TEACHING ART TO FOURTH, FIFTH, AND SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS: ONE SUPERHERO AT A TIME

by

Sharon Paster

Thesis Advisor:

Professor Judith Burton

Approved by the Committee on the Degree of Masters of Arts

Date: July 24, 2013

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Art Education

Teachers College, Columbia University

2013

   

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge my advisor, Dr. Judith Burton, and my family and friends for supporting this endeavor to connect art education with what is both socially relevant and child-centered.

   

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION Background to the Problem………………………………………………….……5 Problem Statement………………………………………………….…………..…6 Research Question…..………………………………………………………..…...7 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………….7 Limits of the Study………………..…………………..…………………….…….8 Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………….9 Chapter II. LITERATURE REVIEWS The Cultural Context….…………………………………………………….…….9 Artistic Development: Recent Perspectives………….………………………......13 Culture: Finding Its Role in Art Education………………………………………14

Data-Based Research: Children and their Heroes………………………………..17 Gender’s Influence on Hero Selection………………………………………...…18 Superheroes, Morality, and Children…………………………………………….22

Chapter III. METHODOLOGY Context of the Study…………………...…………………………………..…….25 Design of the Study…………………………………………………….………..26 Design of Questionnaire…………………………………………………………28 Data Collection…………………...……………………………………………...29 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………...……..29 Chapter IV. RESULTS OF THE STUDY Description of Results……………………………………………………………29 Discussion of Findings…………………………………………………………...38 Chapter V. CONCLUSION & IMPLICATIONS Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….44 Implications for Art Education…………………………………………………..47 Implications for Further Research……………………………………………….48 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………...……………………………………………...……52 APPENDIXES Appendix A (Decision Tree)…………………………….………………………54 Appendix B (Questionnaire)…..…………………………………………………55 Appendix C (Interview Questions) ...……………………………………………56 Appendix D (Design of Study)……………......…………………………………57 Appendix E (Super Abilities)………………..………...…………………………58 Appendix F (Human Abilities) ………………………………………………….60

   

 

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LIST OF TABLES/FIGURES

Table 1, The Context of Each Study…………………………………………………….18 Table 2, Choice of “Remote” Character – Girls versus Boys (Hill, 1930)………..…….19 Table 3, Gender of Hero – Girls versus Boys (Hill, 1930)…………………………..….19 Table 4, A Comparison of Results, (Hill (1930) versus Holub et al. (2008))………..….19 Table 5, Holub et al.’s (2008) Findings………………….……………………………....22 Table 6, Fourth Grade Results…………………………………………………………...30 Table 7, Fifth Grade Results……………………………………………………………..32 Table 8, Sixth Grade Results…………………………...………………………………..35 Table 9, Source of Superhero-Narrative…………………………………………………38 Table 10, Categories that Suggest Assumptions……………………..…………………..40 Figure 1, Fourth Grade Drawing………………………………………………………....49 Figure 2, Fifth Grade Drawing…………………………………………………………...49 Figure 3, Sixth Grade Drawing…………………………………………………………. 50

   

 

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INTRODUCTION

Background to Problem

Having completed my coursework at Teachers College, Columbia

University, the sense of incorporating popular culture, social justice, and democratic

assessment into my teaching has become apparent. However, I have felt prevented from

incorporating substantive content into my art curriculum because I do not have enough

knowledge of what many of my students consider important. I cannot help my students

reflect on essential questions, such as, “Does art have to be beautiful?” until I can

anticipate the scope of their responses. To reach my students, I need to “hook”, or engage

them, in activities that are not only topical, but are of personal relevance (Wiggins &

McTighe, 2005).

A classroom survey that I had conducted in the beginning of the year about

the superheroes that my (K-6) students favor led to a desire to understand the topic in

greater depth. The data that had been collected had been somewhat useful but the

significant benefit had been witnessing the enthusiasm that students demonstrated to

participate vocally. The classroom filled with raised hands. Occasionally, significant

insights were communicated, such as “Dora is for babies,” or that ‘Superman isn’t that

cool’. A hush came over the room when one female kindergarten student uttered, “I like

Dora.” Reflecting on the class-wide dialogues, I wanted to ask my students why they

liked certain superheroes. There may be certain human or superhuman qualities that are

valued more in the lower grades than the higher grades, and vice versa. It would be

helpful to gain the developmental insight.

   

 

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As my students transition into early adolescence, it is harder to connect with

them using motivational dialogues that are anchored in life experiences. Excitement

about communicating through narrative seems to steadily decline after fourth grade.

Commensurate with the onset of adolescence, many children are reluctant to tackle

representation because they are not expert at visual realism. Furthermore, the bond they

have with their peers rivals the ones with their teachers. A closer look into what each of

the fourth, fifth and sixth grade students intrinsically value would nonetheless help guide

my teaching. I would not be doing an adequate job if I taught both the older children and

the early adolescents in the same fashion.

As my concern surrounds the cultural context of my students’ development

in art, I believe that if they create their own superheroes, in art class, I could better

understand them personally and socially. Frequently associated with society, the

imagination, and morality, superheroes seem to invite creative behavior. Superheroes

defend the vulnerable, and the unfortunate in society, through the use of the powers that

an artist values, imagines, and subsequently bestows upon them. Empathy is significant

to both the work of Freire (1989) and the superheroes that children create.

Problem Statement

I am researching the outstanding capacities that 18 children, aged nine to twelve,

imbue in the superheroes that they create, in art class, because I want to broaden my

awareness of my students’ developing social consciousness in order to understand for

myself, and to explain to others how to teach art with a topical emphasis in a child-

centered manner.

   

 

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Research Questions

1. What super-human attributes make a most positive impression on children as they

progress from grade four to grade six?

2. What human attributes make a most positive impression on children as they

progress from grade four to grade six?

3. What have students seen or experienced that has influenced the social content in

their art?

Significance of the Study

This study will shed light on the cultural context of artistic development. Art

reflects both the life and the environment of an artist at a given point in time. If what

John Dewey (1950), John Gilmour (1986), Karen Hamblen (1985), and Judith Burton

(2004) assert is true, there is substantial reason for an art teacher to become aware of the

link that exists between art and experience. The study has significance to both art

education and general education in that it will help clarify how to help students make

sense of the world.

Until recently, researchers have not explicitly asked children to create or openly

comment about their superheroes. Frequently, they have compiled data using closed-

ended surveys and have analyzed it using quantitative methods. Children have rarely

been asked to draw superheroes and discuss them, thus far. The focus has been on

children’s appreciation of the work of “professional artists”. I feel that it is important that

children’s personal insights regarding superheroes become part of the literature on the

subject that exists. To accomplish this, it is necessary to include the visual art and the

   

 

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opinions that children relate to popular culture. They are participants in popular culture

(Garoian, C. & Gaudelius, Y., 2004) and therefore play a role in its evolution.

Anyone awakened by Paolo Freire’s (1989) treatise that pedagogy should emerge

from the “oppressed” will hopefully recognize that children’s inventions of superheroes

are a significant enterprise. A Freirian revolution is lead by the oppressed, but they aim to

restore society for everyone. Some of the superheroes in commercial culture, as well,

triumph over the desire to seek revenge – they seek “justice for all”. It will be interesting

to see whether children’s invented superheroes are “Freirian”.

As an art teacher and Masters Candidate at Teachers College, I expect that the

opportunity to explore the social context of children’s artistic development will fuel my

professional growth. I want to apply the topical, research-based strategies that are

promoted at Teachers College, but ensure that they relate to what my students value. It is

not enough to include “popular culture” in an art curriculum. Dora the Explorer does not

appeal to students as much as Sonic the Hedgehog. “Superman” is concerned with crime,

not helping people make friends. If I do not take the time to assess my students’

preferences, a divide will grow between my students and myself, despite good intentions.

Limits of the Study

Given the developmental aspect to this study, a longitudinal approach to the study

may have been appropriate. Time constraints prohibit this. Insights that emerge about

childhood development will be inferred from discrete sets of data that are acquired from

each grade of students.

   

 

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Definition of Terms

When the term “narrative” had been used in relationship to the early adolescents,

it refers to a single page, not sequential images. Children’s single-page images are

frequently autobiographical. It has been clear in peer-reviewed literature (Duncum,

1993), however, that adolescents are sometimes drawn to creating sequential narratives,

or “comics”. In my experience, they do seem disinclined to paint a “scene” from their life

story.

   

 

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LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature pertinent to this study is concerned with the cultural context of

children and their superheroes, given (1) relevant socially-conscious theoretical

perspectives within the field of art education, and (2) data-based research studies that

have collected children’s thoughts and opinions on the subject.

The Cultural Context and the Art of Children

Assessing the role that culture has, or should have, on the art of children has

raised controversy among scholars. In fact, some writers suggest that it is morally wrong

to incorporate cultural artifacts into art education because it would interrupt the natural

maturation process. There seem to be three arguments: (1) culture should not play a role

in the art education of children, (2) culture has an unavoidable influence on the art of

children, and (3) culture’s influence mandates that art educators use it to foster critical

thinking.

