OddPeopleBy

MayneReid

OddPeople

ChapterOne.Bosjesmen,orBushmen.

PerhapsnoraceofpeoplehasmorepiquedthecuriosityofthecivilisedworldthanthoselittleyellowsavagesofSouthAfrica,knownastheBushmen.Fromthe first hour in which European nations became acquainted with theirexistence, a keen interest was excited by the stories told of their peculiarcharacterandhabits;andalthoughtheyhavebeenvisitedbymanytravellers,andmanydescriptionshavebeengivenofthem,itisbuttruthtosay,thattheinterestinthemhasnotyetabated,andtheBushmenofAfricaarealmostasgreat a curiosity at this hour as theywerewhenDiGama first doubled theCape. Indeed, there is no reasonwhy this should not be, for the habits andpersonalappearanceofthesesavagesarejustnowastheywerethen,andourfamiliaritywith them is notmuch greater.Whatever has been added to ourknowledgeoftheircharacter,hastendedrathertoincreasethandiminishourcuriosity.At first the tales related of them were supposed to be filled with wilfulexaggerations,andtheearlytravellerswereaccusedofdealingtoomuchinthe

marvellous. This is a very common accusation brought against the earlytravellers;andinsomeinstancesitisajustone.Butinregardtotheaccountsgiven of the Bushmen and their habits there has been far less exaggerationthanmight be supposed; and themore insightwe obtain into their peculiarcustoms and modes of subsistence, the more do we become satisfied thatalmosteverythingallegedofthemistrue.Infact,itwouldbedifficultforthemostinventivegeniustocontriveafancifulaccount,thatwouldbemuchmorecuriousorinterestingthantherealandbonâfidetruththatcanbetoldaboutthismostpeculiarpeople.

WheredotheBushmendwell?whatistheircountry?Thesearequestionsnotsoeasilyanswered,asinrealitytheyarenotsupposedtopossessanycountryat all, any more than the wild animals amidst which they roam, and uponwhomtheyprey.ThereisnoBushman’scountryuponthemap,thoughseveralspots in Southern Africa have at times received this designation. It is notpossible,therefore,todelineatetheboundariesoftheircountry,sinceithasnoboundaries,anymorethanthatofthewanderingGypsiesofEurope.If theBushmen, however, have no country in the proper sense of theword,theyhavea“range,”andoneofthemostextensivecharacter—sinceitcoversthewholesouthernportionof theAfricancontinent, fromtheCapeofGoodHopetothetwentiethdegreeofsouthlatitude,extendingeastandwestfromthecountryof theCafires to theAtlanticOcean.Until lately itwasbelievedthattheBushman-rangedidnotextendfartothenorthoftheOrangeriver;butthishasprovedanerroneousidea.Theyhaverecently“turnedup”inthelandof the Dammaras, and also in the great Kalahari desert, hundreds of milesnorth from theOrange river and it is not certain that theydonot range stillnearer to theequatorial line—though itmaybe remarked that thecountry inthatdirectiondoesnotfavourthesupposition,notbeingofthepeculiarnatureof a Bushman’s country. The Bushman requires a desert for his dwelling-place.Itisanabsolutenecessityofhisnature,asitistotheostrichandmanyspeciesofanimals;andnorthofthetwentiethdegreeoflatitude,SouthAfricadoesnotappear tobeof thischaracter.TheheroicLivingstonehasdispelledthelong-cherishedillusionoftheGeographyaboutthe“Great-sandedlevel”oftheseinteriorregions;and,instead,disclosedtotheworldafertileland,wellwatered,andcoveredwithaprofuseandluxuriantvegetation.InsuchalandtherewillbenoBushmen.The limits we have allowed them, however, are sufficiently large,—fifteendegreesoflatitude,andanequallyextensiverangefromeasttowest.Itmustnot be supposed, however, that they populate this vast territory. On thecontrary, theyareonlydistributedover it inspots, in littlecommunities, thathavenorelationshiporconnectionwithoneanother,butareseparatedbywide

intervals, sometimes of hundreds ofmiles in extent. It is only in the deserttracts of SouthAfrica that the Bushmen exist,—in the karoos, and treeless,waterlessplains—among thebarren ridgesand rockydefiles—in the ravinesformedby thebedsofdried-uprivers—insituationssosterile,soremote,sowild and inhospitable as to offer a home to no other human being save theBushmanhimself.Ifwestatemoreparticularly the localitieswhere thehauntsof theBushmanaretobefound,wemayspecifythebarrenlandsonbothsidesoftheOrangeriver,—includingmostofitsheadwaters,anddowntoitsmouth,—andalsotheGreat Kalahari desert. Through all this extensive region the kraals of theBushmenmaybeencountered.AtonetimetheywerecommonenoughwithinthelimitsoftheCapecolonyitself,andsomehalf-casteremnantsstillexistinthemore remotedistricts;but thecruelpersecutionof theboershashad theeffect of extirpating these unfortunate savages; and, like the elephant, theostrich, and the eland, the true wild Bushman is now only to be met withbeyondthefrontiersofthecolony.AbouttheoriginoftheBushmenwecanoffernoopinion.TheyaregenerallyconsideredasabranchofthegreatHottentotfamily;butthistheoryisfarfrombeing an established fact. When South Africa was first discovered andcolonised,bothHottentotsandBushmenwerefoundthere,differingfromeachotherjustastheydifferatthisday;andthoughtherearesomestrikingpointsof resemblance between them, there are also points of dissimilarity that areequallyasstriking,ifweregardthetwopeopleasone.Inpersonalappearancethere is a certain general likeness: that is, both arewoolly-haired, and bothhaveaChinesecastoffeatures,especially in theformandexpressionof theeye.Theircolourtooisnearlythesame;but,ontheotherhand,theHottentotsarelargerthantheBushmen.Itisnotintheirpersons,however,thatthemostessentialpointsofdissimilarityaretobelookedfor,butratherintheirmentalcharacters;andhereweobservedistinctionssomarkedandantithetical,thatitis difficult to reconcile themwith the fact that these two people are of onerace.Whetheradifferenthabitoflifehasproducedthisdistinctivecharacter,or whether it has influenced the habits of life, are questions not easilyanswered.Weonlyknowthatastrangeanomalyexists—theanomalyoftwopeoplebeingpersonallyalike—thatis,possessingphysicalcharacteristicsthatseemtoprovethemofthesamerace,whileintellectually,asweshallpresentlysee, theyhave scarceonecharacter in common.The slight resemblance thatexists between the languages of the two is not to be regarded as a proof oftheircommonorigin.Itonlyshowsthattheyhavelonglivedinjuxtaposition,orcontiguoustoeachother;afactwhichcannotbedenied.IngivingamoreparticulardescriptionoftheBushman,itwillbeseeninwhatrespectheresemblesthetrueHottentot,andinwhathediffersfromhim,both

physicallyandmentally,andthisdescriptionmaynowbegiven.TheBushman is the smallestmanwithwhomweare acquainted; and if theterms“dwarf”and“pigmy”maybeappliedtoanyraceofhumanbeings,theSouth-African Bushmen presents the fairest claim to these titles. He standsonly4feet6inchesuponhisnakedsoles—nevermorethan4feet9,andnotunfrequently is he encountered of still less height—even so diminutive as 4feet2.Hiswifeisofstillshorterstature,andthisLilliputianladyisoftenthemotherofchildrenwhenthecrownofherheadisjust3feet9inchesabovethesolesofherfeet.Ithasbeenaverycommonthingtocontradicttheassertionthat these people are such pigmies in stature, and evenDr Livingstone hasdone so in his latemagnificent work. The doctor states, very jocosely, thatthey are “not dwarfish—that the specimens brought to Europe have beenselected,likecostermongers’dogs,fortheirextremeugliness.”But thedoctor forgets that it isbut from“thespecimensbrought toEurope”that theabove standardof theBushman’sheighthasbeenderived,but fromthe testimony of numerous travellers—many of them as trustworthy as thedoctorhimself—fromactualmeasurementsmadebythemuponthespot.Itishardly tobebelieved that suchmenasSparmannandBurchell,BarrowandLichtenstein, Harris, Campbell, Patterson, and a dozen others thatmight bementioned, should all give an erroneous testimony on this subject. Thesetravellershavedifferednotoriouslyonotherpoints,butinthistheyallagree,thataBushmanoffivefeetinheightisatallmaninhistribe.DrLivingstonespeaksofBushmen“sixfeethigh,”andthesearethetribeslatelydiscoveredliving so far north as the Lake Nagami. It is doubtful whether these areBushmenatall.Indeed,thedescriptiongivenbythedoctor,notonlyoftheirheightandthecolouroftheirskin,butalsosomehintsabouttheirintellectualcharacter,wouldleadtothebeliefthathehasmistakensomeotherpeopleforBushmen.ItmustberememberedthattheexperienceofthisgreattravellerhasbeenchieflyamongtheBechuanatribes,andhisknowledgeof theBushmanproperdoesnotappeartobeeitheraccurateorextensive.Nomanisexpectedtoknoweverybody;andamidtheprofusionofnewfacts,whichthedoctorhasso liberally laid before theworld, itwould be strange if a few inaccuraciesshouldnotoccur.Perhapsweshouldhavemoreconfidenceifthiswastheonlyoneweareenabledtodetect;butthedoctoralsodeniesthatthereisanythingeither terrific ormajestic in the “roaringof the lion.”Thus speaks he: “Thesamefeelingwhichhasinducedthemodernpaintertocaricaturethelionhasled the sentimentalist to consider the lion’s roar as the most terrific of allearthlysounds.Wehearofthe‘majesticroarofthekingofbeasts.’Totalkofthemajesticroarofthelionismeremajestictwaddle.”Thedoctoriscertainlyinerrorhere.Doeshesupposethatanyoneisignorantofthecharacterofthelion’sroar?Doeshefancythatnoonehaseverheardit

buthimself?IfitbenecessarytogotoSouthAfricatotakethetruemeasureofaBushman,itisnotnecessarytomakethatlongjourneyinordertoobtainacorrectideaofthecompassofthelion’svoice.Wecanhearitathomeinallitsmodulations; and any one who has ever visited the Zoological Gardens inRegent’sPark—nay, anyonewho chances to livewithin half amile of thatmagnificentmenagerie—willbeverymuchdisposedtodoubtthecorrectnessof thedoctor’sassertion. If therebeasoundupon theearthaboveallothers“majestic,” a noise above all others “terrific,” it is certainly the roar of thelion.AskAlbertTerraceandSaintJohn’sWood!But let us not be too severe upon the doctor. Theworld is indebted to himmuch more than to any other modern traveller, and all great men indulgeoccasionallyintheluxuryofaneccentricopinion.Wehavebroughtthepointforwardhereforaspecialpurpose,—toillustrateatoomuchneglectedtruth.Errorisnotalwaysonthesideofexaggeration;butissometimesalsofoundinthe opposite extreme of a too-squeamish moderation. We find the learnedProfessorLichtensteinridiculingpooroldHernandez,thenaturalhistorianofMexico,forhavinggivenadescriptionofcertainfabulousanimals—fabulous,hetermsthem,becausetohimtheywereoddandunknown.But it turnsoutthat the old author was right, and the animals exist! How many similarmisconceptions might be recorded of the Buffons, and other closetphilosophers—urged,too,withthemostbitterzeal!Incredulitycarriedtoofarisbutanotherformofcredulity.Buttoreturntoourpropertheme,andcompletetheportraitoftheBushman.Wehavegivenhisheight.Itisintolerableproportiontohisotherdimensions.Whenyoung,heappearsstoutenough;but this isonlywhenamereboy.Attheageofsixteenhehasreachedallthemanhoodheiseverdestinedtoattain;andthenhisfleshdisappears;hisbodyassumesameagreoutline;hisarmsandlimbs grow thin; the calf disappears from his legs; the plumpness from hischeeks; and altogether he becomes as wretched-looking an object as it ispossible to conceive in human shape.Older, his skin growsdry, corrugated,and scaly; his bones protrude; and his knee, elbow, and ankle-joints appearlikehornyknobsplacedattheendsofwhatmoreresemblelongstraightsticksthanthearmsandlimbsofahumanbeing.Thecolourofthiscreaturemaybedesignatedayellow-brown,thoughitisnoteasytodetermineittoashade.TheBushmanappearsdarkerthanhereallyis;since his skin serves him for a towel, and every species of dirt thatdiscommodeshisfingershegetsridofbywipingitoffonhisarms,sides,orbreast.Theresultis,thathiswholebodyisusuallycoatedoverwithastratumofgreaseandfilth,whichhasledtothebeliefthatheregularlyanointshimself—acustomcommonamongmanysavagetribes.This,however,theBushmandoes not do: the smearing toilet is merely occasional or accidental, and

consists simply in the fat of whatever flesh he has been eating beingtransferredfromhisfingerstothecuticleofhisbody.Thisisneverwashedoffagain—forwater never touches theBushman’s hide. Such a use ofwater isentirely unknown to him, not even for washing his face. Should he haveoccasion to cleanse his hands—which the handling of gum or some likesubstancesometimescompelshimtodo—heperformstheoperation,notwithsoapandwater,butwiththedrydungofcattleorsomewildanimal.AlittlerubbingofthisuponhisskinisallthepurificationtheBushmanbelievestobeneeded.Ofcourse, thedirtdarkenshiscomplexion;buthehas thevanityat times tobrighten it up—not by making it whiter—but rather a brick-red. A littleochreous earth produces the colour he requires; andwith this he smears hisbodyallover—notexceptingeventhecrownofhishead,andthescantstockofwoolthatcoversit.Bushmen have been washed. It requires some scrubbing, and a plentifulapplication either of soda or soap, to reach the true skin and bring out thenaturalcolour;but theexperimenthasbeenmade,and the resultproves thattheBushmanisnotsoblackas,underordinarycircumstances,heappears.Ayellow hue shines through the epidermis, somewhat like the colour of theChinese, or a European in the worst stage of jaundice—the eye only nothaving that complexion. Indeed, the featuresof theBushman,aswell as theHottentot,bearastrongsimilaritytothoseoftheChinese,andtheBushman’seye is essentially of the Mongolian type. His hair, however, is entirely ofanother character. Insteadofbeing long, straight, and lank, it is short, crisp,and curly,—in reality, wool. Its scantiness is a characteristic; and in thisrespecttheBushmandiffersfromthewoolly-hairedtribesbothofAfricaandAustralasia. These generally have “fleeces” in profusion, whereas bothHottentot and Bushman have not enough to half cover their scalps; andbetweenthelittleknot-like“kinks”therearewidespaceswithoutasinglehairupon them.TheBushman’s“wool” isnaturallyblack,but redochreand thesunsoonconvertthecolourintoaburntreddishhue.TheBushmanhasnobeardorotherhairyencumbrances.Weretheytogrow,hewouldrootthemoutasuselessinconveniences.Hehasalow-bridgednose,with wide flattened nostrils; an eye that appears a mere slit between theeyelids;apairofhighcheek-bones,andarecedingforehead.Hislipsarenotthick,asinthenegro,andheisfurnishedwithasetoffinewhiteteeth,which,ashegrowsolder,donotdecay,butpresentthesingularphenomenonofbeingregularlyworndowntothestumps—asoccurstotheteethofsheepandotherruminantanimals.Notwithstanding the small stature of the Bushman, his frame is wiry andcapableofgreatendurance.Heisalsoasagileasanantelope.

