted Tmthat this dire disease should continue to bame theingenuity of man . The only eflective measures yetdevised amount to the slaughter of all in fectedcattle : but, as 30

-

4o of the cattle of GreatBri tain are infected , the cost of such slaughterwould be so enormous that it does not come withinthe range of present practicability. I should like,however, to point out that probably, at this presenttime, it would not be an impossiblematter to slaughterall the tuberculose cattle in South Africa . In thatcountry Tuberculosis is still germinating . In timeit will have spread as in England . What mightbe done now, cannot be done then ; and a stitchin time saves nine ; and a word to the wise is enough .

We turn to the history of the an imal-diseases of Dlsssss In

South Africa. These are Rinderpest , Redwater or“m"m

Coast fever, Pleuro pneumonia , Foot and MouthDisease, Heart water , Horse-sicknes s, Tuberculosis,Anthrax , Scab, Swine-fever , and a few others of a

Rinderpes t was introduced in 1896 : when at must-pest.least 50 of the cattle died of it. Since then a

successful method of innoculation has been found,and generally adopted . South African farmers are

no longer perturbed because of Rinderpest . Theylose about 5 of their stock frominnoculation and

thus secure immun ity for the rest .Redwater or Coast-fever or Bovine Malaria has been Rslwsb rsr

the subject of experiments by Dr . Koch . This cen t-Fm .

eminent scientist was brought to Rhodesia , for the

purpose of conducting investigations beneficial to

stock-owners, by the enlightened enterprize of the

e i 311 ScumArmca COMPANY . He hasestablisheda successful systemof innoculation , which , unfortu

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SOUTH AFRICA

nately, is at present of a rather complicated form; andit is to be feared that the farmers will not adopt itso readily as Rinderpest-innoculation , owing to thetrouble which it involves. But Dr . Koch continueshis experiments, with a view to finding a simplerand yet effectivemethod of dealing with this scourge.

Pleuro-pneumonia is already provided with a suc

cessfulmethod of inoculation .

Horse-sickness is one of the original diseases of

the coun try . It was known to exist at the Capeat the end of the seventeenth century, when somethousands of horses in and about Capetown fellvictims to it. But, for many years, it has not beenknown in that colony. Further north , however, it isstill prevalent and exceedingly virulent : althoughit has disappeared frommany distri cts where it

formerly raged . Fromwhich it may be concludedthat , even if a cure be not found for this disease, (theles st understood of all South Afri can diseases ,) in

course of time the progress of civilization and the

more sanitary condition of the countrymay cause itsevanescence .

RM . The other diseases, Heartwater , Tuberculosis,am Anthrax , Scab, Swine-fever, are not beyond theMD.MI . power of the Veterinary Departments and their

res pective Governments to deal with ; and, whenthe farmers become more sympathetic and moreenergetic in their efforts to assist , the work of theauthoritieswill become easier .

In order tomake the situation as clear as possible.I will give a categorical comparison of English and

South African conditions in reference to animaldiseases. The following is a statement of the casein England

lss (1 ) English farmers, veterinary officials, and Govern‘W ment , are all of onemind and Opinion as to the system

of dealing with infectious and contagious diseases.

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sunfish .

ls sslsssss.

SOUTH AFRICAis a comparatively short one. With the exceptionof horse-sickness, South Africa had been practicallyfree fromdisease fromtime immemorial till twentyyes r s ago. But diflicultiesmake opportunities,” andnow that so many diseases have occurred together,it reasonablymay be expected that the necessity forscien tific treatment will be brought more forciblybefore the farmers and the various Governments.

(3) South Afri ca imports cattle from coun trieswhere disease is known to exist . At the presenttime she is importing cattle fromthe Argentine Republic, a country fromwhich England has prohibitedimportation on account of the Foot-and-MouthDisease which rages there . For this cause , we mayexpect to be obliged to include a fresh outbreak ofFoot-and-Mouth-Disease among the plagues of SouthAfri ca in the near future . I have designated stockfarming as an industry for which South Africa is

suited : but exportation of cattle fromany of hercolonies is impossible , un til she is free fromcon tagious

(4) South Africa, to a very great extent , is an

un fenced coun try . Her systemof transport, publicout-spans and kraals, effectually prevent eradicationof diseases which are conveyed by contact ; and

render isolation almost impossible .5) South Afriea has five separate Veterinary

Departmmts, each as independent of the others as

though they were the Departments of foreign countries. South Afii ca has also five separate Governmen ts and two or three Protectorates, all independen t,each of a self-satisfied nature, and some of themwithno hori zon beyond their own frontiers. This, as faras the eradication of animal-disease is concerned,

is very detrimental to the interests of the countryas a whole and of the individual colonies which are

therein . I will show a reason why . Before the

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DISEASES OF ANIMALSWar , the total white population of South Africa wasestimated at A county like Cheshire has a

population of And itmay perhaps be betterimagined than described what the condition ofanimal-disease in Cheshire would be if that countyen joyed the luxury of five independent Governmentswith five Lieutenant-Governors or Administrators,all runn ing independen t (I do not say antagonisticVeterinary Departments simultaneously. The poin tis clear and sharp . The presen t arrangement precludes all possibility of emcacious action in the eventof an outbreak of contagious disease for such actioncan only emanate fromone cen tral authority . Underpresen t circumstances , the worst evils of competitionand faddismride rampant . The various departmentsand governments vie with each other in propoundingtheories, which do enormous credit to their imaginations and good intentions, but which damage reputations for practical dynamic common sense . Gazettesare filled with treatises On the Futile and therethe supply of knowledge and of energy fails, owingto the innumerable difficulties arising fromthe differentmeasures andmethods which the various departmen ts and governments naturally adopt It is quitesafe to affirmthat , so long as the powers of dealingwith animal-disease are ves ted in several separatespecialists controlled by several separate superiors(upon whose support they cannot always count) , justso long will the curse of cattle-plagues endure . Thesystemhas been weighed in the balances and foundwan ting .

It is this very systemwhich constitutes the one

difficulty on the continent of Europe at thismoment .There we have a parcel of countries separated only byartificial frontiers, each under separate authorities, andeach notoriously infected by an imal-disease . Mr . m. se

Cope (whomI have already quoted) states, in one of

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ssssrstltlss.

healthy is:

SOUTH AFRICAhis reports, that France has every known animaldisease except the cattle-plague . Germany , Denmark, Austria , Russia, are never without disease .

Holland is the exception which proves the rule beingthe only country on the continent where an almostperfect systemof combating disease ex ists, and importation of cattle is prohibited . International commerce on the continent of Europe, where so manydivers authorities are in power , renders the eradica

tion of disease a sheer impossibility .

South Africa could unite . She could have repre

sentatives fromeach colony on a Central VeterinaryCouncil which should treat the coun try as a whole .

A single Contagious Animal-Diseases Act , with all theGovernments and their subordinate Veterinary Departments in unity, would have a most beneficialefiect ; and would tend to beget confidence in thefuture of the country froman agricultural and pas

toral point of view. Let it be noted that the passingof such an Act in England in 1890 reduced the numberof pleuro-pneumon ia—infected eattle fromfour thousand to one after three years.

It is perhaps rather a pity that there still should bemph in South Afri ca who believe in the spontaneousgeneration of parasites. It is true that we are not

quite sure as to whether the parasite is a cause or a

consequence although we know that it undoubtedlyis the agent of transmission of disease . But due

weight must be given to M . Pasteur’s Opinion , wherehe says

It is in the power ofmen to banish all parasitic diseasee

fromthe face of the earth if, as I amconvinced, the doctr ine

of the spontaneous generation (of parasites) is amyth.

’

South Africa really is an exceptionally healthycoun try froma human , as well as froman an imal,point of view. For humanity it is a splendid healthresort and, before the immrtation of infected cattle ,

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“1

SOUTH AFRICAsuaded to trample on superstition , and supposingthe various Veterinary Departmen ts to be willingto agree in the adoption of English methods, and

supposing the difierent Governments to be induced tolegislate on the recommendation of the Central Veterinary Council which I have desiderated for SouthAfrica, there still remains one problemof primeimportance to be solved . That is the matter of

fencing .

The lack of fencing is the great hindrance to theeffective treatmen t of disease . Without it, isolationis impossible and without the power to isolate, all

the efforts of farmers, veterinary experts, governments, combined or uncombined, will be void and of

no effect . A Compulsory Fencing Act is necessary .

If a farmis worth buying, it also should be worthfencing ; and, if the farmers are unable to compassthe necessary outlay, then the various Governmen tsmust come to their assistance . The cost will beenormous but enormous loss will be avoided in the

future .

In order to give an idea of the losses which SouthAfrica has already sustained in the absence of fencing,the following round estimate perhaps will serve . In

1896 , Cape Colony had about cattle ;Orange River Colony, Transvaal,Natal, Rhodesia , Bechuanaland(Khama and others) , totalcattle . Cape Colony estimated its losses fromRin

derpest at 30 and the price at £3 143. 2d.

a head . Other colonies estimated their losses at

50 to 90 and the price at £3 to £7 a

head . It will serve my purpose to strike a low

average, and to estimate an aggregate loss of 50

at £3 a head ; which will place the direct lossat no less than (say) £8,55o,ooo and (say)cattle. I would repeat that this vast sumonly re

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DISEASES OF ANIMALSpresents the direct loss and takes no count whateverof the indirect loss eaused (to give a single examme)by the death of breeding stock. Such a loss as that

Nor is Rinderpes t the only plague which has wroughthavoc in South Africa . I find that Cape Colony had

head of cattle in 1891 and that Pleuropneumonia and other diseases had reduced thatfigure to in 1893. Further it is estimated Presses less

that South Afri ca’

s loss, in wool and hides, fromm"Scab alone, amoun ts to no less than a year .

My argument is that if half the money, which M‘

has been lost through diseases, had been Spent infencing, South Africa to-day would have been one of

the best-fenced countries in the world . IncidentallyShe also would have been free fromanimal-disease,and the possessor of a clean bill-of-health . SouthAfriean farmers can never know what an asset theyhave in the pasture of their country un til it is fenced ,or un til some other (at present unknown ) means ofpreventing the spread of disease is found . Over andover again , isolation has been proved to be an effectivebarrier . The testimony of Dr . Koch’s Report on Dr. ” a t

.

Redwater or Alrican Coast-Fever in Rhodesia ismuchto the point . He brought cattle froma healthydistrict to his experiment-yard at Bulawayo, wherethere were in fected cattle . He placed themin buildings enclosed by a wire fence four yards distantfromthe infected cattle . And he says

That these precautions are sufficient rotection is shown

by the fact that no case of extraneous eetion has occurredamongst these animals since they arrived in Bulawayo.

”

The mere fact of these cattle being only 4 yardsapart fromthe infected ones is sufficient proof thenof the efi cacy of isolation . But, if this be not enough,1 Dr. Koch

’

s Second Report on African Coast-Fever , p. 1 .

IS5

SOUTH AFRICAOsssss! the Essexvale, and many other droves of cattle inm Rhodesia, (being isolated, ) are as free fromdisease

A far-sh

today as they were before the scourge was introduced .

I will cite also the personal testimony of a farmerYes , quoth he, in res ponse to my inquiry

"

; my cattle

are quite free fromthe plague. They are all in a ring fence ;and my niggers always are watching to prevent any stra

animal from approaching . In fact we shoot all sucanimals at sight. Fence the country , I say ,

— fence the

country, control the out-spans; and youwill have healthyand flourishing droves of cattle everywhere.

Those were hiswords, and I agree with them.

What would be our position in Great Britain now,

if we had had no fences We havemillions of sheepand cattle on an area ten times smaller than SouthAfri ca ; and nothing has prevented devastation and

des olation by disease except our admirably adequatesystemof fencing, which has enabled the authoritiesto declare an infected area , and to confine diseasewithin the limits of that area by stringen t regulation .

Australia, New Zealand, America, to say nothingof the other stock-countries, long ago have done thosethings which South Africa ought to have done and

have left undone those things which South Africaought not to have done and there is health in them,

and no health (to speak-of) in Her . Her Governmen tsengage in hypothetical dialectics theirs, put-uphundreds and thousands of miles of fences. That iswhy they are ages ahead of Her . That also is why a

better class of emigrants cannot be induced to settlein Her : for , so far , South Africa has gotten , for the

most part, men on the land who arrive there withouteithermoney or experience . It is all that can be expected. No sane practical stock-farmer would dream

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Insects

O civilized country in the world can competewith South Africa in the matter of insects. I

succeeded in making a fairly representative collectionfor my own edification and future study ; and Ihave labelled each creature with its special taste ac

cording to plants, trees, or animals. To enumeratethese destroyers of animals, these tyrants of thevegetable-kingdom, would involve the compilationof a long eatalogue inappropriate here . Their powersof reproduction are nothing short of marvellous ;some bringing forthztheir young al ive , while the

majority lay their eggs in innumerable myriads.

-It is of first importance to distinguish betweenthose which are irmocuous or beneficial and thosewhich are nox ious or injurious. Darwin has shewnwhat the lowly earth-wormdoes in modifying thetexture and quality of soils. These, and their like .

performtheir functions for the service of man and

deserve to be treated accordingly . But other insects,whose influence is entirely otherwise , require stringentmethods of annihilation .

In South Afri ca, every kind of plant becomes a hostfor swarms of insects. I noted that weeds servedas better hosts for the destructive parasitic fungi(Smut, Mildew, than the ordinary useful herbageof the country and, as the cultivated land abounds inweeds, these pests are very difi cult to eradicate .

Myrll ls.

NsxlsssssdIasssssss.

The following are a few of the commonest insects om“

IS9

SOUTH AFRICA

which work such havoc among the vegetation of SouthAfrica

Red Spider .

CoddlingM0th.

Black-spotted Beetle.

A round red-and-black species which feeds on

melons, pumpkins, potatoes, etc . , and lays its eggson the inner side of the leaves.

Woolly-bear .

A very common caterpillar . I saw several fieldsof potatoes which these pests had eaten as soon as

the sprouts appeared above ground . There was a

field of sweet potatoes, at Messrs. Harrison and Todd’

s

farmnear Barberton , where they were so thick on theground that it was hardly possible to put

-down a

foot without treading on them. Needless to say , the

whole crop had been ruined .

AnstraIian Bug .

A white rib-scaled insect in troduced about thirtyyears ago, probably fromAustralia . These, and thediflerent varieties of squamose insects, cause greattrouble and loss to fruit-growers and farmers generally .

These are among themost destructive kinds of insects.

Locusts.

Not very long ago, the locust wasunknown in SouthAfrica . Now, it is quite common and, as its habitsaremigratory , it is difficult to eradicate it, especiallyas the back country is so favourable to its reproduc

tion . In this connection I will narrate the following ,which if not “ vero ”

at least is “ben trovato .

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SOUTH AFRICA

Short space of time . They move about in millions,attacking the wood-work of houses, burrowing throughplaster as though with augers. The damage whichthey do is sirnply terrific. The Red-Ant or SoldierAnt is a native of Northern Rhodesia . It attackshorses and cattle, settling on the heads of the beasts,feeding on the flesh and blood , and in a Short timekilling them}; Both cattle and horses know when a

swarmof Red Ants is approaching . They begin to

bellow and to neigh in a most excited way and if

not instantly kraaled, they stampede.

Tsetse-fly

is confined to certain swampy areas. It is fatal tocattle and horses : but donkeys, owing probably to

their thick skin and long coats, are immune against thispest .Mosquito

The Unprofitable Mosquito is well-known to mostpeople , and needs no detailed description . It is

more prevalent than it used to be . The old settlersin the coun try remember many districts, which are

now in fected , where formerly the mosquito was

unknown .

The Entomological Departments of Cape Colonyand Natal aremaking strenuous efforts to cope withthe insect-pests. If the various colonies of SouthAfrica were to combine their efforts and adopt one

common system, the task probably would be foundmuch easier .

Co-operation and Agricultural

Credit

HERE are few countries in the world wherefarmers are so mulcted in their dealings, and

where credit is so difficult to obtain on legitimateterms, as South Africa .

The farmer’s banker , or creditor, usually is the mussels;storekeeper of the district . Many of these persons mt“

act straightforwardly with their customers ; and

business is done to mutual advantage . But thenumber of honest storekeepers is small. Themajorityforce their wares on the farmers ; and are devoidboth of honour and straightforwardness. Theircoun try -stores are established to supply the farmerwith all his requirements in the way of goods and

eash . The simple farmer often accepts profferedcredit , little knowing that he is assisting an enemyto drag himout of his depth . Consequently, he andhis property ultimately fall an easy prey to the unscrupulous usurer disguised as a storekeeper and

benefactor . The wise rogue is the fool’s naturalparasite .It is impossible to say how many farmers havefound-out their mistake : or how few have profited lscrsssss

by the experience of their neighbours. That the sameold heinous systemstill goes-on plainly can be seenfromthe fact of the increase of mortgages upon farms,

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A.“HI“ s

SOUTH AFRICAas well as fromthe number of farmswhich have passedout of the hands of the original owners, who had hadthemassigned to themby their respective governments for a nominal price . It is true that farminghas not been a very profitable industry in the pastbut, as the farmers had no ren t to pay, it is aston ishingthat their farms should be encumbered withmortgages,while they themselves are reduced to the Bijwonerclass and the Poor-White class with which the coun tryswarms.

The foregoing condition of affairs is the directeffect of bad systemof trading, of bad systemof

borrowing, and of the bad principles of the parasitewho settles-down in coun try-distri cts to prey uponthe innocent farmer .

The store-keeper bent on usury has no great dimculty in enticing the farmer into his trap . He supplies himwith goods from the stores advancesmoney : supplies seed buys his farm-produce . Theonly stipulation is that all produce must be broughtto his store .

Of theman who will finance youat the verymomen twhen you need to be financed, none but the verybest Opinion can be formed . The farmer, who is deepin the storekeeper’s books, soon becomes forcedto accept whatever price for his produce which thestorekeeper may be pleased to give him. And thefarmer is so inconceivably simple . A certain farmerhad dealings with two rival storekeepers in the dorpOne day,

he brought-in some wool for sale . Thefirst storekeeper, to whomhe oflered it, said that hewould give him6d. a pound . The second storekeeperoffered 6M. a pound . Incontinent , the farmergoes back to the first storekeeper , telling himthathis rival had oflered himW . Well, George,”says Simeon , I amnot going to be out-bid by Levi ,and so I will raise my price this once and give you

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SOUTH AFRICAwhich they obtain fromthe usurer is handed-overto their creditors ; and they themselves are, not

better but, worse 03 than they were before . Theyprobably were paying no interes t on their previousdebts : but, when they mortgage their farms in

order to pay off pressing claims, they increase theirliabilitieswithout in any way irnproving their prospects.

It is but a brief respite which they thus gain , and the

end is inevitable ruin : whereas if the borrowed capitalwere inves ted in extending the scope of farming

less-sleet Operations, it undoubtedly would prove to be a

blessing . I t is often the case with a farm,where in

snflioicnt capital does not earn 0 that suficicntcapital wi ll earn 10 or even 15 Thetradesman glories in his credit . The more credithe can get, the more he will talk about it, and themore certain it is that he is getting on in his businessbut the farmer, who only borrows when he is deepin debt, is afraid of his neighbour knowing the condition of his affairs. Commercial and agriculturallendings are unequal yoke-fellows. Commercial lendingsmove faster than agricultural. It is (a) the lackof the commercial instinct, (b) the false pride, on thefarmer’s part, which preven t him fromborrowingmoney when he can make good use of it like thetradesman . The farmer en tirely fails to see that hisreal interest, as well as the interests of all with whomhe is connected, lies in the equipment and ex tensionof his business, and not in paying-off a debt whichhas been accumulating in driblets, for want of suflicient capital at the start, or for tiding over a bad

season . Indeed, for sheer futility, the last methodof procedure resembles the hopeless heartless taskof baling out a sinking ironclad with a teaspoon .

Other farmers of other coun tries have been con

fronted by similar difficulties. It is a phase throughwhich all industri es connected with the land must

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AGRICULTURAL CREDITpass, in order that experience may be gained . Ofcourse the price paid for such experience is a bitterone to those who have to pay it : but now-a-daysthere really is absolutely no occasion for it to be paid.

The difi culty has been experienced, the bitter priceof it paid, and the solution of the difficulty found,in Italy , Germany, France , and Belgium. Why thenneed South Africa hesitate for a moment about profiting by the experience of these older nationsFarmers’ difliculties have been solved by the os

tablishment of Agricultural Banks, which have doneines timable good . The real problemof AgriculturalCredit Banks resolves itself entirely into one of

security . At presen t, few farmers have any recogn ized security which themoneymarket would accept .If they had, such security could do its own borrowing .

As they have it not,most farmers continue to revolvein a viciouscircle, fromwhich they areunable to escape ;and they fall an easy prey in the web of the spiderusurer, whose sole and only object is to exhaust andruin them.

The farmers’ credit is of two kinds — (a) Mortgagecredit (b) Agricultural Credit . It is the latter whichreally concerns him. Mortgage on his farmis an en

cumbrance on dead land . If the farmer has neitherstock nor money for irnprovement and development ,a mortgage on his farmis insuflicient, and means a

high rate of interest . What the farmer really wants,and what alone is of the slightest good to him, is

money wherewith to construct dams, to level hisland, to buy implements and live stock , and to tidethrough the preliminaries and perhaps the first one or

two bad seasons. He perfectly knows that , if hecould get thismoney if he could feel the tremendousconfidence (which the mere command of moneygives ) at his back— he couldmake good use of it. Heperfectly knows that it would bring in double the

SOUTH AFRICAinterest required to pay the lender ; and that thebalance would be profit , much of which could be

applied to the extinction of the loan . But it is theutter hopelessn ess of obtaining this oil for the greasingof the wheels, that ismainly responsible for the degeneracy of the farming class. Farmers are onlymen and, beingmen , they have their feelings and,

when those feelings are bruised and blunted by thedisappointment which renders potentiality impoten t

,

naturally the facile descen t to Avernus begins.

Every other industry in the coun try is carried on

to a certain ex tent on borrowed capital or by join tstock companies. There seems to be no difficultyabout borrowing for commercial enterprises : but

the man , who wan ts to raise farmproduce , has no

means of borrowing upon real security, for he hasnone to offer. In this connection I will cite the ex

tremely pregnant Chinese proverb, which says, TheLand should be the greatest Borrower of the Nation .

”

A farmer, who has a floating cash credit-balance,

at once is in a position to make substan tial progressand profit . It is true that he is not able to tum-overhis capital ten or twen ty times a year, as a tradesmandoes ; but he can do so once, if not twice ; and hegenerally can make a far better return on the turnover than the tradesman , so long as he has sufficien tcapital at his command . But, when he is obligedto sell cattle or sheep or horses a few weeks beforethey are in a fit condition for selling or, when hehas suflicient pasture (as is the case in some seasons)for grazing double the number of cattle which hepossesses he is unable to do himself justice, eitherby retaining his stock fromthemarket un tilsuch timeas they be fit for selling at a profit, or by increasinghis stock in proportion to his pasturage , sirnplybecause he is Short of capital. This, and the factthat he has to buy in the dearest market and to sell

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l astssslss lsseby cashsullt se

SOUTH AFRICAauxiliaries breaking new ground . Their object is tomake the capital, which is available, also accessible, atcheap rates, to farmers. An Italian Bank offeredto find four-fifths of the capital required for startinga number of Agricultural Banks in the district . M .

Giraud, head of one of the local branches of the Bankof Fran ce, found. some years ag o, that (for want ofmoney) farmers were not turning their land to the

best account . He decided to lend money at 1

above the ordinary bank-rate to all farmers on

personal security . His offer was readily acceptedby the farmers, who promptly borrowed(say five and three-quar termillions sterling) . In this

transaction , he netted for his bank the additional1 % and put no less than amillion in the pocketsof the farmers.

It is impossible to state which, of the varioussystemsadopted on the Continent , would bemost suitable forSouth Africa, un til the systems and South Africanconditions both have been examinedmoreminutely .

It is a household saying in Germany that whoeversets up a Raffeisen Bank pulls down work-houses .

Speaking of Agricultural Credit Banks, M . Leon Say

They cause agricultural prosperity to develop with increasing energy .

’

M Rostand saysFreed fromusury, the farmers have regained courage and

confidence. They feel a love for and a pride in their humbleinstitution of Agricultural Banks.

”

Agricultural Banks combine , in a happy union ,

the Spirit of business with the sentiment of that trueand practical philanthropy which is abhorred by thederidable futility at present masquerading in the

guise of Charity . Give the South African farmer ,150

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT BANKS

who is in need of capital, a floating cash credit-account .He will deliver himself fromthe usurer : he will develop the resources of his farm he will dischargehis liabilities in an hones t and straightforwardmanner .

There is not, in Germany or Italy, a Single ease wherethe borrower has failed to meet his liabilitity to theAgri cultural Banks. In fact it is well-known thatbanksof allkindsseldomlose by cash credit on personal

The Report of the Lords and Commons Committeeon Banking in 1826 , contains the following

Any parson, who apphes to the bank for cash a edit is

called upon to produce two or more competent securities

who are jointly bound : and, after full enquiry into the

character of the applicant, the nature of his business, andthe sufi ciency of his securities, he is allowed to open a

credit account.

The Report of the same Committee further saysthat this systemhas great eflects upon themoral habits of

the people t because those, who are securities, feel an

interest in the watching over the conduct of the borrowers ;and, if they find that the borrowers are misconductingthemselves, they become apprehensive of being broughtinto risk and loss for havin g become their securities, and

Co-operation , in buying seeds,manures, implements, Asoslslss.

marketing the produce, etc. , undoubtedly would beof great benefit to the South African farmer . But the

attempt to establish such a system, (without first ofall establishing an Agricultural Credit Bank where thefarmer could obtain loans at a reasonable rate ofinteres t, ) would be quite imwssible of accomplishmen t ; and, where the banking systemis establishedand understood , there would be no difi culty aboutproviding capital for, or discounting the bills of,Agricultural Credit Banks.

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‘

I‘

vs sol-ts.

SOUTH AFRICAthe point of view of the sentimen talist , or of the

politician , or of the interested Land-Compan ies, or

of the speculators in agricultural and pastoral land ,but simply and solely fromthe point of view of thesettler.

The firstmatter for consideration is the suitability orunsuitability of South Africa for the English settler .

The second, is the class of settler which is suitableor unsuitable for South Afri ca .

It is agreed that the settler ought to be of Englishorigin and that be if possible , ought to be recruitedfromthe farming class in England . Now that classin England happens to be comparatively a small one,asmay be seen fromthe following statistics.

England

U. S. A

This Shows the proportion , of those engaged in

husbandry in England, to be actually four-anda-half times less that of France . Nevertheless,although this is but a limited class fromwhich to

draw settlers, I main tain that it is the only class inEngland which is capable of furn ishingmen likely tosucceed on the land in South Africa under presen tcircumstances.

During my investigation of affairs in South Afri ca ,

I visited several settlements which were being established. I regret my inability to say positively thatI met a single settler there who had been drawnfromthe limited class named above . Whether thosesettlers, whomI didmeet , came fromthe Employedclass at all, is a question in reference to which I

I 54

COLONIZATIONdo not care to express an opinion . Imerely trust that

However, there should be no difi culty in recruitingsuitable settlers, even fromour limited 10 if

thematter be undertaken in a business-like manner .

I cannot repeat too often that farmers, and those whounderstand farming , are not idealists but rigid realists.

Husbandry is a science and science takes nothing forgran ted . If the prospects of South African farmingare demonstrated, to desirable people in England, in a

plain unvarnished tale if the advantages, and thedisadvan tages, are explained i n an intelligiblemannerbymen whounderstand the conditionsof SouthAfricanfarming as well as the conditions of English farmingand English farmers then I deemit possible to recrui tsettlers in this coun try , who would succeed as farmers,who would prove a back-bone to South Africa and a

source of strength to her governments, thus fulfillingthe wishes of those in terested in her political welfare .

But not otherwise .

In inviting farmers to settle in South Africa, it is not

unimportant to remember that the English farmer is,not the bucolic oaf of the caricaturists but, a highlycivilized individual with all the abilities and tastesand habits of an Englishman . He, in fact , is likely tobe less indiflerent to the advantages of civilization ina strange land than in his Mother-country . The veryincompleteness of South Africa will accentuate thememory of all the every-day amenities which he hasleft-behind in England . The education of his children ,

and the society of congenial neighbours, will becomematters of ex treme importance to him. The idea, thatthe yeoman of England can be dumped-down on theveld of South Africa like oxen , may as well be dismissed forthwith . Due weight must be given to thedual aspect of the English farmer. Nor is it to beforgotten that the Englishman and the Boer are very

I 55

SOUTH AFRICAdiflerent in their ideas and habits. The life of theback-country Boer would be in tolerable to the averageEnglish farmer, who is accustomed to social intercourseand a considerably higher grade of civilization .

Further, I warn those misguided persons, who indiscriminately advise every Torn , Dick, and Harry , to

emigrate to South Afri ca, that (to be a successfulfarmer in any country) a man must have capital , aswell as practical experience of farming . Men withoutexperience are not going to succeed : neither is thepurely theoretical capitalist with desire for farminggoing to succeed . Knowledge is power , no doubt :but only the knowledge which is obtained , by observation and practice, fromthat continuous systemof

Becoming which we call Nature.South Africa wants settlerswho, at the very outset,

are in sympathy with her : who at once are able tograsp her conditions and disadvan tages, such as thediflerence of languages, the problems of native-labour ,drought, hail-storms, locusts, animal—diseases, etc .