Lowenfeld (1957) is associated with the first platform. He (1957) argued that

culture was and should be separate from the natural artistic development of children.

Hamblen (1985) appears to make assertions that are value-free, in that she (1985)

observes that culture as inextricable from any human being’s experiences – including that

of a child. Lastly, Freedman (2000) and Garoian and Gaudelius (2004) are among those

who endorse the infusion of culture into art education. Given the immersion of

commercial culture into everyday life, Freedman (2000) and Garoian and Gaudelius

(2004) suggest awakening children to “visual culture”, not exclusively “fine art”, and to

invite active participation in contemporary culture. It will be shown that although

Lowenfeld (1957) had denied that culture could be instrumental in the artistic

   

 

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development of children, (in conflict with the ideas of both Freedman (2000), and

Garoian and Gaudelius (2004)), the two share a common goal – energizing democracy.

Culture Should Not Play a Role in the Art Education of Children

Lowenfeld’s work had been founded on an “urge to make this world a better place

to live in, (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. ix). In the aftermath of World War II, he contended that

Germany’s totalitarianism had resulted from “disrespect for individual differences”, (p.

ix). As education is concerned with the molding of people, not objects, (p. 4), Lowenfeld

had urged art educators to promote self-expression in their classrooms.

He contended that imitation would result from exposure to cultural artifacts and

lead to the disempowerment of the individual, which in turn, he believed would yield an

inhuman society. In Creative and Mental Growth, Lowenfeld, (1957, p.12), writes:

If children developed without any interference from the outside world, no special stimulation for their creative work would be necessary. Every child would use his deeply rooted creative impulse without inhibition, confident in his own kind of expression.

For Lowenfeld, the link between the individual and society appeared to be very

significant – for him the cultural and sociological nature of development was not

pertinent. However, he asserted that self-expression would suggest that an individual is

“successful”, (p. 23).

Lowenfeld argued that his stages of artistic development were “universal” in

nature. Without society and culture, artistic development would not vary from one

country to the next. Age and gender were considered to be the only variables that

differentiate one child from the next.

According to Lowenfeld (1957), artistic development is comprised of six stages:

(1) The Scribbling Stage (2 to 4 years), (2) The Pre-schematic Stage (4 to 7 years), (3)

   

 

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The Schematic Stages (7 to 9 years), (4) The Gang Age (9 to 11 years), (5) The

Pseudorealistic Stage (11 to 13), and (6) Adolescence. Throughout the chapters in

Creative and Mental Growth, Lowenfeld addresses the growing child’s “environment”,

but not in a cultural context (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 83). He asserted that the degree to

which a child is integrated into their environment would be parallel to the way they

represented themselves in “space” in their drawings (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 83). This would

be seen into the way that children treat “the size, dimensions, distance and the relative

proportions of the self”, (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 83), in their art. Lowenfeld argued that

children’s drawings were concerned with the psychological and emotional, or subjective

reality of being part of the world. The two stages that pertain to this paper are: (1) the

gang age, and (2) the pseudorealistic stage.

During the gang age, (9 to 11 years), Lowenfeld asserted that the child discovers

“social independence”, and forms “group friendships or ‘gangs’” (Lowenfeld, 1957, 183).

Lowenfeld also writes, “We see a definite lack of cooperation in the great number of

children who do not establish spatial correlations in their drawings, (Lowenfeld, 1957, p.

184). Generally, characteristics of this stage include: (1) free form lines instead of

geometric lines, (2) “lack of cooperation with adults, (3) joining “gangs,” or group

friendships, and (4) “greater awareness of the self with regard to sex (boys and girls)”,

(Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 203).

In the pseudorealistic stage, Lowenfeld hypothesized that either of two divergent

dispositions towards art emerge: “visual”, or “nonvisual”, (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 220). The

latter emphasizes the subjective nature of experience, whereas the former emphasizes

“optical” realities (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 222). Four characteristics are associated with the

   

 

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pseudorealistic stage: (1) transition away from uninhibited use of imagination, (2)

concern with realism, (3) a visual, or nonvisual orientation, and (4) interest in dramatic

narrative (Lowenfeld, 1957, p. 246).

Culture Has An Unavoidable Influence On The Art Of Children

Based on research that has emerged since 1957, many of Lowenfeld’s arguments

have been dismissed. Research in the fields of art education and cognitive science support

that there is a socio-cultural dimension to learning. The Wilsons (1982) had theorized that

growth in drawing did not occur “naturally”. They argued that it was a result of local and

remote cultural influences. To support this, they discuss the disappearance of a drawing

convention that had been popular before comic books were marketed - “the two-eyed

profile”. They state, “it could not have been the result of an innate or natural factor, but

there were influences that were operative at that time and later ceased to function”,

(Wilson & Wilson, 1982, p. 64). Over time, they asserted, children appropriate drawing

conventions repeatedly until a personal style emerges. They (p. 64, 1982) write:

… we believe that these cultural influences are not only inescapable but also absolutely essential if the child is to develop drawing abilities beyond the most basic level and to take full advantage of all that drawing has to offer in developing knowledge about himself and about the world.

Artistic Development: Recent Perspectives

The question, however, remains whether there are biological factors that influence

the way children draw. Scholars have noted that the artwork of young children,

throughout the world, has common characteristics. Burton (2004) and Hamblen (1985)

seem to accommodate both points of view: (1) children’s art develops in response to

universal, or biological factors, and (2) children’s art develops under the influence of

   

 

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environmental, or cultural factors. Burton (2004, p.16) addresses the duality of

development:

As in other domains of experience we know that children’s artistic development passes through a sequence of phases involving shifts in the way they perceive, reason, imagine, form ideas and construct knowledge through representation. We also know that development is recursive and that there are times when youngsters appear to backtrack, often as a prelude to a forward movement in their abilities. We know too that the sociocultural environment in which children grow to maturity exerts a powerful shaping mechanisms on they way they think, perceive and organize their work.

In Burton’s framework, third and fourth grade learners display a growing social

awareness, “understanding that certain behaviors and skills are cherished and admired by

adult society”, (Burton, 2004, p. 35). No longer depicting this is “what I do,” the subject

becomes: (1) this is “what I do with others”, or (2) this is “what others do in the world”,

(Burton, 2004, p. 34). Events and people that belong to a child’s immediate environment

inspire subject matter. Examples cited include: “street violence, beggars, pan-handlers

and police car chases”, (Burton, 2004, p. 35).

In Burton’s analysis, copying becomes popular during early adolescence, or in the

fifth and sixth grades. While some will use cartoons, commercial publications, or fine art,

others might draw from direct observation, or infuse their imagination into their

drawings. Given the wide variety of artistic methods the early adolescents employ,

Burton suggests that the early adolescents are pursuing “different modes of inquiry into

the workings of the world and its myriad objects”, (Burton, 2004, p. 39). Social

awareness continues to grow and early adolescents become more aware of their

individuality, and that of others in society, (Burton, 2004). Graphically, moreover, the

drawings that emerge from memory, copying, or observation yield a multitude of

   

 

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concerns. Memory drawing frees the child from creating a facsimile. Copying reveals

how mature artists have problem solved, and drawing from observation builds knowledge

of how to represent in three-dimensions, (Burton, 2004).

Consistent with Burton, Hamblen recognizes the fact that both “nature” and

“nurture” are at play in shaping drawing abilities. Rather than passive actors in

development, Hamblen (1985) suggests that “artistic expression consists of a selection

process within the realms of both universal and relative factors of influence”, (Hamblen,

1985, p. 69). For Burton (2004), artistic development is contingent upon identification

with materials. She places emphasis on apolitical exploration of a wide range of materials

for children to build a repertoire of artistic experiences, and approach art making from

numerous angles. Pertinent to third and fourth grade, Burton (2004, p. 38) writes:

If, in later development, children are to acquire more formal and independent understandings of the language of art, then the roots of this knowledge in personal-individual experiences needs to be respected and established early on. This will only happen if the development of children’s understandings about the organizational and expressive possibilities of materials connect with and serve as fully as possible their growing need to be curious about, imagine and reflect on their worlds in the process of representing it for their own contemplation and that of others.

Culture: Finding Its Role in Art Education

Freedman (2000), and Garoian and Gaudelius (2004), support infusing culture

into art education. They are among theorists that urge art educators to broaden the

paradigm – construct knowledge that is not only based on “fine art”, but instead, “visual

culture”. To define visual culture, Freedman cites numerous examples: “fine art,

television, film and video, computer technology, fashion photography, advertising, and so

on,” (Freedman, 2000, p. 315). While this conflicts with Lowenfeld’s position, visual

culture education does foster the critical and creative intelligence of children across a

   

 

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broad cultural front. Like Lowenfeld’s work, it is also a defense against totalitarianism -

but particularly concerned with disrupting the threat of cultural hegemony in art,

entertainment, and mass communication. Given that many examples of “high culture”

and “low culture” are either propagandistic, or exclusionary, visual culture education

aims to (1) “problematize the authority” (Garoian & Gaudelius, 2004), of capitalism by

promoting “critical citizenship”, (2004), and (2) retelling the history of art by casting

light on its sociological and political context.