Fromthedescriptionabovegiven, itwillbe inferred that theBushmanisnobeauty.Neither is theBushwoman; but, on the contrary, both havingpassedtheperiodofyouth,becomeabsolutelyugly,—thewoman,ifpossible,moresothantheman.Andyet, strange tosay,manyof theBush-girls,whenyoung,haveacastofprettinessalmostamountingtobeauty.Itisdifficulttotellinwhatthisbeautyconsists.Something,perhaps,intheexpressionoftheobliquealmond-shapedeye,andthesmallwell-formedmouthandlips,with theshiningwhite teeth.Theirlimbs,too,atthisearlyage,areoftenwell-rounded;andmanyofthemexhibit forms that might serve as models for a sculptor. Their feet areespeciallywell-shaped,and,inpointofsize,theyarebyfarthesmallestintheworld.HadtheChineseladiesbeengiftedbynaturewithsuchlittlefeet,theymighthavebeensparedthetortureofcompressingthem.The foot of aBushwoman rarelymeasures somuch as six inches in length;and full-growngirls havebeen seen,whose feet, submitted to the test of anactualmeasurement,provedbutaverylittleoverfourinches!Intellectually,theBushmandoesnotranksolowasisgenerallybelieved.Hehasaquick,cheerfulmind,thatappearseveronthealert,—asmaybejudgedbytheconstantplayofhislittlepiercingblackeye,—andthoughhedoesnotalwaysdisplaymuchskillinthemanufactureofhisweapons,hecandosoifhepleases.Some tribesconstruct theirbows, arrows, fish-baskets, andotherimplementsandutensilswithadmirableingenuity;butingeneraltheBushmantakesnoprideinfancyweapons.Heprefershavingthemeffective,andtothisendhegivesproofofhisskillinthemanufactureofmostdeadlypoisonswithwhich to anoint his arrows. Furthermore, he is ever active and ready foraction;andinthishismindisincompletecontrastwiththatoftheHottentot,withwhom indolence is a predominant andwell-marked characteristic. TheBushman,onthecontrary,isalwaysonthequivive;alwaysreadytobedoingwherethereisanythingtodo;andthereisnotmuchopportunityforhimtobeidle, as he rarely ever knows where the next meal is to come from. Theingenuity which he displays in the capture of various kinds of game,—farexceeding that of other hunting tribes of Africa,—as also the cunningexhibitedbyhimwhileengagedincattle-stealingandotherplunderingforays,proveanintellectualcapacitymorethanproportionedtohisdiminutivebody;and, in short, in nearly every mental characteristic does he differ from thesupposedcognaterace—theHottentot.ItwouldbehardlyjusttogivetheBushmanacharacterforhighcourage;but,ontheotherhand,itwouldbeasunjusttochargehimwithcowardice.Smallashe is,heshowsplentyof“pluck,”andwhenbrought tobay,hismotto is,“Nosurrender.”Hewillfighttothedeath,discharginghispoisonedarrowsaslong as he is able to bend a bow. Indeed, he has generally been treated to

shooting,orclubbingtodeath,whereverandwhenevercaught,andheknowsnothingofquarter.Justasabadgerheendshislife,—hislaststrugglebeinganattempttodoinjurytohisassailant.Thistrait inhischaracterhas,nodoubt,been strengthenedby the inhuman treatment that, for a century,hehasbeenreceivingfromthebrutalboersofthecolonialfrontier.The costume of the Bushman is of the most primitive character,—differingonlyfromthatwornbyourfirstparents,inthatthefig-leafusedbythemenisa patch of jackal-skin, and that of the women a sort of fringe or bunch ofleather thongs, suspendedaround thewaistbya strap, andhangingdown tothe knees. It is in reality a little apron of dressed skin; or, to speak moreaccurately, two of them, one above the other, both cut into narrow strips orthongs, frombelow thewaist downward.Other clothing than this theyhavenone, if we except a little skinkaross, or cloak, which is worn over theirshoulders;—thatofthewomenbeingprovidedwithabagorhoodatthetop,thatanswersthenaked“piccaninny”foranestorcradle.Sandalsprotecttheirfeetfromthesharpstones,andtheseareoftherudestdescription,—merelyapieceofthethickhidecutalittlelongerandbroaderthanthesolesofthefeet,andfastenedatthetoesandroundtheanklesbythongsofsinews.Anattemptat ornament is displayed in a leathern skullcap, ormore commonly a circletaroundthehead,uponwhicharesewedanumberof“cowries,”orsmallshellsoftheCypreamoneta.It is difficult to say where these shells are procured,—as they are not theproductoftheBushman’scountry,butareonlyfoundonthefarshoresoftheIndianOcean.Mostprobablyheobtains thembybarter, andafter theyhavepassedthroughmanyhands;buttheymustcosttheBushmandear,ashesetsthehighestvalueuponthem.Otherornamentsconsistofoldbrassorcopperbuttons,attachedtothelittlecurlsofhiswoollyhair;and,amongthewomen,strings of little pieces of ostrich egg-shells, fashioned to resemble beads;besidesaperfectloadofleathernbraceletsonthearms,andalikeprofusionofsimilarcircletsonthelimbs,oftenreachingfromthekneetotheankle-joint.Redochreoverthefaceandhairisthefashionabletoilette,andaperfumeryisobtainedbyrubbingtheskinwiththepowderedleavesofthe“buku”plant,aspeciesofdiosma.Accordingtoaquaintoldwriter,thiscausesthemto“stinklikeapoppy,”andwouldbehighlyobjectionable,wereitnotpreferabletotheodourwhichtheyhavewithoutit.They do not tattoo, nor yet perforate the ears, lips, or nose,—practices socommon among savage tribes. Some instances of nose-piercing have beenobserved,with the usual appendage of a piece ofwoodor porcupine’s quillinsertedintheseptum,butthisisacustomratheroftheCaffresthanBushmen.Amongthelatteritisrare.Agrandornamentisobtainedbysmearingthefaceandheadwith a shiningmicaceouspaste,which is procured froma cave in

one particular part of the Bushman’s range; but this, being a “far-fetched”article,isproportionablyscarceanddear.Itisonlyafinebellewhocanaffordtogiveherselfacoatofblink-slip,—asthissparklingpigmentiscalledbythecolonists.Manyofthewomen,andmenaswell,carryintheirhandsthebushytailofajackal.Thepurposeistofanofftheflies,andservealsoasa“wipe,”todisembarrass their bodiesof perspirationwhen theweather chances tobeoverhot.ThedomicileoftheBushmannextmeritsdescription.Itisquiteassimpleandprimitiveashisdress,andgiveshimaboutequaltroubleinitsconstruction.Ifa caveor cleft canbe found in the rocks,of sufficient capacity to admithisown body and those of his family—never a very large one—he builds nohouse.Thecavecontentshim,beiteversotightasqueeze.Iftherebenocavehandy, anoverhanging rockwill answer equally aswell.He regardsnot theopensides,northedraughts.Itisonlytherainwhichhedoesnotrelish;andany sort of a shed, that will shelter him from that, will serve him for adwelling. If neither cave, crevice, nor impending cliff can be found in theneighbourhood, he then resorts to the alternative of housebuilding; and hisstyleofarchitecturedoesnotdiffergreatly fromthatof theorang-outang.Abush is chosen that grows near to two or three others,—the branches of allmeeting inacommoncentre.Of thesebranches thebuilder takesadvantage,fastening them togetherat theends,andwattlingsome into theothers.Overthisframeworkaquantityofgrassisscatteredinsuchafashionastocastoffagood shower of rain, and then the “carcass” of the building is consideredcomplete.Theinsideworkremainsyettobedone,andthatisnextsetabout.Alarge roundishoroblonghole is scrapedout in themiddleof the floor. It ismadewideenoughanddeepenoughtoholdthebodiesofthreeorfourBush-people,thoughasinglelargeCaffreorDutchmanwouldscarcelyfindroominit.Intothisholeisflungaquantityofdrygrass,andarrangedsoastopresentthe appearance of a gigantic nest.This nest, or lair, becomes the bed of theBushman, hiswife, orwives,—for he frequently keeps two,—and the othermembersofhisfamily.Coiledtogetherlikemonkeys,andcoveredwiththeirskinkarosses,theyallsleepinit,—whether“sweetly”or“soundly,”Ishallnottakeuponmetodetermine.Itissupposedtobethisfashionofliterally“sleepinginthebush,”asalsothemodebywhichheskulksandhidesamongbushes,—invariablytakingtothemwhenpursued,—thathasgivenorigintothenameBushman,orBosjesman,asitisinthelanguageofthecolonialDutch.Thisderivationisprobableenough,andnobetterhasbeenoffered.TheBushmansometimesconstructshimselfamoreelaboratedwelling;thatis,someBushmen;—foritshouldberemarkedthatthereareagreatmanytribesorcommunitiesofthesepeople,andtheyarenotallsoverylowinthescaleof

civilisation.None,however,everarriveatthebuildingofahouse,—notevenahut.Atentistheirhighesteffortinthebuildingline,andthatisoftherudestdescription, scarce deserving the name. Its covering is a mat, which theyweaveoutofa speciesof rush thatgrowsalongsomeof thedesert streams;andinthefabricationofthecoveringtheydisplayfarmoreingenuitythanintheplanningorconstructionofthetentitself.Themat,infact,issimplylaidover twopoles, that are bent into the formof an arch, by having both endsstuck into theground.Asecondpieceofmattingclosesuponeend;and theother,leftopen,servesfortheentrance.Asadoorisnotdeemednecessary,nofurther construction is required, and the tent is “pitched” complete. It onlyremainstoscoopoutthesand,andmakethenestasalreadydescribed.ItissaidthattheGothsdrewtheirideasofarchitecturefromtheaislesoftheoak forest; theChinese from theirMongolian tents; and theEgyptians fromtheircavesintherocks.Beyondadoubt,theBushmanhasborrowedhisfromthenestoftheostrich!ItnowbecomesnecessarytoinquirehowtheBushmanspendshistime?howheobtainssubsistence?andwhatisthenatureofhisfood?Allthesequestionscan be answered, though at first it may appear difficult to answer them.Dwelling, as he always does, in the very heart of the desert, remote fromforeststhatmightfurnishhimwithsomesortoffood—treesthatmightyieldfruit,—farawayfromafertilesoil,withnoknowledgeofagriculture,evenifitwerenear,—withnoflocksorherds;neithersheep,cattle,horses,norswine,—nodomesticanimalsbuthislean,diminutivedogs,—howdoesthisBushmanprocureenoughtoeat?Whatarehissourcesofsupply?We shall see. Being neither a grazier nor a farmer, he has other means ofsubsistence,—though it must be confessed that they are of a precariouscharacter,andoftenduringhislifedoestheBushmanfindhimselfontheverythreshold of starvation. This, however, results less from the parsimony ofNature than theBushman’sown improvidenthabits,—a trait inhischaracterwhich is, perhaps,more stronglydeveloped in him than anyother.We shallhaveoccasiontorefertoitpresently.Hisfirstandchiefmodeofprocuringhisfoodisbythechase:for,althoughheissurroundedbythesterilewilderness,heisnottheonlyanimatedbeingwhohaschosenthedesertforhishome.Severalspeciesofbirds—onethelargestofall—andquadrupeds,sharewiththeBushmanthesolitudeandsafetyofthisdesolateregion.Therhinoceroscandwellthere;andinnumerousstreamsarefound the huge hippopotami;whilst quaggas, zebras, and several species ofantelopefrequentthedesertplainsastheirfavourite“stamping”ground.Someof theseanimalscan livealmostwithoutwater;butwhen theydo require it,whattothemisagallopoffiftymilestosomewell-known“vley”orpool?Itwillbeseen,therefore,thatthedeserthasitsnumerousdenizens.Alltheseare