She wants settlerswho carefully consider their liabilityto failure, before getting thoroughly established . Therisk naturally is great to those who attempt to farmwith insufi cient capital , or with too much borrowedcapital. A reserve of ex tra cash is absolutely nocessary, as protection against all possible risks of failurewhile one gains familiari ty with the new conditionswhich are necessary to be understood . I firmly believethat a desirable class of settlers can be had but Iknow thatmeans very different from those which arethe vogue must be adopted for recruiting them, as

well as very diflerentmethods of settling themon theland.

People on this side, aswell as in the new colonies, donot realize that the herding-together of inexperiencedimpecuniousEnglish emigrants, in settlements of a fewacres (not alwaysof the best land), is a sure and certain

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SOUTH AFRICAHome Farm, of 20 to 30 cottages, some Single and somedouble, where bachelors, and married men with their

families (selected in England) , could go on their arrival

in South Africa. Arrangements for these settlers to

be supplied with everything which they require, at a

reasonable price, during 9 to 12 months' stay on the

Home Farm. Provision to be made there of maps,particulars of every available farm in the colony ,

expert advice as to locality , values, general conditions

of land which settlersmi ght feel inclined to occupy , etc.

my am The merits of such a scheme as this are obvious.

“W” The Home Farmwould be of the greatest conveniencetomen who cannot afford ex tortionate hotels. Duringtheir stay, they would begin the process of acclimatization , and learn much of the new conditions in whichthey were to live and all this without deprivation of

the amenities of civilized life . Then , if (at the end of

9 to 12 months) they found that the coun try wasnot likely to suit them, they could return home,or go elsewhere, without having spen t all their capitalin an experiment which failed . Or, if they decidedto take a farmof their own , they might be supplied ,

(at a reasonable price , ) with stock, irnplements, building

-materials, and a hearty send-off, fromthe HomeFarm.

At present , a settler (who goes out at his own ex

pense) pays dearly for everything, while he is

looking for a farm he has great difficulty in gettingreliable in formation and advice ; and, when he issuited ,he has to pay extraordinary prices for the equipmen tof his farm.

WJ'w Hence in the interest of South Africa not less than

am..“a in the interest of would-be settlers, I amled to offer“M"these proposals.

South Africa has five colonies. Some of these havealready disposed of their best land . I have comparedthe various soils, herbage, and prices of farms, in all

these colonies.

I have also expressed an opinion as to the particular158

All ssllllss.

COLONIZATIONbranch of husbandry which I consider to be suitable(because possible and profitable) for the English

I have looked at the question of colonization fromthe settler’s point of View ; and, after carefully and

impartially weighing all the conditions of settlementon the land, I have not the slightest hesitation in saying that Rhodesia stands first and foremost in its prospeets for stock-farming the only farming industry, atpresen t sufi ciently proved, to warrant the embarkationof capital.Nevertheless, in saying this of Rhodesia, I wish it A

clearly to be understood that , under the existingchaotic inadequacy of the arrangements for dealingwith an imal-disease, neither Rhodesia nor any otherColony of South Africa is in a fit state for any sane

to invest money in stock .

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l ‘m .

SOUTH AFRICAinherited fromages of idle progenitors, but also as

undoubtedly nourished and fostered by the ridiculousineptitude of the treatmen t which they receive fromwell-meaning and fatuous white men . Few Kamrsare educated, in the modern intention of the word .

Many are eager to learn but their in tellectual capacityis singularly limited . And a little knowledge is a verydangerous thing . The worst class of natives which Iobserved in the coun try were those of the servile classwho had a smattering of education .

” This kindgenerally infest towns, where they receive high wages.

They are invariablyMpudent, insolent , independentin manner , improviden t , and quite unreliable . Theytell the white man what they think will please himapparently being quite unconscious of the sharp linewhich divides truth fromfalsehood . The Dutch havethe reputation of understanding the peculiar characteristics of these sons of Hambetter than anyone else .

The natives certainly understand the Dutchman and

Obey himaccordingly .

But I havemet very bright exceptions, even in theservile class of natives. I have met black men withmore than a mere smattering of education , who are

honest, reliable, and in every way in telligent . Theyare relatively few in number and I would not have itsupposed for onemoment that education alone hasbeen the means of differentiating themfromthe majority . The fact is, that they generally are to be found,not in the towns but, squatting on farms. I thinkthat is the secret of the whole matter . The native,with a whole ances try of barbaric progen itors, onlycan be pitch-forked headlong into the complexities ofmodern sophistication at the peril of the completeupset of his unsophisticate mind . The Kaflirs, of

whomI Speak as serving on the farms, get a gentlerintroduction to civilization . I forget how manygenerations it takes to make a gentleman out of an

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NATIVESEnglishman but I do know the catastrophical absurdity of attempting to make a Jeames ”

or even a

Hodge out of a blackman , who started in life as anaked howling savage in feather garters ! No : the

proper place for the native is the land, at least for thepresent . There he acquires the modern virtues indiges tible doses . He learns the dignity of labour . Helesrns the great lesson of obedience ; and as a rule isvery loyal to his Baas : which means that the Baascares for himand treats himas he (in common with allthe children of Nature) ought to be treated, i .e. withfirmness and with justice .Each native race has its own language or dialect . Lang.“The natives, who live in towns or on farms, SpeakDutch and generally a little English . The Zulutongue(which is a living tongue) is also, to the South Africanlanguages, what Latin is to European languages.

The wealth of natives chiefly consists of droves ofcattle, flocks of Sheep, tribes of goats, and asmanywives as eachman can buy. Their religious ideas arevery comprehensive . Some adopt various kinds of Mill“.Christianity : others practise the aboriginal worshipof ancestral or heroic spirits. Some bury their deadin regular cemeteries others in the dung of their cattle

There are no large native industries except agricul Industries.

ture on very primitive lines. The women are the

workers and themen , the drones. In some parts ofSouth Africa, they trade (exclusively among themselves) in native hoes and picks. These implementsaremade fromthe local iron-stone , which the nativesthemselves smelt . Some of their work is clever, shewing great ingenuity and technical Skill.Little or no community of ideasexists between the

whites and the blacks; therefore there isnot onlynosympathy, but very often a great deal of antipathy . Whitemen are averse fromcondescending to argue with black

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SOUTH AFRICA

men . Blackmen , on the other hand, often neglect toobey ; and this habit of disobedience together with a

general lack of intelligence , energy, and reliability ,

"mug .often compel the European to resort to physical coercion . It is notmy intention to afli rmthat the infliction of corporeal inconvenience is the rule. I merelynote it as the exception . The rule is, that very greatallowance ismade for the native’

s natural Shortcomings ; and that most white people treat themwithsingular consideration .

l en s! The white race in South Africa seems never to havepreserved or acquired the habit of performingmanuallabour on the land . Such occupation is deemed derogatory to European dign ity . This is the reason whyall the unskilled labour , agricultural and otherwise, isdone by aboriginals. The whiteman only will do whatthe blackman cannot do and, even then , he will not

move unless a barbarian attends at hisheels. In somecases, where a native has become wealthy, he employsa degenerate white man to work for him: but it is

notable that the latter always stipulates that his blackemployer shall call him Baas.

”

The question of native-labour , regarded fromthefarmer’s point of view, is one of vital interest . Undera sagacious and statesmanlike Native policy (whichshould be dictated by local conditions and framed bylocal authority unembarrassed by interference emanating fromthe Home Government) , there probablywould be no such thing as a Native Labour Ques

flf."m.

tion in South Africa . There is no doubt whateverbut that the native represents the rawmaterial fromwhich an indispensable asset could be fashioned . Hecomprises in himself unlimited opportun ities for

the cyclical conversion of food into muscle, muscleinto labour, labour into food, and so on , and so on .

To this end he requires apt and proper manipulation .

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SOUTH AFRICAYellow Labour at themines will liberate a

uquantity ofBlack Labour for agriculture .

The South African native really and truly is the onlysource of Labour for the South Afri can farmer .

There are 8} millions of him, living in peaceunder English rule . Not all of these 8} millionsare employed . England has adopted a policywhich prohibits the slavery of the black male, and

encourages the slavery of the black female. That isthe kernel of the whole matter in an open nutshell.The native wants little, except to be left in his bestial

im a. idleness. His women (when he possesses such commodities ) labour to produce hismeans of sustenan ce .

Natives only work, in themines or elsewhere, in orderto procure such a mode of life as this. Those , whohave acquired European habits and a taste for the

lesslvss necessities of civilised life, find it absolutely necessaryto work in order to satisfy their wants. But these arethe greatminority . Kaflirs of this kindmay be compared to a drove of cattle , which (in summer when themeadow-grass is plentiful) , never looks toward theshedding where the winter-fodder is served : but (inwinter when the pasture fails) bellows and flocks tothat point in the field which is nearest to the sheddingand the food . No English farm-labourer can be idlefor a week without feeling the pinch . But the Kafi r ,

in his aboriginal state, requires little beyond the produce of the land which his females till for him. Hehas no actual need to work, being only a very little

As splelsa.

’ higher than brute beasts in tastes and habits. Therefore I think that two sentiments shouldmove Englandto cause the South African native to change his ways.

The first is the sentiment of chivalry, which, under noconceivable circumstances can coun tenance voluntaryfemale slavery . The second is contained in the aphorism If aman will not work neither shall he eat.

”

The Kafli r must be made to think that he ought to16 6

NATIVEShave this or that in order to become a personage ; andhe will work for themeans to buy it says the PallM211Gazette.

The people of South Afri ca are confronted by thevery difi cult task of educating the people of Englandinto a proper appreciation and understanding of theSouthAfrican native. When England knows, no nationpossibly can make a better or more practical use ofknowledge but it takesa very long time and an infinityof pains to make Her know. A most remarkableignorance at pres ent is exhibited by England in con

nection with this burn ing question . Experience gainedduring the last Campaign , the personal acquain

tan ce of hundreds of thousands of Englishmen withSouth Africa and its population white and black, oughtto have dispelled the mists ofmany delusions. But

such is not the case . England knows that the nativemakes no objection to working for the military but

She does not know at least , She does not realize , yet ,why ? The native , in fact, was over-paid, over-fed,potted and pampered beyond all reason . Naturally,he took all he could get and naturally, he now asksfor , expects, and demands, more . Juvenile ofi cers,

who had no experience in dealing with barbarians, orany other vitalmatter, (not to put too fine a point uponthe fact , ) thought the native a very amusing fellowdescri bed himin letters home as being not at all a badsort of blighter . They proclaimed their astoundingdiscovery that the native did not seemto care a bitabout therain (as though any onedoes in South Africa!)that he was a splendidman to look after horses or todrivemules that he could handle a whip , and use itwith a vengeance, that, in fact he wasa very good classofman all round and that it was an abominable thingthat he should be so infernally badly treated as he wasby people who did not understand himas the writersdid. Let it not be thought that I amgibing at the

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SOUTH AFRICA

good feeling and exuberant philanthropy which inspired these dithyrambics. I Simply say that I lookupon the matter fromanother poin t of view ; and Itotally disagree fromthem. There has been somuchwriting, of the style which I have described above, andsomany rose-coloured stories told of the nobility (an dall the rest of the virtues) of the South African barbari an , that great harmhas been done by confusing theIdeal with the Real . The Ideal , I hope , has had itsday. The hour for the revealing of the Real is yet tocome . The time is not ripe . Something remainsto be done . The first thing is to inspire the native witha true conception of his actual position . That willtake time . The native will not easily forget that, onlya little while ago, he was a pet in receipt of four Shil

a lulssl lings a day , while Tommy Atkinswas a hero in receiptof one shilling a day . Which is absurd .

Deliberate mendacity in many, ign orance in more,fatuous stupidity in most cases, have augmented theevil fromwhich the whole white population of SouthAfrica is suflering . The late Campaign by nomeanshas improved the native . It has put back the clockof his civilisation by a decade . It has nearly ruined

As sslslss.him. This native question ought to be placed fairlyand squarely before England : for, to continue to champion insolent indolence, Simply because it happens tobe black, is ethically wrong , and nationally cruel to

industrious intelligence which happens to be white.

This is certain . If there be much more parishpump and platitude interference by England withSouth Africa’

s administration of her natives, everywhiteman in that country will combine tomake BlackLabour the question of the day . It will be the one

question above all questions which will place ImperialRule in South Africa in the balance . The colonial,the new-comer , the Dutchman , are all of onemind inthismatter . The workers will not tolerate the drones

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The Boer

HE Boers are products of evolution . Theiroriginal ancestors landed in South Africa from

the Netherlands in 1652 . Since then, a continual influx

of English, French, Germans, and other nationalitieshas taken place . Intermarriage, of these with theDutch, involved surrender of customs, habits, language,and religion . The conditions of life in the country alsohave done much to fuse and weld and blend theseheterogeneous particulars into an homogeneous wholeand this is the Boer Race, the Dutch of South Africa ,

which, however, has in reality but few of the characteristics of the Dutch ofmodern Europe .

The Dutch may be roughly divided into two sec

tions

( a) those who are loyal and have remained loyal to the English

(6 ) those who never have been loyal , and who (probably)have no intention ever of being loyal to the same

But, since the Transvaal and the Orange RiverColony have been added to the Empire, it is only fairto consider their inhabitants as being , equally with us,subjects of the King’s Maj esty . The hatchet has beenburied, it is to be hoped , for ever . All that remainsto be done is to improve the acquaintance of our newfellow-subjects. Hence it is the farmers in particular ,and the Boers throughout South Africa in general, whoformthe subject of these present pages.

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spselss.

SOUTH AFRICA

Much hasbeen written andmuch has been said aboutthe Boers. It would have been better for the coun try’swelfare, if tongues had been Silent and pens still.

There has been toomuch of a tendency to compare Boervices and defects with English virtues and gifts and

not sufficient justice to give the other side of the picture .

Prl-ltlvs. Generally speaking, the Boers are essen tially primitive, pastoral, patriarchal , in their ways and in theircharacter . I suppose it will be argued that this description is incorrect because of the notorious slimness of the Boer, which is not usually associated withthe patri archal , the pastoral , or the primitive . But

the primitive pastoral patriarch Abrahamwas slimin that he lied (Genesis xii . xx . ) and the primitivepastoral patriarch Isaac was slim in that he lied(Genesis xxvi . ) and the primitive pastoral patriarchJacob was slim in that he cheated (Genesis xxvi i .xxx ) . Therefore, itmay be inferred that slimnessis not incompatible with primitive pastoral patriarchality, either in the case of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, orin the case of the Boers of South Africa . The fact isthat every human being is slim more or less in his

Why tbs The slimness of the Boers is due tomany causeschiefly, I believe , to the ignorance which is born of

isolation . The Boers will not live in cities. Community life has no charmfor them. Only for thepurpose of attending religious services will they con

descend to join house to house in their dorps. Theylive asmuch aspossible alone and independen tly. Thehabit of solitude (if Imay adapt the words of RobertLouisStevenson ) tends to perpetuate itself and a quiteunconsciousausterity, and a pride (which seems to bearrogance andmost likely ischiefly shyness) discouragesand offends those who fain would be companions.

Enclosed within the walls of his own personality, theindividuality of the Boer broods in a kosmos of its

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SOUTH AFRICATheir religion certainly partakes more of the OldTestament character than of the New ; and, althoughthey believe and accept the latter, it is the formerwhich they follow and practise in every-day life .It is easy to condemn these simple and (in many

cases) ignorant people. It is easy to condemn themas stock-farmers, or as cultivators of the soil. It iseasy ; butunsafe . There aresermons in stones. Everykopj e and every expanse of veld tell the story of theevolution of the Boer character. Wherever the coun tryrock out-crops, there an intelligent and sympatheticobservermay read Nature’s bald concise summary of

the history of South African farming the past history ,certainly ; and, almost as certainly, the history of thefuture . As an agriculturist , the Boer is what thecoun try has made him. The soil is indifferen t : it

has made himan indiflerent farmer . He has triedenergy : the soil has failed to abet , and the climatehas nullified , his efforts. He has adapted himself tohis limitations ; and has become what he is, under theinflexible operation of natural laws. But he has

learnedmuch of positive value . He isan ideal pioneer .

He has a natural eye for coun try . He is a bornselector .

” He is an adept agricultural prospector .

There are, I understand, mineral-prospectors who

almost can be said to have the power of smelling-out apay

-reef. The Boer possesses a similar faculty forthe discovery of alluvial soil-deposits. These, asa rule,are small in number , limited in area and they are

widely scattered . But the Boer has found them. Heis the agricultural Autolycus, a snapper-up of un

considered trifles.

” Having found these valuablespaces, he has appropriated themto himself. Now heowns them and betrays no disposition whatever topart with them. The Englishman has come into thecountry in search of gold and diamonds. To him, theBoer has sold his agriculturally worthless tracts of

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Rm .

THE BOERveld, for gold and scrip . With these proceeds, he notunfrequen tly has entrenched himself in some distantspot which has even greater agricultural possibilities.

And thus the Boer of today owns those portions of

our newly acquired Colonies which are the permanentsource of the wealth-producing power of both theTransvaal and Orange River Colony .

The former Boer republics, while jealously guardingtheir land, customs, and institutions, invariably welcomed new-comers, nomatter whence they came , whoshowed a disposition to settle on the land . A few of

them, Englishmen or Scotsmen , still remain but themajority were satisfied with the experience of a few

years of South African farming . That experience wasoften a bitter one. The faithful remnant which clungto the land , sooner or later assimilated their systemof farming to that of the Boers, simply fromforce of

circumstances and they achieved a certainmeasure ofsuccess. Further , they themselves, gradually and

perhaps subconsciously , have acquired the Boer Spirit .Soil, climate, environment , have combined to shape andmould this adaptable material, un til in effect it hasbecome part and parcel of the Boer nation . I have notnoted similar adaptability on the part of the aboriginalBoer . I have not observed a single case where the Boerhasdiscarded completely hissystemof farming,mode ofliving, or any other of his tradi tional characteristics,in favour of a different one, not even when such difference would have been profitable . Yet, as a farmer, Iconsider the Boer to be a fairly in telligent man . Hecertamcompares very favourably with other nationalities in out-of-the-way districts, even in England,Wales, and Scotland while he is far ahead of the Irishtenant-farmer . But the Boer is not an agriculturistpure and simple . The basic condi tions of the soil isthe element of compulsion , which has forced himtoadopt a pastoral occupation .

I7S

rllldlty.

A es.

SOUTH AFRICAAs compared with other coun tries which have beenpeopled by Europeans, South Africa is an old settlement . The Dutch settled in the coun try in 1652 .

Canada had a settlement in 1608 ; New Zealan d in1773 ; Australia in 1788 . These latter colonies, al

though established many years after the Colon ies of

South Africa , have made immeasurably greater progress, not only in agriculture, but, in every otherindustry .

No better colonists ever left European shores thansome of the Dutch , and the Huguenots who followedthem to South Africa . They were sound practicalbrave and determinedmen . One would have expectedthemtomake enormous headway . Yet their progress,asmeasured by the progress of colonists in other partsof the world, has been little short of contemptible . Ifthe samemen had emigrated to Canada, New Zealand,or Australia, is it not possible that their progres s inthose landswould have beenmuch greater I believethat it would have been verymuch greater . And I alsobelieve that the original settlers in Canada, New Zea

land , and Australia, never would have done in SouthAfrica what they have done in Canada , New Zealandand Australia. The fundamental fact of the situationlies in what I already have said about the soil, climate,and physical configuration of South Africa . It is thisirresistible combination of antagonistic forces whichhasmoulded the character and disposition of the Boer,and governs all farming operations of South Africa.

It will mould allmen who come under its influence.Nevertheless, progress in husbandry is possible . Itwill be Slow . Farmersmust learn to help themselvesand not to trust to circumstances. In some respects,the so-called unprogressiveness of the Boer may beascribed to the presence of noxious insects, and to theprevalence of peculiar diseases. It is conceivable that,during two years out of every three, a chemical blight

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SOUTH AFRICAhe will not hesitate about changing the old order forthe new . Although slow in his nature , he has immensevitality . So strong and powerful a frame as his is notto be seen in many coun tries. His patriotism is

undeniable his code of honour well, perhaps that(at present) is peculiar . He is great at arguments ;and, when facts go against him, it is the facts whichsufler .

Hismost striking feature is his hospitality and his

strong redeeming point is that he harbours no revengeful feelings. He is a very handy man . I have seenhimmake his own saddlery and boots,make and burnhis own bricks, act as his own carpenter, and build hisown house . He shoes his own bullocks in a rough butdistinctly clever style . Andhiswifemakes his clothes.

The wantsof the Boer are few and simple in comparisonwith those of an English settler . Themore one seesof the old-fashioned Boer, following his ordinaryevery-day life the more one studies his methods,primitive though thesemay be themore closely onecomes in touch with his character, his patience , his loveof solitude, hishospitality, hisself-reliance , hishopelessresignation to what he considers to be Heaven ’

sWill ,somuch themore complete and substantial becomes

the appreciation of the new-comer for the sterlingqualitiesof thissomewhat strange product of the SouthAfrican veld . The Boer is a part of the land . He isattached to it, to the land, a land, not any particularland . His attachment does not Spring fromold assoelation for he has been so accustomed tomove-about,trekking to fresh woods and pastures new.

”But his

attachment to the land is associated with the politicalpower which he derives fromits possession . His life ,on the veld as a stock-farmer , inclines himto go

-on

for ever in the same old lonely furrow, to contemn new

methods connected with farming, or with personaladvancemen t . But as thingsmove-on , sowill the Boer

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THE BOER

move-on . He does not believe in what he cannot see.

Tomake himseewhat is to hisadvantage, is the task ofthose who are interested-in , or responsible-for, thepeople and the future of South Africa .

Yes . The Boer iswellworth watching . Indeed, heneeds watching — in more senses than one and all

the time .

I7O

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SOUTH AFRICAirregular in volume , varying fromfoaming spate inthe wet season to rippling rivulet in the dry, usefulirrigation works have been erected on some of themandmuchmore could be done by judicious expenditure .

The river-valleys are very fertile ; and, where systematic irrigation is instituted, the price of land has goneup froma few Shillings to anything between £20 and

£100 an acre . There is a very fine irrigation schemecarried out on the Gambos. As the demand for irrigatedland is on the increase, it is to the great advantag e ofspeculators and investors to turn their attention tothe possibilities here indicated .

The low coun try , or seaboard, of Cape Colony differsinmany respects fromthe interior . Rains fall copiouslyin winter while the summermonthsare comparativelydry .

Itssl eet se This belt ismarked by the peculiarity of its vegetation , as well as by the character of its inhabitants.

The former naturally is affected by the sea-breeze, themaritime climate , and the lower situation . The latteraremore urban and nautical than agricultural in theirpursuits. Both whites and natives exhibit a muchgreater admix ture of race than is notable among theinhabitan ts of the in terior .

Or

Oeleey The Englishman has not taken-root in the coun try ,

as the Dutchman has. Great numbers of the moreenergetic of the settlers, from1820 to the present,always have tended to dri ft into some trade or pro

fession . The less energetic and enterprizing , originalsettlers and their descendan ts, have remained on theland in the Eastern Districts. They are very worthypeople , quiet, simple, and passionately loyal . But in

the struggle for life they use the methods of the lastcentury . Still, there are some notable exceptions tothat rule and among these I will nameMr. Southeyof Culmstock , Mr. Arthur Douglas the founder ofOstri ch-Farming , andMr . Hilton Barber. There are

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CAPE COLONYalsomany others, all keenmodernmen of the twentiethcen tury . The more old-fashioned farmers sometimessuccumb to the temptation to let their lands to nativetenants. On their rents, they live in inglorious easein Grahamstown or eastern village-towns. The bestof those, who continue to farmtheir own acres, occupythe highlands fromEast Griqualand north-west tothe Northern frontier . They are almost exclusivelystock-farmers. Down in the south-east of the Colony,itmust be admitted that Nature seems to be in imicalto the white man . That is why things seemto slipback to the systemof native occupation . The coun try “ Pd "is not a wheat country. It is amealie country. And

that puts the case in a single husk .

The fines t farmers are the greatmidland wool and The l a st

mohair-farmers. A line fromCradock to Port Elizabeth strikes their country . They are chiefly Dutchbut, as a class, they are far in advance of the merestock-raiserswhomI observed in the Boer Colonies. Itgoes without saying that aman must have commandof capital, and must be possessed of considerabletechnicalknowledge , before he can become a successfulwool and mohair-farmer . Most of these men are

undoubtedly rich .

The Karoo sheep-farmers are not so wealthy : but, KW 0500!

strange as itmay seem, sheep thrive better among thedry Karoo bush than on succulen t grass. Cape Colonydoes a great export trade in wool andmohair . I wassurprised to find, in the London Market, that the priceof Cape wool wasmuch lower than that of Australianand other wool. Fromexpert replies tomy inquiries,I was told that some of the Capewool was excellen t andequal to any wool grown elsewhere but that the packing and the grading of it left verymuch to be desired .

Now South Africa never hashad a good reputation foritswool. Some of the farmers Shear every sixmonthssome, every ninemonths others, every twelvemonths.

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Newsystem

SOUTH AFRICAIt is by nomeans uncommon to find, in the bales on

sale in London , three or four different classes of one

quality, short wool, long wool, clean wool, clips ofwool full of dust and sand and weeds, all mix ed uptogether. Is it conceivable that any buyer requiresor can use a picturesque galliman fry of this kind ?It is worth no one’s while to purchase South Africanwool at a good price under thes e condi tions becauseof the extra trouble and expense entailed in sorting andclassifying . The buyer of a bale of South African wool

probably can use only one of the four different qualitiesof the woolwhich it contains. Let ussay that he takesthe long staple wool. Then he has to find a buyer forthe short clean wool and another for the long dirtywool ; and yet another for the Short dirty wool. And

then the sorting has to be done by Skilled hands.

Naturally the London buyer of Cape wool pays a low

price . The small dealers in wool in Cape Colony buydirect fromthe farmers, at a price which leaves amargin for them. They lump their purchases in to suchbalesas I have described and, when these are offeredfor sale in London , they do infinite damage to the

better-class farmerswho have graded and packed theirwool with proper care . South African farmers woulddo well to give their individual atten tion to thismatter .

They need not be ashamed to take a lesson fromAustralia in regard to the grading and packing oftheir wool. Let the farmers of each district combin e .Let each combination procure a wool-sorter or graderwho is thoroughly up to his work . Their wool wouldattract greater attention , and produce a better price,for the Merino-Sheep, which produce the wool in SouthAfrica, are as fine as any Sheep of their kind in theworld . All the above remarks are to be taken as

applying tomohair-goats as well as tomerino-Sheep .

The West (Paarl andWorcester ) is one vast garden .

Here, thewine-farmersare beginning to pay attention to184

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eels-tile

s ssssss 0'

SOUTH AFRICAbecome lighter year by year ; except in a few rare

instances, where the farmer scientifically main tainsthe fertility of the soil. The general rule, however , isthat the cropping period is getting Shorter and theresting period longer . Almost all the crops are soldofl the farmevery year ; only in very special cases isanything brought back to the soil. The real agricultural value of land in the Western Provincemustbemuch les s than it was twenty or thirty years agowhile its presen t market-value is greatly increased .

These facts poin t to an inevitable conclusion — Thefarmers have been , and are, living on their capital,i .e. the inherent properties of the soil. Wheat-culturewould be impossible under this systemof farming ifit were not for the Protective Tariff of 43. 6d. a hundredpounds, equal to 203. a quarter. Farms vary both insize and quality. It would be difi cult to buy one in

this province at anything like its intrinsic value.Fruit is the staple industry of the Paarl and Stellenbosch divisions. The late Cecil Rhodes successfullyestablished several fruit-farms and vine yards. I havenot seen the quality of their produce equalled elsewhere in Cape Colony ; and their systemand generalmanagement leaves nothing to be des ired . A greatoutlay of capital was requisite for the establishmen tof thes e farms but the investment should prove profitable . Many experiments had to bemade for the proving of certain theories, and the disproving of others.

The neighbouring fruit-farmers have the benefit ofthese experiments, which were carried out, as it were ,

at their very doors. Land, which would be consideredunreasonably dear for agriculture or stock-farming ,

would be cheap at the price for fruit-culture . Thereis in England an increasing demand for Cape fruit . Thismarket, if it be judiciously nursed, should prove a greatsource of revenue to Cape farmers. Tomen who wishto settle on the land in Cape Colony, scientific fruit

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CAPE COLONYculture ofiers themost favourable prospect or at anyrate as favourable a prospect as any other farming industry . Capital of two or three-hundred poundswould A-eeet stgive aman a fair start and, with ordinary luck, considerable headway could bemade . I wish to limit thisopinion to the frui t-district of Cape Colony, whereclimate , soil, and rainfall are suitable to such an in

dustry .

The Eastern Province of Cape Colony has a varietyof soils. The farmers are inspired by very progressiveideas. This is not strange considering that many ofthemare des cended fromthe original settlers of 1820.

In the north-east district, it is chiefly pastoral. Ex

cept in the valleys, the soil is very sandy, and, therefore, unsuitable for cultivation . Toward Queenstown ,

the cultivated areas aremuch larger than elsewhere,and the stock of a higher grade resulting fromcarefulbreeding and judicious crossing . In winter , stock is steer.

well provided with forage , which is grown under irrigation . The soil is good , and suitable for irrigation ;but water is very scarce . The grass improves towardsthe north . Some distri cts, such as Woodhouse and

Barkly East , have a higher elevation above sea-leveland, consequently, their climate is much colder .