Freedman’s (2003) sociological perspective is congruent with the data-based

research that has occurred in twentieth century cognitive science:

(1) Vygotsky had asserted that, “learning not only occurs in context, but is driven

by context, (Freedman, 2003, p. 79).

(2) In agreement with Lave, (1991), Freedman states that learning “takes place in

a social community as a result of historical traditions that are renewed and

changed during mediation”, (Freedman, 2003).

(3) Freedman’s (2003) draws on the work of Solso (1994), a cognitive

psychologist. He had asserted “we are only able to understand the visual arts

because of the information we have previously stored about visual features

and meanings,” (Freedman, 2003, p. 67).

The scope of art education is therefore broadened to encompass the sociology of

learning. Freedman (2000), Garoian and Gaudelius (2004) accept that cultural artifacts

not only influence development, but that they are instrumental to a socially meaningful

education. Freedman does not consider “self expression” the singular benefit to art

education. In fact, she writes, “Students make art to express not only things about

   

 

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themselves, but about their surroundings, their social context, the things that act upon

them”, (Freedman, 2000 p. 323), and, “Students make art not merely for its formal,

technical, or even private value, but to communicate about social issues in social ways”,

(Freedman, 2000, p. 323).

Freedman suggests art educators open dialogue about the issues, (gender equity,

civil rights, etc), that traverse the fine and applied arts. She states that this is “the

constructive process of democracy” (Freedman, 2000, p. 319). Garoian and Gaudelius

(2004) suggest that art students can change visual culture by repurposing institutional

collateral in the creation of collages and constructions. Their emphasis is on the

educational value of exploring what visual culture teaches, not how it entertains, (Garoian

& Gaudelius, 2004, p. 299).

Freire (1970), a Brazilian theorist, had addressed political and economic

oppression, (Freedman, 2000). Proponents of visual culture education have addressed

social perspectives. According to Freedman (2000), history bridges the two. Freire’s

“pedagogy of the oppressed” had served both the civil rights and feminist causes in the

U.S. In educational circles, it led to an awareness of “complex cultural, social, and

personal issues”, which in turn, gave way to critical social theory, (Freedman, 2000, p.

320). By the 1980’s, Freedman (2000) writes, art education had subsumed cultural

critique. Similar to the Freirian pedagogy, visual culture provides a language for students

to express their individuality in a society that is saturated with institutional and

commercial propaganda.

Data-Based Research: Children and their Heroes

   

 

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The literature under review reflects a diverse array of research methodologies and

data analysis techniques. Four of the five studies regarding children and their superheroes

that are cited in this paper had been executed via questionnaire – three of them had been

quantitative, while one had been qualitative. The fifth had explored a sequence of

children’s drawings and creative projects.

The studies were each local to specific populations in the world – mostly in the

United States. One had been in Finland. The samples were weighted toward urban

children. One study, (White & O’Brien, 1999), had attempted to create a relatively cross-

cultural sample, (White, African American, Hispanic, Asian), whereas the remainder had

been weighted toward white children. Table 1 shows the characteristics of each study. In

four of the five studies, there had been parity between the genders. The study in Finland,

however, had been comprised of twelve girls and four boys.

Table 1: The Context of Each Study

Year   Author   Age  Range  

N   Place   Male   Female  

1930 Hill 6-20 8813 Alabama 47. 6 %

52.4%

1999 White & O’Brien

6-18 590 Midwest 48 % 52 %

2007 Martin 9-11 42 Urban Mass. U.S.

48 % 52 %

2008 Holub, Tisak & Mullins

8-11 103 Midwest, NW Ohio

53.3 % 46.6 %

2012 Johansson & Hannula

9-10 16 Finland 25% 75%

   

 

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The articles had widely discussed: (1) gender’s influence on hero selection, 2) the

moral character suggested by the child’s preferences, and (4) the way opinions change as

age increases over time.

Gender’s Influence on Hero Selection

Despite the societal and cultural changes that have occurred in the last eighty

years, Hill’s findings, from 1930, have much in common with the work of Holub et. al

from 2008. The subtle differences, however, are worth noting. Both were focused on

ascertaining the proximity, (remote or immediate), that a favorite hero or superhero may

have had to girls versus boys, and the incidence when each admired a hero of the

opposite sex.

Both studies examine the relationship between children and heroes that are “real

people” – not superheroes. Hill’s study occurred in 1930. Holub’s study occurred in

2008. Two significant differences in their samples are noteworthy: (1) Hill’s (1930)

sample included children from kindergarten through grade twelve, whereas Holub et al.’s

(2008) had been limited to grades three and four, and (2) Hill (1930) had surveyed 8,813

students, whereas Holub et al. (2008) had surveyed 103. Comparisons and contrasts

between the two studies will be discussed.

Hill (1930)

The heroes that relate to Hill’s (1930) study included: (1) individuals from the

child’s immediate environment, (2) characters from history and society, (3) characters

from fiction, (4) characters from religion, and (5) miscellaneous characters. Hill (1930)

had focused on one question: “Of all persons whom you have heard, or read about, or

seen, whom would you most care to be like or to resemble? Why?” (Hill, 1930, p. 381).

   

 

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The article had not included responses to the “why” question. The names of the

children’s heroes had served as data. Girls had shown a minimally greater preference,

(two percentage points), for characters from the immediate environment than from the

remote environment. Boys had expressed a markedly greater preference for remote

characters than they did for immediate characters. As Table 2a indicates, boys favored

remote characters, on the aggregate, more than girls, but both genders favored remote

characters increasingly over time. As Table 2b indicates, girls indicated preference for

some male heroes. It should be noted, however, that some boys may have favored female

heroes because the gender of their “immediate” preferences had not been revealed.

Table 2: Choice of “Remote” Character – Girls versus Boys (Hill, 1930)

As age increases At every age

Girls Boys Girls Boys

Preference for remote characters grows

Preference for remote characters grows

Less affinity for remote characters than boys

Greater affinity for remote characters than girls

Table 3: Gender of Hero – Girls versus Boys (Hill, 1930)

Girls Boys

Male Hero Preferred 33.3 % N/A

Female Hero Preferred 66.6 % N/A

Holub, Tisak and Mullins (2008)

   

 

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The study by Holub, Tisak, and Mullins (2008) aimed to place historical research about

the relationship between gender and hero selection in a new light. The article (Holub et

al. 2008, p. 569), states:

“…societal changes (e.g. greater gender equity in the work force), events (e.g. the national tragedy of September 11th that highlighted the heroics of “ordinary” individuals) and the advent and prevalence of new technologies (e.g. children now have more access to the world wide web) may influence children’s hero conceptions.”

There were three strands: (1) to investigate the heroes that children prefer, (2) to ascertain

the attributes that they value, and (3) to identify the typical characteristics of male versus

female heroes. In the first part, children were asked to respond to the question, “Who is

your hero?” In the second part, they chose from a selection of 27 human qualities. And,

in the third section, they chose from the same selection of 27 human qualities but they

were ordered differently. The three strands had been investigated in order to address

humans and human qualities from different perspectives. Table 4a compares the research

by Holub et al.’s (2008) with Hill’s (1930).

Holub et al. (2008) had explored their population in great depth. As Table 4b

demonstrates, they concluded that (1) girls selected male heroes that were typically not

Table 4: A Comparison of Results, (Hill (1930) versus Holub et al. (2008))

Gender Stereotype Hill (1930), Age range in sample: K-12

Holub (et al. 2008), Age range in sample: 3rd - 4th grade

Girls will choose opposite gendered hero more than boys.

True True

Girls choose more “immediate” heroes than boys.

True True

Remote heroes are more popular than immediate heroes for both genders.

True False. Girls select more “personal” than “public” heroes.

   

 

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their father, and (2) girls had a propensity to value “instrumental”, or “stereotypically

male” traits, as much as boys. Holub et al. (2008) seemed to suggest that this supports the

belief that historical events in the last century have changed children’s values. They cite

many examples (1) greater gender equity, (2) the September 11th attack on the U.S., (3)

TV, and (4) video games (Holub et al., 2008, p. 576).

Note, however, it is questionable whether Holub et al.’s (2008) findings are

actually in conflict with Hill’s (1930) because (1) Hill (1930) did not specify who

comprised the girls’ or boys’ cross-gender “immediate” heroes, and (2) both studies

revealed that girls had a great appreciation for “remote” characters. Therefore, it is not

known whether the girls had chosen their fathers in the 1930 study; it is not fair to say

that Holub et al.’s (2008) studied had evidenced much change. And, both studies were

clear that girls highly value “remote” characters – a consistency between 1930 and 2008.

Although there has been considerable societal change since 1930, the current preferences

of girls and boys are not necessarily transformed.