objectsoftheBushman’spursuit,whofollowsthemwithincessantpertinacity—asifhewereabeastofprey,furnishedbyNaturewiththemostcarnivorouspropensities.Inthecaptureoftheseanimalshedisplaysanalmostincredibledexterityandcunning.Hismodeofapproachingtheslyostrich,bydisguisinghimselfintheskinofoneofthesebirds,issowell-knownthatIneednotdescribeithere;butthe ruseshe adopts for capturingorkillingother sortsofgamearemanyofthemequallyingenious.Thepit-trapisoneofhisfavouritecontrivances;andthis,too,hasbeenoftendescribed,—butoftenveryerroneously.Thepitisnota large hollow,—as is usually asserted,—but rather of dimensionsproportionedtothesizeoftheanimalthatisexpectedtofallintoit.Forgameliketherhinocerosorelandantelope,itisdugofsixfeetinlengthandthreeinwidthatthetop;graduallynarrowingtothebottom,whereitendsinatrenchofonlytwelveinchesbroad.Sixorsevenfeetisconsidereddeepenough;andthe animal, once into it, gets sowedged at the narrowbottompart as to beunable to make use of its legs for the purpose of springing out again.Sometimes a sharp stake or two are used, with the view of impaling thevictim; but this plan is not always adopted. There is notmuch danger of aquadruped that drops in ever gettingout again, till he is draggedout by theBushmanintheshapeofacarcass.TheBushman’s ingenuitydoesnotendhere.Besides theconstructionof thetrap,itisnecessarythegameshouldbeguidedintoit.Werethisnotdone,thepitmightremainalongtimeempty,and,asanecessaryconsequence,sotoomight the belly of the Bushman. In the wide plain few of the gregariousanimalshaveapathwhichtheyfollowhabitually;onlywherethereisapoolmaysuchbeatentrailsbefound,andofthesetheBushmanalsoavailshimself;buttheyarenotenough.Someartificialmeansmustbeusedtomakethetrapspay—fortheyarenotconstructedwithoutmuchlabourandpatience.TheplanadoptedbytheBushmantoaccomplishthisexhibitssomepointsoforiginality.He first chooses a part of the plainwhich lies between twomountains. Nomatterifthesebedistantfromeachother:amile,oreventwo,willnotdetertheBushmanfromhisdesign.Bythehelpofhiswholetribe—men,women,and children—he constructs a fence from one mountain to the other. Thematerialusediswhatevermaybemostreadytothehand:stones,sods,brush,ordeadtimber,ifthisbeconvenient.Nomatterhowrudethefence:itneednoteither be very high. He leaves several gaps in it; and the wild animals,howevereasilytheymightleapoversuchapunybarrier,will,intheirordinaryway,prefertowalkleisurelythroughthegaps.Ineachofthese,however,thereis a dangerous hole—dangerous from its depth aswell as from the cunningwayinwhich it isconcealedfromtheview—inshort, ineachgap there isapit-fall.Noone—atleastnoanimalexcepttheelephant—wouldeversuspectitspresence;thegrassseemstogrowoverit,andthesandliesunturned,justas

elsewhere upon the plain.What quadruped could detect the cheat?Not anyone except the sagacious elephant. The stupid eland tumbles through; thegemsbok goes under; and the rhinoceros rushes into it as if destined todestruction. TheBushman sees this from his elevated perch, glides forwardovertheground,andspearsthestrugglingvictimwithhispoisonedassagai.BesidestheabovemethodofcapturinggametheBushmanalsousesthebowandarrows.Thisisaweaponinwhichheisgreatlyskilled;andalthoughbothbowandarrowsareastinyasifintendedforchildren’stoys,theyareamongthe deadliest ofweapons, their fatal effect lies not in the size of thewoundtheyarecapableofinflicting,butinthepeculiarmodeinwhichthebarbsofthearrowsareprepared.Ineedhardlyaddthattheyaredippedinpoison;—forwhohasnotheardofthepoisonedarrowsoftheAfricanBushmen?Bothbowandarrowsareusuallyrudeenoughintheirconstruction,andwouldappearbutatrumperyaffair,wereitnotforaknowledgeoftheireffects.Thebowisamereroundstick,aboutthreefeetlong,andslightlybentbymeansofitsstringoftwistedsinews.Thearrowsaremerereeds,tippedwithpiecesofbone,with a split ostrich-quill lapped behind the head, and answering for abarb.ThisarrowtheBushmancanshootwithtolerablecertaintytoadistanceof a hundred yards, and he can even project it farther by giving a slightelevationtohisaim.Itsignifiesnotwhethertheforcewithwhichitstrikestheobjectbeeversoslight,ifitonlymakesanentrance.Evenascratchfromitspointwillsometimesprovefatal.Ofcoursethedangerdwellsaltogetherinthepoison.Wereitnotforthat,theBushman,fromhisdwarfishstatureandpigmystrength,wouldbeaharmlesscreatureindeed.The poison hewell knows how to prepare, and he canmake it of themost“potentspell,”whenthe“materials”arewithinhisreach.Forthispurposehemakes use of both vegetable and animal substances, and a mineral is alsoemployed;butthelastisnotapoison,andisonlyusedtogiveconsistencytothe liquid, so that it may the better adhere to the arrow. The vegetablesubstances are of various kinds. Some are botanically known: the bulb ofAmaryllisdisticha,—thegumofaEuphorbia,—thesapofaspeciesofsumac(Rhus),—and the nuts of a shrubbyplant, by the colonists calledWoolf-gift(Wolf-poison).The animal substance is the fluid found in the fangs of venomous serpents,several species of which serve the purpose of the Bushman: as the little“HornedSnake,”—socalledfromthescalesrisingprominentlyoveritseyes;the “YellowSnake,”orSouth-AfricanCobra (Nagahaje); the “PuffAdder,”andothers.Fromall theseheobtains the ingredientsofhisdeadlyointment,andmixesthem,notalltogether;forhecannotalwaysprocurethemallinanyoneregionof thecountry inwhichhedwells.Hemakeshispoison,also,of

differentdegreesofpotency,accordingtothepurposeforwhichheintendsit;whether forhuntingorwar.Withsixtyor seventy littlearrows,well imbuedwiththisfatalmixture,andcarefullyplacedinhisquiveroftreebarkorskin,—or,whatisnotuncommon,stucklikeacoronetaroundhishead,—hesalliesforth,readytodealdestructioneithertogame,animals,ortohumanenemies.Oftheselasthehasnolack.Everyman,notaBushman,hedeemshisenemy;and he has some reason for thinking so. Trulymay it be said of him, as ofIshmael, that his “hand is against everyman, and everyman’s hand againsthim;” and such has been his unhappy history for ages. Not alone have theboersbeenhispursuers andoppressors,but allothersuponhisborderswhoarestrongenoughtoattackhim,—colonists,Caffres,andBechuanas,allalike,—notevenexceptinghissupposedkindred,theHottentots.Notonlydoesnofellow-feelingexistbetweenBushmanandHottentot,but,strangetosay,theyhateeachotherwiththemostrancoroushatred.TheBushmanwillplunderaNamaquaHottentot,aGriqua,oraGonaqua,—plunderandmurderhimwithasmuchruthlessness,orevenmore, thanhewould thehatedCaffreorboer.Allarealikehisenemies,—alltobeplunderedandmassacred,whenevermet,andthethingappearspossible.Wearespeakingofplunder.ThisisanothersourceofsupplytotheBushman,thoughone that isnotalways tobedependedupon. It ishismostdangerousmethodofobtainingalivelihood,andoftencostshimhislife.Heonlyresortstoitwhenallotherresourcesfailhim,andfoodisnolongertobeobtainedbythechase.He makes an expedition into the settlements,—either of the frontier boers,Caffres, or Hottentots,—whichever chance to live most convenient to hishaunts.Theexpedition,ofcourse,isbynight,andconducted,notasanopenforay,butinsecret,andbystealth.Thecattlearestolen,notreeved,anddrivenoffwhiletheownerandhispeopleareasleep.Inthemorning,orassoonasthelossisdiscovered,apursuitisatoncesetonfoot.A dozenmen,mounted and armedwith longmuskets (röers), take thespoorof thespoilers,andfollowitas fastas theirhorseswillcarry them.Adozenboers,orevenhalfthatnumber,isconsideredamatchforawholetribeof Bushmen, in any fight whichmay occur in the open plain, as the boersmakeuseoftheirlong-rangegunsatsuchadistancethattheBushmenareshotdownwithoutbeingabletousetheirpoisonedarrows;andifthethieveshavethefortunetobeovertakenbeforetheyhavegotfarintothedesert,theystandagoodchanceofbeingterriblychastised.Thereisnoquartershownthem.Suchathingasmercyisneverdreamtof,—nosparingoflivesanymorethaniftheywereapackofhyenas.TheBushmenmayescapetotherocks,suchofthemasarenothitbythebullets;andtheretheboersknowitwouldbeidletofollowthem.Liketheklipspringerantelope,

the littlesavagescanboundfromrock torock,andcliff tocliff,orhide likepartridges among crevices, where neither man nor horse can pursue them.Evenuponthelevelplain—ifitchancetobestonyorintersectedwithbreaksandravines—ahorsemanwouldendeavourtoovertaketheminvain,fortheseyellowimpsareasswiftasostriches.When the spoilers scatter thus, the boermay recover his cattle, but inwhatcondition?Thathehas surmisedalready,withoutgoingamong theherd.Hedoes not expect to drive home one half of them; perhaps not one head.Onreachingtheflockhefindsthereisnotonewithoutawoundofsomekindorother: a gash in the flank, the cut of a knife, the stab of an assagai, or apoisoned arrow—intended for the boer himself—sticking between the ribs.Thisisthesadspectaclethatmeetshiseyes;butheneverreflectsthatitistheresultofhisowncruelty,—heneverregardsitinthelightofretribution.HadhenotfirsthuntedtheBushmantomakehimaslave,tomakebondsmenandbondsmaids of his sons and daughters, to submit them to the caprice andtyranny of his great, strapping frau, perhaps his cattle would have beenbrowsingquietlyinhisfields.ThepoorBushman,inattemptingtotakethem,followed but his instincts of hunger: in yielding themup he obeyed but thepromptingsofrevenge.ItisnotalwaysthattheBushmanisthusovertaken.Hefrequentlysucceedsincarryingthewholeherdtohisdesertfastness;andtheskillwhichheexhibitsin getting them there is perfectly surprising.The cattle themselves aremoreafraidofhimthanofawildbeast,andrunathisapproach;buttheBushman,swifterthanthey,canglideallaroundthem,andkeepthemmovingatarapidrate.Heusesstratagemalsotoobstructorbafflethepursuit.Theroutehetakesisthroughthedriestpartofthedesert,—ifpossible,wherewaterdoesnotexistatall.Thecattlesufferfromthirst,andbellowfromthepain;but theBushmancaresnotforthat,solongasheishimselfserved.Buthowisheserved?Thereisnowater,andaBushmancannomoregowithoutdrinkingthanaboer:howthendoesheprovideforhimselfontheselongexpeditions?Allhasbeenpre-arranged.Whileoff to the settlements, theBushman’swifehas been busy. Thewhole kraal ofwomen—young and old—havemade anexcursionhalfwayacrossthedesert,eachcarryingostrichegg-shells,asmuchasherkarosswillhold,eachshellfullofwater.ThesehavebeendepositedatintervalsalongtherouteinsecretspotsknownbymarkstotheBushmen,andthis accomplished thewomen return home again. In this way the plundererobtainshissupplyofwater,andthusisheenabledtocontinuehisjourneyoverthearidKarroo.The pursuers become appalled. They are suffering from thirst—their horsessinkingunderthem.Perhapstheyhavelosttheirway?Itwouldbemadnessto

proceed further. “Let the cattle go this time?” and with this dishearteningreflection they give up the pursuit, turn the heads of their horses, and ridehomeward.There is a feast at the Bushman’s kraal—and such a feast! not one ox isslaughtered,buta scoreof themall atonce.Theykill them,as if fromverywantonness;andtheynolongereat,butravenontheflesh.Fordaysthefeastingiskeptupalmostcontinuously,—evenatnighttheymustwakeuptohaveamidnightmeal!andthusrunsthetale,tilleveryoxhasbeeneaten.Theyhavenottheslightestideaofaprovisionforthefuture;eventheloweranimalsseemwiserinthisrespect.Theydonotthinkofkeepingafewof the plundered cattle at pasture to serve them for a subsequent occasion.Theygivethepoorbrutesneitherfoodnordrink;but,havingpennedthemupinsomedefileoftherocks,leavethemtomoanandbellow,todropdownanddie.On goes the feasting, till all are finished; and even if the flesh has turnedputrid,thisformsnottheslightestobjection:itiseatenallthesame.The kraal now exhibits an altered spectacle. The starved, meagre wretches,whowereseenflittingamongits tentsbutaweekago,havealldisappeared.Plumpbodiesanddistendedabdomensaretheorderoftheday;andtheprofileoftheBushwoman,takenfromthenecktotheknees,nowexhibitstheoutlineof the letter S. The little imps leap about, tearing raw flesh,—their yellowcheeks besmeared with blood,—and the lean curs seem to have beenexchangedforapackoffat,pettedpoodles.Butthisscenemustsometimecometoanend,andatlengthitdoesend.Allthefleshisexhausted,andthebonespickedclean.AcompletereactioncomesoverthespiritoftheBushman.Hefallsintoastateoflanguor,—theonlytimewhenheknowssuchafeeling,—andhekeepshiskraal,andremainsidlefordays.Oftenhesleepsfortwenty-fourhoursatatime,andwakesonlytogotosleepagain.Heneednotrousehimselfwiththeideaofgettingsomethingtoeat: there is not amorsel in thewhole kraal, and he knows it.He lies still,therefore,—weakened with hunger, and overcome with the drowsiness of aterriblelassitude.Fortunateforhim,whileinthisstate,ifthoseboldvultures—attractedbythedébrisofhisfeast,andnowhighwheelingintheair—benotperceivedfromafar; fortunate if they do not discover the whereabouts of his kraal to thevengefulpursuer.Iftheyshoulddoso,hehasmadehislastforayandhislastfeast.When the absolute danger of starvation at length compels our Bushman tobestirhimself,heseemstorecoveralittleofhisenergy,andoncemoretakestohunting,or, ifneara stream,endeavours tocatcha fewfish.Shouldboth