Root-crops grow well nearly all the cereals are grown a.“ “ 4

without irri gation . Angora goatsare a notable featurein the stock of this province they do remarkably wellinmost districts.

There aremany farms, especially along the easternboundary (Griqualand and New England) , whichwould be advan tag eous for English settlers. Suchemigran ts would feelmore homelike here, surrounded(as they would be) by English neighbours and theirgeneral knowledge of farming would be more usefulto themthan in other partsof the colony . Farms vary Mess e!in price, aswell as in size andquality . Owners of goodfarms will not part with themexcept at long prices.

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Releet

SOUTH AFRICAThe average price is £2 £5 an acre ; but irrigated landcosts £10 and upward , an acre : while dry and

scrubby veld goes begging at 53.- 103. an acre . The

land varies fromarid plains to most fertile valleystherefore it is not possible to quote an average price .

Each farmmust be estimated on its ownmerits.

The Midlands of Cape Colony includes every kind ofland, fromdry Karoo to rich pasturage, fromlow

valleys to high moun tains. There are few districtswhere cereals will grow without irrigation . Most ofthe rivers are torrential ; and the conservation of theirwaters is expensive . Some few progressive farmers,however , have succeeded in bridling the torrents intheir land : consequently they reap rich harvests.

The Midland farms being most suitable for stock ,

the farmers chiefly engage in that bran ch of farming .

Agri culture is pursued more for home-consumptionthan for themarket .The ordinary soil is red, rather light in colour,

and much of it is unsuitable for vegetation .

Poisonous plants are numerous one called Stinkblaar isvery common . The land surface ismuch brokenand, in some parts, very stony.

The Graaf Reinet district is noted for its oat-hay ,

which undoubtedly is the best produced in SouthAfrica. Here, the farmers are men of substance ,owning large flocks and herds. The Sneewberg Rang ein this vicinity affords excellent grazing for stock, andis fairly free fromdisease .

The Prickly Pear , a most objectionable shrub, isSpreading in an alarmingmanner all over the country .

It is especially prolific near the coast . Baboons and

jackals also are very troublesome. It is no uncommonthing to see a shrewdness of 100 200 baboons on themountain sides. At night, they descend and do greatdamage to the crops. Jackalsalsocauseseri ouslossestothe farmers, killing hundreds, nay thousands, of lambs

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SOUTH AFRICAwhile the weeds, which took the place of the dead grass,

n o Keree. The Karoo, usually divided into Southern , Cen tre,and Northern , is an enormous tract of uninterestingcountry, barren mountains, riverless channels and

excessive aridity . It bears a variety of succulentplan ts and bushes and prickly Shrubs : but no grassand no trees. It is intersected by ironstone kofies,

which reflect the sun ’

sheat in amost amazingmann er.

It would be diflicult to imagine amore desert-lookingcoun try , especially during drought and scorching heatyet a few days of rai n will transformit into a veritableflower-garden , giving pasture to millions of sheep,which travel formiles fromthe homestead in search offood . But so agreeable a change seldomcomes and

is of but short duration . The Karoo is a feast-orfamine country for stock ; and famine is the rule.It is difficult to quote an average of the prices of

Karoo farms, owing to the uncertain distribution ofoil-tau. water. But the soil of this arid province can be classed

amongst the richest in South Africa and, where thereis water, it has unequalled fertility and reproductivepower . The air isunsurpassable in its clear brilliancy .

The winters are dry : the days being warm, and thenights cold, with the thermometer often falling belowfreezing point . As the stock-carrying capability ofthe land is small, the farms naturally are very large.

The Districts of Beaufort West and Victoria exhibitsome fine flocks of Sheep . The newcomer finds it hardto realize that people live in happiness and comfort onthe lonely expanses of the Karoo and he isstillmoreastounded when he hears the inhabitants declare thatthey would not exchange their bush-land for the finestgrass-distri ct in the country . For the Karoo farmersare passionately enamoured of their landscape , their

Alga

l?“ shrubs, and their lonely life . Theirs is an acquiredtaste and, like all acquired tastes, it is immutable .

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A "less!

CAPE COLONYA single life-timewould hardly sufi ce for itsacquisitionbut when it is inheri ted and also cultivated, it becomescharacteristic and habitual .

The North-western province of Cape Colony in

eludes a large and varied area. The soil is dry and

generally poor. The rain-fall isuncertain . Mr . E . G .

Alston , a practical farmer in the Carnarvon district,has been successful in cultivating the Australian saltbush, amost valuable drought-resisting shrub . self-sees.

Nothing of any importance, however , can be donein this province, without irrigation and without betterfacilities for transport . AS things are at present , itis not profitable to grow cereals of any kind except forlocal consumption . Many suitable sites for irrigationworks exist and will continue merely to exist , untilindividual enterprize exploits their possibilities. Withreference to the question of transport the followinginstructive incident merits consideration . A certainag ri culturist in the Calvina district , had found himselfunable to dispose of his produce. During the War ,

a column ,under ColonelHaig, came into the neighbourhood, engag ed ln clearing the country of all grain ,

fodder, etc. , which could be found in store . On thefarmof which I speak, they found the accumulatedproduce of nine years. When asked why he hadboarded so enormous a quantity of wheat , the farmerresponded that he could not sell it , because there wasno demand for it in that locali ty and that to transport it to the nearest town or railway station wouldcostmore than themarket-value of the grainThe North-wes tern district holdsout little or no hope Al"il ln

for the English settler . A life-long experience is

necessary to study the natural conditions ; and to

become habituated to the feast-or-famine vicissi

tudes of agri culture and pasturagewhich are characteristic of the country . At themoment of writing, I findmy Opinion corroborated in the following cable from

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SOUTH AFRICAthe Standard

’

3 corres pondent in South AfricaF lochs destroyed by drought in Cape Colony .

According to a Capetown telegramto the Standard the

drought is so acute that, in the north-west of the colony ,

sheep and goats are dying by thousands. The drought hasprevailed for two years and one farmer, who had

sheep, now has fewer than 300. Another has lost 1 ,500,

all he posses sed. There are no oxen left. There is nomilkand the mutton is practically uneatable. I t is generallybelieved that, if no rain falls by themiddle of thismonth(Oct. famine will be rife, and the Government willhave to supply food-stufls to the starving population .

Now it is in this very district that a gentleman , of a

fewmonths’ experience in the coun try, has bought alarge tract of land for Sheep and cattle-farming. I twas his opinion that droughts, andother Similar eccentri cities of Nature , were either mythical or negligible .

Needless to say, his proceedings under existent circumstances formthe subject of interested observation .

Heed-wear. Large areas of Cape Colony are infected with Heartwater ; and have become absolutely useless for

sheep and cattle . These infected areas are spreadingat a rapid pace . It behoves the Government to takeactive and immediatemeasures to counteract the pes tfor the farmersare in terror les t their land should becomeinfected .

Cape Colony certainly can boast of possessing a

competent government department of Agri culture .

It has an experimental wine-farmat Constantia an

agricultural farmwith competent staff at Stellenbosch an excellent entomologist and bacteriologista fish-hatchery a forest-departmen t , with severalnurseries and a practical veterinary departmentunderMr .Hutcheon , than whomthere is noman , in all SouthAfrica,more capable of dealing with the problemof

animal-diseasesalluded to above . I have studiedmanyof his reports and recommendations. The adoption ofthese would give the country a chance . But I regretto say thatMr . Hutcheon is not supported by his

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Aim

SOUTH AFRICAOur shows are consideredmore fromthe general public '

s

point of view than fromthe Breeders’

. I f the public sees abig beast he must be better than a smaller or a youn gerbeast. So the judges go a litfl e out of the way in order to

please the public. Indeed, sometimes a good fancy colouralone will receive a prize .

"

My informant , no doubt, either was ignorant of thefacts or he deliberately was joking . At the same time ,Imust say that I learned nothing frommy visit to theShow . Good poin ts, in one class of cattle, werepassed-over entirely in another. Without desiringto claiminfallibility for my judgment , I can only saythat , had I been judging, I should have selected someof the rej ected cattle for prizes. They displayed poin tswhich no English breeder could possibly neglect . Iamnot an expert judge of horses ; and, therefore, Iamnot able to comment on themerits or demerits of

the awards in this division . But I main tain that , atall Agricultural Shows, the judges ought clearly todefine those points on which they base their variousdecisions. The many Agricultural Shows, which are

held in South Africa, should be held for the benefit ofSouth Africa, that is to say for the farmers of SouthAfrica , the class exclusively an d vitally concerned ;and they should not be held for themere amusementof the uninterested a nd inexpert public . An agricultural show ought to be an uniqueand splendid opportunity for the young farmer to acquire knowledge, orto improve what he already has acquired . To this endit is necessary that none but competent judgesshouldbe appointed . The presen t systemdoesmore harmthan good : in that it discourages really experiencedbreeders fromentering in to the competition .

Railway-rates are ex tremely high . The Government works the railway at a profit of 50% above working cost . Half the revenue of the Colony is derivedfromthis source. At the same time, many privileges

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CAPE COLONYare granted to farmers, of which the followingmay becited as examples. Live stock, produce , andmanures,are carried at a special rate and the Government willsupply artificial manure to all farmers in the Colonyat cost-price .Taking one thing with another, theremay bemany

worse places for the English settler than Cape Colony ,when land can be bought for a reasonable price, whichprobably will be the case in a year or two.

But itmust never be forgotten that success depends thed: ti l-pon thes e six things in combination : (1 ) Price of land(2) Supply of labour (3) Capital (4) Energy (5)Experience (6 ) Adaptability to Circumstances, or

Ability to seize Opportunities and to make Use ofNatural Conditions.

h m .

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SOUTH AFRICA

The fourth terrace , which is a little wider than thethird, ascends to about feet . And the fifthterrace has an elevation of about feet aboveses . level. This is the base of the Drakensbergmountains, which here soar in flat-topped kopies and peaks,boldly standing out against the sky and definin g theWes tern frontier of Natal . This range is of immenseutility to the land in its vicinity, in that it forms a

barrier which checks the moisture-laden clouds fromthe Indian Ocean , and eauses the dispersal of theirburden on the thirsty soil. But the Drakensberg alsoacts as a watershed . The rains which descend uponthes e moun tains, formcontinuous streams across theColony of Natal fromitsWestern boundary to the sea .

The benefit of this phenomena to the fertile valleysis not paralleled elsewhere in South Africa . Natal ,therefore , has many rivers, the chief of whichare the Tugela, Illovo, Umgeni , Umzunkulu, Umlass,with innumerable tributaries of permanent rivers and

streams. Owing to the geological formation of the

coun try in a series of step-like terraces, only one or

two of these rivers are navigable for a fewmiles fromthe coast .Like the res t of South Africa , Natal has large areas

of granite rocks and soil. The railway fromthe coastto the interior, passes through hugemountains of greygranite studded withmasses and boulders of enormoussize. Further inland, and forming an actual part ofthe Drakensberg range , there are to be seen greathorizontal sandstone beds in the shape of flat-toppedmountains, a very characteristic feature of SouthAfrican scenery . These are pierced and intersectedby greenstone (trap) and metamorphic rocks at fre

quent intervals. The decomposition of the greenstoneproduces some of the richest soils.

A notable feature of the geological formation is theboulder-clay, a bluish-grey argillaceousmass in which

198

are embedded variously sized fragments of greenstone,gran ite, slate, quartz and other rocks. Dr . Sutherlandhasmade a very interesting study of this conglomerate,tracing it formiles on the flanks of the red-sandstonehills, fromthe Tugela through the Beira range to

Limestone seldomismet-with except in the shape of “a; aUn a b l e.

The soil isgenerally deficient in lime and phosphatesbut, owing to the great variety of rocks, there are veryfew sterile areas in Natal .

Artificial liming has been tried ; and the resultswere not as satisfactory as had been expected .

The grasses are very valuable . Both sweet grassand sour are to be found but the former predominates.

V‘mIts growth is generally thick and it ismuch heavierhere than in other parts of South Africa . In the earlysummer, after the first rains, the grasses are intenselygreen and pres ent an aspect ofmost bri llian t verdure.They pres erve their bright viridity, especially on the

lower terraces, much longer than the grasses of otherColonies. Those of the higher terraces have the usualcharacteristics of South African grasses. They are

of a dusky brown hue during the wintermonths ; andthey are not very nutritious : but , when the rains fall,they very quickly change their sober garb for green ,

enlivened and bes tudded everywhere with flowers.

The ill-effects of over-stocking may be noted inmany parts of Natal . The indigenous grasses havingbeenmuch damaged thereby, some farmers have sownimported grasses , which seemto be doing better in thiscolony than elsewhere, owing, no doubt , to the greaterrainfall and humidity of the climate.There is some valuable timber but not an unlimited

supply. The forests chiefly lie along the slopes of theDrakensbergMts. Stinkwood, Mahogany, Iron-wood ,and Sneeze-wood , are indigenous trees of the country.

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SOUTH AFRICAThey are valuable for fence posts, house , wagon and

Every variety of fruit is grown most successfully .

Bananas formthe staple produce ; and, for these, aswell asa growing market in theTransvaal, there also

The climate is ex tremely varied . The naturalsystemof terraces produces a grea t variety of

At the coast , the heat is tr0pieal andmoist . Thosewho have visited Durban in December must haveexperienced its oppressive eflect— the only drawbackto what (otherwise) is the most delightful of SouthAfriean towns. However, as it is only of brief duration , Durban may claimto have an almost perfectclimate during 8 or 9 months of the year . Toward

may be experienced . On the whole, the climate iswarmer than that of adjacent colonies, which havethe cool sea breeze fromthe Atlantic.The Highland Veld is very suitable for eattle and

horses. The latter thrive best on the highest elevations. Mealies, oats, manna, sorghum, are grownextensively all over the country . North of R. Mooi ,tobacco, good wheat and other cereals grow well.A large number of farms on the western frontier are

held by Orange River Colony and Transvaal farmers,who are obliged to trek fromthe high veld to thesesheltered valleys, for winter grazing . Many districtsexhibit rich soil and heavy grass, suitable for pasturage. Sheep and horses suffer from fever duringthe summermonths but in win ter the place ishealthyfor all stock. At present, though it is capable of supporting a considerable population , it is but sparsely

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W“m.

omen

SOUTH AFRICANo good ean come fromevading the conclusion thatwe are bound to deal with the Kafiir firmly, and evenhigh-handedly.

The white population is chiefly English , with a

large admixture of Dutch and German . Most of theDutch engage in stock-farming in the districts ofBiggersberg , Neweastle, Ladysrnith, and Greytown .

A German Settlement , which was established in theColonymany years ago, turned outmost successfullybut this was due to the unfailing energy and resourcewhich were displayed . Themen worked better thanany niggers ever worked . The women and childrenwere in the field fromearly morn till late at night .They lived, in the most economical way possible, a

life which few Englishmen would care to lead . Theymarketed their produce to the best advan tage, savingevery penny in order to addmore land to their holding

,

and to fertilize the same with boughtmanure . Theirsacrifices and their expenditure of energy in timebecame rewarded . Many of themare now among theleading farmers of the Colony, loyal adherents to theGovernment of the King’5 Majesty .

Other settlers have made similar attempts : manyhave failed for want of grit and perseverance . The

general trend of the white population is toward thetowns. The mercantile inclination proves strongerthan the agricultural . Business of all kinds has beenbooming in Natal for some years. Much money hasbeen made by tradesmen , builders, speculators. TheBoer War certainly caused havoc throughout thecountry districts but Durban and Pietermari tzburgreaped a rich harvest .

Gem-M The Government of Natal contemplates a colonization-scheme . The Natal Land and ColonizationCompany which has been established formany years,was formed on commercial lines tomeet the requiremen ts of settlers. Intending settlers are offered land

202

froma selection of about 30 to 40 farms which varyfrom to acres.

Thes e farms are scattered throughout nearly all

the districts of Natal and there also are a few farmsin the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal. Theselected land will be leased to the settler for a termof years for agri cultural or pastoral purposes. Hewill have the right of acquiring what is practicallya perpetual lease at a price varying from83. 6d. to

283. an acre . Occupation of the farmis compulsory .

There are a many good poin ts in the scheme ;but the price demanded is unreasonable seeingthat many other parts of South Africa, especiallyRhodesia, offer much better land at one-fourthof the price demanded by the Natal Land and Co

ionization Company . For the good of Natal, it

is devoutly to be hoped that the Government willframe a Land-settlement scheme offering specialinducements to intending settlers ; and that it willhave cheaper and better land to offer than the Company here referred to.Mr . Struben of Capetown , in his evidence before Evleeaeoe!

the South African Land Commission in 1900, stated Mr. “W.“that there was a quantity of land in the hands of the Natal

Land and Colonization Company but that the Companyget such good returns fromrents paid by natives, that theyhave no particular inclination ormotive to sell .

In Natal and Zululand, the Government has at its

disposal no less than acres. It is possiblethat a large proportion of this vast area is suitablefor European settlers ; and probably will be ofiered

by the new Governmental Colonization-Scheme. Itis estimated that the present areaunder tillage amountsto acres. The natives cultivate a littlemorethan two-thirds the whites cultivate the remainder,growing Mealies and Kaffir Corn as their main crops.

The coolies also cultivate much land in the Colony203

na wuri

Aa ere-ple.

SOUTH AFRICAthey are gradually increasing both in numbers and

in the ex tent of land which they farm. They payhigh rents ; and often (I regret to say) are moreacceptable as tenants than the whites .

The Legislative Assembly of Natal is unusuallyup

-to-date in many res pects, especially in its Agricultural Department . It has a eapable Director of

Agriculture, with a very competent stafl . I believeI amright in saying that, although Natal has barelyone eighth the area of Cape Colony, its veterinarystaff is equal in number to that of the latter . Everydistrict in Natal has 9. Resident Veterinary Surgeonwithin reach of all farmers ; andhisservicesare obtainable at a small fixed rate . Natal never has hadmoreanimal-diseases than Cape Colony (I doubt that ithas had asmany) but then its equipmen t for dealingwith the same is superior ; and disease of all kindsis checked or controlled much more satisfactorilyhere than in any of the other colonies of South Afriea.

But what strikesme as being the brightest andmostshining characteristic of the Government of Natal isitsperfectly astounding attention todetails, which elsewhere would be condemned and shelved in silence.It really is amazing, in this age of inconsiderate hurry,to find a Government which has mastered theAristotelean principle Out of numerous particularsthe universal becomes evident and which philoso

phieally progresses fromlittle things to great , obliviousofmockery , and only anxious to carry out the people’swill in the best possible andmost expeditiousmanner.

I will cite a single example . In 1902, the Government of Natal actually appealed to the country on

the questions whether the railway lines should bedoubled for a certain distance : or whether a new singleline should be constructed tomeet the increase of trafficfromthe coast to the Transvaal. That this matterwas, not only important but also , of great interest to

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The Transvaal

HE Transvaal had an area of about sq .

miles, before the War ; but a large strip on its

eastern boundary, amounting to sq . miles, wastransferred to Natal after the Peace of 1902 . Physicalfeatures are simple but importan t . The surface isdiversified by hills, valleys, and plains. TheDrakensberg Mts. extend northward from CapeColony for some hundred of miles, running parallelwith the eastern boundary for a considerable distance,and constituting the only natural boundary of theTransvaal . the frontiers of the north, south, and west(especially the west) , being more or less artificialor political . In thes e districts, it would be at firstsight a waste of time to compare values, seeing thatNature has not distinguished their physical and

geological features fromthose of the adjacent Colonies.

The Transvaal is divided into three parts, viz . ,

the High, Middle, and Low Countries. The HighCoun try includes the southern areas fromthe East toWest . It hasan altitude of to feet abovesea-level. The Middle Country has an altitude ofto feet . The Low Country embraces the northernand north-eastern regions. It dips down towardsR. Limpopo on the north , and towards PortugueseTerritory on the north-east . There are two hills on

this irregular plateauwhich call for special mention ,

viz . ,Magatoland, and the Haenertsberg or Woodbush .

They are both in the Zoutpansberg distri ct and are

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SOUTH AFRICAnotable for the heavier andmore evenly distri butedrainfall which they enjoy in comparison wi th otherdistri cts of the Transvaal.The Transvaal has few rivers. The Vaal and

Limpopomark the southern and northern boundaries.

In the interior, the rivers are little better than streamlets in winter. Notwithstanding their deep channels,they have but little water. The Mooi River , GrootMarico, Magalies, Aapias, Crocodile, and Oliphants,are the exceptions to this rule. An accurate idea of the

personal experience . In December, 1902 , I crossedand re crossed on foot R. Vaal (the chief river of theTransvaal) at various places between Vereeniging and

Fourteen Streams. I was told , by very good authori ty,that it was not an uncommon thing for this river tobe quite devoid of running water . It may be takenthat all the Transvaal rivers look formidable enoughfor a day or two after heavy rain : but, when wateriswanted for stock and irrigation in the winter-mon ths,they are but sand and shingle with an isolatedCrocodile pool here and there.

Duringmy investigation of the Transvaal, after thePeace of 1902 , I travelled miles by cart, visitingalmost every district . This tour fully convincedme that the terrible heaviness of the rainfall is thecause of the havoc which is being wrought on the

surface of the country . Here, a gorge like slur?

had eaten -away a whole rich valley. There, one

could see innumerable fissures converging on somedonga where all the waters concentrated , and whencethey earried the creamof the soil in thick mudtowards the ocean . The country was apparen tlya level plain . Yet to make a

“ bee line ” across it

was impossible for a traveller would have to divergein loops, to tack for ten and twentymiles round raincut crevasses and ravines, which invariably were as

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AM .

The Treesved Weh r

Net-solute

SOUTH AFRICAWhere the veld is left, and where no stock or trafficdenudes and pulveri zes the soil, the heavy rains do

not cut the country into chasms ; and sta irs and

dongas are but seldommet-with . The matter callsfor serious attention . A stitch in time saves nine .

”

The Government should stake out definite roads,plant trees, and direct torrents in to channels. Onlyby such means as these are millions of tons of

the best soil in the coun try to be saved frombeingwashed-away into the ocean .

The High Country of the Transvaal lying fromEast to West, (on which is the great gold-reef of theWitwatersrand, ) isnot only ri ch in the preciousmetal ,but it is the fountain -head of all the water which flowsnorth and south . It is the watershed of the Transvaal . The nature of the rock being suitable for

natural reservoirs of enormous eapacity , its sub

terranean caves have proved to be most valuable .The water supply of Johannesburg is derived fromthem.

The Voertrekkers, (who first eame into the coun try, )crossed the Vaal and selected Klerksdorp and Pot

chefstroomas their head-quarters. They found thewater sweet and plentiful, the soil ex tremely fertile,the pasturage nutri tious. In the spirit of the trueadventurer, they soon trekked all over the coun try.

They were good judges of soil and the experience ofmany years enabled themto choose the most fertileareas. Today, they or their descendants, reap crops fromalluvial soil without much labour or trouble : theirstock grazes themost succulen t pasture . What thesepeople did not know about land was not worth knowing . The original Voertrekkers built for themselvesin the Potchefstroomdistri ct , fine houses in the old

Cape style, grand and spacious, with large verandahsor stoeps and high gables. That was in the old days.

Such houses now are few and far between ; many2 10

THE TRANSVAALare in ruins more have disappeared completely .

The descendants of the old Voertrekkers have beenprevented fromkeeping their farms intact by thesystemof division ordained by the old Roman-Dutchlaw . Many of the original settlers had large families.

Division of a farmamong ten or twelve childreninvolved the breaking up of the old homestead, andthe erection of a number of small houses but, whenthese divisions, in their turn , became sub-divided,and the sub-divisions themselves divided , it does not

need a very vivid imagination to comprehend themiserable poverty of the original settlers’ presentrepresentatives. In the neighbourhood of Potchef

stroom, and especially towards Ven terstroom, it was

not uncommon to see ten , twelve , eighteen littlehovels on one ordinary farm. Their inhabitants werethe grand-children or great grand-children of someproud old Voertrekker, who had established himself ina fine house and accumulated large flocks and droves.

His ofispring are wretchedly poor andthriftless. Theycultivate just enough land for theirmost urgent wants ;and they idly look on the broad acreswhich ,with a littleenergy on their part , could be made to lift themout

of the slough ofdespondent poverty in which they are.

Their dwellings are little better than Kaffir huts,consisting of a square room, with walls of unbumtbrick and an iron roof, in which a whole family of

seven or eight persons of both sexes live huddled-uptogether in promiscuous insan ity . As far as I couldsee, these hovels only differ fromthe Kaffir huts inthat the latter are round and thatched with reeds andhave no windows, while the former aresquare andhaveone or two holes for the admission of light .The High Veld of the Transvaal is notable for its

dry and healthy and comparatively bracing climate .

At night-time the depres sion of the temperatureis very great ; and precaution becomes a duty .

Novels.

Poverty.

'! m o

Tm

SOUTH AFRICADryness of air implies aridity of soil. This is cha

racteristic of many parts of the Transvaal . The

higher averages of rainfall occur in the vicinity of the

soil become drier .

The Middle Veld of the Transvaal, with its loweraltitude, is not so healthy. Malarial fever is common ,

but not virulen t . Horses and sheep do fairly well

for a portion of the year : but, if they are not removedto the High Veld duri ng the rainy season , they succumbto fever . Last year (1903) was an ex tremely bad yearfor horse sickness.

The Low Veld of the Transvaal isunhealthy, exceptduring the winter months. It is unsuitable for

Europeans who have not undergone a long processof acclimatization . It also is fatal to horses and

sheep , except during sixmonths of the year .

Except in a few isolated instances , the farmers of

the Transvaal are far behind their neighbours of theOrang e River Colony . Little or no attention has

been paid to stock-breeding . Quantity, and not

quality, seems to have been their objective. Diseasesof animals are very prevalent . Seab is never out ofthe country . Little or no attempt wasmade by thelate Boer Government to deal effectually wi th thispest and the farmers have not co—operated willinglyfor its eradication . This, and other diseases , haveplayed havoc with stock : but the peculiar habit ofmind, which the Boers use in regard to the operations of Providence, has kept themfromdoing morethan snivelling and snufliing . God helps those whohelp themselves is by no means an acc eptablesaying to the fatalistic Boer .

Alm The Transvaal , like the rest of South Africa , is

more suitable for pasturage than for agriculture.

Cereal-farming has had a sort of Protection up to thepresent and yet the Boer has not been able to derive

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Ills ”II I“ .

SOUTH AFRICAobligation of paying interest , (in the shape of ren t)on the pres en t value of these irrigated farms. SeveralEnglishmen had been farming here before the War .

Archdeacon Roberts, an old inhabitan t of Potchef

stroom, described tome the case of a very energeticand scientific English farmer, who took a farm and,

with modern implements, succeeded in ploughingand cultivating a large tract of land . The first year ,he sowed mealies. They made a good start , and

promised well. Then , one day about the time of

harvest, a hailstormthreshed every grain out of thecobs ; and the crop was totally ruined . Not to bebeaten , he ploughed the land again ; and sowed wheat .Like the mealies, this crop grew luxuriantly ; but,as the season advanced, there were no signs of grainforming in the ear . None did form: it was a cropof straw Archdeacon Roberts wasmuch in terestedin these experimen ts. He visited and examinedmostof the farms in the distri ct but, after he had seen all

that was to be seen in the vicinity of Potchefstroom,

he became convinced that it was impossible tomakeagri culture successful, or even remunerative . Manycontinue to farm, as a hobby ; but they depend on othersources of income for their livelihood . Interrogatedwhether he knew of a single successful agriculturistin the district , (i .e. aman who made his living simplyand solely by growing cereals, ) the Archdeacon re

sponded in the negative . He knew men who, bycombining stock and cereals with transport-riding ,weremaking a fair living and that wasall. There wasnothing he would like better than to seemore Englishsettlers in the district : but, as agriculturists, theywould have no chance, for (though the crops occasionally might escape many pests) the early and latefrosts often would ruin them.

Mealies and Kaflir-corn are grown extensivelythroughout the Transvaal without irrigation . Occa

2 14

THE TRANSVAALsionally , a crop is lost through locusts or excessivedrought but, as a rule, farmers are not disheartenedby the loss of such crops, the outlay upon thembeinginsignificant . Live-stock, rather than cereals, is themainstay of the Transvaal farmer . In Johannesburg andother towns, the opinion is held thatmealies should beamost productive and profitable crop for the farmer .

Imyself held this Opinion before Imade an exhaustiveinvestigation of the subject . The total consumptionof mealies on the Rand before the War was

bags a year . Now it does not take a very large area,

or very many farmers, to produce bags of

mealies and besides, the natives grow a very largeproportion of themealie-crop, and would grow muchmore if they had better facilities for marketing it.

I interrogated every farmer whomI met as to whyhe did not growmealies. They invariably respondedthat, if they did, the price would be too low theyhad tried it when theywere successful, other farmerswere also succes sful ; and an abundant crop all overthe district forced-down the price ofmealies to as low

as 33. 6d. a bag . This statement was home-out byfarmers not only in the Transvaal , but also in the

Orange River Colony and Natal . During the War, a.ma Boer brought in 30 bags of mealies for sale .