Table 5: Holub et al.’s (2008) Findings

Issue that was Studied

Stereotype Boys Girls Result

When hero of opposite gender had been preferred

Girls would choose father

Had a limited range of response – usually chose their mother

Had a wide range of response - usually did not choose their father

Stereotype was proven false

Valuing heroes with “instrumental” qualities

More boys would value “instrumental” qualities

Highly valued by boys

Highly valued by girls

Stereotype was proven false

Valuing heroes with “expressive” qualities

More girls would value heroes with “expressive”

Valued less by boys

Valued more by girls

Stereotype was proven true

   

 

22  

qualities

Superheroes, Morality, and Children

All three of the articles that were concerned with the values that children associate

with superheroes had crossed into the topic of moral development, but they each took a

unique stance. Johannson and Hannula (2012) had studied how third grade children’s

moral preferences could be understood in terms of the theories of Kohlberg and Gilligan.

Martin (2007) had studied whether there was a link between the way fourth grade

children understand superheroes and the way they understand themselves. And, White

and O’Brien (1999) had tracked the conceptions that children have about heroes, across

development. Table 2 (p. 16) describes each study’s context. Two of the studies were

each focused on a singular age level – they were not concerned with development.

Third Grade

In the study of a third grade, (Johannsen and Hannula, 2012), the majority of

students, (12 girls of 16 participants), had expressed a moral attitude that was “Gilligan”

in nature. That is, the authors had revealed that this age group, in third grade, valued

superheroes that were: empathic, comforting, and caring. By contrast, the minority valued

“Kohlbergian” attributes – framed around justice. Batman justice and Superman justice

were discussed. Interestingly, Batman had been likened to Kohlberg’s conventional stage,

because “circumstances may justify deviant action” (Johannsen et. al, 2012, p. 11) –

Batman is a vigilante. Johannsen et. al did not allocate a specific superhero to the

“preconventional” stage, but they do present Superman as the alternative to Batman,

because Superman is not a vigilante. A preconventional player perceives a punisher as

   

 

23  

“powerful and important” - where punishment can be physical (Johannsen et. al, 2012, p.

11). This is demonstrated when a child responds to a wrongdoer with force (2012).

Although the moral voice of caring appears to dominate the results of Johannsen

et. al’s (2012) study, it is important to emphasize that their sample had been mostly

female - 12 girls, and 4 boys. Of note, the boys expressed a preference for superheroes

that promote justice, the Kohlbergian moral stance. Since Johannsen et. al (2012) had

focused on the third grade, it is possible that there will be some correspondence with the

fourth grade students that will be studied in West New York – perhaps the children’s

preferences will reflect the ideas of either Gilligan or Kohlberg.

Fourth Grade

Through quantitative techniques, Martin compared the prosocial traits that

children attribute to superheroes as well as those that they attribute to themselves. He did

not delve into the kind of moral voice that children command, so much as the underlying

themes that are embodied in superhero dramas. They include: (1) teamwork, (2) society,

and (3) responsibility, (Martin, 2007). Martin (2007) found that children that rate a

superhero highly on a human quality usually rate themselves highly on that human

quality. Martin’s (2007) purpose had been to promote the infusion of superheroes into

curriculum. He had been responding to concerns that superheroes are too aggressive.

Similar to the proponents of visual culture education, moreover, his contention is that

superheroes are embedded in children’s culture and can help shape them in a positive

manner, (2007).

From Kindergarten through Twelfth Grade

   

 

24  

According to White and O’Brien (1999), the way children answer the question,

“What is a hero?” is a developmental matter. They suggest that children’s conceptions

grow more complex, over time. They state that, for children aged five through six, heroes

“save people” (White & O’Brien, 1999, p. 86); their attributes are essentially physical.

The opinions of eight and nine-year-olds had been in agreement, but they also attributed

affective characteristics, such as “trustworthiness” to their heroes, as well as “the act of

doing good”, (White & O’Brien, 1999, p. 87). Eleven to thirteen year-olds add that a hero

is someone to “look up to”, and “does something special”, (White & O’Brien, 1999, p.

87). The responses by fifteen and sixteen year-olds appeared multidimensional - they

incorporated ideas about helping, and selflessness, (White & O’Brien, 1999, p. 87).

White & O’Brien (1999) found that it had been relatively common for

respondents to struggle for an answer to their question, “What is a hero?” When

applicable, the youngest, (ages five through six) stated that they did not know the answer,

whereas the remainder of respondents, (ages eight through sixteen), stated that they did

not have a hero. The authors interpreted this to suggest that it had been difficult for many

of the children to answer the question, but did not explain why. Students did not

frequently mention superheroes and other popular icons. The majority of responses had

included parents or family members. Thus, the authors believe that this supports the

“notion that students are actively engaged in an interaction that explores the conception

and understanding of a hero” throughout their development.

   

 

25  

METHODOLOGY

Context of the Study

West New York is a densely populated town of approximately 50,000 people. It

resembles a city due to a considerable amount of street traffic and a bustling business

district. The 2000 census states that the town of West New York has an unusually high

proportion of apartment renters to property owners. Significantly, West New York is

geographically located very closely to New York City. A view of the New York skyline

is prominent from Boulevard East, and from River Road. Most students in West New

York, including PS #2, are Latino and struggle with academic English. Overall, the

quality of life for students is reduced due to the presence of many urban problems, such

as automobile traffic, density in population and, for some, poverty. Along with the other

schools that are part of the district, PS #2 is classified as a Title I, or low-income school

district. Most students receive a free or reduced lunch, and may also receive a free

breakfast. It should be noted that the population is shifting to encompass both other

immigrants, (Asian, and Middle Eastern), and families that have invested substantially in

real estate on the Hudson River waterfront. I am one of two art teachers at PS #2. There, I

work with approximate fifty per cent of the students. The other art teacher works with

approximately twenty per cent of the students. And, the remaining thirty per cent of the

students have been assigned to a different “special” class besides Art. I have worked with

most of my current students in the past, but not all of them. This is because some of my

students have recently moved to the town, some have recently been transferred to the

school, and some have previously had art class with the other art teacher in the building.

   

 

26  

A PTO, (Parent Teacher Organization), has recently been formed. In the spring of 2012,

the PTO and I worked together to initiate a “student led” art show.

The study will be conducted during art class, in a state-of-the-art classroom, in PS

#2. Classes meet weekly, for 40 minutes. Approximately 25 students are on each class’

roster. It is a relatively new art classroom – the building was renovated about three years

ago. The art room is large, (41’ x 27’), with 12 work tables, a long sink that

accommodates three people, two drying racks, cubbies, a smart board, and two

computers. Bulletin boards were not installed, so students’ artworks are taped to the

walls.

Design of the Study

Participants in the Study

Eighteen students, (six from each of the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades), will be

chosen for the research study. A student will be eligible for an interview if his or her

works, (drawing and writing), respond to the question: “What special ability do you wish

you had to have helped someone in need?” If many of the students’ works appear to be

satisfactory, a process of elimination will be employed. Decisions will be based on

several issues: (1) whether a given race, or ethnicity, has been represented in the sample,

(2) whether the student has recently enrolled at PS #2, and (3) whether the student is

relatively unfamiliar to the art teacher. Effort will be made to ensure diversity in the

sample. The eighteen participants will be balanced equally in gender. See the decision

tree, (Figure 1).

   

 

27  

Figure 1

Decision #1: Has the student’s race or ethnicity been represented in the study?Decision #2: Is the student new to PS #2?Decision #3: Is the student relatively unfamiliar to the art teacher?

Yields nine students.

Decision TreeIf there is a large pool of candidates to choose from, the criteria below will guide selection.

For each gender:

   

 

28  

Although a study of my students’ invented superheroes could span kindergarten

through sixth grade, this study will focus only on the upper grades, (fourth through sixth),

because the question-sheet and the interview will require emotional and cognitive

maturity. The data will therefore be triangulated, in that the drawings, written responses,

and interview responses should corroborate in a holistic understanding of children and

their invented superheroes. It is hoped that clarity can be gained regarding (1) age-

specific preferences regarding human ideals, and (2) the link between artistic and social

development.

This study is qualitative in nature. The drawings, written reflections and

interviews are relatively open-ended so the perspectives of the participants are open to an

analysis of the praxis of learning. Similar to a “reality check”, the study aims to

substantiate a subjective understanding of the culture and values that influence my

students’ artistic development. Although the results will not be “generalizable” beyond

their local context, the insights obtained will inform my teaching practice, and sharpen

the thinking I infuse into pedagogical reflection.

Role of Researcher

The researcher is the art teacher of the participants; furthermore, this study is

ethnographic in nature. It is being conducted in conjunction with an art project in the

context of the classroom. The relationship that I have with the class, as a whole, will

influence the dynamic surrounding the one-on-one interviews, and vice versa. Although

this is not a sterile, or controlled situation, the sociology of the classroom adds another

layer to the understanding of the cultural context of my students’ artistic development.

Design of Questionnaire

   

 

29  

The inspiration for the drawing prompt and the questionnaire came from an art

show entitled “Darkness and Light”, held at the Time Warner Center, (October 8th-14th,

2012), in New York, NY. It was associated with Comic Con, a comics-industry

convention that occurs annually at the Jacob Javits Convention Center, in Manhattan.