theseresourcesfail,hehasanother,—withoutwhichhewouldmostcertainlystarve,—and perhaps this may be considered his most important source ofsupply, since it is the most constant, and can be depended on at nearly allseasons of the year. Weakened with hunger, then, and scarce equal to anysevererlabour,hegoesouthunting—thistimeinsects,notquadrupeds.Withastout stick inserted into a stone at one end and pointed at the other, heproceeds to thenestsof thewhiteants (termites), andusing thepointof thestick,—thestoneservingbyitsweighttoaidtheforceoftheblow,—hebreaksopen thehard,gummyclayofwhich thehillock is formed.Unless theaard-vark and the pangolin—two very different kinds of ant-eaters—have beentherebeforehim,he finds the chambers filledwith the eggsof the ants, theinsectsthemselves,andperhapslargequantitiesoftheirlarvae.AllareequallysecuredbytheBushman,andeitherdevouredonthespot,orcollectedintoaskinbag,andcarriedbacktohiskraal.Hehuntsalsoanotherspeciesofantsthatdonotbuildnestsor“hillocks,”butbring forth their young in hollows under the ground. These make longgalleriesorcoveredwaysjustunderthesurface,andatcertainperiods—whichthe Bushman knows by unmistakable signs—they become very active, andtraverse theseundergroundgalleries in thousands. If thepassageswere tobeopenedabove,theantswouldsoonmakeofftotheircaves,andbutaveryfewcouldbecaptured.TheBushman,knowingthis,adoptsastratagem.Withthestickalreadymentionedhepiercesholesofagooddepthdown;andworksthestickabout,untilthesidesoftheholesaresmoothandeven.Theseheintendsshall servehimaspitfalls; and theyare thereforemade in thecoveredwaysalongwhichtheinsectsarepassing.Theresultis,thatthelittlecreatures,notsuspectingtheexistenceofthesedeepwells,tumbleheadforemostintothem,and are unable tomount up the steep smooth sides again, so that in a fewminutestheholewillbefilledwithants,whichtheBushmanscoopsoutathisleisure.Another source of supply which he has, and also a pretty constant one,consists of various roots of the tuberous kind, but more especially bulbousroots, which grow in the desert. They are several species of Ixias andMesembryanthemums,—some of them producing bulbs of a large size, anddeeply buried underground. Half the Bushman’s and Bushwoman’s time isoccupied in digging for these roots; and the spade employed is the stone-headedstaffalreadydescribed.OstricheggsalsofurnishtheBushmanwithmanyameal;andthehugeshellsoftheseeggsservehimforwater-vessels,cups,anddishes.Heisexceedinglyexpertintrackinguptheostrich,anddiscoveringitsnest.Sometimeshefindsanestintheabsenceofthebirds;andinacaseofthiskindhepursuesacourseof conduct that is peculiarly Bushman. Having removed all the eggs to a

distance, and concealed them under some bush, he returns to the nest andensconceshimselfinit.Hisdiminutivebody,whenclosesquatted,cannotbeperceivedfromadistance,especiallywhenthereareafewbushesaroundthenest, as there usually are. Thus concealed he awaits the return of the birds,holding his bow and poisoned arrows ready to salute them as soon as theycomewithinrange.Bythisruseheisalmostcertainofkillingeitherthecockorhen,andnotinfrequentlyboth—whentheydonotreturntogether.Lizards and land-tortoises often furnish the Bushman with a meal; and theshellofthelatterserveshimalsoforadish;buthisperiodofgreatestplentyiswhenthelocustsappear.Then,indeed,theBushmanisnolongerinwantofameal; and while these creatures remain with him, he knows no hunger. Hegrows fat ina trice, andhiscurskeeppacewithhim—for they toogreedilydevourthelocusts.Werethelocustsaconstant,orevenanannualvisitor,theBushman would be a rich man—at all events his wants would be amplysupplied. Unfortunately for him, but fortunately for everybody else, theseterribledestroyersofvegetationonlycomenowandthen—severalyearsofteninterveningbetweentheirvisits.TheBushmenhavenoreligionwhatever;noformofmarriage—anymorethanmatingtogetherlikewildbeasts;buttheyappeartohavesomerespectforthememoryoftheirdead,sincetheyburythem—usuallyerectingalargepileofstones,or“cairn,”overthebody.They are far from being of amelancholymood. Though crouching in theirdensandcavesduringtheday,indreadoftheboersandotherenemies,theycome forthatnight to chatter andmakemerry.During finemoonlights theydance all night, keepingup theball tillmorning; and in their kraalsmaybeseen a circular spot—beaten hard and smooth with their feet—where thesedancesareperformed.Theyhavenoformofgovernment—notsomuchasaheadmanorchief.Eventhe father of the family possesses no authority, except such as superiorstrengthmaygivehim;andwhenhissonsaregrownupandbecomeasstrongasheis,thisofcoursealsoceases.They have no tribal organisation; the small communities inwhich they livebeing merely so many individuals accidentally brought together, oftenquarrelling and separating from one another. These communities rarelynumberoverahundredindividuals,since,fromthenatureoftheircountry,alargenumbercouldnotfindsubsistenceinanyoneplace.Itfollows,therefore,that the Bushman racemust ever remainwidely scattered—so long as theypursuetheirpresentmodeoflife—andnoinfluencehaseverbeenabletowinthemfromit.Missionaryeffortsmadeamongthemhaveallprovedfruitless.Thedesert seems to have been created for them, as they for the desert; andwhen transferred elsewhere, to dwell amidst scenes of civilised life, they

alwaysyearntoreturntotheirwildernesshome.Trulyarethesepigmysavagesanoddpeople!

ChapterTwo.TheAmazonianIndians.

In glancing at the map of the American continent, we are struck by aremarkable analogy between the geographical features of its two greatdivisions—the North and the South,—an analogy amounting almost to asymmetricalparallelism.Eachhasits“mighty”mountains—theCordillerasof theAndesinthesouth,andtheCordillerasoftheSierraMadre(RockyMountains)inthenorth—withallthevarietiesofvolcanoandeternalsnow.Eachhasitssecondarychain:inthenorth, theNevadasofCaliforniaandOregon; in thesouth, theSierrasofCaraccasandthegroupofGuiana;and,ifyouwishtorendertheparallelismcomplete,descendtoalowerelevation,andsettheAlleghaniesoftheUnitedStates against the mountains of Brazil—both alike detached from all theothers.Inthecomparisonwehaveexhaustedthemountainchainsofbothdivisionsofthecontinent. Ifweproceedfurther,andcarry it intominutedetail,weshallfindthesamecorrespondence—ridgeforridge,chainforchain,peakforpeak;—inshort,amostsingularequilibrium,asiftherehadbeenadesignthatonehalfofthisgreatcontinentshouldbalancetheother!From the mountains let us proceed to the rivers, and see how they willcorrespond.Here,again,wediscoveralikeparallelism,amountingalmosttoarivalry.Eachcontinent (for it isproper tostyle themso)contains the largestriverintheworld.Ifwemakelengththestandard,thenorthclaimsprecedencefor the Mississippi; if volume of water is to be the criterion, the south isentitled to it upon the merits of the Amazon. Each, too, has its numerousbranches,spreadingintoamighty“tree”;andthese,eithersinglyorcombined,formacuriousequipoisebothinlengthandmagnitude.Wehaveonlytimetosetlistagainstlist,tributariesofthegreatnorthernriveragainsttributariesofitsgreatsoutherncompeer,—theOhioandIllinois,theYellowstoneandPlatte,theKansasandOsage,theArkansasandRed,againsttheMadeiraandPurus,theUcayaliandHuallaga,theJapuraandNegro,theXinguandTapajos.Ofotherriversystems,theSaintLawrencemaybeplacedagainsttheLaPlata,theOregonagainsttheOrinoco,theMackenzieagainsttheMagdalena,andtheRio Bravo del Norte against the Tocantins; while the two Colorados—theBrazos and Alabama—find their respective rivals in the Essequibo, the

Paranahybo, thePedro, and thePatagonianNegro; and theSanFranciscoofCalifornia,flowingoversandsofgold,isbalancedbyitshomonymeofBrazil,that has its origin in the land of diamonds. To an endless list might thecomparisonbecarried.Wepass to theplains.Prairies in thenorth, llanos andpampas in the south,almost identical incharacter.Of theplateauxor tablelands, thoseofMexico,La Puebla, Perote, and silver Potosi in the north; those of Quito, Bogota,Cusco,andgoldPotosiinthesouth;ofthedesertplains,UtahandtheLlanoEstacadoagainstAtacamaand thedesertsofPatagonia.Even theGreatSaltLakehasitsparallel inTiticaca;whilethe“Salinas”ofNewMexicoandtheuplandprairies,arerepresentedbysimilardepositsintheGranChacoandthePampas.Wearrivefinallyattheforests.Thoughunlikeinotherrespects,wehaveherealso a rivalry in magnitude,—between the vast timbered expanse stretchingfromArkansastotheAtlanticshores,andthatwhichcoversthevalleyoftheAmazon.Thesewere the twogreatest forests on the faceof the earth. I saywere, foroneof themno longerexists; at least, it isno longeracontinuoustract, but a collection of forests, opened by the axe, and intersected by theclearings of the colonist. The other still stands in all its virgin beauty andprimeval vigour, untouched by the axe, undefiled by fire, its path scarcetroddenbyhumanfeet,itssilentdepthstothishourunexplored.Itiswiththisforestanditsdenizenswehavetodo.Herethenletusterminatethecatalogueofsimilitudes,andconcentrateourattentionupontheparticularsubjectofoursketch.Thewhole valley of theAmazon—inotherwords, the tractwatered by thisgreat riverand its tributaries—maybedescribedasoneunbrokenforest.Wenowknowthebordersofthisforestwithconsiderableexactness,buttotracethem here would require a too lengthened detail. Suffice it to say, thatlengthwise it extends from themouth of theAmazon to the foothills of thePeruvianAndes,adistanceof2,500miles.Inbreadthitvaries,beginningonthe Atlantic coast with a breadth of 400 miles, which widens towards thecentral part of the continent till it attains to 1,500, and again narrowing toabout1,000,whereittouchestheeasternslopeoftheAndes.Thatformofleafknowntobotanistsas“obovate”willgiveagoodideaofthefigureofthegreatAmazonforest,supposingthesmallendorshanktorestontheAtlantic,andthebroadendtoextendalongthesemicircularconcavityoftheAndes,fromBoliviaonthesouthtoNewGranadaonthenorth.Inallthisvastexpanseofterritorythereisscarceanacreofopenground,ifweexceptthewater-surfaceoftheriversandtheirbordering“lagoons,”which,weretheyto bear their due proportions on amap, could scarce be represented by thenarrowestlines,orthemostinconspicuousdots.Thegrassplainswhichembay

the forest on its southern edge along the banks of some of its Braziliantributaries,orthosewhichproceedlikespursfromtheLlanosofVenezuela,donotinanyplaceapproachtheAmazonitself,andtherearemanypointsonthegreat riverwhichmaybe takenascentres,andaroundwhichcirclesmaybedrawn,havingdiameters1,000miles in length, the circumferencesofwhichwill enclose nothing but timbered land. The main stream of the Amazon,though it intersects this grand forest, does notbisect it, speaking withmathematical precision. There is rather more timbered surface to thesouthwardthanthatwhichextendsnorthward,thoughtheinequalityofthetwodivisionsisnotgreat.ItwouldnotbemuchofanerrortosaythattheAmazonriver cuts the forest in halves.At itsmouth, however, thiswouldnot apply;sinceforthefirst300milesabovetheembouchureoftheriver,thecountryonthenorthern side is destitute of timber.This is occasionedby theprojectingspursoftheGuianamountains,whichonthatsideapproachtheAmazonintheshapeofnakedridgesandgrass-coveredhillsandplains.ItisnotnecessarytosaythatthegreatforestoftheAmazonisatropicalone—sincetheriveritself,throughoutitswholecourse,almosttracesthelineoftheequator.Itsvegetation,therefore,isemphaticallyofatropicalcharacter;andinthis respect it differs essentially from that of North America, or rather, weshould say, of Canada and the United States. It is necessary to make thislimitation, because the forests of the tropical parts of North America,including the West-Indian islands, present a great similitude to that of theAmazon.Itisnotonlyinthegeneraandspeciesoftreesthatthesylvaofthetemperatezonediffersfromthatof the torrid;but there isaveryremarkabledifferenceinthedistributionof thesegeneraandspecies.Inagreatforestofthenorth,itisnotuncommontofindalargetractcoveredwithasinglespeciesoftrees,—aswithpines,oaks,poplars,ortheredcedar(JuniperusVirginiana).Thisarrangementisrathertherulethantheexception;whereas,inthetropicalforest,theruleisreversed,exceptinthecaseoftwoorthreespeciesofpalms(Mauritia and Euterpe), which sometimes exclusively cover large tracts ofsurface. Of other trees, it is rare to find even a clump or grove standingtogether—often only two or three trees, and still more frequently, a singleindividual isobserved, separated from thoseof itsownkindbyhundredsofothers,alldifferinginorder,genus,andspecies.Inotethispeculiarityofthetropic forest, because it exercises, as may easily be imagined, a directinfluenceupontheeconomyofitshumanoccupants—whetherthesebesavageor civilised. Even the habits of the lower animals—beasts and birds—aresubjecttoasimilarinfluence.Itwould be out of place here to enumerate the different kinds of trees thatcomposethismightywood,—abarecatalogueoftheirnameswouldalonefillmanypages,—and itwouldbesafe to say that if the listweregivenasnowknown to botanists, it would comprise scarce half the species that actually

existinthevalleyoftheAmazon.Inrealtruth,thisvastGardenofGodisyetunexplored byman. Its borderwalks and edges have alone been examined;and the enthusiastic botanist need not fear that he is too late in the field.Ahundredyearswillelapsebeforethisgrandparterrecanbeexhausted.Atpresent,athoroughexaminationofthebotanyoftheAmazonvalleywouldbe difficult, if not altogether impossible, even though conducted on a grandandexpensivescale.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.Itswoodsareinmanyplaces absolutely impenetrable—on account either of the thick tangledundergrowth,orfromthedamp,spongynatureofthesoil.Therearenoroadsthatcouldbetraversedbyhorseorman;andthefewpathsareknownonlytothewild savage,—not always passable even by him.Travelling can only bedonebywater,eitheruponthegreatrivers,orbythenarrowcreeks(igaripes)orlagoons;andajourneyperformedinthisfashionmustneedsbebothtediousand indirect, allowing but a limited opportunity for observation.Horses canscarcebesaidtoexistinthecountry,andcattleareequallyrare—afewonlyarefoundinoneortwoofthelargePortuguesesettlementsonthemainriver—and the jaguars and blood-sucking bats offer a direct impediment to theirincrease.Contrarytothegeneralbelief,thetropicalforestisnotthehomeofthelargermammalia:itisnottheirproperhabitat,noraretheyfoundinit.Inthe Amazon forest but few species exist, and these not numerous inindividuals.Therearenovastherds—asofbuffaloesontheprairiesofNorthAmerica,orofantelopesinAfrica.Thetapiraloneattainstoanyconsiderablesize,—exceeding that of the ass,—but its numbers are few. Three or fourspeciesofsmalldeer represent theruminants,and thehogof theAmazon isthe peccary. Of these there are at least three species. Where the forestimpinges on the mountain regions of Peru, bears are found of at least twokinds,butnotonthelowerplainsofthegreat“Montaña,”—forbythisgeneraldesignation is the vast expanse of the Amazon country known among thePeruvianpeople.“Montes”and“montañas,”literallysignifying“mountains,”arenotsounderstoodamongSpanishAmericans.Withthemthe“montes”and“montanas”aretractsofforest-coveredcountry,andthatoftheAmazonvalleyisthe“Montana”parexcellence.Slothsofseveral species,andopossumsofstillgreatervariety,are foundallover the Montana, but both thinly distributed as regards the number ofindividuals.Asimilarremarkappliestotheant-eatersor“ant-bears,”ofwhichtherearefourkinds,—tothearmadillos,the“agoutis,”andthe“cavies,”oneofwhichlast,thecapibara,isthelargestrodentuponearth.This,withitskindredgenus, the“paca,” isnot so rare in individualnumbers,but,on thecontrary,appearsinlargeherdsuponthebordersoftheriversandlagoons.Aporcupine,several species of spinous rats, an otter, two or three kinds of badger-likeanimals(thepottoandcoatis),a“honey-bear”(Galerabarbara),andafox,orwilddog,arewidelydistributedthroughouttheMontana.