The Army Service officer paid 203. a bag for themand said to the old farmer, Have you ever received“so much for yourmealies before, Johannes NoWell then , I suppose that , now youseewhat a lot ofmoney 30 bags brings you, youwill go home anddouble the area which youcultivated this yearAnd Johannes answered, Na, Sir but only halfEverybody will grow moremealies nex t year and

there will be no price ormarket for themThe Transvaal rs essen trally a stock-c

ountry .

forMThe Boer knows 1t. He may nounsh a sentrmentaldesire to grow his own loaf : but he by no means is

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SOUTH AFRICAinclined to grow other people

’

s loaves . He will sell

The quality and quantity of the grass in the Trans

vaal, however , alwaysmust act as a rigid check uponthe pastoral population . That will remain small.The South-es stern side of the colony isundoubtedly

the best grazing area. I saw some eattle in tbis

district which were good. But, here, as in m0st of

the other distri cts, pastoral farming ismerelymediocreas a rule, the causes being , insufi cient atten tion to

purchase-price, a farmof morgen could

poisonous plan ts or tulips than in any other districts ;and sheep, eattle, and horses, are good and fairly free

a.m fromdisease . Wi th a little ears in the selection of

good-brwding stock, scientificmethods, and suflicientcapital, aman would be well-remunerated.

The South-western distri ct, with the exception ofSchoonspruit and the alluvial valley of R. Mooi , isa badly watered area. The soil in most places is

shallow and poor in quality. Water is searce : it isgenerally found within 15 50 feet of the surface :but it is seldomof good quality. Dams are smalland untrustworthy, many of thembeing silted-upand useless : consequently, very little agriculture isattempted except under irri gation . The farms are

generally very large . Pasturage in a small way is

the only possible industry at present . Sheep sufier

much fromheart-water and blue tongue : the latterdisease is considered by some farmers to be iden tiealwith horse sickness. Poisonous weeds and tulips

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Wintertrekkers.

SOUTH AFRICAas well asmoisture, it dries-up in a few hours. In

consequence, after a spell of fine weather, the wholesurface cracks to a great depth : the soil gets hard ;and vegetation withers. The Boer has left this richsoil un touched . Such is its nature, that no practicalagri culturist will attempt to cultivate it. Not only is itunsuited for dry-land cultivation , but great difficultywould be experienced in tilling it under a systemof

irrigation . Further northward , beyond the Vlakte,there aremany rich patches of land : butmalaria isprevalent, and sometimes very vinrlent.

The North-western portion of the Transvaal is not

inhabited by whitemen . There are some good farmson the Pilandsberg but northward of that I onlymetone white farmer . The surface is chiefly grani te,covered with shrubs and stun ted trees ; and diversified by large arid areas with an occasional oasis of

swamp . The soil of the valleys is exceedingly fertile.I noted the remains of water-furrows and the ruins

of old houses along some of the river banks. Thenatives informed me that, at one time, the Boershad established themselves there : but that they haddied and none had come after them.

This district is much in fected with fever :manynatives had succumbed just before my visit . SomeBoer farmers trek with their cattle to those low-lyingdistricts in the winter . They do not build houses ;but live in their covered waggons ; shooting game andherding their cattle. I may mention that the wholeof this very undesirable tract of coun try has beendivided into farms, named and numbered, which lookquite attractive on the map with their imagin ary

A eeaenele lines for rivers. Intending settlers would do well toflee end e

wet-lag.

Thehealthy

studyMartin Chuzzlcwit and to leave thesemalariousand arid lots entirely to the speculator .

The North-eastern Transvaal includes the Zoutpansberg district . Owing to its altitude the 20111:

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THE TRANSVAALpans Hill is fairly healthy . It is well-watered and

well-wooded, and some of the trees possess commerical weed eel

value— an unusual thing in the Transvaal. On thishill are some very rich valleys intersected by streamsof flowing water . Most of this desirable land is inthe possession of the Government ; it is the bestland which the Transvaal Government has to offerto settlers. The climate is unlike that ofmost partsof the country . The rainfall is very heavy ; and,

sometimes for days together, there occurs the phenomenon which erroneously is known as a ScotsMist(the real Scots Mist being what an Englishmanwould call a steady downpour of cats and dogs. )However, the Zoutpansberg mist is highly beneficialto vegetation , as it saturates everything. I do not

think that there ismuch (if any) risk of drought inthis district : streams are plen tiful, and a permanentsystemof irrigation would be simple and efficient .Until four or five years ago, the whole district wasa native reserve. The Boers, having been unableto dislodge the Kafiirs, agreed at length to define and

acknowledge certain boundaries : but, five yearsago, the natives became disobedient and troublesome and the Boers, returning to the fray, this timedid dislodge them. Then followed the Great BoerWar : after which, seeing that the Zoutpansberghad not been apportioned by its previous conquerors,the new Transvaal Government entered into possessionof nearly the whole of it .

The Haenertsberg or Woodbush district is morefavoured by soil and climate than many others. Be

tween it and the Zoutpansberg lies the Spelonken .

A number of English people live here. Much of theland is under tillage but the farmers hardly can betermed bonafide farmers : for they keep stores, andcarry-on a considerable native trade, buying, or ratherbartering, with the Kafi rs, blankets, etc. , formealies.

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lave-red

keepers.

SOUTH AFRICAThese store heepers appes red to me to live on the

cresmof the country . They ownmany farms, eattle,

of outstanding debts. They all were in a flourishing

the same descri ption to their customers .

it “Wi th better fadfifies for transport such as a rail

way fromPietersburg to the Spelonken , a ri ch districtcould be opened

-up, the one district in the Transvaal

where English settlers might find agriculture to be

poss ible and profitable . It must not be forgotten ,

though , that (in many of the low-lying valleys) feverlever. often is very malignant and dea dly : but on the hills

with proper preeaution ,it need not be feared. Most

of this district is divided into farms ; and it would bedifficult to find another district in the Transvaalwhere the soil is so diversified . Froman agri culturaland pastoral poin t of view

,some of the farms are not

worth the price of the paper on which their names arewritten . Others are of excellen t quality, some beingwell-watered and well-wooded and rich in soil and

vegetation . But the prices of all the farms, good,Prleeeeeyet bad, and indiflerent, are the same . The speculator

has hung themall “on the nail.

” Even the pricesof the good farms are much too high ; but any of

them can be rented (subject to 3 or 6 months’notice (at a nominal ren t, the usual rent asked beingabout of the presentmarket value .There is a flourishing industry in vegetable garden

ing round Pretoria and Johannesburg : but themarginof profit accruing to the gardeners is very small. Ifit were not that the Italians and Coolies (many ofwhomuse scientificmethods) exhibit undeniable skill,it would be quite impossible to raise vegetables at theprices curren t in these two towns. This industry is

In “an“! almost entirely in the hands of foreigners ; and there

is little or no prospect, even with double the present220

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“ it

SOUTH AFRICAunhealthy : but he and his staff aflirmthat they havekept remarkably well and free fromfever and thatthey consider it quite suitable for Europeans.

Newm l A few words are due to the new Governmen t of the

mattress.

Department.

Transvaal . New departments have been created,and good salaries are paid : fromwhich it isonly reasonable to expect that valuable results will be attained .

The Transvaal has been exceptionally fortunate insecuring the services of able energetic men of aflairs.

Provided that sufficient time and scope be gran ted tohim, Sir Arthur Lawley may be trusted to organ izeand conduct the governmen t of the country in a wiseand dignified manner . At present it is premature tocriticize an administration which has been in ex istencefor, and has hadmany serious difficulties to con tendwith in , so short a period of time . Nevertheles s, itmay be said that already there have been some misfits, as Sir Arthur Lawley himself would acknowledge . Some of these were energetic faddists, whileothers seemed to have been pitchforked accidentallyinto a sphere too remote to enable themto con template mattersmerely sublunary . Such men as thesecould be spared quite conveniently. South Afri cais no place for petitsmamas. Their presence was an

embarrassment to the progress and future welfareof the country . Their absence became themas the

most laudable action of their lives. When the dragis off the wheel, the chariot naturally moves moreeasily .

My attention was directedmore to the agriculturalinterests of the Government than to any other. Icertainly could not say that agriculture was welllooked-after but still an attempt wasmade to renderit succes sful . It was not energy and hard work whichwere lacking, but practical experience ; and, for thiscause , the expected progress is still delayed . Therewasmuch industry of a certain kind : there also was

2 22

THE TRANSVAALidleness. There was hard labour without skill or

knowledge there were experimental attempts whichcontemned established practices and ignored rudimentary principles of farming . Still, it is to be hopedthat themany of the fond dreams of the agriculturalexperts of the Transvaal will be realized some day .

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SOUTH AFRICAThe aboriginal was ruled in a just and fairmanner, andheld in hisproper place subjection . The coun try was

English being their favouri te language after the Taal.The beneficent eflects of civilization were spreadingthroughout the land . Then came the betrayal.Simplicity, duped by venal politieal schemers, wroughtits own down fall.It seems almost a trag edy to have wiped out such

a formof Government . I well remember en tering a

little town in the ea stern district of the Orange RiverColony. An old English settler in the coun try metus. He certainly waspleased to see the English troops

victorious : but his joy was mingled with regret.

Tea rs eame into his eyes when we hauled down the oldFree State flag . Bar one,

”he said, “

it was the bestlittle flag the world ever has seen !

Issachar saw that rest was good, and the land thatit was pleasant ; and bowed his shoulder to bear , andbeeame a servant unto tri bute. There are signs of

practical sensible men . They have admitted theirerror . Theymaymourn , for some years yet, over thedownfall of their own old style of life and government :but, with their traditional respect for law an d order,there will return that easy familiar loyalty to those inauthority over them and the change, which they knowis for the better, will not be half so bitter as personsotherwise interested would like to imagine.

The whole of the Orange River Colony isdivided intofarms. These vary in extent from200 to acrm.

They areheld subject to a quit-rent of 23. a one-hundredmorgens. Onemorgen equals two-and-a-nin th of an acre.

Ne been. There is no open or back country, as in the other

colonies of South Africa .

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ORANGE RIVER COLONYTheOrangeRiver Colony exhibits varietiesof vegeta

tion , soil, and rainfall. These materially affect theconditions of farming . Some farms are purely pastoral othersaremore suitable for cereals and othersagain are suitable formixed farming . Therefore, thechoice between agriculture, pasturage, and the two incombination , is not offered . The character of the soiland rainfall on each farmdetermine the kind of farmingfor which it is fitted .

The farming classalso varies, fromthe poor B1)woner, t hew as

who ekes out an existence in the poorer districts on

the goodwill of hismore favoured neighbour, to thewealthy husbandman who lives in a substan tial house ,with good farmbuildingsand garden , fineand numerousflocks and droves or prolific acres, good horses, andevery luxury whichmoney can purchase.Most farmers have erected dams,many at very greatoutlay . It isnotunusual to find dams, which have costthousands of pounds, almost or en tirely useless. Theporous nature of the ground, scanty rainfall, erroneousconstruction , neglect of consideration of the importantand inevitable phenomenon of natural evaporation ,

often empty the dams at the very time when water isrequired for irri gation One farmer, who gave evidencebeforeMr . Arnold Forster’sCommission in South Africa,stated that he had 13 dams on his farm, 4 of whichwould not hold water . As a rule the Boer exercisessound judgment in selecting the site for a dam. It isthe newcomer who generally errs in this particular .

Faulty construction is found in the dams of both Boersand newcomers ; and invariably is due to a predilection for spoiling the ship for a ha’porth of tar.

Sound and satisfactory dams can be, and are, con

structed : but not without considerable outlay.

The Eastern District , which borders on Basutoland,isextremely fertile . It also isvery hilly. The valleyshave rich alluvial deposits of great fertility and depth.

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erepelu.

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SOUTH AFRICA

The hills are covered with amixture of sweet grass andsour, the latter predominating . Stock readily con

sumesmost of this grass in winter and spring, when thevalleysare ex cessively cold . Were it not for the hills,

where, stock would sufler considerably more than itdoes .

The soil is of a red-sandy nature : but it ismuchlighter in colour than the red-sandy soil of Cape Colony.

It is also of amore loamy consistency ; and , on thisaccount , hasa greater eapability for retainingmoisture .

Many of the rocks contain large quan tities of phosphateof lime, unknown in any other parts of South Afri ea.

The land thus becomes automaticallymanured , by thecrumbling of these rocks, by the solubility of the phosphates, and by the action of the weather , when the

heavy rains carry the phosphates in solution over all thesurface . This is an importan t feature in the soil-his

tory of this favoured district . It, and the fact thatthere isamore regular rainfall and amore humid atmosphere, (owing to the close proximity of themountainsof Basutoland) have earned for this part the name of

The Granary of South Africa . But its drawbacksmust not be unconsidered . The chief are droughts,hail-storms, and incursions of locusts. The rainyseason also occurs in harvest time ; and these fourafliictions often cause great anxiety, trouble, and loss,to farmers.

Many of the rich alluvial plots are known to have

produced fromten to fifteen crops in rotation , withoutartificial manure , and often with a very indifierent

systemof cultivation . On the other han d, manythousands of acres in this district have been en tirelyexhausted by successive cropping ; and, at the presentmoment , they lie abandoned by the cultivator .

This rs the only part of South Afriea where the conditions of farming are not unlike those of Eng land.

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SOUTH AFRICAdeteriorated the herbage, so that the Afrikander sheepand goats now formthe bulk of the farmer’s stock.Ml! 0' Water is scarce . No agri culture, except ofmealies and

Wil h

Lest er

Kafl‘

rr corn , can be ca rried on without artificial irrigation .

The North-eastern portion of theOrangeRiver Colonyis devotedmore or less to stock. Cattle and:sheep (ospecially themerino-sheep) do remarkably well. Horse

breeding iscarri ed on ex tensively. I noted some goodstuds east of Winberg,andmany of the farmersseemedto take very keen interes t in this branch of farming .

They import sires of good English blood. I also notedseveral farmerswho took great interest inmerino-sheep .Most of the farmers in thisDistri ct are in the habi t oftrekking, with their live stock, to the low veld of Natalin winter . A few good shelters for horses have beenerected on some of the farms but little or no protectionof the kind exists for sheep and ca ttle . Trekking isthe only way of saving the stock fromwinter starvetion . There ismuch to be said for and against thispractice . The farmers of the Orange River Colonyaremen of intelligencezandmeans. Before dogmatically condemning their system, it will be advisable todetermine whether it is basedmerely on the traditionalcustomof the coun try, or on some valid (but not veryobvious) reason . Mea nwhile , un til better means of

shelter andmore adequate provision of winter fodderbe forthcoming it will be safer to look upon win tertrekking simply as a pis-aller .

The Western portion is of a more sandy and aridnature than any of the other districts. It exhibits a

large area chiefly covered with hard and stony soil.

There are few sources of water beyond the numerousbrackish pans. It is a huge plain , not in the sense of alevel expanse (which commonly rsassociated with ideasof verdure and fertility) , but it varies froman occasionaland limited oasis to a des ert of shing le and loose shift

23°

ORANGE RIVER COLONYing sands. Cattle thrive on the river-banks ; and

there is good winter-grass on the western boundary .

Very little of the land is under irrigation . Dry-land

cultivation is earried on here and there ; and fairly goodcrops ofmealies are sometimes obtained . There is alsogood grazing for sheep . But the soil, being naturallyvery loose, is frequently washed away by rains. Sluits

and dongas are very numerous. Dams soon becomefilled with silt ; and, at the pres ent moment , somehundredsstand filled up and rendered useless. Thereis a smaller percentage of the Bijwoner class here thanin any other part of the country : the reason being thatthe farms are small, and what wealth there is is distributedmore evenly .

The conditions of farming in this distri ct offer butlittle encourag ement to the inhabitan ts, and nonewhatever to the intending settler.

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SOUTH AFRICAthe human weight of 12- 13 stone, a heavy military

Basuto ponies are the bes t-all-round animals for thecountry .

Basutoland supplies a large quan tity of BlackLabour to the Kimberley and Rand Mines. The

W country is administered by the Imperial Governmentand is divided on the communal principles. No land

in the inhabitan ts, who are governed by their chiefsunder a Res ident Commissioner.

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Bechuanaland

HE Crown Colony of Bechuanaland was annexedto Cape Colony in 1895 . It has an area ofsquaremiles, divided intofivedistricts— Mafe

king , Vryburg, Taungs, Kuruman , and Gordonia. Its

altitude vari es from to feet . Vryburg hasan altitude of feet and Mafeking of feet .The distance by railway fromMafeking to Capetownis 870miles.

This terri tory isbounded on the north by the Ramalhabama and Molopo Rivers on the east by theTransvaal and Orange River Colony ; on the wes t bythe Kalahari desert and, on the south, it isa continuation of the northern plains of Cape Colony.

The average rainfall is 18” to 22’ but some yearsareexceptionally dry while others give a rainfall far inexcess of this average . Mafeking and Vryburg hada rainfall averaging 30” annually for five years.

Most of the running streams are in the NativeReserves : but there are other streams which exhibitwater at various points. R. Setlagoli , which is a

sand-river ,” has a large supply of water below thesurface sand. Mr . Gethin , themanager of the SouthernLand Company , told me that he had seen droves of

cattlewatered in the driest season of the year by diggingholes in the sand of the river-bed . In other partsof thisriver , where a stratumof rock underlies the sand, nowater has been found. This also is the case with

R. Mashowing , between the farm6 anap and tbe

of these a nd—rivers,”i.e. regularly eroded river

channels chiefiy filled with Qnd instead of water . Itwas suggested tome tbat the old beds of thes e rivers

and other pnlverised debrfi blown by heavy stormsfromthe desert ; and that the stream themselves

fall of snow, many of our streambecome completely

or river-bank yet, benea th the snow, thewater flows.

Hence l aminclined to believe in this theory of flowingwater beneath the sa nd-rivers of Bechuanaland .

One thing is certain . In those parts of the river-beds,where neither porous soil nor tracts of sand exist, thewater does flow on the surface : but, immediately itcomes in con tact with porous matter , it disa ppears,only to emerge again at some distan t poin t . If resea rch and experiment in boring thes e sand-riversfor water should prove success ful andmy own beliefis in the probability of such success this vast territory, which only needswater tomake it amost des irablestock-country, should witness a grea t influx of population , and become a very diflerent place to what it istoday . I do not think that there is roomfor anydoubt on this point . The few experiments, which so

far have beenmade, all go to prove itsvalidity . Bothhere and in the Kalahari Desert , such subterraneanstreams are known to ex ist and they are streams, i .e.

flowing water, not to be confounded with the underground reservoirs which sometimes are found in rockysoil. It would be interesting and profitable, for

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SOUTH AFRICAFarms throughout the country vary in size fromto acres. They belong chiefly to the

Cape Governmen t and various Land Companies . It isnot diflicult to get farms at very low pri ces. The

acres on the R.Mashowing at £275 . At the sametime there were 35 other farms advertised for salethey averaged 6 ,000 acres, and were oflered at an

average price of£200. Many of these farmsare suitablefor grazing, the only drawback being the searcity of

water but, where water is found in sufi cient quantityto water stock , (and I have indieated the splendidpossibility of itsbeing found, ) it iswonderful how eattle

and sheep will thrive .

The Afrikander eattle, judiciously crossed with a

Friesland bull, produce a very good type of eattle and

the progenymay be depended-ouas hardy and goodfor agers. One of the best authorities in Bechuanalandtoldme that Shorthorns and Devons are not suitablefor the country . They are too finely bred and haveno natural instinct for foraging for themselves nor

are they hardy enough for the climate nor would itpay to feed themartificially under ex istent circumstances.

In 1896 , Rinderpest slew a very large number ofcattle, the property of whites as well as natives ; andit is astonishing to see how the droves have increasedsince then . The native cattle are inferior beea use no

scientificmethod of breeding is in vogue . The nativelooks only to quantity ; and takes no heed of quality.

Every head of cattle counts, irrespective of itscharacteristics.

There are but few districts in Bechuanaland wherehorse sickness is not prevalent . Some seasons are

worse than others. It has been observed by the

inhabitants that , the more the veld is trampled or

eaten-down , the less horse-sickness there is. The238

BECHUANALANDhealthies t district for horses is that known as DanielsKuil on the southern boundary adjacent to Griqualand Wes t .The population consists of about whites ,

coloured persons, natives.

Malaria infestsmost parts of the country but it is

much less prevalent and certainlymuch less virulentthan it used to be .

Farmlabour is plentiful but, in comparison withthose of other colonies, Bechuanaland labourers are

rather expensive : ros. to 15s. a week is the averagerate of wages ; and the native provides himself withall his requirements. Herd boys can be obtained at

103. to 15s. amonth.

TheRhodesian Railway runsalong the eastern borderof this territory ; and there are numerous stations at

convenient in tervals.

The Cape Government ought to exert itself rn various As eel-lee.directions for the good of Bechuanaland . The mostprominent and urgent needs are as follows .

(1 ) Farmersmust be assisted to search for, and todevelop, the subterranean sources of waterwhich are known to exist, as well as thosewhich at present are unknown .

(2) A compulsory Fencing Act ought to be passed,and put into eflect.

(3) The Outspans (governmental and private)mustbe fenced .

(4) Some of the numerous public roads ought to beclosed, or fenced ; or assistance given to theowners of the land to enable themto close orfence the said roads.

(5) A compulsory Branding Act passed, and put

into effect in connection with all cattle belonging both to whitesand natives ,would have goodeffect .

SOUTH AFRICAThese things having been done, as aminimum, the

coun try will become what it is not now, viz .— an

attractive field for the Operations of white menof eapital, experience

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Rhodesia

HE vast territory which has been assigned to theBRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, to which the

eponym Rhodesia has been given , covers an areaof about square miles. The R. Zambesidivides it into two great divisions, respectively calledNorthern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia . Southern Divideas.

Rhodesia includes two provinces, Matabeleland and

Mashonaland . Northern Rhodesia is sub-divided intothe North-eastern and the North-western Provinces.

These enormous areas exhibitmost of the physical andgeological features which are characteristic of the restof South Africa , but intensified and on amuch greaterand broader scale . They have larger rivers, heavierrainfall, more numerous springs, vaster and denserforests, wider alluvial plains.

Southern Rhodesia lies between R. Zambesi on thenorth andR. Limpopo on the south . It has an area ofabout squaremiles. Themajor portion belongsto the great upper plateauof South Africa a plateauwhich is diversified by undulating plains, steep peaksand ridges rising in abrupt crags or gentle slopes, producing a surface suited to a diversity of animal and

vegetable-life . The bracing altitudes of the Highlandsespecially should become notable nurseries for a “0 MOI

dynamic race of white men and are in every waysuited to the needs of those of our surplus population

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SOUTH AFRICA

to feet above sea-level. Bulawayo has analtitude of feet . It is the chief town of Matabeleland, and is situate on the auriferous area known as theBulawayo Gold Belt . Salisbury, the chief town ofMashonaland and political eapital of Southern Rho

desia, lies at an altitude of feet above the levelof the sea ; and, further eastward, in the InyangaDistrict, the elevation rises to feet .

t ai n ted. The Highlands, or watershed of Southern Rhodes ia,is an important feature of the country fromthe goldminer’s as well as fromthe farmer’s point of view . Itextends fromthe Southern Boundary in a north-east

rivers and streams the last exhibiting amore reliablesupply of water all the year round than the streams ofany other colony save those of Natal. This watershed, sometimes known as The Divide, is the catchment-area of the water-source of almost all rivers andsprings in Southern Rhodesia. Streams which rise onits northern s10pe flow in a N . and NW. directiontoward R. Zambesi : those which rise on its southernSlope flow in a S . direction toward R. Limpopo . Deepchannels have been eroded by these rivers, as is usualin South Africa : valleys have been denuded of theirsoil in many instances while other areas have beenembellished with enormous deposits of alluvial soil,rich in plant food and of everlasting fertility . Someof these alluvial tracts of land are narrow : others, ofgreat length and breadth, extending over hundreds ofsquare miles. Up to the present time , very few ofthemare cultivated or inhabited by white men , not

withstanding that they ofler exceptional facilities forirrigation at a comparatively small outlay .

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SOUTH AFRICA

by the Chambesi River and its tributaries, as well asby numerous considerable streams which flow intoLake Bengweulu. To ea st and west, the coun try rises

coun tries have an altitude of to feet, forming the watershed between Lake Nyass and the tribu

areas, having an abundance of wood,water , and vegetation . The south-west of Lake Tanganyika is a levelfertile populous coun try intersected by large areas ofswamp, which are drained by considerable ri vers.

Themost remarkable and, perhaps, themost in teresting physical features of North-eastern Rhodesia are

tained within its borders. Lake Bengweulu, feetabove sea-level, has an area of sq .miles ; and isthe meeting-place of many rivers. Lake Mweru hasan area of sq .miles, being 68miles long and 25miles wide . There also are many aids and pansscattered over the coun try .

Area el the The North-western Provin ce is known commonly asmm Barotseland . It isadministered by the Emma Some

terteee.

AFRICA COMPANY . It includes all the terri tory northof R. Zambes i , and is bounded by the German Southwest Afriean Protectorate , and Portuguese West Africa,R. Kafue or Loengi , andR. Zambesi . It isdivided in todistricts and stations.

The plateaux are extensive, and have an averagealtitude of to feet : but Kalomo isfeet above sea-level. There are large areas of sandbelts, marshes, forests, alluvial pockets, and someexceedingly rich and fertile plains. An importan tfeature of this province is the Barotse Valley. I t issurrounded by forests ; and, in it is situate Lialui , thechief town of King Lewanika. It is a low-lying plainof 90 to 100miles x 20 to 30miles, with R. Zambes i in

246

RHODESIAthe centre. Major A . St . H . Gibbons descri bes it as

followsA buge treeless alluvial plaimfree frorn ‘

fly,’and giving

good winter pasture.

”

King Lewan ika andhissubjectsaremuch attached tothis valley. Once a year it is flooded as completely asis the valley of the Nile . Hence its notable fertility,which enables all kinds of crops to flourish luxuriantly .

Large tracts of the land are healthy ; and suitablein every way for Europeans. In the Barotse Valley theaverage rainfall 1s i .e . equal to the average Englishrainfall. Pasturage rs good ; and cattle thrive Inmostdistricts. The Kalomo district is extremely healthy,and practically free frommosquitoes. It is well

watered and is swept by a healthy north-west breeze,which does not traversemalarial districts or swamps.

The following description byMajor Coryndon , the

Administrator, is interestingThe river has now (January 28th) been brimming its

banks for some days, and the water is creeping slowly

canoes will begin to travel over the footpaths, and in six

or eight weeks a view frommy present camp atMonguwould show a waste of yellow water with now and then a

huts, paths. and cattle kraals used to be. The flood is

usually at its height during the firstweek'

In April, and fromthat time it slowly subsides, leaving grass six to ten feet

long , and the whole valley reeking with rotten and rottingvegetation . It does not need expert knowledge to provethe fact that at this time of the year, and for one or two

months afterwards, the whole valley ismerely a hotbed for

“eents a green appearance, and feeds thousands of very fine

cattle ; during the flood every head is sent up to themosito“or sand-belts and in fact but few natives remain in the

flooded valley . The kingmoves ofl to the foreet as soon as

the water is high enough to float his big canoes just outeideHalui . Kraals are dotted everywhere and every little

247

A ”

He‘ll .

Many of the districts of Rhodes ia, at pres ent are

inhabited by white people ; and the satisfactoryaccounts which I received fromres idents, impressedme very favourably.

ua .” The Melsetter distri ct , on the eastern border of

Mashonaland is exceptionally sui table formixed farming . Cattle , horses , and sheep , do remarkably well.The veld is good water is plentiful and the rain falland climate are the best in Rhodesia . The few

Dutchmen , who got as far as Rhodesia, were not

The Date. long in discovering the best soil. They trekked all

over the coun try un til they were satisfied that theyhad found a plot of land flowing with milk and

honey.

” The holdings, which they staked out are

large — much too large for their purpose but it is

the Dutchman ’s peculiar way to occupy all the land

which he ea n get , in order to avoid the excessivelyunpleasing spectacle of a neighbour’s chimney. Still,at present there are Openings, in this favoured dis

248

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SOUTH AFRICA

when they are recorded.

le tee l eeee There are some good farms in theMazoe district.district has some very practical farmers, who (withluck) ought to derive great benefit fromtheir opera

I visited the Jesuit Miam' ouat Chisawasha, a largefarmabout 24miles E . of Salisbury . The Superior,Father Rechartz , is one of the most popular personages in the country. He had amiss ion in the Transvaal before (at the Occupation of Rhodesia) he es tablished himself on the farmwhich was granted himby the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY. I visitedmany missions during my travels in South Africa :

but I never have seen anything to compare withChisawasha. Here are systemand order . Nativesare well cared-for in every way, and taught to read

and write z but the first thing which is instilled intotheir minds is that everyone must work. They

lay-brothers work : the sisters (who formerly did all

the nursing in the Salisbury Hospital) have theirseparate convent at Chisawasha , where they alsowork, teaching the native girls, and are alwaysready togo anywhere at amomen t’s notice to nurse the sick.

And the natives have been taught that there is dign ityin work . The result is that the whole farmof Chisawasha is a garden . I noted groves of bananas, apples ,

fields cultivated to perfection , yielded fine crops ofmealies, oat-hay. potatoes, and wheat . A band ofeighty performers played formy amusement and edifi

eation . The house buildings and the imposing churchwere built by the brothers themselves, allmaterialsbeing carted fromSalisbury, and paid-for by the

produce of the farm. I cannot leave the subject250

RHODESIAwithout expressing my humble

"opinion that at leastas pioneers of civilization in savage coun tries, thesons of St . Ifiigo Lopez de Recalde have no equal,judging fromwhat I saw at Chisawasha.