This art show had exhibited two and three-dimensional art pieces that placed popularly

known superheroes into new contexts. It had been held in order to raise awareness of the

hunger problem in Africa, and to raise funds for philanthropic aid, (http…).

Based on the art show’s video installation, the students will be asked: “What

special ability do you wish you had to have helped someone in need?” After the dialogue,

the students will create a visual narrative, (a drawing in pencil or in marker), that answers

the prompt in an imaginative manner. In the next lesson, the questionnaire, (Appendix B),

will be distributed. It had been designed to fit the drawing into a narrative context.

Consistent with the first two research questions, it places emphasis on the special abilities

that a new superhero would possess. It does not differentiate between the “super” and the

“human” as this information could be extrapolated during the interviews. Upon review of

the completed questionnaires, nine girls and nine boys will be selected for a follow-up

interview. During the interview, the students will be prompted to share their narrative,

delineate the super from the human abilities of their superhero, and note the experience or

media that may have influenced their thinking.

Data Collection

Data collection will occur in the art classroom – on three consecutive occasions.

On day one, the drawings, (Figures 1 to 3), will be gathered. On day two, a questionnaire,

   

 

30  

(Appendix B), will be administered, and, on day three, interviews, (Appendix C), will be

conducted.

The fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students will work independently while the

interviews are conducted. The data will include (1) six drawings per class, (2) six written

reflections per class, and (3) six sets of notes, (written by the art teacher), regarding the

interviews. Appendix D illustrates how the research process will flow.

Data Analysis

The data will be presented in table format, in order to facilitate comparison and

contrast. For each grade level, there will be a separate visual display. Some of the

categories that will be part of the analysis include: (1) gender of student, (2) gender of

superhero, (3) abilities of superhero, and (4) role model(s) cited by student. Inferences

will need to be drawn regarding whether the drawing supports the messages expressed in

words. The consistencies and/or the gaps in the responses should yield a holistic

interpretation of the cultural and developmental context surrounding children’s invented

superheroes.

   

 

31  

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Description of Results

Grade Four

Drawings, Grade Four

Artwork by the fourth grade students commonly incorporated: (1) superheroes that had

the ability to fly, (2) disproportionately large superheroes, and (3) words in the

compositions. In 4S’s work, (Figure 1), these attributes were vivid: (1) the superhero

hovers over a house, (2) the superhero is larger than the house, and (3) the letter “S” is

printed on the front of the superhero’s dress. Although the character’s eyes turn to the

lower left corner of the page, the house, (labeled “Crack”), stands in the lower right

corner. Two figures are visible through the two windows of the house, each with the

word, “help”, written beside them.

DRAWING: UPON PARENTAL PERMISSION

Figure 1. Fourth grade drawing

   

 

32  

Written Reflections, Grade Four

Typically, fourth grade students designed their superhero with unique gadgetry, or

powers that made them “super strong”. The characters were generally multifaceted. Some

of the names had illustrated this: (1) Multiman, (2) Cybertronium Ninja, and (3) Super

Invisible Girl. The word “strength” had been popular in the writings. In fact, in two cases,

students had used the term “super strength” whereas two had used the word, “strong”, by

itself. 4S had given her superhero, “Stretchy Stephanie”, the power to (1) increase or

decrease in size, (2) become flexible, and (3) to fly. Like 4S, the rest of the fourth grade

students created same-gender superheroes. Names that include the word “girl” occur in

two of the female students’ written reflections: (1) “Ice Girl”, and (2) “Super Invisible

Girl”. None of the boys used either “boy” or “girl” in their superhero’s name - but one

used “man”. In total, three students designed a superhero to “save people”. Table 4

includes summaries of the writings produced by the fourth grade students.

Table 6: Fourth Grade

Written Reflections Interviews Student Gender Name of

Superhero Part or all of the Superhero’s Goal is to “Save”

Super Abilities

Human Abilities

Source(s) / Narrative

4S F Stretchy Stephanie

Yes Flies Changes Size

Flexible Immediate Experience / Save people from house-fires

4K F Super Invisible Girl

Yes Invisibility, Water

Strength Imagination / Drinks water to become invisible

4M F Ice Girl No Throws Ice Balls, Flies

Really Strong

Comic Book / Throws ice balls to

   

 

33  

Table 6: Fourth Grade

Written Reflections Interviews freeze villains

4E M The Super Brothers

No Flies, Super Strength, Invisibility

- Remote Reality (September 11th) / Can detonate bombs

4N M Multi Man Yes X-Ray Eyes, Super Strength

Jump High

“The Thing” and “Fantastic Four”, Part human, had been a scientist

4I M Cybertronium Ninja

No Robot Powers, Saiyan Powers, Ninja Powers

- Imagination, “Terminator” movie, Cartoon / Purpose is to restore home planet

Interviews, Grade Four

Most of the interviews suggested that there had been a basis for the superhero in

popular media or in the imagination. 4S, the student described above, however, had

communicated that her hero had been based on personal experience. Her idea had been

rooted in the memory of a fire that had occurred in close proximity to her home. She

noted that the fire had been traced to drugs, or “crack”. A male student, 4E, had also cited

an historical event, although it had been more remote – the September 11th attack. There

had been a wide range of societal icons, or “pop heroes”, that had emerged from

discussion. One girl cited “Freeze Girl”, while two of the three boys mentioned well-

   

 

34  

known characters, such as, “The Thing”, “Fantastic Four”, “The Terminator”, and “The

Ninjas”. Table 6 lists these results.

Fifth Grade

Drawings, Grade Five

The drawings of the fifth grade students had a different set of common features.

They usually included: (1) superheroes that appeared to be human, (2) a suggestion of a

personal experience, (3) the inclusion of at least one word, and (4) a ground line.

As 5Ka’s drawing shows, (Figure 2), the superhero has no conventional

“superhero garb”. That is, there is no cape, no isolated first-initial on the chest, and no

astonishingly muscular physique. A narrative is conveyed: a lost boy, in a vacant

playground, is going to be returned safely to his ‘mom’. The superhero stands frontally,

similarly to the boy, with a cellular phone in hand. Dialogue is apparent, in that the boy

responds with an emphatic, “OK!” to her command: “Come on lets call your mom.”

Lastly, a smooth, curved line traces a subtly sloped line at the bottom of the page, to

suggest the ground.

DRAWING: UPON PARENTAL PERMISSION

   

 

35  

Figure 2. Fifth grade drawing.

Written Reflections, Grade 5

Throughout the written reflections by fifth grade students, super abilities are

mentioned, despite the fact that they were rarely represented in the drawings. The word

“help” had appeared in five of the six reflections. Two of the girls’ superheroes had

“woman”, or “<women>”, in their name. And, one of the three boys had “man” in his

superhero’s name. Based on the hairstyles and fashions of the superheroes, all of the

students appear to have created heroes that share their gender. Specifically, 5Ka had

named her superhero “Helping Woman”. In the reflection, 5Ka writes: (1) she can fly, (2)

she has super vision, and (3) she is a very fast runner. Table 7 includes the results that

pertain to the written reflections of the fifth grade students.

Table 7: Fifth Grade Written Reflections Interviews

Student Gender of Student

Name of Superhero

“Help…” Super Abilities

Human Abilities

Source / Narrative

5Ka F Helping <Women>

keep people safe

Flies Super vision

Fast runner

A book in second grade / Has super vision and a mind like a computer

5Kh F Ice Cream Woman

people with their problems

Flies Super speed Freezing ability

- Immediate Experience / Cousin fell off skateboard and needed first aid kit, Can think ahead of time

   

 

36  

Table 7: Fifth Grade Written Reflections Interviews

Student Gender of Student

Name of Superhero

“Help…” Super Abilities

Human Abilities

Source / Narrative

5M F Super M - Shoots electricity from eyes Flies

Knock somebody down with one punch

Remote reality / similar to “the police”, Shoots electricity out of eyes – like a weapon, and flies

5L M Skyhornet trains go Flies Super strength Super speed

- Manga, “like Futuristic”, described as feeling, with intelligence, and strong in reading

5E2 M Super E cure diseases

- Helps cure Protects Lets people know what happened

Immediate experience / a peer needed stitches, fixes all injuries, reminds 5E2 of “me”

5E1 M JMan Poor and homeless kids

Has flashbacks

Bringing lost kids to their mom

Immediate experience / when walking to store with mother

Interviews, Grade 5

During the interviews, intrinsic qualities were mentioned in addition to extrinsic

ones. They had included: (1) feeling, (2) intelligence, (3) reading ability, (4) care, (5) a

“mind like a computer”, and (6) “think ahead of time”. Table 7 (above) illustrates the

   

 

37  

fifth grade students’ statements during the interviews. Despite the fact that 5Ka’s

superhero, “Helping Woman”, had appeared ordinary in the drawing she had only super

abilities – super vision and “a mind like a computer”. Most, (four of six) had based their

character on either an immediate or a remote experience, whereas two had based theirs on

visual or fictional literature. 5Ka likened her superhero to a fictional human character that

she had read about in second grade.