Everywhere exists the jaguar, both the black and spotted varieties, and thepumahas therehis lurking-place.Smaller cats, both spottedand striped, arenumerousinspecies,andsquirrelsofseveralkinds,withbats,completethelistoftheterrestrialmammalia.Of all the lower animals, monkeys are the most common, for to them theMontana is a congenial home. They abound not only in species, but in thenumberofindividuals,andtheirubiquitouspresencecontributestoenliventhewoods.AtleastthirtydifferentkindsofthemexistintheAmazonvalley,fromthe“coatas,”andotherhowlersaslargeasbaboons,tothetinylittle“ouistitis”and“säimiris,”notbiggerthansquirrelsorrats.While we must admit a paucity in the species of the quadrupeds of theAmazon, the same remark does not apply to the birds. In the ornithologicaldepartment of natural history, a fulness and richness here exist, perhaps notequalledelsewhere.Themostsingularandgracefulforms,combinedwiththemostbrilliantplumage,areeverywherepresentedtotheeye,intheparrotsandgreatmacaws,thetoucans,trogons,andtanagers,theshrikes,humming-birds,andorioles;andeveninthevulturesandeagles:forherearefoundthemostbeautiful of predatory birds,—the king vulture and the harpy eagle. Of thefeathered creatures existing in the valleys of theAmazon there are not lessthan one thousand different species, of which only one half have yet beencaughtordescribed.Reptiles are equally abundant—the serpent family being represented bynumerousspecies,fromthegreatwaterboa(anaconda),oftenyardsinlength,to the tiny and beautiful but venomous lachesis, or coral snake, not thickerthantheshankofa tobacco-pipe.Thelizardsrangethrougha likegradation,beginningwiththehuge“jacare,”orcrocodile,ofseveralspecies,andendingwiththeturquoise-blueanolius,notbiggerthananewt.Thewaterstooarerichinspeciesoftheirpeculiarinhabitants—ofwhichthemost remarkable and valuable are the manatees (two or three species), thegreat and smaller turtles, the porpoises of various kinds, and an endlesscatalogueofthefinnytribesthatfrequenttheriversofthetropics.Itismainlyfrom this source, and not from four-footed creatures of the forest, that thehumandenizenofthegreatMontanadrawshissupplyoffood,—atleastthatportionof itwhichmaybetermedthe“meaty.”Wereitnotfor themanatee,thegreatporpoise,andotherlargefish,hewouldoftenhaveto“eathisbreaddry.”And now it is his turn to be “talked about.” I need not informyou that theaborigines who inhabit the valley of the Amazon, are all of the so-calledIndian race—though there are so many, distinct tribes of them that almosteveryriverofanyconsiderablemagnitudehasatribeofitsown.Insomecasesanumberofthesetribesbelongtoonenationality;thatis,severalofthemmay

be found speaking nearly the same language, though living apart from eachother;andoftheselargerdivisionsornationalitiesthereareseveraloccupyingthedifferentdistrictsoftheMontana.Thetribesevenofthesamenationalitydonotalwayspresentauniformappearance.Therearedarkerandfairertribes;someinwhichtheaveragestandardofheight is less thanamongEuropeans;andotherswhereitequalsorexceedsthis.Therearetribesagainwherebothmenandwomenare ill-shapedand ill-favoured—though theseare few—andothertribeswherebothsexesexhibitaconsiderabledegreeofpersonalbeauty.Some tribes are evendistinguished for their good looks, themenpresentingmodels of manly form, while the women are equally attractive by theregularityoftheirfeatures,andthegracefulmodestyofexpressionthatadornsthem.AminutedetailofthemanypeculiaritiesinwhichthenumeroustribesoftheAmazondifferfromoneanotherwouldfillalargevolume;andinasketchlikethe present,which ismeant to include them all, itwould not be possible togivesuchadetail.Norindeedwoulditserveanygoodpurpose;foralthoughtherearemanypointsofdifferencebetweenthedifferenttribes,yetthesearegenerallyofslight importance,andarefarmorethancounterbalancedbythemultitudeof resemblances.Sonumerous are these last, as to create a strongidiosyncrasy in the tribesof theAmazon,whichnotonlyentitles themtobeclassed together in an ethnological point of view, butwhich separates themfrom all the other Indians ofAmerica.Of course, the non-possession of thehorse—theydonotevenknowtheanimal—atoncebroadlydistinguishesthemfrom theHorse Indians, both of theNorthern andSouthern divisions of thecontinent.It would be idle here to discuss the question as to whether the AmazonianIndianshaveallacommonorigin.It isevident theyhavenot.WeknowthatmanyofthemarefromPeruandBogota—runawaysfromSpanishoppression.Weknowthatothersmigratedfromthesouth—equallyfugitivesfromthestillmorebrutalandbarbarousdominationofthePortuguese.Andstillothersweretrueaboriginalsofthesoil,orifemigrants,whenandwhencecamethey?Anidlequestion,nevertobesatisfactorilyanswered.Theretheynoware,andastheyareonlyshallwehereconsiderthem.Notwithstandingthedifferentsourceswhencetheysprang,wefindthem,asIhavealreadysaid,stampedwithacertainidiosyncrasy,theresult,nodoubt,ofthelikecircumstanceswhichsurroundthem.Oneor twotribesalone,whosehabits are somewhat “odder” than the rest, have been treated to a separatechapter; but for the others, whatever is said of one, will, with very slightalteration, stand good for the whole of the Amazonian tribes. Let it beunderstood that we are discoursing only of those known as the “Indiosbravos,” the fierce, brave, savage, or wild Indians—as you may choose to

translate the phrase,—a phrase used throughout all Spanish America todistinguish those tribes, or sections of tribes, who refused obedience toSpanishtyranny,andwhopreservetothishourtheirnativeindependenceandfreedom.Incontradistinctiontothe“Indiosbravos”arethe“Indiosmansos,”or “tame Indians,” who submitted tamely both to the cross and sword, andnowenjoyarudedemi-semi-civilisation,underthejointprotectorateofpriestsand soldiers. Between these two kinds of American aborigines, there is asmuchdifferenceasbetweenalordandhisserf—thetruesavagerepresentingtheformerand thedemi-semi-civilisedsavageapproximatingmorenearly tothelatter.Themeddlingmonkhasmadeacompletefailureofit.Hisendswerepurelypolitical,and theresulthasprovedruinous toallconcerned;—insteadofcivilisingthesavage,hehaspositivelydemoralisedhim.Itisnotofhisneophytes,the“Indiosmansos,”wearenowwriting,butofthe“infidels,” whowould not hearken to his voice or listen to his teachings—thosewhocouldneverbebroughtwithin“soundofthebell.”Both“kinds”dwellwithin thevalleyof theAmazon,but indifferentplaces.The“Indiosmansos”maybefoundalongthebanksofthemainstream,fromitssourcetoitsmouth—butmoreespeciallyonitsupperwaters,whereitrunsthrough Spanish (Peruvian) territory. There they dwell in little villages orcollections of huts, ruled by the missionary monk with iron rod, andperformingforhimalltheofficesofthemenialslave.Theirresourcesarefew,not even equalling those of their wild but independent brethren; and theircustomsandreligionexhibitaludicrousmélangeofsavageryandcivilisation.Farther down the river, the “Indio manso” is a “tapuio,” a hireling of thePortuguese, or to speakmore correctly, a slave; for the latter treats him assuch,considershimassuch,andthoughthereisalawagainstit,oftendragshimfromhisforest-homeandkeepshiminlife-longbondage.Anyhumanlawwouldbeadeadletteramongsuchwhite-skinsasaretobeencountereduponthebanksoftheAmazon.Fortunatelytheyarebutfew;atownortwoonthelowerAmazonandRioNegro,—somewretchedvillagesbetween,—scatteredestanciasalong thebanks—withhereand thereapaltrypostof “militarios,”dignified by the name of a “fort:” these alone speak the progress of thePortuguesecivilisationthroughoutaperiodofthreecenturies!FromallthesesettlementsthewildIndiankeepsaway.Heisneverfoundnearthem—he is never seen by travellers, not even by the settlers. You maydescend themightyAmazon from its source to itsmouth, and not once setyour eyes upon the true son of the forest—the “Indio bravo.” Coming incontact onlywith the neophyte of the Spanishmissionary, and the skulkingtapuio of the Portuguese trader, you might bring away a very erroneousimpressionofthecharacterofanAmazonianIndian.Whereishetobeseen?wheredwellshe?whatlikeishishome?whatsortofa

house does he build? His costume? his arms? his occupation? his habits?Thesearethequestionsyouwouldput.Theyshallallbeanswered,butbrieflyaspossible—sinceourlimitedspacerequiresbrevity.ThewildIndian,then,isnottobefoundupontheAmazonitself,thoughthereare long reaches of the river where he is free to roam—hundreds of mileswithouteithertownorestancia.Hehunts,andoccasionallyfishesbythegreatwater, but does not there make his dwelling—though in days gone by, itsshoreswerehisfavouriteplaceofresidence.ThesewerebeforethetimewhenOrellanafloateddownpastthedoorofhis“malocca”—beforethatdarkhourwhentheBrazilianslave-hunterfoundhiswayinto thewatersof themightySolimoes. This last event was the cause of his disappearance. It drove himfromtheshoresofhisbelovedriver-sea;forcedhimtowithdrawhisdwellingfromobservation, and rebuild it far up, on those tributarieswhere hemightliveamorepeacefullife,securefromthetraffickerinhumanflesh.Henceitisthat thehomeof theAmazonian Indian isnow tobesought for—noton theAmazonitself,butonitstributarystreams—onthe“canos”and“igaripes,”thecanalsandlagoonsthat,withalabyrinthineramification,intersectthemightyforestof theMontana.Heredwellshe,andhere ishe tobeseenbyanyoneboldenoughtovisithiminhisfastnesshome.Howishedomiciled?Isthereanythingpeculiaraboutthestyleofhishouseorhisvillage?Eminently peculiar; for in this respect he differs from all the other savagepeopleofwhomwehaveyetwritten,orofwhomwemayhaveoccasion towrite.Letusproceedatoncetodescribehisdwelling.Itisnotatent,norisitahut,noracabin,noracottage,noryetacave!Hisdwellingcanhardlybetermedahouse,norhisvillageacollectionofhouses—sincebothhouseandvillageareoneandthesame,andbotharesopeculiar,thatwehavenonameforsuchastructureincivilisedlands,unlessweshouldcallita“barrack.”ButeventhisappellationwouldgivebutanerroneousideaoftheAmazoniandwelling;andthereforeweshallusethatbywhichitisknowninthe“Lingoageral,”andcallitamalocca.Bysuchname ishishouse (orvillage rather)knownamong the tapuiosandtradersoftheAmazon.Sinceitisbothhouseandvillageatthesametime,itmustneedsbealargestructure;andsoisit,largeenoughtocontainthewholetribe—oratleastthesectionofitthathaschosenoneparticularspotfortheirresidence.Itisthepropertyofthewholecommunity,builtbythelabourofall,andusedastheircommondwelling—thougheachfamilyhasitsownsectionspeciallysetapartforitself.ItwillthusbeseenthattheAmazoniansavageis,tosomeextent,adiscipleoftheSocialistschool.