Marandellas, another district of Mashonaland , is :In Here-eelvery healthy and well pastured . It is in every waysuitable for stock-farming, as the railway fromSalisbury to Beira traverses it, aflording facilities for transport .Insiza is one of themost favoured districts of Mata umm.

beleland. It is a rich alluvial valley of exceedinglyfertile soil, well-watered , and quite suitable formixedfarming . One of the leading men of Insiza isMr ma r-lagRixon , a pioneer of the country, and an energetic bona Rh ee.

fide and most practical farmer, who makes his farmpay . Thisdistrict afiords ple nty of scope tomen witha predilection for well-watered fertile soil.

Major Hea ny has succeeded in establishing a droveof eattle on the Essexvale property , which belongsto the Matabele Gold Reefs and Estates Company.

This estate is fenced ; and the cattle so far are freefromRedwater . That fact is a valid argument infavour of fencing and isolation . Major Heany is

developing the Essexvale Estate in a systematicmanner . Large portions are under irrigation . Someof these are let to tenants at 203. an acre . If all theLand Companies (which own farms in Rhodesia)were to imitate the admirable examme of the Matabele Gold Reefs and Estates Company, there mightbe something more extensive in the way of progressto report .The Khami Valley (in close proximity to the VryburgBulawayo section of the Rhodesian Railway) is a veryfertile area of Matabeleland . Many fine farms are

situate here, some vacant and some occupied . Amongthe latter,Mr . Dan Vincent’s farmdeservesmention .

The Shangani Valley and the Fig-Tree and Plum

25 I

f reecreel“.

SOUTH AFRICATree districts, are very suitable areas for stockfarming and mealie-culture .

The North-Eastern Province is divided into distriers. The BRITISH SOUTHAFRICACOMPANY’S oflicersare established throughout this vast area . Thenatives, numbering about give no trouble ,being very submissive and satisfied with the new

order of things. They pay their taxes and are not

unwilling to work for the white man . A few en terprizing store keepers have fixed themselves at variouspoints and a few farmers and stock-raisers find thecountry very promising for agriculture and pas

turage. The Company owns large droves of cattleand supplies settlers with breeding-stock on mostadvantageous terms. Grazing land is practica llyfree . Excellent pasturage may be secured now at

very small outlay.

As the country has been proved, for ages by thenatives and latterly by the whiteman , to be a hea lthycattle coun try , no great risk attends investment inland or cattle in North-eastern Rhodesia.

The chief feature of Matabeleland, of Rhodesia ,

of South Africa, the Eighth Wonder of the World,”undoubtedly is the Victoria Falls on R. Zambesi ,which were discovered by Dr . Livingstone in 1854.

Above the Falls, the river is yards (orwell over a mile) in width . Here it precipitatesitself 400 to 420 feet into a volcanic rift in blackbasalt rocks, throwing up columns of spray to a heightof more than feet . The bottomless chasminto which the boiling torrent falls is not more than15 to 20 yards wide . Towards the east there is a

gap, in the perpendicular walls, only 100 yards inbreadth , throughwhich thewhole of the concentratedZambesi rushes with incredible speed, fury, and con

fusion ,

” escaping by the singularly close huge zigzagsof a gorge or cahon forty-five miles in length . A

252

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SOUTH AFRICA

strata and vegetable-matter all washed down and

deposited-together by the rains, cannot be surpassedfor fertility and reproductive power .

a.m These enormous tracts of rich alluvial soil, in the

valleys and on some of the plains in theHighlands, areamong themost valuable assets of Rhodes ia . They liein parallels at regular intervals across the watershedfromnorth to south . Each rich alluvial valley istraversed by a river or streamof perennially flowingwater . Springs are numerous ; andmanymore couldbe developed at small cost . The climate, also, of thes evalleys is healthy and bracing ; andmany thousandsof farmers engaged in mixed farming and stock-raisingcould find pleasurable and profitable occupation hereApart fromthese alluvial areas, thebest all-round soils

are found where the rocks have come together naturally . Granite and greenstone (or trap) produce a veryfertile soil because the lime,magnesia, and oxide of

iron , which granite lacks, aresupplied by thegreenstone .

Where these rocks are in timately blended, the soil is

invariably good . Now, when we know that thisprocess,as carried out by Nature, givesa good result the logicalconsequence, viz . the imitation of Nature smethods,ought not to be neglected by the Rhodesian farmer .

There need be no difi culty whatever about it for thenecessarymaterial is generally close at hand ; and theexperiment is of the simples t . A top

-dressing of

granite-soil on peat, of greenstone or peat-soil on

granite, of clay-soilon sand or peat , willwork a completechange in the chemical constitution of the soil by a

singlemechanical Operation . And while I amdealingwith this subject I will add thatmany of the Rhodesianvalleys, which are covered with an irnpervious clay,would give excellent results if an admix ture of sandwere effected . In this simple way the physical propet ties of the impervious clay would be improved, byOpening its poresand rendering it permeable by air and

25 6

RHODESIAwater . Improvement of the soil by scientific methodsis practically unknown in Rhodesia and throughoutSouth Africa . The permanent advantage of suchirnprovement would become manifest, in the greaterproductivenessunder lessmanure which would accrue,as well as in the enhanced value of the land .

Soil, formed fromsecondary or sedimentary beds inRhodesia, is generallymore fertile than that formedfromthe primary rocks but all the soilsof the country ,(except the alluvial, ) when exposed to excessive heatand other climatic influences, become exhausted afterproducing three or four crops in succession withoutmanure .

Red soils cover a considerable area . They generallycontain 60% 70% of silicates. In some placesthey exhibit excess of ferruginous matter, are richin organisms, but deficient in lime and phOSphOl

' iC

acid and nitre . An English farmer probably wouldtreat these red soils with a dressing of basic slag containing about 40% of lime and 15% 16% of phosphoric acid but the price, at which thisdressing couldbe placed on the Rhodesian market, would prohibitits use as a fertilizer . Lime, however, is plentiful insome districts : for example, a good limestone liesN . of Salisbury . A good dressing of lime, whichdoes not contain too much magnesia, would be thecheapest and most effective dressing for the red soils.

Its price would be nomore than one—third the price ofthe so-called commercial fertilizers and it would provemost beneficial to the cultivated lands and also topasturage, where it would irnprove the production as

well as the quality of the grass.

The black-loamsoils of Rhodesia containmore limethan the red-loamsoils. This is the rule ; to which Inoted some exceptions.

The boggy-peaty soil is devoid of lime, and contains60% 80% of vegetablematter . Without an admix

non -113.

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RHODESIA

at an acute angle it appeared to receive themaximumamount of heat . It was very notable that hillswhichs10ped in different directions exhibited total difierencesof temperature, soils, and vegetation . Those whichs10ped away fromthe sun were by far the coolesttheir soil containedmoremoisture their vegetation wasmore luxurian t andmore succulent The greater theSpecific gravity of the soil, somuch the greater is itspower of retaining heat . This, in a subtropical climate ,is a drawback . Some soils are known to have beencompletely sterilized by heat .I noted that plants and grain ripened earlier in dark

coloured than in light-coloured soils. Mildew and

fungus aremore prevalent on light than on loamy claysoils. The earlier the cereal cr0ps were, the less werethey affected by fungoid parasites. I already havetreated of the subject of deep ploughing inmy generalchapter on soils. I willmention here that injuriousinsects are more numerous where ploughing is deep,than they are where it is shallow . I can account forthisonly by the theory that insect-pests delve as deeplyas possible in the soil in order to escape the attentionof themany birds which prey upon them

Even if all the soils of South Africa were similar inquality and equal in value, there stillwould remain thequestion of altitude which limits the cultivation ofvegetable-life . Granite-soils especially depend for

their fertility on elevation and exposure . In Englandwe know that artificial grasses will not thrive at an

elevation ofmore than feet above the level of the259

the brznrh es ci strt ts and trm tmd to shorten and to

Tl'z guu alm fion ot ddesia is as various as

W and h rge ams in the Xa th-eastemand

than most other parts of Son th Africa . Matabelelandpasture

'

s d ose and sweet . Judg ing fromthe stock

which thrives thereon , it possesses nutri tious qualitieswhich are of a higher order than those of any South

African Colonies. Mashonaland pasture ismuch longerand coarser and not so suitable for stock , except in some

Matabeleland stands unrivalled in South Atrien forstock-farming. Mashonaland, owing to its greaterrainfall and humidity and the richn ess of its soil, is

more suitable for agriculture.

A long sojourn in Rhodesia is neces sary in orderto obta in a practieal knowledge of the various grasses,

am the indigenous genera being very numerous. Thefarmers hitherto have neglected the study of vege

table-life and, inmost cases , are quite ignorant of theeconomy of the grasses and plantson which their stock

260

RHODESIAdepends. It would pay the farmers to investigatethe question of the digestibility of grasses, rough and

coarse , at different periods of their growth , not only atthe time of grazing but also, when used as fodder in theformof hay . Close-cropping of pasturage by stock inlate autumn , for example, leaves the root with little ornone of the sapwhich issouseful to the growth of grassand prevents the vigorous renewal of the pasture inearly spring . The numberless genera of grasses and

plants which compose the pasture of the coun try, thedifferent periods of their development, the infin itevarieties of soil on which they sprout , the climatic conditions which govern their ex istence, and their struetural constitution , forma most complicated subjectfor investigation . Some indigenous grasses propagatethemselves by seed others, by root-layers others,again , by surface-layers. The last aremore flourishing than all the rest . The specific differences in theproducts of the various grasses prove that the differentspeciesderive different products fromthe soil. Vegetation , which is characterized by a small systemof foliage ,proportionately exhausts the soil of more commonnutritive matter than large-leaved vegetation . Inoted one place where a great damhad been erected .

The surface had been scooped froma large area of landclose by, and transferred to the embankment of thedarn . A fine indigenous grass was growing mostluxurian tly on the exposed soil. Itsmat-like appearance did not resemble that of any South African grassknown tome and I at first took it for the produce ofimported seed . Where sheep and cattle could graze ,there was very little of it left . Stock of all kinds rushedfor it , and never tired of nibbling it to the very roots.

The farmer only could accoun t for it by saying that itwas of spontaneous growth . I noted a verisimilarphenomenon on a railway-cutting east of Bloemfontein .

The surface soil had been removed, and thrown aside26 1

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RHODESIAwithout expressing my humble opinion that at leastas pioneers of civilization in savage countries, thesons of St . Ifiigo Lopez de Recalde have no equal ,judging fromwhat I saw at Chisawasha.

Marandellas, another distri ct of Mashonaland, isvery healthy and well pastured . It is in every waysuitable for stock-farming, as the railway fromSalisbury to Beira traverses it, affording facilities for transport .Insiza is one of themost favoured districts ofMata

beleland. It is a rich alluvial valley of exceedinglyfertile soil, well-watered, and quite suitable formixedfarming . One of the leading men of Insiza isMrRixon , a pioneer of the coun try , and an energetic bonafide and most practical farmer , who makes his farmpay . Thisdistrict affords ple nty of scope tomen witha predilection for well-watered fertile soil.Major Heany has succeeded in establishing a droveof eattle on the Essexvale property, which belongsto the Matabele Gold Reefs and Estates Company.

This estate is fenced ; and the eattle so far are freefromRedwater . That fact is a valid argument infavour of fencing and isolation . Major Heany is

developing the Essexvale Estate in a systematicmanner . Large portions are under irrigation . Someof these are let to tenan ts at 203. an acre . If all theLand Companies (which own farms in Rhodesia)were to imitate the admirable example of theMatabele Gold Reefs and Estates Company, there mightbe somethingmore extensive in the way of progressto report .The Khami Valley (in close proximity to the VryburgBulawayo section of the Rhodes ian Railway) is a veryfertile area of Matabeleland . Many fine farms are

situate here, some vacan t and some occupied . Amongthe latter,Mr . Dan Vincent’s farmdeservesmention .

The Shangani Valley and the Fig-Tree and Plum

25 r

ill HM !

la lulu

coast -lagl r. lllree.

Ii t. Vlaeset.

mm".

SOUTH AFRICATree distri cts, are very suitable ares s for stock

The North-Eastern Province is divided into dis

tricts. The Brurrsn Soo'

rn ArarcaCouramr’s oflicersare established throughout this vast area . Thenatives, numbering about give no trouble ,being very submissive and satisfied with the new

order of things. They pay their taxes and are not

unwilling to work for the white man . A few en terprizing store-keepers have fix ed themselves at vari ouspoints and a. few farmers and stock-raisers find the

country very promising for agriculture and pas

turage The Company owns large droves of cattleand supplies settlers with breeding-stock on mostadvan tageous terms Grazing land is practicallyfree . Excellent pasturage may be secured now at

very small outlay.

As the country has been proved, for ages by thenatives and latterly by the whiteman , to be a healthyeattle country, no great risk attends inves tmen t inland or eattle in North-eastern Rhodesia .

The chief feature of Matabeleland, of Rhodesia,

of South Afri ca, the Eighth Wonder of the World,”undoubtedly is the Victoria Falls on R. Zambesi ,which were discovered by Dr . Livingstone in 1854.

Above the Falls, the river is yards (orwell over a mile) in width . Here it precipitatesitself 400 to 420 feet into a voleanic rift in blackbasalt rocks, throwing up columns of spray to a heightof more than feet . The bottomless chasminto which the boiling torrent falls is not more than15 to 20 yards wide . Towards the east there is a

gap, in the perpendicular walls, only 100 yards inbreadth , throughwhich thewhole of the concentra tedZambesi rushes with incredible speed , fury, and con

fusion ,

”escaping by the singularly close huge zigzags

of a gorge or cahon forty-five miles in length . A252

RHODESIAcomparison of these dimensions, with those of thecelebrated American waterfall, puts Niagara in its

proper proportion . I will place the figures side byside in order that an accurate ideamay be attainable .

Victoria Falls. N iagara F alls.

Width of river at fall over amile about i mile.

Depth of fall 158- 167 ft .

Horse-power H .P . H .P .

It is not necessary forme to dilate upon the beautyand Splendour of this unique masterpiece of Nature.

That already has been done by eminent writers likeDr . Livingstone,Mr . Thomas Baines (who wrote in

andMr . E . F . Knight (the distinguished warcorrespondent of theMorning Post, who wrote quiterecently) . My office is purely practical and confinesme to consider the relation which the Victoria Fallsbears to the agricultural and pastoral prospects of

South Afri ca . I have no hesitation in describingthis asmostmomentous : for itmeans the harnessing of the illimitable force of the water, and thetransmission of electric power all through Rhodesia,at least within a radius of 300 miles. This workalready is contemplated by the African ConcessionsSyndicate, Ltd . , under the Chairmanship of Mr .

W. A . Wills. In a highly minerali zed country likeRhodes ia, the applications of electricity will be almostnumberless. Mr . Francis Fox , writing in Cassier’sMagazine,” says

Goldmines to the south-east, the coal mines of Wankie,and the Imperial copper deposits in Barotseland

,which are

believed likely to prove among the greatest in the world,

would all require power to a very large extent. Chemicaland metallurgical industri es will be attracted ; and, if

alluvial gold deposits ex ist, as reported, in the vicinity of

the Falls, theymight be cheaply worked by hydraulicking ,that is, washing down the beds by powerful water jetssupplied by electri cally driven pumps. Water also wouldbe required for irrigation ; and ploughing , sawing timber , and

253

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RHODESIA

gave ashes of difierent qualities. Yet the granite,fromwhich the different soils were formed , exhibitedno difference . It was composed of quartz , siliceoussands, and felspar . The soil on the steepest s10pes,more especially on those which gave towards the rainyquarter , was the poorest soil. It had been exposed tothe action of the heavy downpour of centuries of rainyweather , which hadwashed away all valuable elementsThe soils on the gentler Slopes, which were not somuchexposed to the action of torren tial rains, still retainedsome quantity of plant food . Consequen tly they wereof amuch smaller specific gravity ; and their vegetation wasmore ex tensive, with leaves of a brighter greenandmore abounding in sap. I also noted that thesoil of the steep slopes had been deprived, not only ofall vegetable matter but also, of the felspar of thegranite which contains a large quan tity of potash .

The felspar , in being released fromthe granite in theformof fine dust , is carried away by the water to thelower valleys, where it forms a stifi imwrvious clayinvariably sterile when deposited alone . There, itproduces vegetation of poor quality . In dry weather,it becomes hard baked, shrinking and cracking in theprogress. On the other hand, when the felspar remainsWith the other componen ts of the crumbled granite rockon the gentler Slopes, the soil has a certain fertility.

It is not suitable for agriculture : although it possessessome value as pasturage beeause its grass is early andsweet in Spring-time.The soil, of those valleys which lie under granite

slopes, variesconsiderably. Where itschief constituentis the decomposed felspar , it isunworkable . Where itis of a peaty nature, it is of little value owing to theexcess of vegetablematter which it contains it is also

unworkable by reason of itswetness in wet weather andits dryness in dry weather . Other valleys, however ,which contained amiscellaneousmixture of the various

255

SOUTH AFRICA

strata and vegetable-matter all washed down and

deposited-together by the rains, cannot be surpassedfor fertility and reproductive power .

a.m These enormous tracts of rich alluvial soil, in the

valleys and on some of the plains in the Highlands, areamong themost valuable assets of Rhodes ia . They liein parallels at regular intervals across the watershedfromnorth to south . Each rich alluvial valley istraversed by a river or streamof perennially flowingwater . Springs are numerous ; andmanymore couldbe developed at small cost . The climate, also , of thes evalleys is healthy and bracing andmany thousandsof farmers engaged in mixed farming and stock-raisingcould find pleasurable and profitable occupation here .

Apart fromthese alluvialareas, thebest all-round soilsare found where the rocks have come together naturally . Granite and greenstone (or trap) produce a veryfertile soil beeause the lime,magnesia, and oxide of

iron , which granite lacks, aresupplied by thegreenstone .

Where these rocks are in timately blended, the soil isinvariably good . Now, when we know that this process,as carried out by Nature, givesa good result the logicalconsequence, viz . the imitation of Nature 5 methods,ought not to be neglected by the Rhodesian farmer .

There need be no difi culty whatever about it for the

necessarymaterial is generally close at hand ; and theexperiment is of the simples t . A top

-dressing Ofgranite-soil on peat, of greenstone or peat-soil on

granite, of clay-soil on sand or peat, willwork a completechange in the chemical constitution Of the soil by a

singlemechanical Operation . And while I amdealingwith this subject I will add thatmany Of the Rhodesianvalleys, which are covered with an impervious clay,would give excellent results if an admix ture of sandwere effected . In this simple way the physical propet ties of the impervious clay would be improved, byOpening its poresand rendering it permeable by air and

25 6

RHODESIAwater . Improvement of the soil by scientific methodsis practically unknown in Rhodesia and throughoutSouth Africa . The permanent advantage of suchimprovement would become manifest , in the greaterproductivenessunder lessmanure which would accrue,as well as in the enhanced value of the land .

Soil, formed fromsecondary or sedimentary beds inRhodesia,

is generallymore fertile than that formedfromthe primary rocks but all the soilsof the country ,

(except the alluvial, ) when exposed to excessive heatand other climatic influences, become exhausted afterproducing three or four crops in succession withoutmanure .

Red soils cover a considerable area . They generally l ed sells.

contain 60% 70% of silicates. In some placesthey exhibit excess of ferruginous matter, are richin organisms, but deficient in lime and phosphoricacid and nitre . An English farmer probably wouldtreat these red soils with a dressing of basic Slag containing about 40% of lime and 15% 16% of phosphot ic acid but the price, at which thisdressing couldbe placed on the Rhodesian market , would prohibitits use as a fertilizer. Lime , however , is plentiful insome districts : for example, a good limestone liesN . of Salisbury . A good dressing of lime , whichdoes not contain too much magnesia, would be thecheapest and most effective dressing for the red soils.

Its price would be nomore than one—third the price ofthe so-called commercial fertilizers and it would provemost beneficial to the cultivated lands and also to

pasturage, where it would improve the production as

well as the quality of the grass.

The black-loamsoils of Rhodesia containmore limethan the red-loamsoils. This is the rule ; to which Inoted some exceptions.

The boggy-peaty soil is devoid of lime, and contains60% 80% of vegetablematter . Without an admix

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RHODESIA

at an acute angle it appeared to receive themaximumamoun t of heat . It was very notable that hillswhichs10ped in different directions exhibited total diflerencesof temperature, soils, and vegetation . Th ose whichsloped away fromthe sun were by far the coolesttheir soil containedmoremoisture their vegetation wasmore luxuriant andmore succulent . The greater thespecific gravity of the soil, somuch the greater is itspower of retaining heat . This, in a subtropical climate,is a drawback . Some soils are known to have beencompletely sterilized by heat .I noted that plants and grain ripened earlier in dark

coloured than in light-coloured soils. Mildew and

fungus aremore prevalen t on light than on loamy claysoils. The earlier the cereal crops were, the less werethey affected by fungoid parasites. I already havetreated of the subject of deep ploughing inmy generalchapter on soils. I willmention here that injuriousinsects are more numerous where ploughing is deep,than they are where it is shallow. I can account forthisonly by the theory that insect-pestsdelve asdeeplyas possible in the soil in order to escape the attentionof themany birds which prey upon them.

Even if all the soils of South Africa were similar inquality and equal in value , there stillwould remain thequestion of altitude which limits the cultivation ofvegetable life. Granite soils es pecially depend for

their fertility on elevation and exposure . In Englandwe know that artificial grasses will not thrive at anelevation ofmore than feet above the level of the

259

"MI G .

“i l . .

SOUTH AFRICAsee : but what Shall we say of South Afri ca, wherealtitudes vary from15 feet to feet andmore inmoun tainous districts, and where the average altitudeis to feet ?I need not draw comparisons between the luxuriantgrowth of the vegetation in the rich valley soils of

Rhodes ia and the dwarfed and stunted character of

the vegetation produced on poor soils. I only willsay that such luxuriance of foliage and roots and sapdenotes also an increase in the nutritious qualities of

the herbage and, consequently, in its agricultural andpastoral value . I noted that , in an arid situation ,

the branches of shrubs and trees tend to shorten and to

stiflen while the thorns becomemore thorny and that ,in a humid situation , the con trary effect wasman ifes t .

coastal The general vegetation of Rhodesia is as various asthe soils and climati c conditions. Matabeleland ,Mashonaland, and large areas in the North-eastern and

North-western Provinces, have a better grass-coveringthanmost other parts of South Afri ca . Matabelelandpasture is close and sweet . Judging fromthe stockwhich thrives thereon , it possesses nutritious qualitieswhich are of a higher order than those of any SouthAfri can Colonies. Mashonaland pasture ismuch longerand coarser and not so suitable for stock, except in somedistricts where continuous grazing has been going on

for ages."st-W ' Matabeleland stands unrivalled in South Afri ca forstock-farming . Mashonaland, owing to its greaterrainfall and humidity and the richness of its soil, is

more suitable for agriculture .

A long sojourn in Rhodesia is necessary in orderto obtain a practical knowledge of the various grasses,

allele-lea the indigenous genera being very numerous. Thefarmers hitherto have neglected the study of vogetable life and, inmost cases, are quite ignoran t of theeconomy of the grassesand plantson which their stock

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RHODESIAdepends. It would pay the farmers to investigatethe question of the digestibility of grasses, rough and

coarse, at different periods of their growth , not only atthe time of grazing but also, when used as fodder in theformof hay . Close-cropping of pasturage by stock inlate autumn , for example, leaves the root with little ornone of the sapwhich issouseful to the growth of grassand prevents the vigorous renewal of the pasture inearly spring . The numberless genera of grasses and

plants which compose the pasture of the country, thedifferent periods of their development , the infin itevarieties of soil on which they sprout , the climatic conditions which govern their existence , and their struetural constitution , forma most complicated subjectfor investigation . Some indigenous grasses propagatethemselves by seed others, by root-layers others,again , by surface-layers. The last aremore flourishing than all the rest . The specific differences in theproducts of the various grasses prove that the differen tspeciesderive different products fromthe soil. Vegetation , which is characterized by a small systemof foliage,proportionately exhausts the soil of more commonnutritive matter than large-leaved vegetation . Inoted one place where a great damhad been erected .

The surface had been scooped froma large area of landclose by, and transferred to the embankment of thedam. A fine indigenous grass was growing mostluxuriantly on the exposed soil. Itsmat-like appearance did not resemble that of any South African grassknown tome and I at first took it for the produce ofimported seed . Where sheep and cattle could graze,there wasvery little of it left . Stock of all kinds rushedfor it, and never tired of nibbling it to the very roots.

The farmer only could accoun t for it by saying that itwas of spontaneous growth . I noted a verisimilarphenomenon on a railway-cutting east of Bloemfontein .

The surface soil had been removed, and thrown aside26 1

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RHODESIAwhen green , is readily eaten by cattle . This grasswouldmake very good hay , if mown in the flowerstage but,mown in the seed-stage , it is innutritious.

III . (Unnamed) A bluish grass of the Sweet vari ety .

It has serrated edges is supple and of a fresh greencolour , and not unlike Stink-grass in appearance .

IV . (Timothy Grass) One of the favourite grassesof the country, 2 -

4 feet high . The seed-heads arevery rich and full : the undergrowth is short and

sweet . Cattle thrive well upon it . This grass shouldbe cultivated wherever it is possible in South

V. (Unnamed) This grass grows luxurian tly on old

ant-heaps which have been turned over for cultivation by the natives. It is the Sweet grass to whichI refer (on p . 26 1 ) as growing (apparently spontaneously) where the surface soil had been removedto build a dam, and (on pp . 26 1-62) where the top-soilhad been removed to lay the new railway near Bloemfontein . It has short and very thick undergrowth ;and inclines to forma mat-like covering for the

ground. I was not able to find any of this grass inthe flower or seed-stage ; and the fact of its beingso readily eaten by animals, prevents its free growthinto seed . I noted that, wherever stock could getat it, it was cropped to the very roots.

VI . (Bastard Tambuki ) A grass of the Sweetvari ety . It has thick pale green undergrowththrows out shoots on secondary stems at each poin t ;and grows to a height of 6 feet . It is fairly nutritiousand practically forms the body of the veld grass of

VII . (Unnamed) A grass of the Sweet variety.

It has broad green blades, and very heavy seedheads is of a tall nature ; and grows luxuriantly inthe bush-country . It is much liked by cattle : butnot by horses andmules, who prefer a shorter grass.

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SOUTH AFRICA

VIII . (Unnamed) A feather-head grass, Sweet andlight, with spiky undergrowth .

IX . (Unnamed) Another feather-headed grass, Sweet ,with a strong and full undergrowth , and several tuftsin seed-head of a bunchy appearance .

X . (Red-grass, or Rooi-grass Has a full fine

undergrowth , and short light seed-heads Sweet , andfairly nutritious all the year round : is readily eatenby cattle and horses. It occurs in a gian t and

a dwarf-variety . The latter makes very good hay .

It should be cultivated wherever the conditionspermit .XI . (Assegai Grass) A Sour grass ; of little use

when it is permitted to grow fromyear to year withoutbeing mown , or, unless it is eaten -down by animals.

When it is cropped low, cattle will eat it . Itsmostnotable feature is the abundance of seed which it distributes in the dry weather , after the sheaves of

barbed threads have been loosened.

XII . (Stink Grass) A Sour grass, of a bluish greencolour , with serrated edges. It has a strong smellwhen crushed in the hand turns red in dry weatherand, when it is burned, its ashes are brick-red.

XIII . (Unnamed) A short grass of the Sourvariety . It is rather uncommon in Rhodesia : but

it covers large areas in the eastern parts of the OrangeRiver Colony .

XIV . (Unnamed) A grass of the Sour variety . The

stemresembles that of Bastard Tambuki . Hasa thinspiky undergrowth .

XV. (Unnamed) A grass of the Sour variety . Ithas a thin hair-like undergrowth, and short thin seedstems.

XVI . (Unnamed) A short light innutritious grass,which grows on poor light soil.XVII . (Unnamed) A very frai l grass, with a

delicate narrow undergrowth .

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RHODESIAXVIII . (Unnamed) Very Similar to No . VI . , but

of a paler hue, and not so rigid .

XIX . (Conch Grass) Resembles the couch or

quitch-grass which is common in every country . Itgrows where other grasses will not grow ; and all

animals will eat it readily . Like the other grasses,it is a weed in cultivated lands : but it is said to bean excellent milk-producer . It creeps along thesurface very quickly ; not in the formof new plantsspringing fromscattered seed but, in the formof

new plants springing fromnew roots struck by old

stems spreading on the soil. The agriculturist, whodesires other crops, will find Couch-grass an ubiquitousand insidious foe.

XX . (Unnamed) Has a long seed-head, minuteseed, and thin bloated undergrowth .

XXI . (Unnamed) Has a straw-like stem, and

narrow long undergrowth .

XXII . (Unnamed) A long grass, similar toNo. XVI .but stronger and larger in seed .

Th ere apparen tly were many other varieties : butit was diflicult to tell whether they were not of someof the species (which I have noted here) growingunder difierent conditions.

No general systemof agriculture or stock-farming SYSTEM.has been adopted in Rhodesia as yet . Each farmer micellegoes about his own busin ess in his own way and at

seen .

his own time .

The ploughing of the land is done chiefly by oxen Hala l".