Drawings, Grade 6

Regarding the drawings of the sixth grade students, there had been three common

characteristics: (1) Four of six had been created with both marker and pencil, (2) Four of

six represented a superhero standing upright, in mid-air, and (3) all of them had used at

least one word the picture. Special costumes or conventional elements, (tights, masks,

wings) had suggested that the figure had a special quality. In 6N’s work, (Figure 3), these

characteristics had been manifested. Here, “Adventure Pants” is clad in superhero garb,

(cape), and baseball hat. He is standing high in the air, in the domain of the clouds. A

skyline is below his feet. The words, “Adventure Pants!” are diagonally placed – rising

from the middle toward the upper right corner of the page. The superhero’s body is the

only element in the drawing that is filled with color. The word “POW” appears on the

superhero’s chest, in pencil.

   

 

38  

DRAWING: UPON PARENTAL PERMISSION

Figure 3. Sixth grade drawing.

Written Reflections, Grade 6

In writing, the sixth grade students had described alleviating either societal or

environmental problems. They may have given importance to an idiosyncratic agenda, as

well. For example, in 6N’s case, the writing reveals a desire to save people from

drowning and crimes, but also an agenda to “fly and save pants that are ripped”. Another

student, 6I, had also supplemented grand plans for the well being of humanity with an

unconventional agenda, as well. The other four students had usually given their superhero

a singular ambition. They included (1) “help save the world from dangerous waters”, (2)

“she wants the city safe”, (3) “help people who are cold in the winter with no homes”,

and (4) stop gangsters and crime. This group had used both the words “help” and “save”

to describe their superhero. The word “help” had been used three times, and the word

“save” had been used twice. Table 6 reveals the super abilities and human abilities that

the sixth grade students had imbued in their superheroes. As Table 8 shows, one of the

students, 6C, had chosen to create an oppositely gendered superhero.

Table 8: Sixth Grade Written Reflections Interviews

Student Gender Name of Superhero

“Help” or “Save”

Super Abilities

Human Abilities

Source / Narrative

6I F Music Girl Help Invisible, Elastic

Powerful sounds

Cited Rihanna and a cousin, Gets power from parents: (1) invisible man, and (2)

   

 

39  

Table 8: Sixth Grade Written Reflections Interviews

music girl Stops bullying, teaches music, and is a cheerleader

6B F <Cheomelon Girl>

- Chameleon Climb up buildings

Wishes she could give a chameleon power to her little cousin to help her “fit in”

6C F* Donutman (of opposite gender)

Save Throws lasers, Uses power of water, Stop tsunamis and fires

Swims fast Remote reality (Japan’s Tsunami)/ Saves world from dangerous waters

6N M Adventure Pants

Save Flies, Shape Shifter

Save people from drowning and crimes

Immediate experience. Sourced in experience of mending mother’s pants – at seven years of age

6S M Lektrik - Power of Electricity

Fixes Computers, Uses computers in any way possible

Remote reality and Imagination/ Superhero awoke from coma when he was 13 years of age. A street wire had fallen on him. Stops

   

 

40  

Table 8: Sixth Grade Written Reflections Interviews

gangsters and crime.

6L M Freak Heat Help Throws fireballs, Turns into and makes lava

- Remote reality and imagination, Help the homeless in winter, Had touched a magical fire in a cave.

Interviews, Grade 6

During interviews, the sixth grade students linked their imaginative characters to

many kinds of social or environmental problems. Issues of concern had included: (1) the

homeless, (2) faulty computers, (3) tsunamis, (4) ripped pants, (5) bullying, and (6) a

young cousin. There had been one reference to the celebrity, Rihanna, but other than that,

there had been no link to either entertainers, or to fictional heroes. In four of the six

interviews, students had mentioned that a family member, friend, or even themselves, had

inspired their story. For example, student 6N revealed that his sewing of his mother’s

pants, at age seven, had triggered the idea for his superhero, “Adventure Pants”. Also,

student 6B had wished that her young cousin could become “Chameleon Girl” in order to

“blend in” with her peers. Students 6S and 6L had each discussed remote, but real

problems that had no relation to their family or friends. Table 6 indicates whether the

influence on the student had been of an immediate or remote nature.

Discussion of Findings

Across-the-Board Similarities

   

 

41  

There were two artistic behaviors common to all of the grade levels: (1) text played a

role in most of the drawings, and (2) the ability to fly had frequently been manifest in

either the drawings, or in the writings, but very rarely in the interviews. The fourth grade

population, as well as the sixth grade population, had frequently drawn their superheroes

in flight and had written about it. Most of the fifth grade students, however, were inclined

to only write, not draw about their superhero’s ability to fly. As stated, the vast majority

of the fifth grade sample had depicted their superheroes as if they were standing on the

earth.

Character of Each Grade

There appears to have been a unique quality to each grade level’s approach to the

project. The fourth grade group had valued physical prowess, or strength. The fifth grade

sample had imbued their superheroes with both physical and intrinsic qualities. Lastly,

the students in sixth grade had created characters that were uniquely gifted or

multifaceted.

Fourth Grade: Super Strength

Looking at Table 6, it is evident that the fourth grade children had valued the

“super” over the “human”. Physically impossible abilities dominate the results – super

size, super strength, and flying. Although several of the ideals are “humanly possible”,

(flexible, strong, jump high), they, as well, emphasize physicality, power, and strength.

Fifth Grade: Super and Caring

The work of the fifth grade students suggested that there is more than brawn to a

superhero. This had not been apparent in the students’ disclosures that occurred in

writing. However, it had been vivid during the interviews. There, intrinsic qualities

   

 

42  

entered the dialogue: the superheroes can feel, think, read, and care. The drawings

seemed to parallel this, in that the superheroes are not represented as physically powerful

entities– they appear as ordinary mortals. Their “greatness” is in the ways they care for

others. Some examples include: (1) “helping people with their problems”, (2) “curing

diseases”, and (3) “helping poor and homeless kids”.

Sixth Grade: Super, Uniquely Talented, and Relatively Complex

Study of the sixth grade students’ artwork and narratives suggests a common

decision to imbue a superhero with a unique talent, in addition to a conventional one. No

longer concerned with “only” saving the world, these superheroes have a

“specialization”. As noted in Table 6, they might “fix pants”, “teach music”, “fix

computers”, or help a “little cousin”. Also, the superheroes invented by the sixth graders

were sometimes multifaceted – their uncanny agendas may have been offset by the

“usual” ones,” such as keeping the world safe, or stopping crime.

Developmental Aspect

It is important to note that the influence of “pop culture” seemed to wane over

time. As Table 9 shows, the vast majority of students in fifth and sixth grade had based

their superhero narratives on real issues, whereas the majority of children in fourth grade

had emphasized popular films and comic book culture. The group of fifth grade students

had seemed to link personal experiences to their narratives, but the students in sixth grade

had usually drawn from current events, or knowledge of societal issues.

Table 9: Source of Superhero-Narrative Media /

Popular Culture

Immediate Life Experience

Remote Life Experience

Imagination

Fourth Grade 3 1 1 1

   

 

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Fifth Grade

2 3 1 0

Sixth Grade

1 2 3 0

Regarding the Data-Based Studies

In the studies that were mentioned in the literature review, data had been

categorized in order to understand the social and moral aspects of children’s heroes.

Although each author had a different thrust, each seemed to rely on assumptions

regarding children’s values - they did not ask the children about them directly. Table 8

reveals these assumptions. This may suggest, to a certain degree, that there had been

inaccuracies and/or biases in their research. In Hannula and Johannson’s (2012) work, for

example, a significant portion of the data included a description of the “super” abilities

that the children admire, (Table 10), but they concluded that third grade students actually

valued “everyday”, or caring heroes (Hannula & Johannson, (2012, p. 11). A look at the

questions that were given to the sample of children reveals an emphasis on “What does

s/he defend?” (Hannula & Johannson, 2012, p. 5), as opposed to “What does s/he fight

for?” The authors had written, “More children were concerned to write about the welfare

of the victim, which meant using the care voice more compared to a smaller group of

children who were enthusiastic about attacking the bully in the name of justice”,

(Hannula & Johannson, 2012, p. 10). This suggests that the omission of justice-oriented

questions biased the results in favor of the “everyday,” or caring hero.