I have not space to enter into a minute account of the architecture of themalocca.Suffice it to say, that it is an immense temple-likebuilding, raisedupon timber uprights, so smooth and straight as to resemble columns. Thebeamsandraftersarealsostraightandsmooth,andareheldintheirplacesby“sipos” (toughcreepingplants),whicharewhippedaround the jointswith aneatnessandcompactnessequaltothatusedintheriggingofaship.Theroofisathatchofpalm-leaves,laidonwithgreatregularity,andbroughtverylowdown at the eaves, so as to give to thewhole structure the appearance of agigantic beehive. The walls are built of split palms or bamboos, placed socloselytogetherastobeimpervioustoeitherbulletorarrows.Theplanisaparallelogram,withasemicircleatoneend;andthebuildingislarge enough to accommodate thewhole community, often numberingmorethanahundred individuals.Ongrand festiveoccasions severalneighbouringcommunitiescanfindroomenoughinit—evenfordancing—andthreeorfourhundred individuals not unfrequently assemble under the roof of a singlemalocca.Inside the arrangements are curious. There is a wide hall or avenue in themiddle—that extends from end to end throughout the whole length of theparallelogram—andonbothsidesofthehallisarowofpartitions,separatedfromeachotherbysplitpalmsorcanes,closelyplaced.Eachofthesesectionsistheabodeofafamily,andtheplaceofdepositforthehammocks,claypots,calabash-cups,dishes,baskets,weapons,andornaments,whicharetheprivatepropertyofeach.Thehallisusedforthelargercookingutensils—suchasthegreat clay ovens and pans for baking the cassava, and boiling the caxire orchicha.Thisisalsoaneutralground,wherethechildrenplay,andwherethedancing is done on the occasion of grand “balls” and other ceremonialfestivals.Thecommondoorwayisinthegableend,andissixfeetwidebyteninheight.Itremainsopenduringtheday,but isclosedatnightbyamatofpalmfibresuspended from the top. There is another and smaller doorway at thesemicircularend;butthisisfortheprivateuseofthechief,whoappropriatesthewholesectionofthesemicircletohimselfandhisfamily.Ofcoursetheaboveisonlythegeneraloutlineofamalocca.AmoreparticulardescriptionwouldnotanswerforthatofallthetribesoftheAmazon.Amongdifferent communities, and in different parts of the Montaña, the maloccavariesinsize,shape,andthematerialsofwhichitisbuilt;andtherearesometribeswholiveinseparatehuts.Theseexceptions,however,arefew,andasageneral thing, that above described is the style of habitation throughout thewholeMontaña,fromtheconfinesofPerutotheshoresoftheAtlantic.Northandsouthweencounterthissingularhouse-village,fromtheheadwatersoftheRioNegrotothehighlandsofBrazil.

Most of theAmazonian tribes follow agriculture, and understood the art oftillagebeforethecomingoftheSpaniards.Theypractiseit,however,toaverylimitedextent.Theycultivatealittlemanioc,andknowhowtomanufactureitinto farinha or cassava bread. They plant themusaceae and yam, andunderstandthedistillationofvariousdrinks,bothfromtheplantainandseveralkinds of palms. They canmake pottery from clay,—shaping it into variousforms,neitherrudenorinelegant,—andfromthetreesandparasiticaltwinersthat surround their dwellings, they manufacture an endless variety of neatimplementsandutensils.Their canoes are hollow trunks of trees sufficiently well-shaped, andadmirablyadaptedtotheirmodeoftravelling—whichisalmostexclusivelybywater,bythenumerouscanosandigaripes,whicharetheroadsandpathsoftheircountry—oftenasnarrowandintricateaspathsbyland.TheIndiansofthetropicforestdressintheverylightestcostume.Ofcourseeachtribehasitsownfashion;butamerebeltofcottoncloth,ortheinnerbarkof a tree, passed round thewaist and between the limbs, is all the coveringtheycarefor.Itistheguayuco.Somewearaskirtoftreebark,and,ongrandoccasions, feather tunicsareseen,andalsoplumehead-dresses,madeof thebrilliantwingand tail feathersofparrots andmacaws.Circletsof thesealsoadorn the arms and limbs.All the tribes paint, using the anotto, caruto, andseveral other dyeswhich they obtain fromvarious kinds of trees, elsewheremoreparticularlydescribed.Thereareoneortwotribeswhotattootheirskins;butthisstrangepracticeisfar less common among the American Indians than with the natives of thePacificisles.Inthemanufactureoftheirvarioushouseholdutensilsandimplements,aswellas theirweapons forwar and the chase,many tribes ofAmazonian Indiansdisplayan ingenuity thatwoulddocredit to themostaccomplishedartisans.Thehammocksmadebythemhavebeenadmiredeverywhere;anditisfromthevalleyof theAmazonthatmostof theseareobtained,somuchprized inthe cities of Spanish and Portuguese America. They are the specialmanufactureofthewomen,themenonlyemployingtheirmechanicalskillontheirweapons:Thehammock,“rede,”or“maqueira,”ismanufacturedoutofstringsobtainedfrom the young leaves of several species of palms. Theastrocaryum, or“tucum”palmfurnishesthiscordage,butastillbetterqualityisobtainedfromthe “miriti” (Mauritia flexuosa). The unopened leaf, which forms a thick-pointedcolumngrowingupoutofthecrownofthetree,iscutoffatthebase,andthisbeingpulledapart,isshakendexterouslyuntilthetenderleafletsfallout.Thesebeingstrippedoftheiroutercovering,leavebehindathintissueofapale-yellowishcolour,whichisthefibreformakingthecordage.Afterbeing

tied in bundles this fibre is left awhile to dry, and is then twisted by beingrolledbetweenthehandandthehiporthigh.Thewomenperformthisprocesswith great dexterity. Taking two strands of fibre between the forefinger andthumbofthelefthand,theylaythemseparatedalittlealongthethigh;arolldownwardgivesthematwist,andthenbeingadroitlybroughttogether,arollupwards completes the making of the cord. Fifty fathoms in a day isconsidered agoodday’s spinning.The cords are afterwardsdyedof variouscolours,torenderthemmoreornamentalwhenwovenintothemaqueira.The making of this is a simple process. Two horizontal rods are placed ataboutsevenfeetapart,overwhichthecordispassedsomefiftyorsixtytimes,thus forming the “woof.”Thewarp is thenworked in by knotting the crossstringsatequaldistancesapart,until thereareenough.Twostrongcordsaretheninsertedwheretherodspassthrough,andthesebeingfirmlylooped,soastodrawalltheparallelstringstogether,therodispulledout,andthehammockisreadytobeused.Ofcourse,withveryfine“redes,”andthoseintendedtobedisposedoftothetraders,muchpainsaretakenintheselectionofthematerials,thedyeingthecord,andtheweavingitintothehammock.Sometimesveryexpensivearticlesare made ornamented with the brilliant feathers of birds cunningly wovenamongthemeshesandalongtheborders.Besidesmakingthehammock,whichistheuniversalcouchoftheAmazonianIndian, the women also manufacture a variety of beautiful baskets. Manyspeciesofpalmsandcalamussupplythemwithmaterialsforthispurpose,oneofthebestbeingthe“Iu”palm(Astrocaryumacaule).Theyalsomakemanyimplements and utensils, some for cultivating the plantains, melons, andmaniocroot,andothersformanufacturingthelast-namedvegetableintotheirfavourite “farinha” (cassava). The Indians understood how to separate thepoisonous juice of this valuable root from its wholesome farina before thearrivalofwhitemenamongthem;andtheprocessbywhichtheyaccomplishthispurposehasremainedwithoutchangeuptothepresenthour,infact,itisalmost the same as that practised by the Spaniards and Portuguese, whosimplyadoptedtheIndianmethod.Theworkisperformedbythewomen,andthus:therootsarebroughthomefromthemanioc“patch”inbaskets,andthenwashedandpeeled.Thepeeling isusuallyperformedby the teeth;after thattherootsaregrated,thegraterbeingalargewoodenslababoutthreefeetlong,a footwide, a littlehollowedout, and thehollowpart coveredalloverwithsharp pieces of quartz set in regular diamond-shaped patterns. Sometime acheaper grater is obtained by using the aerial root of the pashiuba palm(Iriartea exhorhiza), which, being thickly covered over with hard spinousprotuberances,servesadmirablyforthepurpose.Thegratedpulpisnextplacedtodryuponasieve,madeoftherindofawater-

plant,andisafterwardsputintoalongelasticcylinder-shapedbasketornet,ofthebarkofthe“jacitara”palm(Desmoncusmacroacanthus).Thisisthetipiti;and at its lower end there is a strong loop, through which a stout pole ispassed;whilethetipitiitself,whenfilledwithpulp,ishunguptothebranchofatree,ortoafirmpeginthewall.Oneendofthepoleisthenrestedagainstsome projecting point, that serves as a fulcrum, while the Indian woman,having seated herself upon the other end, with her infant in her arms, orperhapssomeworkinherhands,actsastheleverpower.Herweightdrawsthesidesof the tipititogether,until itassumes the formofan invertedcone;andthus the juice is gradually pressed out of the pulp, and drops into a vesselplacedunderneathtoreceiveit.Themothermustbecarefulthatthelittleimpdoesnotescapefromunderhereye,andperchancequenchitsthirstoutofthevesselbelow.Ifsuchanaccidentweretotakeplace,inaveryfewminutesshewould have to grieve for a lost child; since the sap of themanioc root, thevarietymostcultivatedbytheIndians,isadeadlypoison.Thisisthe“yuccaamarga,” or bitter manioc; the “yucca dulce,” or sweet kind, being quiteinnoxious,evenifeateninitsrawstate.The remainder of the process consists in placing the grated pulp—nowsufficientlydry—onalargepanoroven,andsubmittingittotheactionofthefire. It is then thought sufficiently good for Indian use; but much of it isafterwards prepared for commerce, under different names, and sold assemonilla(erroneouslycalledsemolina),sago,andevenasarrowroot.At the bottom of that, poisonous tub, a sediment has all the while beenforming.That is thestarchof themaniocroot—the tapiocaofcommerce:ofcoursethatisnotthrownaway.Themenofthetropicforestspendtheirlivesindoingverylittle.Theyareidleandnotmuchdisposedtowork—onlywhenwarorthechasecallsthemforthdotheythrowasideforawhiletheirindolenthabit,andexhibitalittleactivity.Theyhuntwith thebowandarrow,and fishwithaharpoonspear,nets,andsometimesbypoisoningwaterwith the juiceof avine calledbarbasco.The“peixeboy,”“vacamarina,”or“manatee,”—allthreenamesbeingsynonymes—isoneof thechiefanimalsof theirpursuit.All thewatersof theAmazonvalley abound with manatees, probably of several species, and these largecreatures are captured by the harpoon, just as seals or walrus are taken.PorpoisesalsofrequenttheSouth-Americanrivers;andlargefresh-waterfishofnumerousspecies.ThegamehuntedbytheAmazonianIndianscanscarcelybe termednoble.Wehave seen that the largemammalia are few, and thinlydistributedinthetropicalforest.Withtheexceptionofthejaguarandpeccary,thechaseislimitedtosmallquadrupeds—asthecapibara,thepaca,agouti—tomanykindsofmonkeys,andanimmensevarietyofbirds.Themonkeyisthemostcommongame,andisnotonlyeatenbyalltheAmazonianIndians,but

bymostofthemconsideredasthechoicestoffood.In procuring their game the hunters sometimes use the common bow andarrow,butmostofthetribesareinpossessionofaweaponwhichtheyprefertoallothersforthisparticularpurpose.Itisanimplementofdeathsooriginalinitscharacterandsosingularinitsconstructionastodeserveaspecialandminutedescription.The weapon I allude to is the “blow-gun,” called “pucuna” by the Indiansthemselves,“gravitana”bytheSpaniards,and“cerbatana”bythePortugueseofBrazil.When theAmazonianIndianwishes tomanufacture forhimselfapucunahegoes out into the forest and searches for two tall, straight stems of the“pashiubamiri”palm (Iriartea setigera).Thesehe requiresof such thicknessthatonecanbecontainedwithin theother.Having foundwhathewants,hecutsbothdownandcarriesthemhometohismolocca.Neitherof themisofsuchdimensionsastorenderthiseitherimpossibleordifficult.Henowtakesalongslenderrod—alreadypreparedforthepurpose—andwiththispushesoutthepithfrombothstems,justasboysdowhenpreparingtheirpop-gunsfromthestemsoftheelder-tree.TherodthususedisobtainedfromanotherspeciesofIriarteapalm,ofwhichthewoodisveryhardandtough.Alittletuftoffern-root,fixedupontheendoftherod,isthendrawnbackwardandforward through the tubes,untilbothareclearedofanypithwhichmayhave adhered to the interior; and both are polished by this process to thesmoothnessofivory.Thepalmofsmallerdiameter,beingscrapedtoapropersize,isnowinsertedintothetubeofthelarger,theobjectbeingtocorrectanycrookednessineither,shouldtherebesuch;andifthisdoesnotsucceed,bothare whipped to some straight beam or post, and thus left till they becomestraight.One endof the bore, from the nature of the tree, is always smallerthantheother;andtothisendisfittedamouthpieceoftwopeccarytuskstoconcentratethebreathofthehunterwhenblowingintothetube.Theotherendisthemuzzle;andnearthis,onthetop,asightisplaced,usuallyatoothofthe“paca”orsomeotherrodentanimal.Thissightisgluedonwithagumwhichanother tropic tree furnishes.Over the outside,when desirous of giving theweaponanornamentalfinish,themakerwindsspirallyashiningcreeper,andthenthepucunaisreadyforaction.Sometimesonlyasingleshankofpalmisused,andinsteadofthepithbeingpushedout,thestemissplitintotwoequalpartsthroughoutitswholeextent.Theheartsubstancebeingthenremoved,thetwopiecesarebroughttogether,likethetwodivisionsofacedarwoodpencil,andtightlyboundwithasipo.Thepucunaisusuallyaboutaninchandahalfindiameteratthethickestend,and the bore about equal to that of a pistol of ordinary calibre. In length,