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RHODESIAselves for treatment , nevertheless they may be foundunsuitable in Rhodesia, which totally differs in

climate, surface , soil, and other essential conditions,from those countries for which modern farmingimplements have been devised. It must be remembered that the general experience of the SouthAfrican farmer is that it is often a toss-up betweena crop and a failure .

Principles, which are applicable to commerce, are

not always applicable to agriculture . Machinerywhich increases the production and lessens the costof such production , is an economical advantage tothe commercial industry : because it is in con tinualuse throughout the year . Consequently productionbecomes automatic ; and profit can be coun ted to

a nicety . The conditions of agriculture are altogether different . In agriculture, there works thelaw of Diminishing Returns which means thatincrease of labour does not increase produce to an

equivalen t degree . In manufacturing industries,there works the law of Increasing Returns whichmeans that every increment of labour adds morethan a proportionate incremen t of production .

An expensive plan t like a steam-ploughing tacklecosts some thousands of pounds by the time it islanded in South Africa . When it is set to work, itis required only for a short period of the year . Theoperations of agriculture are periodic, and not con

tinuous. Implements, which can be used onlyduring a few days or weeks, and afterwards are storedfor eight or nine months, or left on the Open veld(as the South African customis) , naturally are ex

pected to pay in terest on first cost during that shortperiod . If an irnplement ormachine (employed everyday in the year) did its work at half the cost of another, no competitor could afford to employ thelatter : but, if the former is only to be employed

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Prlllclplfl .

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SOUTH AFRICAduri ng a short period of the year, it becomes a questionwhether the more primitive machine , which costsbut a trifle, (and is quite as efiicient) , would not yieldasmuch profit as the expensive modern one.

The South African farmer either has to dependon very raw natives to handle his implemen ts, or topay white men at the rate of 153. to 253. a day and

their rations. The Kaflir has no difficulty in learningto handle the orthodox implements. Work , whichis done only now and then , is not so easily learnedand is very easily forgotten . The Kaflir may beshewn how to use modern implemen ts and perhapshe will learn to employ themfor the short period towhich they are appropriate . When the nex tyear arrives, hismemory willhave become a blank or

hemay have left the farmfor some other and easieroccupation . It is the desultory conditions of agriculture which add to the farmer’smany difficulties.

It is said that , with primitive instruments thefarmer cannot plough enough of his land during theploughing season . This isone of the arguments usedin favour of steam-ploughing tackle . Once in threeyears, the farmer perhapsmay be sorry that he hasnot ploughed more ground but the usual experi enceof the South African farmer, during two years out of

three, is that he has ploughed too much . In thisconnection , I will narrate an incident . An Englishscientific farmer , who had established himself in theOrangeRiverColony just before theWar , ploughed and

cultivated (in the best and most expensive manner)a plot of five hundred acres of land . His neighbour ,an old Boer of South African experience, treated a

plot of ten acres, the work of six short days with a

Span of oxen . Both farmers sowed mealies : bothcrops made an excellen t beginning. The Englishmanprivately dubbed the Boer a duller fathead thanever . And then , locusts laid both fields brown and

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RHODESIAbare ; and both crops hopelessly were lost . The

Boer, in high glee. did not omit tomake the Englishman aware that it is worse to lose five hundred thanto lose ten acres ofmealies.

The results, of the many new systems which now mumaare being tried in South Africa, are extremely important ,and deserve to be noted with care . There has beena boomin the agricultural-implement trade . Manyof the newly imported implements undoubtedly willbe of great assistance to the farmer . Nevertheless,one thing must be remembered . There are farmers,who were in South Africa before the War , who stillare there, and who have not been too unprogressivetomake a fair trial ofmany new-fangled implements.

Very many of these last, which are only of recentimportation , are cast-out now on the veld, and dis

carded in favour of the less expensive and moreprimitive implements of the country . This I saw.

Until the South African farmer has gained pos m i l.-llsession of a market , suflicient labour, and some cer

tainty of fairly regular crops, he will be well advisedto prefer experimenting with ordinary ploughs drawnby oxen , mules, or donkeys, rather than to waste hiscapital in steam-machinery .

It will be argued that the diseases of Rhodesian anon-Ir .cattle render themunavailable for the plough . If IN N“

Rhodesia will get at the root of animal-diseases,there will be no lack ofyokes of oxen for the plough,of droves of cattle, flocks of sheep, and troops ofhorses for her magnificent pastures. That is theproblemwhich Rhodesia has to solve not steamploughing , but the prevention of disease and, aboutit, there need be no difficulty whatever .

Let us take the case of a mine-owner whose gold ”I 'Mproduction is limited by the amount of labour at his

earliness.

diSposal. Would he prefer a small and inexpensivebut effective battery, which he could use advan

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RHODESIAr Quality, price, position , of available land .

2 . Cultivation of those crops only which will command an unfailing sale at remunerativeprices atmarkets within reach .

3. Calculation of the yield of such crops, based on

a seven years’ average .

4. Cost of Production , (a ) Implemen ts (b) Labour .

5 . Cost and possibility of obtaining manure for

maintaining fertility of soil for successivecrops.

6 . Supply and quality of labour available .

7. Amount of capital at disposal, and amount ofcapital actually required fully to equipfarm, and (if necessary) to tide over badyears while gaining familiarity with thepeculiar natural drawbacks and conditionsof the country .

An ideal systemof agriculture is one where the Idealsyslsn .

fertili ty of the soil is annuallymaintained or increased,and where an average crop can be grown year afteryear without the purchase of artificial manure . Mr .

Hull’s systemof farming on the Farmbelonging tothe Rhodes Trust in theMatOppos appeared to meto be sound and practical . Considering the shorttime he has been in occupation , he seems to haveacquired a singularly thorough knowledge of thelocal, as well as the general, conditions of agriculture .

Needless to say that some men seize salienciesmuchmore swiftly than others : it irnplies possession of

a natural aptitude . Mr . Hull grasps the situation .

He is content to acquire more knowledge froma

series of elementary experiments. Patience is a

virtue with him and hemakes no undue haste . Hetrusts in Providence but he does not omit to do allthat aman can do to help himself . I noted that hehas a well-kept garden a sure sign of awell-cultivatedand well-managed farm,

— 700— 800 fruit-trees with

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SOUTH AFRICAvegetables growing between them. The weeds werekept-down ; and the garden-produce looked mostpromising. I was not disappointed by the way in

which the farmitself was cultivated . Th e land wasthoroughly well-ploughed to the depth which I con

sider to be most suitable for South African soils.

Oat-hay, barley, mealies, and lucerne, formed the

main crops. Th e cultivated lands lie around the

homestead : hundreds of other acres were beinglevelled and prepared for cultivation . A vast amoun tof labour has been put in to this farm. Water-furrows,with an aggregate length of thirty-five miles, havebeenmade systematically to traverse the cultivatedlands. Soil has been transferred fromone situationto another . Some hundreds of tons of boulders havebeen removed : the land has been stumped and

levelled . In fact , everything has been done whichcan be done, as it should be done . Lucerne , sown

previous tomy visit , in a plot of about twen ty-fouracres, was making fair progress. Th e Mealie-crop ,which only had one shower of rain during the twomonths it had been in the ground, was a very promising crop . It was one of Cecil Rhodes’ last actsto import the seed of thismealie-crop fromEgypt .The dam, erected by Cecil Rhodes for the irrigationof this farm, is a great success. It was full of waterwhen I saw it ; and had the appearance of a hugelake . The cost of this dammust have been enormous ; and I doubt whether it will be a financial

success. But it was erected for the purpose of

demonstrating what can be done in Rhodesia ; andI have no doubt whatever but that it magn ificentlywill serve as the object-lesson which the genius of

Cecil Rhodes des ired to offer to his eponymouscoun try .

Manuring, and maintaining the fertility of thesoil, is a matter deserving serious and systematic

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RHODESIAattention . An ancient customof the Romans was amto treat their lands with greenmanure . This customstill obtains in every coun try which ever owned theRoman sway . In Italy, they sow bean and vetchin France, clover : in Germany, borage : in England,turnips, buckwheat , clover , rape , etc . The customalso travelled fromEngland to North America, wherethey sowmealies. The crop is ploughed-ih , to enrichthe soil with additional vegetable matter . The

value of such manure is of the highest order for thenitrogen of the soil thereby is increased by the additionof the nitrogen which the crop has ex tracted fromthe air . In South Africa, the practice is to burn all

vegetation which cannot be sold . By resorting to

the old Roman method, the wholesale exhaustion A. ssldss.of cereal-growing lands would be arrested .

In such a climate as that of Rhodesia, the application of artificial manures (especially those manureswhich contain a high percentage of insoluble matter)is not always successful. The cost of such manuresin South Africa is double that for which they are

obtainable in England . Therefore, the Rhodesianfarmer will find it greatly to his advan tage to adoptthe cheaper, and certainly not less effective , methodof fertilizing his land with green manure , lime, ad

mix ture of soils, or kraal-manure . Should he, however, be unable to adopt any of these systems, andbe compelled to purchase artificial manures, then I A. ”um.

think that he would do well to purchase suchmanuresexclusively on the un it system, i .e. buying on an

analysis, and paying only for the actual amountof plant-food therein contained . To cart tons ofworthless rubbish , for the sake of a small contentof plant-food , is unprofitable business to the

farmer who does not need to add to his own burdens.

A[very low-grade super-phosphate, containing 10 14lbs. of plant-food to the 100 lbs. ,

is dear at any pri ce273 r

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RHODESIAin South Africa must be cen tred in the developmentof the extraordinary mineral-wealth of the country.

As the mineral-industries expand, agriculture will

flourish increasingly near the towns. The advocateof irrigation , as a panacea for all agr icultural evilsin the coun try, might perchance render a verymuchmore substantial service to the agriculturist of to

day and of the future, and to the coun try as a whole,by pressing forward the development of the minesand of the general mineral-wealth of the country .

The expansion of industrial activity must tendmaterially and directly to the natural expansionof agriculture. Artificially to force agriculturaldevelopment , in order to satisfy a certain politicalexpediency, must result in the creation of a class

of agricultural paupers which will prove a source of

serious weakness to the Government of the future.

Inciden tally itmay be mentioned here that a census,of min ing employees on the Rand (taken before theWar) , gave a return of 97 of British nationality .

The prime necessity for agriculture,is to create

market and a demand for agricultural produce . As

that processmakes headway, the demand for irrigation schemesmay arise and will be justified by thehard logic of events.

The natives cultivate large areas ofmealies (maize)and millet, which they call munga.

” This lattercrop has the advantage of immun ity against theattentions of locusts. Kaffir corn (mabele) is the

chief grain grown by the Matabeles they use it chieflyin the formof porri dge and a species of beer . Poko,

the favourite grain of the Mashonas, is raised in largequan tities but it seldomis seen in any other portionof South Africa . It grows in all situations, and in

almost any kind of soil ; and produces a small seedwhich is highly nutritious and much appreciated bythe Mashonas. It is grown fromseed but the trans

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SOUTH AFRICA

It is said that coflee cannot be grown at a lower

altitude than feet . Rice flourishes in someof the swamps. The Pea-nut or monkey-nut, an

underground plant , is grown extensively by the

natives : who extract its oil, and also make beerwith it .

The India-rubber Creeper is a native of Rhodesia,

and a great source of income to the n iggers. The

North-west Province is noted for rubber, in whichthe natives do a great trade . The growth , preparation , and disposal, of this in creasingly importantcommodity may be witnessed in nearly every dis

triet . It is known , on the London Market, as LoandaNigger Rubber ”

; and finds a ready sale at 23. 6d.

to 33. 6d. a lb . A certain Portuguese had a store at

Kalomo a little while ago, which was overflowingwith rubber representing a bulk of loads, eachload having a local value of £8 . The rubber-industryonly needs scientific development , and it will becomea source of great wealth to the provin ce . At presentit sadly needs protection fromwanton damage doneby natives who dig

-up roots in the most mercilessmanner, selecting the best roots, and leaving theundeveloped roots to wither on the surface . TheGovernmen t will do well to protect , encourage,and develop this industry, whereby both settlers and

natives cannot fail to be benefited . I have been ledto this conclusion by perusal of Major Colin Harding’svery interesting report to the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICACOMPANY, to which document I amindebted for

some of the facts here cited .

Cotton grows wild . In 1902, a serious attemptwas made to grow cotton on the Borrowdale farm.

The plan ts were in a healthy and very vigorous con

dition , when I saw themin April. The crop appearedto promise well. The land had been well-cultivated .

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RHODESIAThe manager, a thoroughly practical agri culturistfromScotland, had done his part admirably. Thencame an early frost which damaged the whole crop .

It had been anticipated , more or less, because an

attempt had been made to obtain the seed for plan ting a mon th or two earlier . The experiment , however , ismost valuable, in that it proves the fact thatgood cotton can be grown at the proper time . Thenex t stage in the experiment is to find out the preciselyright time for planting , so as to conclude the harvestbefore the arrival of the frost . I amof Opinion thatthere will be a great future for the cotton industryin Rhodesia, provided that labour be plentiful and

cheap . This industry is eminen tly suitable for theemployment of native women and childrenThe wild Castor-oil plan t is the most luxuriant

and prolificweed-shrub in Rhodesia . It growsin almostany soil, and yields a large quan tity of berries. Itis valuable as an oil-plant , and as a deadly poison tolocusts.

Africa is known to produce the largest and strongestforms of terrestrial animal-life . The indigenousanimals, the lion , elephant , hippopotamus, thinocorus,girafle, antelope, etc. of Africa are unequalled by thequadrupeds of any other country.

The domestic animals, cattle, sheep, horses, goats,pigs, are not natives of Africa . Animals have a

greater power of adaptability to climatic and otherconditions than plants. Most , if not all, of the domesticanimals of Rhodes ia have been imported at one time

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RHODESIAable. They have in them that which cannot beimported , and yet that which is absolutely necessaryin cattle which are to be reared with successunderthe peculiar conditions existen t in South Africa , viz . ,

the indigenous Nature. The Angoni and Mashonacattle seemed tome to have been stunted symmetrically by natural conditions, in order that theymightthrive better on the pabulumoffered by the veld .

The geological study of Rhodesia is importan t tothe stock-farmer . I noted throughout South Africa ,

that Similarity of geological formation existed Sideby side with similarity of breed in cattle and similari ty MWof physique in the native . Rhodesia has large areasof feldspathic land . The small breeds of cattle , suchas the Angoni and Mashona, are the produce of suchsoil ; and the Mashona native is a weed comparedwith specimens of tribes existing on different soil andformation . The small breeds of native cattle are

more suitable for granite-soils than the larger breeds.

The latter are liable (on granite-soil) to becomeaffected by rickets or paralysis, by reason of the lackof phosphates. I often noted the small breed and thelarge breed of cattle grazing together on granite-soil.The former were generally in prime condition : the

latter were in poor condition . In other districts, Ioften saw similar breeds of cattle grazing on calcareous soils. They both exhibited stronger bone,moremassive body, relatively Shorter limbs, and infinitelybetter general condition than the Specimens of the

same reared on the feldspathic veld .

The small breed of cattle ismore suited to Rhodesian A. splslss.

conditions, except where winter-fodder and shelterare provided . Under the latter circumstances, thelarge breeds probablywould be the best in every way.

Cattle and goats, do ex tremely well in Southern Asln sls.

Rhodesia and in the Loanga district and on the Tanganyika plateau. Most of the cattle in the latter

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SOUTH AFRICAdistricts are of the Angoni brwd. They thrive welland they so far have been free fromdisease. Nutritiousherbage grows plen tifully in the valleys and vleis.

Horses,mules, donkeys, do better here than in mostparts of Rhodesia. They are well-housed, and wellcared-for in every way . The Loangwa and Tan

g anyika districts are the only districts where horseshave been kept and, up to a short time ago, no ease

of horse-Sickness has been reported . The cost ofkeep and care of horses here ismerely nominal. Grainis plentiful ; and bamboo-leaves (of which horses are

ex tremely fond) take the place of forage.Goats and Fat-tailed Sheep thrive inmanydistricts.

It is, however, highly neces sary that the intendinggoat or sheep—farmer should make a very carefulstudy of local conditions before adventuring his

capital. An amusing but ominous inciden t was

narrated to me by a Rhodesian land-owner who,

at the reques t of his tenants living in a place calledFilabusi in Rhodesia, bought a tribe of goats. Therehad been no goats in the district before this. Soonafter their arrival they began promptly and inex

plicably to die one after another , un til the wholetri be was gone . The astounded farmer asked someof the natives whether they knew why the goats haddied . Well, Baas,” was the intelligent response,the name of this place is Filabusi , which signifies

in English Deadgoat and naturally no goats havebeen able to live hereThere undoubtedly are certain districts in Rhodesia

where goats and Afrikander Sheep should thriveex tremely well : but, un til the tall grass has beeneaten-down regularly for some years by cattle, sheepfarming (ex cept in the few favoured distri cts) hardlycan be expected tomakemuch progress. The Highlands of Rhodesia will some day be suitable forsheepbut that day is not yet .

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RHODESIAFew districts of Rhodesia are suitable for horses.

Horse-Sickness is very virulen t during three or fourmonths in every year. If a remedy could be foundfor this malady, a consummation devoutly to he

wished Rhodesia would become a favourablehorse-breeding country . The grasses and the climateare most suitable : but, as long as pest is w e wwf

'

moun t it is not advisable to have any horses in thecoun try, unless they themselves are salted or theirowner is prepared to stable themduring the feverseason .

Donkeys are getting in to favour with farmers Donkeys.

and transport-riders, owing chiefly to the fact thatthey are immun e against horse-sickness and nearly all

other diseases. The present price of donkeys is extremely high but, even at one third of the presentpri ce , donkey-farming could be made to pay handsomely in Rhodesia where a block of suitable landcan be obtained at a nominal price.Mules are subject to horse-Sickness, though they l slss.

are not so susceptible as horses. They are veryuseful animals for transport but the ox so far is themost useful an imal for transport and farm-work inRhodesia.

Ostrich-farmers Should do well in Rhodesia, wherethe birds run-about wild . At the time of my visit ,I came across a pai r of wild ostriches with thirteenyoung ones.

The reason why North-eastemRhodesia is free ll Prsvlsss

fromanimal-diseases, while Southern Rhodesia is mu“infested by Redwater and Lung-sickness, is con

tained in the one and only method of eliminatingall animal-diseases fromSouth Africa — viz . isolationand proper precaution . The healthy area of North ltssssss.

eastern Rhodesia has, between it and SouthernRhodesia, the effectual barrier of R. Zambesi . Cattle,fromthe North, are permitted to go to the South

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RHODESIA

Farms vary in size , position , price , and fertility.

Matabeleland farms average morgen , or a littleover acres. Mashonaland farms averagemorgen , or a little over acres. Somehundredsof farms have been allotted by the BRITISH SOUTHAFRICA COMPANY to Land Companies,who hold themin blocks in conjunction withmining and other rights.

Some of these companies farm portions of theirestates : others let farms to tenants : butmost of thefarms at present are unoccupied , by reason of thescarcity of tenan ts. Many farms were gran ted bythe Government to the early pioneers. Every man ,

who didmilitary service at the time of the Occupation ,

was en titled to a farmof morgen in Matabeleland or of morgen in Mashonaland . Some of

these pioneers promptly sold their farms to landcompan ies, or to individuals and betook themselveselsewhere . Others settled on their land ; and are

still there . Finally, many farms were leased or sold ,by Government or by the land-companies, to new

comers. All these farms were granted under varioustitles. They are now held subject to quit-rents,which vary according to the different titles. Singlyor collectively , these farms are available for new

comers. Their prices are most tempting , in comparison with those which rule in other parts of SouthAfrica, asmay be seen fromthe following table

Cape Colony, average price of landOrange River Colony ,

Natal ,Transvaal ,

(Cf. chapter on LAND TENURE AND LAND VALUES. )

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SOUTH AFRICAThe Rhodesian Government has innumerablefarms ; and some of themmay be classed as the bestland in South Africa . The Rhodesian land-companiesas well as private owners, have also numerous farmson sale or lease at nominal rates.

At the close of the South African Campaign , and

un til quite recently, Land-Hunger was a verygeneral man ia in the Transvaal and Oran ge RiverColony . It never affected Rhodesia. Land and

farms, there , were (and now are) as a drug in the

market . The place is so vast and so new : thesettlers at present are so few. Elsewhere, wildspeculation set-in on the streng th of an expectedmshinto the coun try after the War . It became knownthat the new Governments were buying as muchland as they could get at any price for purposes of

land-settlement . This gave an additional Spurt toprices. Further, there was the ofl-chance of findingpreciousminerals ; and, failing the actual finds, therealways was a golden Opportunity of fooling the publicregarding the metalliferous possibilities of SouthAfrica. Several wild-cat schemes were palmedoff successfully . Transvaal farms became fashionable and profitable coun ters in the hands of pro

fessional gamblers. Where Nature had not markedthe difference between the Transvaal , Rhodesia, andNatal , a wire fence served to denote the boundariesof these states ; and sufficed to mark a difference ofhundreds and thousands of pounds in the value offarms within or without their limi ts.

But Rhodesia was moved by none of these things.

She was not fashionable ; and, therefore, she was

neglected by the gamblers and the Speculators. SomeRhodesians felt themselves left out in the cold . Themore headstrong of themdashed-off towards whatthey fancied was an Eldorado. Many sold theirfarms, In feverish haste to join the scramble in the

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RHODESIATransvaal . Others pined to follow : but failed torealize their property.

In 1896 , Rinderpest swept away 95% of Rhodesia’

s

cattle . Then came the native rebellion . It was

followed by the BoerWar , in whichmany of Rhodesia’sbravest sons fought , and lost their lives for England .

After that , ensued the gambling fever just described.

And, finally the Red-water Plague has been playinghavoc with Southern Rhodesia’

s cattle .These events account for the presen t low price of

land in Rhodesia. There has been , as it were , an

ebb-tide in her history ; and it still is an ebb-tide .

But the intermitten t tendency of Nature will preclude its long duration . Even now it requires no

very ex traordinary foresight to see that a great changeis at hand ; and that such change can be only forthe better, and for perpetuity. Meanwhile it behovesRhodesia to make her preparations, and to set her

house in order. Her Administrators ought to realizewhat an asset it has in sq . miles of land and

seriously to consider the best method of developingthe country for farmers on sound and scientific principles. If this is done, and done now, Rhodesia willbecome peopled by a superior class of farmers, owningstock which will redound to the credi t of South Africa.

On the other hand, if the Government continuesto legislate on lines which are purely parochial ,”continues (for example) to ti nker with Innoculationas a remedy for all thediseases which are the scorpionscourges of Rhodesia, instead of attacking their root ,the major part of the country will remain desolate,and its Sparse population dissatisfied. Things beingas they are, and no guarantee forthcoming thatauthority will do as other authorities successfully havedone, and stamp out once and for all the animaldiseases, which have wreaked such devastation in thepast (and which are in the power of men to eradi

285

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RHODESIAwords and phrases over the mind, and (d) the traditions of the past . The subjectmust be approached ,and its particulars examined with a perfectly openmind.

Rhodesia is a new country, not much more thanten years old. Before its occupation by the English ,it was a native wilderness. In ten years, wonderfulprogress in civilization has been made. The miningindustry has been exploited and developed . Rai l

ways, roads, and towns have been erected . Agriculture and stock-farming have been begun ; butare still in their infancy. Though few in number,the farmers of Rhodesia have shown excellent spirit,grit, in most dishearten ing circumstances ; and haveovercome many preliminary difliculties which , at

first , appeared to be insurmountable. Rhodesia now

has arrived at that stage when it becomes necessaryto interrogate Nature as to Her secrets. To put llstsrs a sst

Nature to the question , concerning Her secretmethods, lalsmmeans a seri es of experiments which are often longand always costly. But , there is no other way ; andthe results are infallible and of value inestimable.Ten years of a farmer’s life is but a short time forexperimenting with land . Since the Occupation ten

years ago, numerous obstacles forced themselvesupon the farmers, causing experiments to be abandoned after much trouble and expense had beenincurred . Many deductions, drawn from such in

complete experiments, have proved invalid in thelight of subsequent more leisured investigations.

Careless observation (in the field) resulted in erroneousconclusions (in the study) . My examination of theproblemtaught me that the experiments which havebeen made , were not made by experts, nor withsuflicient accuracy and finality ; and, therefore , Icannot adopt themas the basis ofmy reasoning.

It is absolutely necessary that experiments should287

SOUTH AFRICAbe made on Rhodesian land, in order to establishonce for all the possibilities as well as the impossibilities of this vast dominion . Th ese experimen tsmust bemade by the beneficence of some real philanthrOpist, or (as amatter of plain duty) by the Government of Rhodesia : but they must be made . It isnot easy at present to es timate the financial valueof such experiments. A large proportion of the worknaturally will give negative results. Yet even thes ewill have practical value : for they will shew thefarmers of Rhodesia the things which ought to beleft undone ; and that often is quite as importan ta lesson as the truth about the things which oughtto be done . There are so many peculiari ties of thesoil, so many appropriate ways of cultivating it, somany differen t soils, manures , seeds, implemen ts,times, seasons, natural conditions, to be considered .

Even the most scientific agri culturi st , aided by all

the local experience avai lable, is bound to be perplexed by the attempt to cultivate the soil ofRhodesia.

Hitherto, erroneous Opinions have led to gravelyerroneous practice . But, armed with a thoroughknowledge of conditions, agri culture and stockfarming should not only be possible but profitableto the English settler . And such knowledge can

be obtained only fromtrue records of the results of

scien tific experimen ts.

sssrsss g Rhodesia’

s three great natural sources of wealthare

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RHODESIA

(a) Minerals(b) Cotton , rubber, tobacco, vegetable-fibre and

-oils, sugar, tea, coffee(0) Pasturage .

Themineral industry for the presentmust be placedbefore the farming industry . Rhodesia is an inlandcountry, possessing no natural means of transport ,no navigable rivers, no harbour or sea-board . Th ereis only about one white man to every 80 or 90 sq .

miles of terrain . The natives create no demand forfarm-produce, being quite able to provide the samefor themselves. Consequently, if Rhodesia is to beprimarily a farming country, shemust seek hermarketbeyond her own frontiers. And that she is not yetready to do.

It is impossible to conceive of a company, (possessed of any pretensions to knowledge of commercialprinciples) building railways of the enormousmileageof miles, across a country which has only

white inhabitan ts, with the hope that agriculture would flourish sufliciently to enable sucha railway to roll its rolling-stock and pay a dividend .

I doubt that a singlemile of railway would have beenbuilt in Rhodesia, but for the mines and those thathave their pleasure (and work) therein . For thesereasons, I do not hesitate to give the mineral industries the premier place . And I affirmthat theman ,

ormen , who develop the saidmineral industries, willdomore for the agri cultural and pastoral industriesthan any scheme which any government possiblycan put

-forward . The miner and the farmer are

interdependent . Neither can exist alone bothmustbenefit together : but it is on the shoulders of theformer that the latter can climb to amuence. Thetwo industries go hand in hand : but theminermustlead , at least until the coun try can boast of a con

siderable white population . Then , the farming289 I!

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RHODESIASouth Afri can stock-farmer . Severe drought , poorquantity of grass and inclemen t weather duringthree months of each year, often cause himto losemany sheep and cattle through want of extra food .

This never need happen , when the uses of cottonare realized . And, in Rhodesia, cotton grows wild .

But I will go further . A ton of cotton fibre , at 7d. a

pound, represen ts a value of £65 63. 8d. Let this becompared with the value of a ton ofmealies at 103. to

155 . a bag of 180 lbs. , which (at the very most) is£5 103. to£6 . The railway-rate (for cotton andmealies)which is based on weight, would be equal .

Impartial justice demands the expression of an

Opinion concerning Rhodesia’

s promising pasturage ;and I ambound to state that the price atwhich itcan be acquired , and its pre eminent suitability forstock-raising, give Rhodesian pasturage the firstplace in South Africa . I have examined the grassesof Rhodesia , the stock which grazes on these grasses,and the circumstances attending the practice of

stock-raising . These leave no doubt in my mindas to the indisputable supremacy of Rhodesia as a

stock-raising coun try ; and, on this account , I placepasturage among her three great natural resources.

I Should like to support the Opinions, which I haveexpressed , by reference to those ofmen whose viewsare entitled to every consideration . Professor Bryce ,in hiswork called Impressions ofSouthAfrica , says

Regarding the pastoral and agricultural capabilities of

the country there need be little doubt. All of it, except

29 1

Oslslsss

I y l'rs

I ) m.

I ! fl l’. E. II.

SOUTH AFRICAthose lower grounds to the north and son th-east which are

infected by the tsetse-fly , is fit for cattle. Some parts , such

as theMatoppos Hill inMatabeleland and sti ll more the

Inyanga Plateau inMashonaland, Ofler excellent pasture.

The high Veld of CentralMatabeleland is no less availablefor sheep. The quality of the soil, for purpose of ti llage,has been tested by Europeans in a few places only . Muchof it is dry ; much of it, especially when the subjacent soilis granite, is thin or sandy. Still, after allowing for thes e

poorer tracts, there remains an immense area of land which

is fit to raise cereals, and some tropical crops such as cotton .

The immediate question is not therefore as to the producti vecapacities of the country but as to the existence of amarketfor products themselves.