Table 10: Categories that Suggest Assumptions (Paster, 2012) (Hannula &

Johannson, 2012) (Holub, 2008) Studied only human heroes

(Martin, 2007) (White & O’Brien, 1999)

Super Superhero (similar to

- - Physical

   

 

44  

Table 10: Categories that Suggest Assumptions (Paster, 2012) (Hannula &

Johannson, 2012) (Holub, 2008) Studied only human heroes

(Martin, 2007) (White & O’Brien, 1999)

Kohlberg’s model)

• Superman Justice

• Batman Justice

Human Everyday Hero / Caring (Similar to Gilligan’s model))

1. Expressive 2. Instrumental 3. Prestige 4. Sociable

Ten “values and prosocial competencies”

Affective

Similar to Hannula & Johannson’s (2012) study, the analysis by White and

O’Brien (1999) had been reliant on assumptions, rather than actual data. According to

White and O’Brien, physical strengths become gradually less significant to children after

they are six years old. After that, the emphasis falls on “affective” traits, (White &

O’Brien, 1999, p. 88). Most of the raw data had not been included; so many specific

“physical” and “affective” traits are unknown. In one instance, the authors cite a physical

attribute that had been mentioned by five and six-year-olds: admiring the ability to fly

(White & O’Brien, 1999, p. 87). And, “trustworthiness” had been a common affective

characteristic, (White & O’Brien, 1999, p. 87). It seems that the study they conducted had

limited children’s responses to a singular characteristic. This did not leave opportunity to

appreciate that heroes might have a balance of powers – part “super” and part “human”.

Similar to the above, authors Holub (2008) and Martin (2007) had depended upon

predetermined categories in order to classify actual data. In Holub’s case, four traits,

(“expressive”, “instrumental”, “prestige”, and “sociable”), (Holub, 2008, p. 571), were

employed. As noted in the literature review, their study had investigated only human

   

 

45  

heroes, not superheroes. In Martin’s article, human, or “prosocial” traits of superheroes

had been linked to superheroes, such as “fairness”, “forgiveness”, “tolerance”, and

“responsibility” (Martin, 2007, p. 244). Super abilities had not been part of either

discussion.

In total, some of the findings from the present study are in conflict with the data-

based studies, given the latter’s reliance on discrete categories. Dividing the

characteristics of superheroes into either “justice” or “care” seems to have eliminated a

vast range of possibility. Furthermore, results of the current study conflict with White &

O’Brien’s idea that children, beginning at age eight, admire heroes for their affective

characteristics. While the results of the present study also suggest the same destination,

the transition from the physical to the affective seems to occur later, between fourth and

fifth grade, or at age 10. It seems plausible that while the broad categories had served a

statistical purpose, they may have led to generalization, which, in turn, may have led to

superficial analysis.

Theoretical Context

This study places theoretical positions about children and their art into a practical

context. While it is understood that children’s awareness of the world increases over

time, this study sheds light on the particular issues that matter to an actual population and

why.

From Fourth to Fifth Grade

In one year’s time, a radical shift had occurred. The fourth grade students had

attributed great physical strength to their superheroes. By fifth grade, however, the

affinity for strength had practically disappeared. Considering the narrative contexts that

   

 

46  

had surrounded the older children’s superheroes, super strength could not remedy the

problems. It could not: (1) help a lost boy, (2) cure a broken ankle, or (3) prevent an ice

cream cone from dropping. The older students’ superheroes had been invented to serve

the “helpless”, the “injured”, and the “unfortunate” – addressing one instance of pain at a

time. In short, their super-characters are emotionally sensitive. The apparent shift, from

the extrinsic to the intrinsic, appears to be in agreement with the insights of the

developmental theorists that were discussed, (Lowenfeld, 1957 & Burton, 2004).

Lowenfeld (1957) and Burton (2004) had indicated that the child experiences an ever-

increasing environmental awareness. Consistent with this, Table 7 shows that the source

of the students’ narratives had reflected the media in the fourth grade, the micro-culture,

or immediate environment in the fifth grade, and eventually the macro-culture, or society,

in the sixth grade.

From Fifth to Sixth Grade

Lowenfeld’s (1957) allusion to dramatic narrative appears to parallel the results –

it appears to take root in the fifth grade and develop more in the sixth grade. A path from

conspicuous emotional maturity, (fifth grade), toward personal complexity, (sixth grade),

appears plausible. As discussed, the characters of the sixth graders had been created with

“unusual” talent. Some of their names illustrate this: “Adventure Pants,” “Music Girl”,

and “Chameleon Girl”. Moreover, Burton had stated that this age bracket is more aware

of their individuality and of others in society, (Burton, 2004).

Given the strong presence of visual culture in the lives of the students, one might

expect that their works, (visual or verbal), would either be derivative of, or inspired by it.

Furthermore, developmentally, Burton (2004) had estimated that copying is typical of

   

 

47  

adolescence. But, the work of the students had rarely referenced cultural icons. About

five of the eighteen students that were in the sample mentioned the influence of a

celebrity, or popularly known cultural artifact. Perhaps indicative of the character of

development, a “real person”, or Rihanna, (a female singer), had been cited by a female

student in sixth grade, whereas the remaining four students, (in the earlier grades), had

cited the influence of graphic novels.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Conclusion

This study places theoretical positions about children and their art into a practical

context. While it is understood that children’s awareness of the world increases over

time, this study has shed light on a particular population.

   

 

48  

Research Question #1: What super-human attributes make a most positive impression on

children as they progress from grade four to grade six?

During all of the grades that were studied, children have an affinity for flying but

it is not the most lauded super-attribute. The fourth grade is commonly concerned with

super-strength, and other physically oriented powers. When considering super-assets, the

fifth grade population places most emphasis on super-speed, but the attraction to the

“super” is not as common as it is in grade four. And, it may refer to thinking, not

necessarily physical movement. Finally, the sixth grade seems to value a wide range of

physical powers, not a reliance on a singular ability, like “super strength”. Their work

had also included elastic, chameleon, and shape shifter abilities. Super-strength had not

been among their preferences. Appendix E displays the data related to super abilities.

Research Question #2: What human attributes make a most positive impression on

children as they progress from grade four to grade six?

The esteemed human attributes that were revealed in the present study had been a

balance between both intrinsic and extrinsic qualities – for the fifth and sixth grades. The

fourth grade students had demonstrated an affinity for the extrinsic throughout their

discussion of human qualities. The data-based studies tended to suggest that the children

that they studied could be classified into one category or the other. Given this

discrepancy, it seems that whether children’s preferences are singular or plural, at a given

time, is a substantive matter. The fact that the majority of data-based researchers had

predetermined their categories, (as discussed), may have biased the studies. Appendix F

lists the human qualities that were described by the children in each study.

   

 

49  

Itemizing the qualities by grade, the present study had found that, for fourth

graders, the human traits of superheroes resemble their “super traits”. The students had

usually prefixed the super trait with the word “super”. They used no prefix with a human

trait – the word “strong” or “flexible” had appeared by itself. This age group clearly had

an affinity for strength, and physical power. When describing the human side, they had

phrased their responses using the expression “really strong,” not “super strong”.

The fifth grade students had attributed many qualities to their superheroes that

resemble human, not superhuman powers. Human acts of kindness had been valued. The

welfare of children, and the caring for the sick had been concerns. White and O’Brien’s

(1999) categorization of this age group’s value, “a hero is someone to look up to, or does

something special”, concurs with this finding. Extrinsic human qualities were nonetheless

mentioned: “Fast runner”, and “Knock someone down with one punch” were

characteristics that were noted that are humanly possible. Appendix F displays the human

qualities that fifth grade students had valued.

Human ideals cited by the sixth grade students were relatively extrinsic, compared

to that of the fifth grade students. The sixth graders’ superheroes were frequently able to

fix, or prevent a disaster – ranging from ripped pants to tsunamis. Some of their human

abilities included: emitting “powerful sounds”, climbing buildings, and saving people

from drowning, (see Appendix F). Similar to their analysis of fifth graders, White and

O’Brien’s (1999) found that those in sixth grade valued “someone to look up to”, or

“someone that does something special”. The “intrinsic” seems implicit in this age group’s

affinity for having a special talent – to sing, sew, or fix computers. However, this

   

 

50  

nonetheless contrasts with that of the fifth grade, given the older group’s emphasis on

uniqueness, not emotional sensitivity.

Research Question #3: What have students seen or experienced that has influenced the

social content in their art?

The children had cited a wide range of sources for their superhero narratives: (1)

their imagination, (2) a variety of comic books and other popular media, (3) celebrities,

(4) immediate experiences, and (4) remote events. The majority of fourth grade students

had appeared to be most influenced by popular culture. The fifth grade students, however,

were usually inspired by immediate events in their life. The sixth grade students had

usually implied that they were responding to a current event – but they did not mention

“television”, “radio”, or “newspaper”. As the age of the child had increased, there had

been a tendency to refer to a remote, not an immediate situation. Table 7 illustrates this.

Implications for Art Education

The main purpose of this study had been to better understand the preferences that

are held by children - to ascertain the kinds of heroes that they believe belong in the

world. This study has allowed me to ascertain age appropriate topics that support social

justice art education, and become aware of the micro and macro-cultural context that is of

special relevance to older children and early adolescents.

In conclusion, it seems that a store of ideals accumulates over time. “Strength”

had been a prominent ideal in fourth grade; followed by “care” in fifth, and then, by

“uniqueness” in sixth. As age increases, there is a tendency to augment the extrinsic with

the intrinsic. Both intrinsic and extrinsic qualities are resident in the ideals of fifth and

sixth grade students, regardless of whether the category is “human” or “superhuman”.