however,theweaponvariesfromeighttotwelvefeet.Thissingularinstrumentisdesigned,notforpropellingabullet,butanarrow;butasthisarrowdiffersaltogetherfromthecommonkinditalsoneedstobedescribed.Theblow-gunarrowisaboutfifteenoreighteenincheslong,andismadeofapiece of split bamboo; butwhen the “patawa” palm can be found, this treefurnishes a still better material, in the long spines that grow out from thesheathingbasesofitsleaves.Theseare18inchesinlength,ofablackcolour,flattishthoughperfectlystraight.Beingcuttotheproperlength—whichmostof them arewithout cutting—they arewhittled at one end to a sharp point.Thispointisdippedaboutthreeinchesdeepinthecelebrated“curare”poison;andjustwherethepoisonmarkterminates,anotchismade,sothattheheadwillbeeasilybrokenoffwhenthearrowisinthewound.Neartheotherendalittle soft down of silky cotton (the floss of the bombax ceiba) is twistedaroundintoasmoothmassoftheshapeofaspinning-top,withitslargerendtowards thenearerextremityof thearrow.Thecotton isheld in itsplacebybeinglightlywhippedonbythedelicatethreadorfibreofabromelia,andthemassisjustbigenoughtofillthetubebygentlypressingitinward.Thearrowthusmadeis inserted,andwhenever thegameiswithinreachtheIndian places hismouth to the lower end ormouthpiece, andwith a strong“puff,”whichpracticeenableshimtogive,hesendsthelittlemessengeruponitsdeadlyerrand.Hecanhitwithunerringaimatthedistanceoffortyorfiftypaces;buthepreferstoshootinadirectionnearlyvertical,asinthatwayhecan take the surest aim. As his common game—birds and monkeys—areusuallypercheduponthehigherbranchesoftalltrees,theirsituationjustsuitshim.Ofcourseitisnotthemerewoundofthearrowthatkillsthesecreatures,but thepoison,which in twoor threeminutes after theyhavebeenhit,willbringeitherbirdormonkeytotheground.Whenthelatterisstruckhewouldbecertain todrawout thearrow;but thenotch,alreadymentioned,providesagainstthis,astheslightestwrenchservestobreakofftheenvenomedhead.These arrows are dangerous things,—even for the manufacturer of them toplay with: they are therefore carried in a quiver, and with great care,—thequiverconsistingeitherofabamboojointoraneatwickercase.Theweaponsofwarusedbytheforesttribesarethecommonbowandarrows,also tippedwithcurare,and the“macana,”orwar-club,aspeciespeculiar toSouthAmerica,madeoutof thehardheavywoodof thepissabapalm.Onlyone or two tribes use the spear; and both the “bolas” and lazo are quiteunknown, as such weapons would not be available among the trees of theforest.ThesearetheproperarmsoftheHorseIndian,thedwellerontheopenplains;butwithoutthem,forallwarpurposes,theforesttribeshaveweaponsenough,and,unfortunately,makeatoofrequentuseofthem.

ChapterThree.TheWater-DwellersofMaracaibo.

TheAndesmountains,risingintheextremesouthernpointofSouthAmerica,notonlyextendthroughoutthewholelengthofthatcontinent,butcontinueonthrough Central America and Mexico, under the name of “Cordilleras deSierraMadre;”andstillfarthernorthtotheshoresoftheArcticSea,underthevery inappropriate appellation of the “Rocky Mountains.” You must notsuppose that these stupendousmountains formone continuous elevation.Atmany places they furcate into various branches, throwing off spurs, andsometimeparallel“sierras,”betweenwhichliewide“valles,”orlevelplainsofgreatextent.Itisuponthesehighplateaux—manyofthemelevated7,000feetabove the sea—that the greater part of the Spanish-American populationdwells;andon them tooare foundmostof the largecitiesofSpanishSouthAmericaandMexico.These parallel chains meet at different points, forming what the Peruviansterm “nodas” (knots); and, after continuing for a distance in one greatcordillera,againbifurcate.Oneofthemostremarkableofthesebifurcationsofthe Andes occurs about latitude 2 degrees North. There the gigantic sierraseparates into twogreat branches, forming a shape like the letterY, the leftlimb being thatwhich is usually regarded as themain continuation of thesemountains through the IsthmusofPanama,while the right forms theeasternboundaryofthegreatvalleyoftheMagdalenariver;andthen,trendinginaneastwardlydirectionalongthewholenortherncoastofSouthAmericato theextremepointofthepromontoryofParia.Each of these limbs again forks into several branches or spurs,—thewholesystem forming a figure that may be said to bear some resemblance to agenealogicaltreecontainingthepedigreeoffourorfivegenerations.It is onlywith one of the bifurcations of the right or eastern sierra that thissketch has to do. On reaching the latitude of 7 degrees north, this chainseparates itself into twowings,which,afterdivergingwidely to theeastandwest, sweep roundagain towards eachother, as if desirous tobeoncemoreunited.Thewesternwingadvancesboldlytothisreunion;buttheeastern,aftervacillating for a time, as if uncertain what course to take, turns its backabruptlyonitsoldcomrade,andtrendsoffinadueeastdirection,tillitsinksintoinsignificanceuponthepromontoryofParia.Thewholemassofthesierra,however,hasnotbeenofonemind;for,atthetime of its indecision, a large spur detaches itself from themain body, and

sweepsround,asif tocarryouttheunionwiththeleftwingadvancingfromthewest.Althoughtheygetwithinsightofeachother,theyarenotpermittedtomeet,—bothendingabruptlybeforethecircleiscompleted,andformingafigurebearingaveryexactresemblancetotheshoeofaracehorse.Withinthiscurvingboundaryisenclosedavastvalley,—aslargeasthewholeofIreland,—the central portion ofwhich, and occupying about one third of its wholeextent,isasheetofwater,knownfromthedaysofthediscoveryofAmerica,astheLakeofMaracaibo.ItobtainedthisappellationfromthenameofanIndiancazique,whowasmetuponitsshoresby thefirstdiscoverers;butalthoughthis lakewasknowntotheearliestexplorersoftheNewWorld,—althoughitliescontiguoustomanycolonial settlements both on themainland and the islands of the CaribbeanSea,—thelakeitselfandthevastterritorythatsurroundsit,remainalmostasunknown and obscure as if theywere situated among the central deserts ofAfrica.AndyetthevalleyofMaracaiboisoneofthemostinterestingportionsoftheglobe,—interesting not only as a terra incognita, but on account of thediversified nature of its scenery and productions. It possesses a fauna of apeculiarkind,anditsfloraisoneoftherichestintheworld,notsurpassed,—perhapsnotequalled,—bythatofanyotherportionofthetorridzone.Togivealistofitsvegetableproductionswouldbetoenumeratealmosteveryspeciesbelonging to tropical America. Here are found the well-known medicinalplants,—the sassafras and sarsaparilla, guaiacum, copaiva, cinchona, andcuspa, or Cortex Angosturae; here are the deadly poisons of barbasco andmavacure,andalongside them the remediesof the“palosano,”andmikaniaguaco.Herelikewisegrowplantsandtreesproducingthosewell-knowndyesof commerce, the blue indigo, the red arnotto, the lake-coloured chica, thebrazilletto,anddragon’s-blood;andaboveall, thosewoodsof red,gold,andebon tints, so precious in the eyes of the cabinet and musical-instrumentmakersofEurope.Yet,strangetosay,theserichresourceslie,liketreasuresburiedinthebowelsoftheearth,orgemsatthebottomofthesea,stillundeveloped.Afewsmalllumbering establishments near the entrance of the lake,—here and there amiserable village, supported by a little coast commerce in dyewoods, orcuttingsofebony,—nowandthenahamletoffishermen,—a“hato”ofgoatsand sheep; and atwider intervals, a “ganaderia” of cattle, or a plantationofcocoa-trees (cocale), furnish the only evidence that man has asserted hisdominion over this interesting region. These settlements, however, aresparsely distributed, and widely distant from one another. Between themstretchbroadsavannasandforests,—vasttracts,untitledandevenunexplored,—averywilderness,butawildernessrichinnaturalresources.

TheLakeofMaracaibo isoften, thougherroneously,describedasanarmofthe sea.This description only applies to theGulf ofMaracaibo,which is inrealityaportionof theCaribbeanSea.The lake itself isaltogetherdifferent,and is a true fresh-water lake, separated from the gulf by a narrow neck orstrait. Within this strait—called “boca,” or mouth—the salt water does notextend, except during very high tides or after long-continued nortes (northwinds),whichhave the effect of driving the sea-water up into the lake, andimparting to someportionsof it a salineorbrackish taste.This,however, isonly occasional and of temporary continuance; and the waters of the lake,supplied by a hundred streams from the horseshoe sierra that surrounds it,soonreturntotheirnormalcharacteroffreshness.The shape of Lake Maracaibo is worthy of remark. The main body of itssurfaceisofovaloutline,—thelongerdiameterrunningnorthandsouth,—buttakeninconnectionwiththestraitswhichcommunicatewiththeoutergulf,itassumes a shape somewhat like that of a Jew’s-harp, or rather of a kind ofguitar,mostinuseamongSpanishAmericans,andknownunderthenameof“mandolin” (or “bandolon”). To this instrument do the natives sometimescompareit.Another peculiarity of Lake Maracaibo, is the extreme shallowness of thewateralongitsshores.Itisdeepenoughtowardsthemiddlepart;butatmanypoints around the shore, amanmaywade formiles into thewater,withoutgetting beyond his depth. This peculiarity arises from the formation of thevalleyinwhichit issituated.Onlyafewspursofthesierrasthatsurrounditapproachneartheedgeofthelake.Generallyfromthebasesofthemountains,the land slopes with a very gentle declination,—so slight as to have theappearanceofaperfectlyhorizontalplain,—and this iscontinuedforagreatwayunderthesurfaceofthewater.Strangeenough,however,aftergettingtoacertain distance from the shore, the shoal water ends as abruptly as theescarpmentof a cliff, and adepth almost unfathomable succeeds,—as if thecentralpartofthelakewasavastsubaqueousravine,boundedonbothsidesbyprecipitouscliffs.Such,inreality,isitbelievedtobe.Asingularphenomenonisobservedin theLakeMaracaibo,which,sincethedaysofColumbus,hasnotonlypuzzledtheCurious,butalsothelearnedandscientific,whohaveunsuccessfullyattemptedtoexplainit.Thisphenomenonconsists in the appearance of a remarkable light, which shows itself in themiddle of the night, and at a particular part of the lake, near its southernextremity.This light bears some resemblance to the ignis fatuusofourownmarshes;andmostprobablyisaphosphorescenceofasimilarnature,thoughonamuchgranderscale,—sinceitisvisibleatavastdistanceacrosstheopenwater.Asitisseenuniversallyinthesamedirection,andappearsfixedinoneplace, it serves as a beacon for the fishermen and dye-wood traders who

navigate the waters of the lake,—its longitude being precisely that of thestraitsleadingoutwardtothegulf.Vesselsthathavestrayedfromtheircourse,often regulate their reckoning by the mysterious “Farol de Maracaibo”(LanternofMaracaibo),—forbythisnameisthenaturalbeaconknowntothemarinersofthelake.Various explanations have been offered to account for this singularphenomenon,butnoneseemtoexplainitinasatisfactorymanner.Itappearsto be produced by the exhalations that arise from an extensivemarshy tractlying around the mouth of the river Zulia, and above which it universallyshowsitself.Theatmosphereinthisquarter isusuallyhotter thanelsewhere,andsupposedtobehighlychargedwithelectricity;butwhatevermaybethechemicalprocesswhichproducestheillumination,itactsinaperfectlysilentmanner.No one has ever observed any explosion to proceed from it, or theslightestsoundconnectedwithitsoccurrence.Ofall the ideas suggestedby thementionofLakeMaracaibo,perhapsnonearesointerestingasthosethatrelatetoitsnativeinhabitants,whosepeculiarhabits and modes of life not only astonished the early navigators, buteventually gave its name to the lake itself and to the extensive province inwhichit issituated.WhentheSpanishdiscoverers,sailingaroundtheshoresof the gulf, arrived near the entrance of LakeMaracaibo, they saw, to theiramazement, not only single houses, but whole villages, apparently floatinguponthewater!Onapproachingnearer,theyperceivedthatthesehouseswereraisedsomefeetabovethesurface,andsupportedbypostsorpilesdrivenintothemud at the bottom.The idea ofVenice—that city built upon the sea, towhich they had been long accustomed—was suggested by thesesuperaqueoushabitations; and the name of Venezuela (Little Venice) was atoncebestowedupon thecoast,andafterwardsapplied to thewholeprovincenowknownastheRepublicofVenezuela.Thoughthe“watervillages”thenobservedhavelongsincedisappeared,manyothersofasimilarkindwereafterwardsdiscoveredinLakeMaracaiboitself,someofwhichareinexistencetothepresentday.Besideshereandthereanisolatedhabitation,situatedinsomebayor“laguna,”therearefourprincipalvillages upon this plan still in existence, each containing from fifty to ahundred habitations. The inhabitants of some of these villages have been“Christianised,” that is, have submitted to the teaching of the Spanishmissionaries;andoneinparticularisdistinguishedbyhavingitslittlechurch—aregularwaterchurch—inthecentre,builtuponpiles,justastherestofthehousesare,andonlydifferingfromthecommondwellingsinbeinglargerandof a somewhat more pretentious style. From the belfry of this curiousecclesiasticaledificeabrazenbellmaybeheardatmornandeve tolling the“oracion”and“vespers,”anddeclaringover thewidewatersof the lake that