Mr . F . C . Selous, than whomthere is no greaterauthority on South Africa, says

Fifty years ago, this fine country (Mashonaland) musthave been thickly inhabited, as almost every valley has at

one time or another been under cultivation . On the summitof every hillmay be found the walls, in amore or less per

fect state of preservation, of what I think must have beencattle kraals. The peaceful people inhabiting this par t of

Africamust then have been in the zenith of their prosperity .

Herds of small but beautiful cattle lowed in every valleyand their rich and fertile country doubtless aflorded themabundance of vegetable food .

”

In another place Mr. Selous remarks as to the

climateAs good a one as anyman has a right to expect in th is

troublesome world.

”

Mr. Maund saysMatabeleland is probably themost healthy part of South

Africa and its agri cultural capabilities are surpassed bynone. The soil is very rich and there is plenty of water

in running streams that abound .

”

In regard tominerals,Mr. E . H . Garthwaite saysThe results already obtai ned fromthe producing pro

perties Show conclusively that Rhodesia is bound to forgeahead as soon as the numerous temporary draw-backs underwhich it isstruggling at present are removed. The gradually

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RHODESIAmoreasing yield of gold has not been in proportion to whatit would have been had it been possible to give each property its quota of natives and to have forwarded the

machinery which has been waiting so long at the coastThe various distri cts despite the difi culties of thepast

two years are going ahead with their development work,with the result that before long Rhodesia will have amuchlarger representation of producing mines ; and while not

every prospect will become a paying property , still the per

centageof successfulmineswill probably compare favourablywith that of any other quartz gold mining country in the

world .

”

In view of these favourable testimonials, it maybe asked why Rhodesia Should be so much behindthe other South African Colonies in the matters ofpopulation , agri culture , stock-farming , and miningindustri es. At the risk of repetition

,I submit the

following poin ts in response to such a query .

1 . Rhodesia was occupied by white men for the latency.

first time only about ten years ago.

2 . It then was the farthes t colony fromthe area m a

of civilisation : with which , as with the coast , it hadno commun ication by railway or water .

3. Rinderpest slew 50% 95% of the stock in 1896 .

4. In 1896 also, the natives rose in rebellion , compelling all the whitemen to seek safety in the towns.

The latter sufiered the total destruction of theirproperty, houses, stock , etc. , by the barbarians.

5 . In 1899, when the country was recovering from War. less.

the two previous disasters, the Great Boer War

broke out. Very many Rhodes ians offered their293

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RHODESIAher would place them in an ex tremely awkwardposition . The contrary is the case with Rhodesia.

If She could be removed a few thousand miles fromthe Transvaal , it would be to her very great advantag e .

9. There is another reason why farming has not

made the progress, which reasonably might havebeen expected of it in a country where the naturalcircumstances are so favourable . It is that Rhodesia’

s

leading ofi cials are mining and administrative, and

they do not possess equal efl'

rciency in regard to theagricultural and pastoral industries.

At the time of my visit, the Agricultural Department was a subsection of some other department . Itcertainly could boast of a very able Veterinary Ofi cer

inMr . Gray : but his powers were limited by theignorance of others and, therefore, his abilities wereannulled . I will mention Mr. Edrnonds also as a

thoroughly capable ofl'

rcer : but the staff of stockinspectors (whose emciency ought to be indubitablein a country afflicted by so many diseases) seemedto have been recruited fromthat class of men whonever have , and never will have, any practical knowledge of stock . I heard of one of these ofi cials, who,

in the course of his duty, took occasion to examinea pen of Sheep which the Government had purchased .

He Opened the mouth of a sheep for the purpose ofinspecting its teeth ; and incontinently exclaimedthat it had no front teeth in its upper jaw ! Pro

ceeding to the others, he found themall to be in a

similar predicament ; and he was on the point ofrejecting them, when some one (who had seen Sheepbefore ) in formed himthat Nature had formed thewhole race of Ovis arias without incisors on thepremaxillary bone .

I intend the foregoing remarks as a serious and

deliberate condemnation of the Agricultural Depart295

m. u

SOUTH AFRICA

ment of Rhodes ia as it was at the time ofmy visitand I will proceed to substan tiate my Opinion .

The Rhodesian Times for April 26th, 1902, givesan account of a largely-attended public meeting offarmers and others, at which the following resolutionwas carried

Mashonaland most earnestly beg the Government to procure expert opinion fromSouth Afri ca to co-operate w ithMr . Gray (veteri nary ofi cer of Rhodesia) in inves tigatingand dealing with the present epidemic so disastrous to

cattle-owners and farmers in this district. Furthermore ,

it is our firmOpinion that delay in dealing with thismatterwill be disastrous to the general commun ity .

Even ts proved these farmers firmOpinion to

be only too well founded. Delay did prove dis

astrous to the general community. Here was information publicly given and in no uncertain voice.

In England, and in all countries which are run

on practieal common-sense principles, farmers are

penalized with heavy fines if they do not give instan tinformation to the proper authorities of an outbreakof infectious or con tagious disease, to the end thatinfected stock may be confined to isolated areas.

A few days later, the Landowners’ and Farmers’Association passed the following res olution , whichI ex tract fromthe Bulawayo Chronicle ofMay 3rd,1902

In view of the present cattle sickness having been inMashonaland for the last two seasons, and whereas the headof the Agr icultural Department duri ng that time took no

decided measures effectually to stop the Spread of thedisease, and as even now there appears to be some doubti n theminds of the Department as to i ts actual nature, thisAssociation hasunanimously decided to request the Government to separate the Agricultural and Lands Departments,and appoint at the head of the former a qual ifiedman , whowould be able to devote his whole time and

the agri cultural interests of the country , and who wouldkeep himself in touch with the requirements of the farmin gindustry .

”

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RHODESIAAccording to theRhodesian Times ofMay 24th. 1902,

a resolution , in identical terms with the above waspassed by the Mashonaland Farmers’ Association .Mr . Edmunds, Speaking at thismeeting, said

They had two great scourges rinderpest, and thepresentdisease. Did anyman believe that , in the former instance,eflectivemeasures had been taken to prevent the spread of

rinderpest He believed that one practicalman at that

time could have done more to stop its spread than the

eflorts of the whole Agri cultural Department. Had the

provisions of the Cattle D isease A ct been promptly put inforce, many of themwould have been in a better positiontoday . Had they ever heard any complaints against the

Heads of theMining Department (Voices, No,

Another resolution moved at this Meeting was tothe following effectWe unanimously consider that the local Government

authorities (Agri cultural Department) are directly respon

sible for the heavy losses incurred by settlers.

”

Mr .McArthur, at a publicmeeting of stock-owners,said

It is an open secret that bothMr . Orpen (Head of the

Agri cultural Department) andMr . Gray (Veterinary Ofi cer)have expressed the Opinion that the disease was Redwater

,

that it was bound to go through the country , and that the

Sooner it did so the better .

”

Colonel Raleigh Grey sent a letter to the head oftheAgricultural Department contain ing thesewords

If you are correct in saying that temporary legislationcannot be obtained in this country -(he was referring to

prosecution of natives who were spreading Redwater throughoutthe land by carrying about diseased meat) I repeat thatthe present systemis a relic of barbarism, and unworthy of

modern principles which have characterised themaking of

Rhodesia .

I readily admit that (because the coun try is unfenced fromone end to the other) the difi culty , whichthe Agricultural Department would have had to

I 'm

mnesIllssas-ltlss.

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RHODESIAThe animals responsible for the dissemination of lung

sickness were mainly loot-cattle purchased at

and drawn fromvarious parts of the Transvaal

disease was peculiarly rife.military movements preventinganything like a systematic attempt to stamp it out . The

mortali ty resulting fromlung-sickness has been consider

Here again under stringent regulations efficientlyadministered , cattle suffering from lung-sicknesscould have been detected and isolated, and infec

tion prevented : but where carelessness characterisesofficials, (especially stock-inspectors) who know ratherles s of the disease than the cattle which they inspect ,such measures become impossible . It is an injusticeto aman likeMr . Gray that , in the onerous positionwhich he holds, he should not be supported and assistedbymen of competent knowledge and practical commonsense . Incidentally also it is a criminal injustice toRhodesia.

A great deal toomuch time waswasted in propounding theories concerning the name and character of thedisease then known as Redwater .

” The case demanded instan t action . The facts were known to

everyone that the disease (whatever its namemight be)was contagious that it was of a most virulent anddeadly nature ; and that all cattle, which came incontact with in fected cattle, never failed to contractit. An effective cordon drawn round infected areaswould have confined the disease to those areas. Thevalue of isolation was proved byDr . whohad

cattle placed in the experimental yard at Bulawayo,railed off by a fence , and kept only four yards awayfromthe infected cattle . The former remained immune ; while the latter were dying all round them.

But the efficacy of isolation is indisputable. There arenumerous examples in Rhodesia . The Essexvale

( 1) Dr . Koch’

s 2nd Report on African Coast Fever , page I .

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As sslslss.

Isslstlssthe Panacea.

SOUTH AFRICA

eattle, which were fenced in , are free fromdisease .

And several other casesmight be cited, where the foresight and private enterprize of Owners did (for theirown cattle) what public officials ought to have done(for the cattle of Rhodesia) .I must state my conviction that it is the serious

business of those , who wish to see Rhodesia advance toher right place in the front rank of South AfricanColonies, profoundly to consider what is best for thecountry’s welfare . Better to sacrifice one man , or

one hundred men , tha n to immolate Rhodesia herself upon the altar of ofi cial inefi ciency .

In order that I may not be unfair toMr . Orpen , Irepeat that the Agricultural Department , at the timeofmy investigations, was but a branch (which he hadcreated) of the Lands Department (over which hepresided) . He was not, and did not claimto be , a

professional veterinarian . His position was Simplythat of Surveyor-General , with the experience of a

colonial farmer and a considerable amoun t of unprofessional knowledge of scientific and veterinarymatters.

Further , he received no extra remuneration while actingas Chief of the new Agricultural Department . I givehimfull credit for the active and admirable methodswhich he adopted with Signal success in the case of theRinderpest and I firmly believe that similarmethodswere imperatively necessary in the later case of Redwater .

In 1902 , Earl Grey,Mr . Alfred Beit , and Dr. Jameson , as Directors of the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY ,Mr . J . F . Jones , Join t-Manager, visited Rhodesia.

It is not improbable that the question , of severing theAgricultural fromthe Lands Department , was con

sidered then and that the wise course (since adopted ) ,of establishing a live Agricultural Departmen t with a

practicalman at its head, was determined-upon . But ,when I was in Rhodesia , the thing was not yet an

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RHODESIAaccomplished fact . I had the pleasure , however, ofmeeting the presen t Head of the Agri cultural Department of Rhodesia, and of discussing agri cultural andpastoral prospects with him. Mr . ROSS Townsend isa thoroughly practical farmer . He has been throughthemill. He is ex tremely keen , and well-in formed onallmatters connected with the land and the businessof his Department . While I have been writing on

South Africa, Imyself have been in frequent communication with him and the responses returned tomyvarious interrogations indieate, in my opinion , thatBri tish South Africa possesses a capable and valuableofi cial inMr. Ross Townsend . I think that he Shouldhave a free-hand for carrying-out his ideas for thebenefit of Rhodesia . One thing, which he already hasdone,meritshigh encomiums. I allude to the establishment of the Rhodesian Agricultural j ournal, a very m. Sewer.

useful and interestingmagazine under the editorship ofMr . Sawer.

But the coun try has suffered in other ways besidesthis matter of unchecked or tinkered-with cattleplagues. Many desiring and desirable settlers havevisited Rhodesia with the intention of prospecting forfarms. They have gone as far as Bulawayo. A littlewhile later they have returned, bitterly complaining ofthe scan ty information which they have been able toobtain , and the mann er in which they have beenexploited . This kind of treatment has caused themtoshake off the dust fromtheir feet at Rhodesia and togo away utterly disgusted . I will cite the case of aMr. Robinson . He was an Australian with a capitalof about He came to Rhodes ia after thePeace of 1902 , to look for a farm. Interrogated as towhether it was with the country itself, or with the wayin which he and his friends had been received, that hewas disappointed, he responded

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RHODESIA

and shareholders, I feel inclined to add : for

I know of no other public company , like the BRITISHSOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, which has spen t so muchmoney in a concern known to be unlikely to makeprofitable returns formany years. But both directorsand shareholders have faith in the vast possibilities of

Rhodesia and, consequently, wheremoney is wantedit is not spared . People , who take a short view of

Rhodesia, do not know or have not realizedHer possibilities. The case is one for a long view ; and thereward will exceed the expectations of even themostsanguine. Hence the sacrifices, which directors and

shareholders have made and still aremaking . Fourteen years ago, Rhodes ia was a tract of barbarisminhabited by howling savages. Today, She hasmiles of railway, fine cities, and public buildings, a

legislative assembly, courts of justice, churches, hospitals, schools, museums, libraries, telegraphs, telephones, and all the appurtenances of civilization .

It is pure fatuity to attempt tomeasure the progressof Rhodesia by that of other colonies now in theiradolescence . Comparison shews that , even in Her

Infancy, She has outpaced themall. The Transvaalwith its rich gold-belt, Natal the SO-called Gardenof South Afri ca , the Orange River Colony theso-called Granary of South Africa , are far

behind Her in railway-enterprize alone . And Her

expenditure has been met by those who expected no

immediate return . Further, I do not think that anyother colony in the world could have had the pluck (tosay nothing of the ability) to survive the reverseswhichhave been Rhodesia’

s portion . I have had occasionto blame the Agri cultural Departmen t in connectionwith the Redwater plague. But never let it be forgotten that instantly, when it was known that an

unknown disease had to be faced, the BRITISH SOUTHAFRICA COMPANY procured the services of Dr . Koch ,

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SOUTH AFRICAthe world’s leading bacteriologist , to make investigations on the spot . It is true that other South Afri canColonies undertook to defray a Share of the expensebut Rhodes ia’

s quota amounted to at leastThis isnot the first (nor the last)magnificently practiealand successful step which the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICACOMPANY has taken . Dr . Koch was employed also in1896 to combat Rinderpest and, at great cost (whichthe BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY willingly paid) ,a certain remedy was found . Every South Afri eanfarmer to-day reaps the benefit of this splendid en terprize and the scourge of Rinderpest is dreaded no

longer, since Dr . Koch’smethod of innoculation (thendiscovered) efiects immunity . It is almost imposs ibleto imagine what England would have gained , if wehad discovered such a remedy at that time whenRinderpest visited our country every few years, Slaying millions of the cattle upon our thousand hills. Of

course preven tion is better than cure .

” I readilyadmit that the Englishmethod , of prohibiting importation , is the safestmethod of preven tion but itmustbe repeated that the area of England is ten times lessthan that of South Afri ca , where fences , or farmers ina position to fence their farms, are few and far between .

Many years elapsed before we, with all our naturaladvantages , were able to eradicate cattle-plaguesbut, owing to the prompt action and initiative of theBRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, the Rinderpest ofSouth Africa was got under control in a comparativelyShort period . When reviewing the acts of the BRITISHSOUTH AFRICA COMPANY ,

it isnecessary to consider thatit is not an independen t government with unlimitedcredit or unlimited power of taxation . And I amquite sure that , if Rhodesia had been founded as a

Crown Colony, She would have had (at the presentperiod of Her existence) but few, if any,milesof railway;and that those few miles, if erected by governmen t

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RHODESIAofi cials, would have been of far inferior construction to,at double the cost of, the present system. Finally Iamconvinced that the Colonial Office under a Conservative rég ime , or a Liberal regime, never could or wouldtake the same broad and in telligen t interest , in thedevelopment and welfare of Rhodesia, as the directorsand Shareholders of the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICACOMPANY .

Duringmy travels in South Africa , I came in contact up man.with most of the governmen t ofl'

rcials of the variouscolonies. Among these I ought to distinguish Sir

WilliamMilton , the head of the administration in

Rhodesia, as a cautious and able statesman held inhigh esteemby all Rhodesians, who at all times isready toassist legitimate industry . As far asminingis concerned, Sir Williamhas been aided by able andcapable ofli cials and, now that the AgriculturalDepartment is no longer a branch of the LandsDepartment , due atten tion indubitably will be paid to thein terests of husbandry.

Sincemy return toEngland, I have had opportunitiesof discussing the subj ectwith the Duke ofAbercorn , thePresident of the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, and

also with the Vice-presiden t , Earl Grey, whose onlyambition seems to be the good estate of Rhodes ia .

Lord Gifford ,Mr . Lyttelton Gell, andMr . Maguirehave done verymuch to shewme the real attitude ofthe board of directors in regard to Rhodesia and Iamcognizant also of the great in terest which Mr .

Alfred Beit takes in Rhodesia .

I therefore unhesitatingly assert that Rhodesia’

s

position is an unusually favourable one for no CrownColony in the world could get governmen t officials, paidby the Crown , to act assagaciously andwhole heartedlyas do the directors of the BRITISH SOUTH AFRICACOMPANY towardsRhodesia. The reason isno secretthey unfeignedly believe in her laten t potentialities ;

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RHODESIA

youthat one is nearer England in Rhodesia than in any

other part of Africa . Hospitality to guests is as trulysacred and binding a duty in Rhodesia as:it was in

the Ithaka of Odysseys. But Professor Bryce hasdelineated the characteristics of the Rhodesians of

today in words which are nobler andmore true thanmine can be ; and I will give place to him. Hesays

There is a glimpse of personality developing itself under“simple yet severe conditions, fitting to bring out the real

power of theman . After half an hour’s talk, you part asthough you were parting with an old friend yet knowingthat roof is not likely ever to cover both of you again .

There are, of course, rough and ill-omened explorers and

settlers in South Africa as in other new countri es ; but,having wandered a good deal in different countri es on the

outer edge of civilisati on , I was struck with the large proportion of well-mannered and well-educatedmen whomone

came across in this tropical wilderness.

”

These , and other salient and incomparable featuresof Rhodesia,

— her stimulating climate , rich pasturage,ex tensive mineral area, political securi ty, the heartywelcome which the settlers do extend (and which letus hOpe, the Governmen t will ex tend in future) to all

newcomers,— augur well for the prosperi ty of thecoun try . She Should become indeed, in no long time,like unto the Rhodes of old the mother of lovelychildren .

” The philosophic observer,who isdevoidof predilection for the other colonies, must hold thatRhodesia is an immense political and economic gainto King Edward’s Empire. She holds out, today, inher illimitable natural resources, inducemen ts whichwill attract, not pauper colonists but, colonists of thatgrand type which England, alone among the nationsof the earth, has produced in the past, and will producemthe future to be the credit and the glory of SouthAfrica .

Meleagros of Gadara. To Andragathos, x ii . 52 .

307

am .

Oeneleelea.

Political Aspects of Land

SettlementHEN the end and object of the Great BoerWar

began to appear likely of achievement , theminds of politicians became exercised by a vitallyimportant problem The necessity was urged ofestablishingmen of English origin and Imperial sen timent in the rural districts of the late Boer republics.

The idea was that such establishmen t would renderimpossible a recrudescence of those dissensions and

disorders whichmarked the closing years of the nineteenth century. It was thought that the creation of a

considerable class of loyal subjects of the King’sMaj esty would produce the conditionswhich are indispensable for the future prosperity of South Africa .

Two proposed solutions of the problemmerit note .

The first contemplated the settlement of soldiers,(veterans as well as activemembers of the service) , onthe soil of South Africa . This scheme strongly recommended itself toMr . Arnold Forster ,M.P . who took thetrouble of making investigations on the spot in the

capacity of a Royal Commissioner . But, after earefuland elaborate enquiry, in which he was assisted bythe wide experience of an able colonial farmer,Mr .

Southey, he reached the doubly signifieant conclusionthat the land was not suitable to the soldier, and thatthe soldier wasunwilling to remain on the land . The

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POLITICAL ASPECTSinevitably must be successful on any terms. But,though the political object has not been accomplished, avery valuable object-lesson has been g iven . TruthemergesmorequicklyfromErrorthan fromsays Lord Bacon . We learnmuch fromthe wisdomofour antecessors but we learnmore fromtheir franticstruggles in pursuit of truth . Themost practical (andassuredly the most attractive) examples always seemto be derived fromprevious failures, fromthe inevitableblunders of pioneers, fromthe ex travagances of humannature in unwonted circumstances.

Things being as they are, it is only natural to lookround for a victimupon whomto cast blame . Thereis a disposition , in some quarters, to vituperate LordMilner for themisearriage of land-settlement schemes.

In my Opinion , this is adding injustice to error. It istrue that Lord Milner is responsible for the administration of South Africa : but South Afri ca contains fivehuge colonies, each with its own government ; and

Land-settlement is only one of many matters whichengage His Excellency’s attention . It is a sheerimpossibility, even for so capable a High Commissioneras Lord Milner , himself to treat all the details and all

the multifarious minutiae of every department of

administration . He is compelled, by themere fact ofnatural dimensions, to depend largely (if not entirely)upon others for the in formation upon which his actsare based and, by the same token , he is obliged toentrust to others the task of giving efiect to his decrees.

If the data of experiments be erroneous only an in

accurate result can be obtained . If the premis es befalse , the conclusionmust part ake of a similar disability.

Lord Milner could have known nothing (for example)of the farms which the Land-settlement Boards werebuying or of the fabulous prices which were

Veritas ex errore emergi t citius quamex confusione.

3rr

ll-lh

l l llllty l l

SOUTH AFRICApaid . He undoubtedly has done his part in appoin tingthe best possiblemen whomhe could get for the ca rrying

-out of the Land-settlement (and other) schemesI t was not possible to get really qualifiedmen for everypost yet , in most cases, His Excellency’

s selection of

officials has been justified by results and perhaps theLand-department is the only section of administrationin which the employment of unqualified officials is tobe reg retted . Imyself, on several oceasions discussedthe problemof Land-settlement with Lord Milner and

I found both his knowledge and grasp of detail, andthe practical nature of hismethod of action , to be quitesurprising . I amconvinced that , if His Excellencyhad had time and opportunity to carry out his ideas inperson , Land-settlement in the new colonies wouldhave been probablymore successful . But the circumstances of the case have compelled the High Commissioner to delegate his authority to various omcialsand these, in turn , have appointedminor functionaries,many of whomare incompetent and, (if it be necessaryto blame persons instead of things) , I aminclin ed tothink that it is to these last that the debacle of TransvaalLand-settlement is due.

The task , of finding an expiatory scapegoat, is indeeda perplexing one. Imyself have no hesitation in con

signing it to the categ ory of irnpossibilities. For thereasons given above, I deemit unfair to blame theHigh Commissioner . I also deemit un fair to load theLand-settlement Boards with all the blame simplybecause the Press, the Public, and the stress of circumstances (over which the Boards had no control)were equally delinquent if delinquen t be the aptword for use in this connection . The settlers (themajority of them, at any rate, ) forced themselvesuponthe Government at the termination of hostilities. Thepress of the coun try incontinen tly clamoured for theinstant establishment of settlements on behalf of ex

312

POLITICAL ASPECTSirregulars and others. Very glorious things werespoken , with (what Kipling calls) unimpeachableinaccuracy.

’ Many of the would-be settlers actuallywere induced to expect free gifts of land and stock onpresen tation of visiting card . And so every sort ofman became persuaded to bombard the Boards withapplications. The bonafide settler did not find thegovernmental terms at all satisfactory . The otherkind of settler deigned to enjoy free rations and an

easy life for a period : but, when he waxed fat, hekicked, developing a talen t for grumbling whichamounted to positive genius, and even tuating as a

thorn in the flesh of the Government . Therefore, Isay that I think it futile, aswell asundesirable towastetime in casting about for a culprit . We only have ourselves to blame ; and you cannot make a victimofa crowd . To take practical measures for remedyingpast errors, is the course which commends itself tome.

Land-settlement as at present practised, rests uponradical misunderstanding of facts. It has beenprophesied that, if a settlement were to be establishedin every district of the conquered territory, Englishsettlers would imbue the Boers with English habits,ideas, systems, politics and that our quondamenemywould prove asplastic aswax to themoulding influenceof a handful of heterogeneous Englishmen randomlysca ttered among them. It has been prophesied thatcrops (of every descri ption ) would grow so abundantlyas to encourage the settlemen t of Englishmen on theland ; and that, when once this predicted phenomenalfecundity should have been demonstrated , the countrywould become crowded with men of Imperial sentiments, reducing the Boers to a position of emphatic

I always think it rather inept to arguewith prophetsand Imerely reserve the privilege of neglecting them.

313

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POLITICAL ASPECTShave possessed but little knowledge of human naturein general and of Boer nature in particular. Let it besupposed (merely for the purpose of the argument) thatEngland has been conquered by and annexed to (shallwe say Germany . Let it be supposed (just for themoment) that KaiserWilhelm’

s government systematically is settling German emigran ts here and thereamong us, with the avowed intention of supplanting us,or of transforming our English Jacks and Lizzies intoGerman Fritzs and Gretchens. The law of the landwould prevent us fromshooting our in tended supplanters and transformers on sight but I doubtwhether we should love them, or live even on terms ofamicity with them; and I amperfectly certain thatno sane person would expect us to return froma bloodywar , to the ruins of our once happy homes, there towelcome our detested conquerors as neighbours and

examples. Our cicatrices would be too sore. Onlytwo courses would remain to us for no Englishmaneverwould consent to assimilate himself to the Teutonicideal. On the one hand wemight persuade our Germanexsuperator to become an Englishman , on the otherhand , we gently (but none the less firmly) mightostracize him, andmake it impossible for himto livecomfortably by our side, unless he would conformwithour conditions. I think that we English could dothese things for Englishmen are not Slavs. Butmypoint is that , if we English would act so in such cir.

cumstances, we shall not be ill-advised if we give ourown late very worthy foe, the Boer , credit for similartenacity in regard to his national nature. For, if we

say that the Boer is England’s friend , we deceive ourselves and the truth is not in us. All to the con trarynotwithstanding, the Boer is only England’s latelyconquered enemy so far . The Englishman and theBoer at present are mutually antipathetic ; and no

good can come of blinking the fact that their senti315

SOUTH AFRICAmental relationsmight be descri bed almost exactly inthe diatribe of Achilleys against Hektoras there are not faithful leagues between lions andmen , nor

yet have wolves and lambs an according mind, but ever

meditate evils each against other, so is it impossible for meand thee to contract a friendship. 0)

Let it be granted , however, that we have succeededin establishing a few hundred English settlers in the

rural districts of the Transvaal and Orange RiverColony, and that the Boers are not averse fromour

methods of procedure . What warranty have we thatsuch settlers alwayswill remain loyal subjects of theKing’sMajesty, in the event of their personal interest ,and the goodwill of their neighbours, becoming moreeasily obtainable by another code of conductIn the chapter on Live-stock, I have supplied typical

instances of the phenomenon of natural adaptation toenvironment where cattle, the pure progeny of pureprogenitors, literally have been forced into themouldprovided by the natural circumstances of the coun try .

It was not an uncommon thing for Englishmen to

settle in the late Boer republies. Although the Boersj ealously guarded their land, customs, and institutions,they welcomed all comers who showed a disposition toadapt themselves to existen t circumstances. Somesettlers of this species still survive . Others weresatisfied , after a few years’ experience , that SouthAfrican farming was no occupation for them. Thefaithful remn ant , who clung to the land , adopted theBoer system andmore they gradually and perhapssubconsciously iden tified themselves with the Boercharacter , until they are at length part and parcelof the Boer nation . The conditions of life amongBoers on the veld has effected the transmutation .

Contranwrse, I failed to collect evidence of a single(1) I lias, xxu 26 2—5 .

POLITICAL ASPECTSBoer who had discarded his traditions in favourof ours.

In discussing the problemof land-settlement with a

certain well-known Boer, an 0precht burgher of theTransvaal , I noted that he was chagrined when Iexpressedmy humble opinion as to the inevitablemiscarriage of the present system. Much tomy surprisehe stated his bitter disappointment . When I inquiredthe cause of his astounding attitude he admitted thathe, and his brother-Boers, had been reckoning muchupon the land-settler, knowing fullwell that they couldmould himin to their cast of thought . The newcomerwas just themanwithwhomthe Boerspreferred todealfor the old-stagers, aided by natural conditions, verysoon could reduce himto the state of clay in the handsof the potter . Not so, though , was it with themineror with theman engaged in urban industry . HimtheBoersdetested because his interest, in the very natureof it,was contrary to theirs and consequently, theirinfluence over himwas nil. In response to furtherinterrogations,my informant stated a case which (I ambound to say) seems to be as concise and as pregnant

We shall have, he said, a representative government.If youput settlers in the rural distri cts, youonly willbe g iving us a proportionately greater number of repreachtatives. These 1 settlers will be scattered about inthe very places where we Boers formthe large maj orityand, therefore their voting powers will be insignificant incomparison with ours. Bes ides, a considerable proportionof the new settlerswould be certain to vote with us becauseour politi cal programme would favour those who live on theland. Now the inhabitants of the urban districts wouldproffer a totally diflerent prog ramme,a programme favourableto urban interes ts apart fromrural interests . For example.they would want to ta x farms, to remit all protective tariflswhich stand in the

”

way of cheap living in the towns, andgenerally to shift burdens fromthe citizen

’

3 shoulders on

to the countryman ’

s. Is any farmer likely to vote for sucha policy as that ? I say that your new settlers will find it

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POLITICAL ASPECTSatmospherewherein to plan t young trees. The practicalcolonizer will go and do likewise . A broad purviewof South Afri ca is absolutely essential. Large communitiesmust be established where illimitable areasare available at a price which is reasonable . Wemustrealise our ideal of a United South Africa and, for thisend, our safest and surest policy will be to create a

poten t English element , not in those two little Boercolonies but, in South Africa as a whole . Then , and

only then , shall we achieve political consolidation .