   

 

51  

Curing the sick, or sustaining other’s emotional welfare had signified that intrinsic values

are important ideals to early adolescents.

On a practical level, it makes sense to design curriculum that reflects development

that begins with the extrinsic and proceeds toward a balance between both extrinsic and

the intrinsic. There had been a significant difference between the fifth and sixth grade

learners. Although they both had included intrinsic values in their superheroes, the sixth

grade students had implied that “individuality” has a value. They had less interest in

creating superheroes that appeared dutiful to a singular cause. In short, their superheroes

had “interesting lives”.

Implications for Future Research

Understanding the proportion of the extrinsic to the intrinsic appears to be a

relevant and important enterprise for the future of research. The data-based studies that

had been reviewed had focused almost exclusively on the intrinsic. As Paterson and Park

(2008) had stated, the extrinsic could be the forerunner to the intrinsic. Could a human

struggle for equilibrium between the two qualities exist? It might explain why children’s

ideals waver between the extrinsic and the intrinsic.

Batman reminds us that superheroes are not always super-powered. Furthermore,

his perspective on social justice has been criticized – he has been called a vigilante,

(Hannula & Johannson, 2012). He is emotionally imperfect, or at best, human.

Underlying the popularity of superheroes, children are encouraged to strive for both

intrinsic and extrinsic maturity. As Gilmour comments about self-reflection in the art

making process, (“the becoming of feeling,”, (Gilmour, 1986, p. 35)), children are works

in progress.

   

 

52  

Although “kid friendly” popular culture is blatantly linked to the superheroes of

the fourth grade students, the question: “What cultural influences are most inspirational

to the fifth and sixth grade students?” has emerged. They seem to be influenced by “the

news”, not only entertainment. This opens up inquiry regarding the impact that nonfiction

can have on early adolescents, whether it emanates from academic or commercial

sources. Relevant to this, which “reality shows” and “reality actors/actresses” make a

most positive impression on this age group? Have the architects of the visual culture

education movement incorporated reality-intensive TV shows, like the evening news, or

The Apprentice, into their analysis? Perhaps this justifies more research. A conventional

interpretation of visual culture is rooted in entertainment and advertising, but it may be

more than that. Comprehending the specific impact that “reality”, reality-based

entertainment, and journalism are having on children’s development appears to be worthy

of future research.

Conclusion to the Study

I encourage future research into the values that children embody in their art. Art is

the domain of the ideal, and could impact the future of society, (Greene, 1995). I am

grateful that this research project has supported my development as an idealistic art

teacher. I hope to deliver art instruction that contributes to a child’s awareness of human

possibilities, the ideals that reside within us, and culture’s active role in human

development.

   

 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burton, J.M. (2004). A guide for teaching and learning in the visual arts. Manuscript

submitted for publication.

Freedman, K. (2000). Social perspectives on art education in the U.S.: Teaching visual

culture in a democracy. Studies in Art Education 41(4), 314-329.

   

 

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Freedman, K. (2003). Teaching visual culture: Curriculum, aesthetics and the social life

of art. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Freire, P. (1989). Pedagogy of the oppressed. (M. B. Ramos, Trans.). New York, NY:

Continuum.

Garoian, C.R. & Gaudelius, Y.M. (2004). The spectacle of visual culture. Studies in Art

Education 45(4), 298-312.

Gilmour, J.C. (1986). Picturing the world. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press

Hamblen, K.A. (1985). Artistic development as a process of universal-relative selection

possibilities. Visual Arts Research, 11(2), 69-83.

Hill, D.S. (1937). Personification of ideals by urban children. Journal of Social Psychology, 1(3).

379-393.

Holub, S.C., Tisak, M.S. & Mullins, D. (2008). Gender differences in children’s hero

attributions: Personal hero choices and evaluations of typical male and female heroes. Sex

Roles, 58, 567-578.

Johansson, J. & Hannula, M.S. (2012). Third graders’ perceptions on moral behavior on bullying

if they had the infinite powers of superhero defenders. Education Research International,

2012, 1-15.

Lowenfeld, V. (1957). Creative and mental growth. New York, NY: Macmillan.

Manning, P.K. & Truzzi, M. (Eds.), (1972). Youth and sociology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

Martin, J.F. (2007). Children’s attitudes toward superheroes as a potential indicator of their

moral understanding. Journal of Moral Education, 36(2), 239-250.

Peterson, C. & Park, N. (2008). The positive psychology of superheroes. In Rosenberg, R. S.

   

 

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(Ed.), Psychology of Superheroes: An unauthorized exploration (pp. 5-18). Dallas, TX:

BenBella Books.

Rosenberg, R.S. (Ed.), (2008). Psychology of superheroes: An unauthorized exploration. Dallas,

TX: BenBella Books.

We Can Be Heroes (n.d.). In time of crisis, one small act can make you a hero. [Web    

posting]  Retrieved  from  http://www.wecanbeheroes.org/the-­‐darkness-­‐  

light-­‐art-­‐exhibits-­‐final-­‐stop-­‐new-­‐york/.  

White, S.H. & O’Brien J.E. (1999). What is a hero? An exploratory study of students’

conceptions of heroes. Journal of Moral Education, 28(1), 81-95.

Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (Expanded 2nd ed.). Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wilson, M. & Wilson, B. (1982). Teaching children to draw: A guide for teachers and parents.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

   

 

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Name:

Grade:

Date:

After completing the drawing for your superhero, answer the following questions. This is a good timeto clarify what is especially unique about your superhero.

1) Name of superhero:

2) What powers or abilities do they have?

a.

b.

c.

3) What is their goal?

4) How did they gain their unique abilities?

Appendix A

   

 

57  

Appendix B

Interview Questions

1. Can you tell me about your superhero?

2. What SUPER abilities does the superhero possess?

3. What HUMAN qualities does the superhero possess?

4. Where did your idea come from?

   

 

58  

ObjectiveThrough the use of pencil, or marker, students will be able to represent an ideal superhero that is imbued with special super human or human abilities.

Motivational Dialogue (hypothetical)

Teacher: When I was in a train station, a blind woman asked me to help her find the stairway. I tried to give her clear directions, but I wished there was more I could do to help her. Maybe if I had super powers, I could have been of more help...What is your experience? What super powers would you like to have?Student 1: I wish I could fly.Teacher: Sure, how would you use that power to help someone?(etc)

Approximately 25 Drawings per Grade Level

Approximately 25 Written Reflections per Grade Level

1. Name of superhero:2. List three powers or abilities that they have:3. What is their goal?4. How did they gain their unique abilities?

Six Structured Interviews per Grade Level

1. The super human abilities of the superhero2. The human qualities of the superhero3. Experiential or cultural context

Appendix C

   

 

59  

Appendix D: “Super” Abilities Paster Johannson &

Hannula (2012) White & O’Brien (1999)

Third Grade

- Exercising magic, transforming into an animal, Flying, Walking on hot rocks, Raising the dead, Spying and moving in the dark, Possessing power over the elements, Power to lift an airplane

Slightly weighted toward the “affective”, as opposed to the “physical”. Ages 5-6 were weighted toward “flying”, and the “physical”.

Fourth Grade

Super Size Super Strength Flying, Invisibility, Power over the elements, X-Ray eyes, Robot powers, Saiyan powers, Ninja powers

- This age group had been skipped in this study

Fifth Grade

Super Speed, Flying, Shoots electricity from eyes

- Emphasis on affective.

   

 

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Appendix D: “Super” Abilities Paster Johannson &

Hannula (2012) White & O’Brien (1999)

Sixth Grade

Transforms Body, Flying, Invisible, Elastic, Chameleon, Throws lasers, Power over water, Shape shifter, Power of electricity, Throws fireballs, Turns into and makes lava

- Emphasis on affective

   

 

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Appendix E: “Human” Qualities Paster Johann-

son & Hannula(2012)

Martin (2007)

White & O’Brien (1999)

Hill (1930) Holub et al. (2008)

Third Grade

- Caring - Values “saving” and affective characteristics

Historic Americans

Values “instrumental”, or extrinsic characteristics a lot

Fourth Grade

Strength, Flexible, Jump high

- Child and superhero are comparable

Values “saving” and affective characteristics

Historic Americans

Values “instrumental”, or extrinsic characteristics a lot

Fifth Grade

Fast runner, Knock someone down with one punch, Helps cure, Protects, Tells people what happened, Brings lost kids to their mom

- A hero is “someone to look up to”, and “does something special”

Historic Americans

-

Sixth Grade

Powerful sounds, Climbs up buildings, Swims fast, Saves people from drowning and crimes, Fixes pants, Fixes computers, Uses computers

- - A hero is “someone to look up to”, and “does something special”

Historic Americans

-

   

 

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Appendix E: “Human” Qualities Paster Johann-

son & Hannula(2012)

Martin (2007)

White & O’Brien (1999)

Hill (1930) Holub et al. (2008)

in any way possible

Seventh Grade and Up

- - - Multidimen-sional. Helping and selflessness

Contempo-rary public Americans

-