There are three parts of South Africa which are

convenien t to this purpose .

In the Eastern Province of Cape Colony, the old

English settlers . hold their own . Their children are

educated in English schools they worship in Englishchurchesand chapels : the ideas, traditions, aspirations,of the Mother-country are cherished and reverenced .

The English settler would be welcomed here : his

notions of all that is English would be appreciated byhis neighbours to all intents and purposes, he wouldbe at home . Another likely nursery for the English Natal.

Oakmay be found in loyal Natal , the Garden of SouthAfrica, where English settlers always are received withopen arms. But, both Natal and the Eastern Provinceof Cape Colony are notwithout their drawbacks. Goodland at a fair price is very scarce indeed . The firstcomers have had their pick ; and the remainder isobtainable only at high prices.

There is onemore vast country, which has an area Rhos-ds.greater than that of all the other colonies in conjunction ,

where signally valuable advantages are oflered to the

English settler . It is not necessary forme to describeRhodesia again : seeing that I already have done so,at some length, in a preceden t chapter . I merelyindicate Her ; and invite comparison of Her quality

lendwith that of theother portions of the King’s dominion u

-‘

esn .

319

SOUTH AFRICAof South Africa,where English settlers safelymay servethe Empire, and surely may serve themselves .

To create a preponderance ofmen of English originand Imperial sentimen t on the land of the Transvaaland Orange River Colony, is a somewhat fantastic andchimeri cal impossibility . To create such a preponderance in South Africa , isa sane and practieel possibility .

We, in England, are not (or at least we ought not tobe)more concerned with one colony than with another .

Our ideal is (or ought to be) a United South Afri ee .

To realise that ideal , wemust plant our settlers wherethey are most likely to thrive and to develop theirEnglish nature and principles, unchecked, unfettered,unimpeded, by alien and adverse influences. We canafiord to leave the Boer to Boerdomin the comparatively smallareaswhich he now occupies. Ifwewish tostrengthen his power in those areas, there is nomorecertain way than by that species of Land-settlementwhich tends to augmen t his control of the polls, and toadd to the value of his land by bringing it underirrigation at the expense of the Eng lish tax-payer . Totry to oust the Boer fromhis accustomed haun ts isadiflicult and unnecessary undertaking . Better by farto leave himto Nature . If he ever becomes fit, he willsurvive : if he continues on the down-grade, well,Nature has a singularly short and sharp way with thedegenerate : ‘‘

wiping him, asamanwipethadish, wipingit and turni ng it upside-down .

”

But, when once England will neglect the variousbureaux of general misin formation and will view the

problem(of Land-settlement in South Africa ) froman

Imperial standpoin t , the practical course becomesobvious. We ought to strengthen the existent Englishcommunities in the Eastern Province of Cape Colony,in Natal , and especially in Rhodesia . They supportedthe Mother-coun try during the late War. The

countenance of Supreme Authori ty, therefore, is no

320

POLITICAL ASPECTSmore than their just andmerited due. In going throughCape Colony and Natal and (more particularly) Rhodesia, I came again and again upon home after homeof the paladins who had fought and died for England .

They were vacant and silen t and forlorn . We havelavishedmillions in repatriating Boers, and in settlingtheir coun try . We have not spent a stiver in replacingour own lost champions and defenderswith worthy andreliable successors. Is it statesmanship Or is it

political dilettanteism By planting new settlers inthe colonies which I have des ignated, the Boer willbecome shut-up to follow his own devices. If these behonourable, he will sustain neither harmnor inconve

nience. If they be evil, he will be unable to aecomplish them. And, whatever his dissensions or disordersorultimate decrepitudemay be, he will be productive ofnomore disaster for he never can be unmindful ofthe fact that, this time, he is encompassed by an

innumerable multitude of Englishmen whose cause isEngland’s.

Exrucrr

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INDEX

AAapias R 208

Abercorn , Duke of, Presiden t ofBritish 8 . Africa 305

Agricultural credi t and cc

0perati0n , 143— 151

Agricultural credi t banks, 147,149—151

AgriculturalHoldingsAct, 1851.

187s. 75Agn cr

éltural HoldingsAct, 1883.

7Agricultural Shows, 193- 194Agriculture, 95 sEngland vs.

peti tion . 96Fluctuation in crOps, 104Gold mining compared with,

95Presen t scope of, 102Prospects of, 112- 1 13Systemin Rhodesia . 26 5- 274os. Stock-farming , 1 14- 116(See also Farming)Albany, fruit-farms, 185Alston , E . G. , cultivates saltbush, 19 1Altenroxel, on tropical and sub

tropical produce, 22 1An ts, 141 , 142 , 282

Argen tine Republic, Foot andMouth Disease in , 130

AustraliaReport on Wheat-growingin , 106

Water Sup ly. 6Australian B ue-Gum, 6 5. 66Awemba coun try. 245Aynsome Laboratory , Grange

over-Sands, 9 1

a

lgoreign Corn

BBaboons, 188Bacon , Lord, quoted on Truth.

31 1

Bacon , Price of, 54Baines, Thomas, on VictoriaFalls, 253Bakewell, founder of longhorns,

44Bananas, 200Banking , Report of Lords andCommons Committee quoted , 151

Barber , Hilton , as farmer, 182,189

Barkly East, 187Barley, 272Barlow , on purchasing cattle,

1

Barolseland, Barotse Valley,246 - 247

Basutoland, 233- 234

Area . 233Barrenness, 233Black labour formines, 234Governmen t, 234Natives, 233Ponies, 233Water, 233Batoka plateau, 282

Beaufor t West , 190

Bechuanaland, 335- 240

Area and alti tude, 235Black labour . 239Bri tish Bechuanalandtectorate, 241

Cattle, 238Farms. 238Grazing land, 237Malaria, 239

INDEXBechuanaland— could .

Needs of coun try, 239ulation . 239way , 239

Rainfall, 235Sand-rivers, 235- 237

Subterranean water , 235- 237Beit. Alfred , 300 , 305Ben gweuluLake, 246

Big gersberg , 202

Black Wattle (AcaciaMimosa ) .66

Bleloch New South Africa, 221

Bloemfon tein , 26 1, 263Boers, 171

- 179An farmers, 176 - 177Atti tude towards land-settler ,

317-

318

Capabili ties. 178Characteristics, 172- 174. 175.

176 . 177, 178 , 3r4Free State, 225

- 226

Ideal pioneers, 174Indifleren t farmers, 174Law of landed property. 788 1Mode of calculating yields, 82

Needwatching , 179Origin , 171

Owners of alluvial areas, 1 1,

12

Owners of permanen t sources

8

of wealth , 175pecies, 171

Bolton , 98

Bone-meal as substi tute for

phosphates, 18

Booysen ,breeder of Jerseys, 189

Borrowdale Farm. 249 . 276277

Boulder-clay, 198Bourdillon , on farming pros

pects

in Orange River 00 any,

107- 108, 109Buck-rivers, soils and springs.

7 237Bri tish South Africa Co. , 241

Directors visi t Rhodesia , 300

U bgsality of, 127, 303, 305,

3

(See Rhodesia )Bryce, Professor . noted on

E . Bechuanalan 237Rhodesia, 29 1- 292

Rhodesian characteristics. 307324

Bulawayo. 36 , 244, 301Farmat , 26 2

BulawayoChron icle.May 3, 1902 ,

quoted on ca ttle-sickness.

396

Burrows,Mr on cattle-breedin g.38

Burton , author of Cape Colonyfor Settlers, 193

Butter , 69 -70

Boer , 69 , 71

Danish and Norman , 70

Calvina distri ct , 19 1Cape Colony , 181- 195Agri cultural advan tages. 104Area , 181

Crown lands, 193Eastern Province

Angora goats, 187Distri cts suitable for English settlers, 187Farms, Prices of. 187- 188

Eng lish settlers in , 319Farmers, 182— 187: qualifications for success, 195Fruit-farms, 185Governmen t departmen t of

Agriculture, 192Mon thly Journal, 193Graaf Reinet District oat

hay , 188

Immrts grain and flour . 104Irri gation , 18 1

Karoo : climate and soil. 190Land value in , 83, 86 . 283Midland ProvinceFarms suitable for stocksoil, 188

N .W . Province soil and rainfall, 19 1Railway-rates, 194- 195Rainfall, 181Rivers, 181

Soil in wheat district ex

hansted , 108

Surface, 18 1

Vegetable gardens lacking ,

185Western ProvinceFruit farms, 185, 186Soil, 185Systemof agriculture, 185

INDEXCapetown Agricultural Show,

I9S- 194

Castor-011 plan t, 277Cato Major . quoted on graz

i n g cattle, 1 16

CattleA valuable asset, 37, 47Afri kander , 35 , 37, 44, 120,

238 , 278—279

Angoni , 36 , 44, 120, 278- 279 ,

280

As free labourers, 12 1

Dairy. 46English breeds, 30

E ssexvale free fromdisease,

136Frieslands, 38Herd-book, 38Herefords, 46

Hotten tot , 37Imported cattle lose original

characteri stics, 33, 38Use of, 39

Instincts of , 40Mashona, 35, 120. 278- 279Native, 34 seq. Objections to,

40-41Prizes for . 38

Short and long-haired , 24Shorthorns in S. Afri ca, 34Treatmen t of , 41Zulu, 37

Cattle-breeding.Stock-farming)

Cereals, 59 , 105, 187, 200. 2 13

(See also Wheat,Metc. )

Charter , 249Chinese proverb The Land

should be the greatest Borrower of the Nation , 148

Chisawasha, JesuitMission at,250

Climate, 182Healthy, 23. 27Influence on vegetation , 3Natal, 197, 200Orange River Colony, 225Relative eflect of soil and , 9Rhodesia, 256Van atron of temperature. 23,37

Weather distinguished from,

33Conce plan tations, 22 1

(See under

Collins, breeder of shorthorns,44

Columella. L. Jun .Mod.

Cites Cato on grazing cattle,1 16

Doctri ne of cattle, 31

Congo R . , 245Constan tia. W ine-farmat , 192

00-operation and agriculturalcredit , 143- 15 1

Cooke, Mes srs , poultry -farms,6

CopeS: estimate of loss fromcattle-diseases, 126

Cope, on animal-disease inFrance, 132

Coryndon , Major , descri besKalomo district. 247

On precautionsagainstanimaldiseases, 282

Cotton , Rhodesian , 6 2 , 276- 277,

290- 29 1

Wild , 6 2

Creameries, 6 8

Credit system, 145- 148Floating cash credit-balance,148

Co-Operation credit, 149. 151

Cresswell quoted on Bri tish 8 .

Africa Co. , 302

Crocodile R . , 208J

D

335

Dairy-farming : neglected , 6 8Pure water a necessi ty , 70Uniformquality necessary. 70Dams, 227, 272

Affected by evaporation , 7Silting of , 231Daniels Kuil distri ct , 239Darwin , on transporting animals

39-40

Darwin , on use of earth-worms,I39

Davey, Sir Humphrey, on deepploughing , 16

Dew , 8

Diseases oi Animals, 123- 137Compulsory Fencing Act

needed, 134- 137

Conditions in S. Africa, 129

Con tagiousAct needed , 132

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INDEXFarming— could.

In temperate and in tropicalzones, 13

Inves tigation of systemucceasary. 89

Kafi r labour , 9 1Nucleus of a scien tific system,

94Over-cropping, 93, 108- 110Rotation of crOps, 93Seeds, 90 only in fallible test,9 1

(See also Agriculture)FarmsBoer customin , 8 1Fruit-farms, 185 , 186In Bechuanaland, 238

In Orange River Colony, 226

In Rhodesia . 283- 286Mortgaged , 80 , 143, 147

Size of. 76 , 77, 78

Three kinds, 77Felspar , 255Fencing in various countries,1334 37Fiscalia, 1 14Foliage, uses of, 13Forests

Aflorestation and re-aflorest

ation , 67Arboricidal habits, 67Boer neglect of, 6 5CapeForestryDepartmen t, 66Nast

‘al Forestry Departmen t ,

Scrub , 66Soils sui table for , 67Teak of Rhodesia , 66Forster , Arnold. scheme forsettlemen t of S. Afri ca , 309

Fox , Francis, on mineralwealthnear Victoria Falls, 253Freeman .Mr in JohannesburgMarket, 100Frui t-culture, influence of theweather on , 25Fruit-farmers, 94Fruit-farms, 185, 186

Fs, the three , 76Fungus, 139 . 259

GGarthwaite, E . H . . quoted on

minerals in Rhodeda , 292293

Haenertsberg orWoodbush, 2072 19

Fever . 220

Soil, 220

Hai g, Colonel, 19 1Hall,Mr . Devons, 189Halley, Dr . , experiments i n

evaporation , 8

Harding,Major Collin . Reporton rubber industry, 276

Har tley Bros treatmen t of

tobacco, 6 3H ay , 20, 21

At Bulawayo , 26 2

(See also Oat-hay )Health, 27, 28 in Rhodesia,

247

Gell, Lyttelton , 305Genesa Native Reserve, 237Cathin , on sand-rivers,

”235

Gibbons,Major A . St . H on

BarotseValley, 247Gifford, Lord. 305Giraud,M. lendsfarmersmoney,

150

Gneiss in Rhodesia , 245Goats, Angora , 47, 49Rhodesian , 280

Gold-Mineowner and JohannesburgMarket , 99- 100GOld'Mining s FmGordon ia , 235Graaf Reinet district, 188Gran ite, 198GrassesImported and indigenous, 20Rhodesian , 260- 26 5$0111 and sweet. 19Gray, Veterinary Ofi cer in

Rhodesia , 295 , 296 , 297Greenstone, 198 , 256

Grey, Colonel Raleigh , letter toAgricultural Departmen t,Rhodesia , 297

Grey, Earl, 300, 305Greytown , 202

Griqualand East , 233; West,

339Groot Letaba R 22 1

GrootMarico , 208

Ground-rubber , 6 8

INDEXHeany,Major , developing Essex

vale estate, 251

Best , absorption of, 13Helm, Rev. Charles D . , experi

ence in stock-farming, 1 19Hodge, owner of creamery at

Queenstown , 6 9Horse-breedin g, 230Horses. 50-52

Cape Horse. 50—52

In Rhodesia , 280. 28 1

Houses, 2 10-2 1 1

Hull'

ence of locusts, 229Hull : systemof farming , 271

Hulse, Walter , report onWheatgrowing , 106 ,107

Hutcheon , head of veterinarydepartmen t , 192

Recommends hone-meal, 18

I

Illovo R. , 198

Imports, 103- 104Insects, 139 - 142An ts, 141- 142Australian Bug . 140

Black-spotted Beetle, 140

CoddlingMoth, 140Ear th-worms, 141Lady-bird, 140

Locusts, 140. (See also Lo

custs)Noxiousand innocuous, 139Peach-fly. 140

Red-spider, 140Scormj i (red soldier an t) , 282Tsetse-fly, 142 , 282

Woolly bear , 140Insiza , 25 1

Inyanga , 249Iron -wood, 199Irri gation , 7- 8 , 18 1- 182, 189 ,

- 2 19 ,

227, 231- 232

Rhodesian , 244, 272, 274275

Italy, Rural Banks in , 149

ackals, 188

ameson , Dr. , 300

ohannesburgPlantations near, 66

Johannesburg—4 01ml .Water-supply, 2 10White palation , 98Johannes

gMarket , 97

Analysis 0 98- 102

Vegetables for , 220,22 1Johnson , Dr on nature'

s laws

30Jones, J . F . , 300

Jourbet h portedMerino sheep ,48

Ladysmith, 202Land Laws, absence of, 73, 74,

76

English not suitable for S.

Africa , 76

328

Kafi rs, 16 1

As farm-labourers, 26 8Characteristics, 16 1, 16 5 , 16 6 ,

169Educated , 162Labour , 9 1, 164- 16 5Method of agriculture, 15, 17

Natal , 201- 202

(See also Native)Kafi r-corn (Mabele) , 60, 203,

2 14, 230, 275Kafue R . , 246

Kalahari Desert. subterraneanstreams in , 236

Kalomo Distri ct, 247Kameel thorn-tree, 237Karoo, The, 190Khama , King, 241Khami Valley, 25 1Klerksdorp , 2 10K loo/s, 2Koch, Dr . , 36 , 294, 303- 304Experimen ts on Redwater ,

Practises isolation . 299Knight. E . F on V ictoria Falls,

353Knightly. Sir Charles, breeder

of shorthorns, 44Kraaling condemned, 50

Kruger, Paul, decision on division of land, 8 1

Kuruman , 235Kuruman R Source of, 237

INDEXLand Settlemen t, Political as

pects of, 309-

32 1

Boards, 310, 312

New scheme essen tial, 318Practical course for , 320-321Prophecies on , 313Proposed settlemen tsoldiers; 309Three provinces for Englishsettlers, 319

Un ited 8 . Africa , 319 , 320Land Tenures, 73- 81

Division of farms, 79 , 80Freedomof purchase to be

encouraged , 74N0 security of tenure, 73Ownership the best system,

74Roman -Dutch Law , 78Land Value , 8 1- 86

Agn cultural and pecuniaryvalue, 83Boer and Englishmethods ofcalculating , 82Cape Colony, 83Inflated in pri ce, 82

Orange River Colony. 84Natal, 84Rhodesia. 85Transvaal, 84Lawley, Sir Arthur , 222

Lewanika . King , 246 , 247Lewis and Marks, their re

aflorestation , 6 5Lewis, S on Angon i cattle, 36Lialui , 246 , 247Liebig , Baron , on nutritivesubstances in soils, 90Lime, 93, 199 , 2 17, 257

Limw tone, 199Limm R . , , 2o7, zo8,Livingstzne,

3Dr , discovered

Victoria Falls, 252 , 253Loangwa Valley, 245Lobengula. Kin g, 33Location themoulder of animalcharacteristics, 29Locusts, 140, 141, 228. 229 , 26 8

Loen gi R. , 246Lucerne, 19 , 189 , 272

Needs lime, 93Lydenburg, 2 13MMcArthur, on Redwater , 297

Madebing Native Reserve, 236Mafeking, annual rainfall, 235Magalies R 208Magatoland, 207Maguire,Mr . , 305Mahogany, 199Malaria , 27- 28 ,Manna , 200ManuresArtificial, 90 , 1 10Farmyard, 1 1 1

Rhodesian , 257, 273- 274Marandellas, 251Mari co , 2 13Markets for farm-produce, 97Johannesburg , 98- 102Marshes, 7Mashonaland, 243Farms in , 283Suitable for agriculture, 260Vegetation , 260Mashowing R

Mason , breeder of shorthorns, 44Matabeleland , 243Farms in , 283Stock farming, 260Vegetation , 260Matt0pos, 229 , 271Maund, quotedonMatabeleland ,

Sand-river ,

292Maynard. breeder of shorthorns, 44Mazoe district, 250Mealies (maize) , 60, 200, 203.2 14- 2 15 , 230, 272 , 275Crop , English and Kafi r, 15

Melsetter , 248Mildew , 60, 259Millet (Mun a ). 275Milner , L015, Land Settlement,31 1

-312Milton , Sir William, 305M{moss-tree, 20Minerals, 2 17

Rhodesian , 289- 290, 292-293Molopo R. , 235Mooi R . , 200, 208 , 2 16Moun t Edgecombe , 201Moun tains influencing rain fall,3Mules, 52 : prices of, 53

Rhodesian , 281MweruLake, 246

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INDEXPietersburg, price of farmnear ,

310

Pigeon-weed ,2 1

Piss. 53—55Black. 54Wild , 54

Pilandsberg . 2 18Pindar quoted ,23Pine-apples, 200Pliny, H ist. Nat. x x iii . 5 , cites

Cato on grazing cattle, 1 17Ploughing , deep and shallow15

- 17Pneumon ia. 28Poisonous plan ts, 2 1Poko, 275Ponies, Basuto , 233Pork , pri ce of , 54Potash , 90, 93 in Rhodesia,

255Potatoes : doubtful returns, 6 1Qualities, 6 2Potchefstroom, 2 10, 2 1 1, 213Poultry. ss- 57Black Orpington , 56Dark roost for , 57Diseases, 56Fowl oratorio, 57Pretoria, 2 13, 2 17, 220, 22 1Price, breeder of Herefords, 44Prickly pear ,

188Primogen i ture, Law of, 78 , 79Products, 59-71 (See Cotton ,

Tobacco, Wheat, etc. , etc. )

uartz , 245 , 255athlambaMts. , 2 , 19

Queenstown , 209

R

Raffeisen Credit Banks, 149 ,

150

Railway, Cape to Bulawayo ,

239 . 35 1 . 289Charges. 194- 195. 2 13. 29 1

Rain fall. 3, 4, 19Eflect of, 5

Ramalhabama R . , 235Recharts, Father , at Chisa

washa , 250

Remin gton , Professor J .Stewart,9 1

331

Rhodes, Cecil, 229 , 249 , 306 jE rects damon farm,

272Frui t-farms, 94, 185 , 186

Rhodesia , 243-307

Advan tages for dairy-farming,71

Agri cultural System, 26 5- 274

Animals,266

Area , 243Attractions for Colonists, 307Author’s Opinions on ,

corroborated , 29 1- 293

Charter , 249Considerations for farmers,

271Cost of cattle-rearing in , 120

Cost of grazing-land in , 1 19Cmps. 274

- 277Castor-oil plan t, 277Coffee, 276

Cotton , 276- 277, 290-29 1

Grain ,275

Irrigation necessary, 274Pea-nut , 276

Rice, 276

Rubber , 276Difi culties to be surmounted,

286

Divisions and features, 243English Settlers in , 319Farms, 283- 286Not fashionable, 284Fertile areas in ,

1 1

Fig-tree District , 251

Insiza , 251

Inyanga , 249Kalomo District , 247Khami Valley , 251Labour , 26 8 , 270Land Value in , 84- 85. 86 ,

Live-Stock, 277- 282Cattle, small, suited to, 279Domestic, 277- 278

Importation of cattle not

recommended , 278

Indigenous, 277Machinery, 266Manures, 272- 274Marandellas, 251Mazoe District , 250Melsetter Distri ct, Dutchmen

in , 248Mining industry depressed,

394

INDEXRhodesia— confd .

Natural sources of wealth ,288- 29 1Minerals, 289- 290, 292- 293

No longer isolated, 86

N .E . Province, 243Altitudes and area , 245Distri cts and Natives, 252Free fromanimal diseases,

28 1Lakes, rivers and surface,

246

N.W . Province (Barotseland) ,343

Kalomo Distri ct, 247Surface and health , 246 , 247Pasturage, 29 1Ploughing , 26 5, 267- 269Plum-tree distri ct , 252

Railway en terprise, 303Reasons for i ts backwardness,

293—306

Agn culture ofi cially neglected , 295

Shangani Valley, 25150118 . - 259Alluvral, 256Black-loam, 257Bossy

-peaty. 357Gramte, 254, 255Light and dark, 259Red , 257Sandy, 258Stiff clay, 258

Southern (Matabeleland,Mashonaland, which see)Alti tudes,

243, 244Area , 243Farms, 245Watershed, 244Teal: forests, 6 6Transport riding, 266Vegetation , 259- 26 5Grasses, 260- 26 5Victoria Falls, 252- 254

Rhodesia Lands, Lim. Borrowdale Farm, 249 . 276

Rhodesian Agricultural j ournal,301

Rhodesian characteri stics, 306307

Rhodesian Railway, 239Rhodesian Times, April 26 , 1902,

quoted, 296May 24, 1902 , quoted, 297 3;

Rivers-beds, dry, 4. 7Rixon , pioneer in Insiza, 25r

Roberts, Archdeacon , on agri

culture in Transvaal, 2 14Robinson looks for farm in

Rhodesia, 301 , 302

Rock formation , 9Roman -Dutch Law , 78

Banks, 150

Rubber-vine and tree, 6 8

In Rhodesia, 276

Rustenburg , 2 13, 2 17S

Salisbury, 244Salt-bushes, 7, 19 1Sandstone, 198 in Rhodesia,

345Sartees, on Cape Horse, soSauer , Dr .

Angoni Cattle, 36Experience in Stock-farming ,

119Sawer. Edi tor of Rhodesian Agni

cultural j ournal, 301Say, Leon , on AgriculturalCredi t-Banks, 150

Schoonspruit , 2 16Seasons in S. Afri ca , 24- 25Selous, F. C. , quoted onMashona cattle, 35Mashonaland, 292

Setlagoli R . , sand-river ,Settlers, 153

—159Bechuanaland , 239—240

Cape Colony. 193- 19sCharacteristicsof English

155- 156

Natal, 202- 205Needs of, 157Orange River Colony, 229231Presen t disadvan tages of, 158Quali ties of , 157Rhodesia , 245, 247soq. , 2 5 1

Scan ty information vouchsafed to, 301

-302

Scheme for , 157- 158Successful, 156Suitable, 155Their poin t of view, 153

- 159Unsuitable, 154

335

INDEXShangan i Valley, 25 1Show, 47

- 50

Afri kander (fat-tailed) , 48-49Karoo , 183, 190

Kraaling , 50Merino , 47-48 , 184, 230

Sinclair , on purchasing cattle,

31

Slavery, England'

spolicyon , 16 6

Slavery, female, 6 1Shafts, 208 , 209 , 2 10, 231

How formed , 4Smith, Adam, on growing grapes

in Scotland, 30

Sneewberg Ran ge,excellen t grazing , 188

Sneeze-wood, 199Soils, 9 seq.

Alluvial owned by Boers, 11 ,

12

Analyses of, 10Brack, 7Classes of, 10

Denudation of, 14E ffect of sun on , 13Exhausted in cereal districts,

14, 108 , 109 , 1 10

Cause of , 17Fertile areas, 1 1 , 12Foreign and S. Afri can compared . 95-96Grass-covered , 12, 13Most suitable for agriculture,9

Natural and alluvial com1 1

9Phosphates lackin 17Relative eflect of ate and,

9Rhodesian , 254- 259 (SeeunderRhodesia )

Sterile areas, 11, 12

Suitable for trees, 67Sui table subsoil,” 18Very light, unsuitable foragriculture, 14

Sorghum, 200

As 8

6

cereal and stock-coun try ,

2

As a health-resort , 25, 132As stock-raising coun try , 76 ,

12 1

Elevation above sea-level. 2333

Grazing no easy science, 45,1 17

S. Africa— contd .Foreign products in , 97Individual character , 1Mineral wealth, 275Native population , 16 1Physical features, 1

Sea-board,

7

1 , 197Settlers, 176 . 182 , 183

(See also7ettlers

Three vast terraces, 2

Southey, of Culmstock, as far

mer , 182 , 189 , 309Spelonken . 2 19 , 220

Springbok Vlakte : Soil, 2 17SpringsFailure of , 7In Rhodesia , 256

Subterranean , 4 ; origin of, 5Thermal andmineral, 7

Standard quoted on flocks destroyed by drought, 192

Stellenbosch , agri cultural farmat , 192

Stewart, Thomas, on underground water-supply of S.

Africa , 6

Stinkwood , 199StockEfiect of climatic variation

on , 23In Orange River Colony, 230The farmer 's best customer ,2 1

(See also Cattle, Sheep and

Goats, Horses,Mules, Pigsand Poultry)

Stock-farming, 1 1 1- 112 , 113188, 202

Advan tages of, 1 1 1- 1 12

Agriculture vs. 1 14- 116

Breeding, 41 seq.

Breedmust be chosen , 43Conditions influencing ,

“9Crow ns.

Interbreeding, 44Large and small droves, 42Selections, 42

Cost and profit , 1 19Drawbacks to, 117- 118

English and S. African , 45, 46Governmen t must con trol

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INDEXVincen t , Dan , farmin KhamiValley, 251

Virgil, quoted on ploughing, 8889

report ouwheat106 , 107

Voertrekkers, 2 10- 2 1 1

Descendan ts, 80, 2 1 1Farms, 2 11Houses, 2 10

Hovels, 2 1 1

Vryburg , 235W

Wallace, Professor , on agricul

ture in Cape Colony, 14Water

Brackish, 4, 7In Rhodesia , 244, 246 - 247Sources of, 3- 5Supply. 6 . 7. 2 19 . 233Wan t of , 2 16 , 230, 236—237

Weather distinguished fromclimate, 23

Weather eflect on fruit-cultureand vegetation , 25

Weeds

Attract fungi , 139Efiect on pasturageand arableland , 2 1

Naturalmethodsof spreading,22Poisonous, 188, 2 16 , 229

Youatt , on purchasing cattle, 31

Zambesi R. . 247, 281}Victoria Falls, 252—254

Zoutpansberg , 207, 218

Rain fall, 2 19Soil, 2 19Wood and water , 2 19

Zulu, 163

Butler t Tanner, Ths Selwood Priuting Works, Fms. snd lmdom

Wheat‘

: 200, 2 13, 2 17, 233

g. Anecdote of hoarded ,.19 1

Areas, 59 I aLiable to rust andmildew, 60Yield , 59

Wheat-growing in S. Africa, 105Report on , 106 - 107Whiteman '

s burden , 8 1

Wills, W . A Chairman of

African Concessions Syn

dicate, L td. , 253Winberg , 230W itwatersrand, 2 10

Wollenborg Rural Banks inI taly, 149

Woodbush, 2 19Woodhouse, 187Wool, 48, 183- 184Worcester, 184