the authority of the Spanish monk has replaced the power of the caziqueamong the Indians of the Lake Maracaibo. Not to all sides of the lake,however,has thecrossextendeditsconquest.Alongitswesternshoreroamsthe fierce unconquered Goajiro, who, a true warrior, still maintains hisindependence; and even encroaches upon the usurped possessions both ofmonkand“militario.”Thewater-dweller,however,althoughofkindredracewiththeGoajiro,isverydifferent,bothinhisdispositionandhabitsoflife.Heisaltogetheramanofpeace, andmight almost be termed a civilised being,—that is, he follows aregular industrial calling, by which he subsists. This is the calling of afisherman,andinnopartoftheworldcouldhefollowitwithmorecertaintyofsuccess,sincethewaterswhichsurroundhisdwellingliterallyswarmwithfish.LakeMaracaibohasbeen longnotedas theresortofnumerousandvaluablespeciesof thefinnytribe, in thecaptureofwhichtheIndianfishermanfindsampleoccupation.Heisbetimesafowler,—asweshallpresentlysee,—andhealsosometimesindulges,thoughmorerarely,inthechase,findinggameinthethick forests or on the green savannas that surround the lake, or border thebanks of the numerous “riachos” (streams) running into it. On the savannaroamsthegracefulroebuckandthe“venado,”orSouth-Americandeer,whilealong theriverbanksstray thecapibaraand thestout tapir,undisturbedsavebytheirfiercefelineenemies,thepumaandspottedjaguar.Buthuntingexcursionsarenotahabitof thewaterIndian,whosecalling,asalreadyobserved, isessentially thatofa fishermanand“fowler,”andwhosesubsistenceismainlyderivedfromtwokindsofwater-dwellers,likehimself—onewith fins, living below the surface, and denominated fish; anotherwithwings,usuallyrestingonthesurface,andknownasfowl.Thesetwocreatures,ofverydifferentkindsandofmanydifferentspecies,formthestapleanddailyfoodoftheIndianofMaracaibo.Inanaccountofhishabitswestallbeginbygivingadescriptionofthemodeinwhichheconstructshissingulardwelling.Likeotherbuildershebeginsbyselectingthesite.Thismustbeaplacewherethewater is of no great depth; and the farther from the shore he can find ashallowspotthebetterforhispurpose,forhehasagoodreasonfordesiringtogettoadistancefromtheshore,asweshallpresentlysee.Sometimesasortofsubaqueousisland,orelevatedsandbank, isfound,whichgiveshimtheverysiteheisinsearchof.Havingpitcheduponthespot,hisnextcareistoprocurea certain number of tree-trunks of the proper length and thickness tomake“piles.”Noteverykindoftimberwillserveforthispurpose,fortherearenotmany sorts thatwould long resist decay and thewear and tear of thewaterinsects,withwhichthelakeabounds.Moreover, thebuildingofoneofthese

aquatichouses,althoughitbeonlyarudehut, isaworkof timeand labour,and it is desirable therefore to make it as permanent as possible. For thisreasongreatcareistakenintheselectionofthetimberforthe“piles.”Butitsochancesthattheforestsaroundthelakefurnishtheverythingitself,inthewoodofatreeknowntotheSpanishinhabitantsasthe“vera,”of“palosano,”andtothenativesas“guaiac.”ItisoneofthezygophylsofthegenusGuaiacum, of which there are many species, called by the names of “iron-wood”or“lignum-vitae;”but thespecies inquestionis thetreelignum-vitae(Guaiacum arboreum), which attains to a height of 100 feet, with a fineumbrella-shapedhead,andbrightorangeflowers.Itswoodissohard, that itwill turntheedgeofanaxe,andthenativesbelievethat if itbeburiedforasufficientlengthoftimeundertheearthitwillturntoiron!Thoughthisbeliefisnotliterallytrue,asregardstheiron,itisnotsomuchofanexaggerationasmightbesupposed.The“palodefierro,”whenburiedinthesoilofMaracaiboor immersed in thewaters of the lake, in reality does undergo a somewhatsimilar metamorphose; in other words, it turns into stone; and the petrifiedtrunksofthiswoodarefrequentlymetwithalongtheshoresofthelake.Whatisstillmoresingular—thepilesofthewater-housesoftenbecomepetrified,sothatthedwellingnolongerrestsuponwoodenposts,butuponrealcolumnsofstone!Knowingallthisbyexperience,theIndianselectstheguaiacforhisuprights,cuts them of the proper length; and then, launching them in the water,transportsthemtothesiteofhisdwelling,andfixesthemintheirplaces.Upon this a platform is erected, out of split boards of some less ponderoustimber,usuallythe“ceiba,”or“silk-cottontree”(Bombaxceiba),orthe“cedronegro” (Cedrela odorata) of the order Meliaceae. Both kinds grow inabundanceupontheshoresofthelake,—andthehugetrunksoftheformerarealsousedbythewaterIndianfortheconstructingofhiscanoe.Theplatform,or floor,being thusestablished, about twoor three feet abovethesurfaceofthewater,itthenonlyremainstoerect,thewallsandcoverthemover with a roof. The former are made of the slightest materials,—lightsaplings or bamboo poles,—usually left open at the interstices. There is nowinterorcoldweatherhere,—whyshouldthewallsbethick?Thereareheavyrains,however,atcertainseasonsoftheyear,andtheserequiretobeguardedagainst;butthisisnotadifficultmatter,sincethebroadleavesofthe“enea”and“vihai”(aspeciesofHeliconia)servethepurposeofaroofjustaswellastiles, slates, or shingles.Nature in these parts is bountiful, and provides herhuman creatures with a spontaneous supply of everywant. Even ropes andcords she furnishes, for binding the beams, joists, and rafters together, andholding on the thatch against the most furious assaults of the wind. Thenumerousspeciesofcreepingand twiningplants (“llianas”or“sipos”)serve

admirably for this purpose. They are applied in their green state, andwhencontracted by exsiccation draw the timbers as closely together as if held byspikes of iron. In this manner and of such materials does the water Indianbuildhishouse.Why he inhabits such a singular dwelling is a question that requires to beanswered.With the terra firmaclose at hand, and equally convenient for allpurposesofhiscalling,whydoeshenotbuildhishut there?Somucheasiertooofaccesswould itbe, forhecould thenapproach iteitherby landorbywater;whereas,initspresentsituation,hecanneithergoawayfromhishouseor get back to it without the aid of his “periagua” (canoe). Moreover, bybuildingonthebeach,orbytheedgeofthewoods,hewouldsparehimselfthelabourof transporting thoseheavypiles and setting them in theirplaces,—awork,asalreadystated,ofnoordinarymagnitude. Is it forpersonalsecurityagainsthumanenemies,—forthissometimesdrivesapeopletoseeksingularsituationsfor theirhomes?No; theIndianofMaracaibohashishumanfoes,likeallotherpeople;butitisnoneofthesethathaveforcedhimtoadoptthisstrangecustom.Otherenemies?wildbeasts?thedreadedjaguar,perhaps?No,nothingofthiskind.Andyetitisinrealityalivingcreaturethatdriveshimtothisresource,—thathasforcedhimtofleefromthemainlandandtaketothewaterforsecurityagainstitsattack,—acreatureofsuchsmalldimensions,andapparentlysocontemptibleinitsstrength,thatyouwillnodoubtsmileattheideaofitsputtingastrongmantoflight,—alittleinsectexactlythesizeofanEnglishgnat,andnobigger,butsoformidablebymeansofitspoisonousbite,and itsmyriads of numbers, as to rendermany parts of the shores of LakeMaracaibo quite uninhabitable. You guess, no doubt, the insect to which Iallude? You cannot fail to recognise it as the mosquito? Just so; it is themosquitoImean,andinnopartofSouthAmericadotheseinsectsaboundingreater numbers, and nowhere are they more bloodthirsty than upon thebordersofthisgreatfresh-watersea.Notonlyonespeciesofmosquito,butallthevarietiesknownas“jejens,”“zancudos,”and“tempraneros,”hereaboundincountlessmultitudes,—eachkindmakingitsappearanceataparticularhourof the day or night,—“mounting guard” (as the persecuted natives say ofthem) in turn, and allowing only short intervals of respite from their bitterattacks.Now, it so happens, that although the various kinds of mosquitoes arepeculiarly the productions of amarshy orwatery region,—and rarely foundwherethesoilishighanddry,—yetasrarelydotheyextendtheirexcursionstoadistancefromtheland.Theydelighttodwellundertheshadowofleaves,orneartheherbageofgrass,plants,ortrees,amongwhichtheywerehatched.Theydonotstrayfarfromtheshore,andonlywhenthebreezecarriesthemdothey fly out over the open water. Need I say more? You have now theexplanation why the Indians of Maracaibo build their dwellings upon the

water.Itissimplytoescapefromthe“plagademoscas”(thepestoftheflies).Like most other Indians of tropical America, and some even of colderlatitudes,thoseofMaracaibogonaked,wearingonlytheguayueo,or“waist-belt.” Those of them, however, who have submitted to the authority of themonks,haveadopteda somewhatmoremodestgarb,—consistingof a smallapronofcottonorpalmfibre,suspendedfromthewaist,andreachingdowntotheirknees.Wehavealreadystated,thatthewater-dwellingIndianisafisherman,andthatthewaters of the lake supply himwith numerous kinds of fish of excellentquality.An account of these,with themethod employed in capturing them,maynotproveuninteresting.First, there is the fishknownas“liza,”a speciesof skate. It isofabrilliantsilvery hue,with bluish corruscations. It is a small fish, being only about afootinlength,butisexcellenttoeat,andwhenpreservedbydrying,formsanarticleofcommercewiththeWest-Indianislands.AlongthecoastsofCumanaandMagarita, there aremany people employed in the pesca de liza (skate-fishery);butalthough the liza is in realitya sea fish, it abounds in the freshwaters of Maracaibo, and is there also an object of industrial pursuit. It isusually captured by seines,made out of the fibres of the cocui aloe (agavecocuiza), or of cords obtained from the unexpanded leaflets of themorichepalm (Mauritia flexuosa), both of which useful vegetable products areindigenous to this region. The roe of the liza, when dried in the sun, is anarticleinhighestimation,andfindsitswayintothechannelsofcommerce.A stillmore delicate fish is the “pargo.” It is of awhite colour tingedwithrose; and of these great numbers are also captured. So, too, with the“doncella,”oneofthemostbeautifulspecies,asitsprettynameof“doncella”(youngmaiden)would indicate.These last are soabundant in somepartsofthe lake, that one of its bays is distinguished by the name of Laguna deDoncella.Alarge,uglyfish,calledthe“vagre,”withanenormousheadandwidemouth,fromeachsideofwhichstretchesabeard-likeappendage,isalsoanobjectoftheIndian’spursuit.Itisusuallystruckwithaspear,orkilledbyarrows,whenit shows itself near the surfaceof thewater.Anothermonstrous creature, ofnearlycircularshape,andfull threefeetindiameter, isthe“carite,”whichisharpoonedinasimilarfashion.Besides these there is the “viegita,” or “old-woman fish,”which itself feedsupon lesser creatures of the finny tribe, and especially upon the smallerspeciesofshell-fish.Ithasobtaineditsoddappellationfromasingularnoisewhich it gives forth, and which resembles the voice of an old womandebilitatedwithextremeage.

The“dorado,”orgildedfish—socalledonaccountofitsbeautifulcolour—istakenbyahook,withnootherbaitattached thanapieceofwhiterag.This,however,mustbekeptconstantlyinmotion,andthebaitisplayedbysimplypaddlingthecanoeoverthesurfaceofthelake,untilthedorado,attractedbythewhitemeteor,followsinitstrack,andeventuallyhooksitself.Manyotherspeciesoffisharetakenbythewater-Indians,asthe“lebranche”whichgoesinlarge“schools,”andmakesitsbreeding-placeinthelagunasanduptherivers,andthe“guabina,”withseveralkindsofsardinesthatfindtheirwayintothetinboxesofEurope;fortheMaracaibofishermanisnotcontentedwith an exclusive fishdiet.He likes a little “casava,”ormaize-bread, alongwithit;besides,hehasafewotherwantstosatisfy,andthemeanshereadilyobtainsinexchangeforthesurplusproduceofhisnets,harpoons,andarrows.Wehavealreadystatedthatheisafowler.Atcertainseasonsoftheyearthisisessentially his occupation. The fowling season with him is the period ofnorthernwinter,whenthemigratoryaquaticbirdscomedownfromtheborealregionsofPrinceRupert’sLandtodisporttheirbodiesinthemoreagreeablewatersofLakeMaracaibo.Theretheyassembleinlargeflocks,darkeningtheairwith theirmyriads of numbers, now fluttering over the lake, or, at othertimes,seatedonitssurfacesilentandmotionless.Notwithstandingtheirgreatnumbers, however, they are too shy to be approached near enough for the“carry”ofanIndianarrow,oraguneither;andwereitnotforaverycunningstratagemwhich the Indian has adopted for their capture, theymight returnagain to their northern haunts without being minus an individual of their“count.”But they are not permitted to depart thus unscathed. During their sojournwithin the limits of LakeMaracaibo their legions get considerably thinned,and thousandsof themthat settledownupon its invitingwatersaredestinednevermoretotakewing.To effect their capture, the Indian fowler, as already stated,makes use of averyingeniousstratagem.Somethingsimilarisdescribedasbeingpractisedinotherpartsoftheworld;butinnoplaceisitcarriedtosuchperfectionasupontheLakeMaracaibo.The fowler first provides himself with a number of large gourd-shells ofroundishform,andeachofthematleastasbigashisownskull.Thesehecaneasilyobtain,eitherfromtheherbaceoussquash(Cucurbitalagenaris)orfromthe calabash tree (Crescentia cujete), both ofwhich grow luxuriantly on theshores of the lake. Filling his periaguawith these, he proceeds out into theopenwatertoacertaindistancefromtheland,orfromhisowndwelling.Thedistanceisregulatedbyseveralconsiderations.Hemustreachaplacewhich,at all hours of the day, the ducks and other waterfowl are not afraid tofrequent;and,ontheotherhand,hemustnotgobeyondsuchadepthaswill

bring thewater higher than his own chinwhenwading through it.This lastconsideration is not of somuch importance, for thewater Indian can swimalmostaswellasaduck,anddivelikeone,ifneedbe;butitisconnectedwithanothermatterofgreaterimportance—theconvenienceofhavingthebirdsasnearaspossible,tosavehimatoolongandwearisome“wade.”Itisnecessarytohavethemsonear,thatatallhourstheymaybeunderhiseye.Having found the proper situation, which the vast extent of shoal water(alreadymentioned)enableshimtodo,heproceedstocarryouthisdesignbydropping a gourd here and another there, until a large space of surface iscovered by these floating shells. Each gourd has a stone attached to it bymeans of a string, which, resting upon the bottom, brings the buoy to ananchor, and prevents it from being drifted into the deeper water or carriedentirelyaway.When his decoys are all placed, the Indian paddles back to his platformdwelling,andthere,withwatchfuleye,awaitstheissue.Thebirdsareatfirstshy of these round yellow objects intruded upon their domain; but, as thehourspass,andtheyperceivenoharminthem,theyatlengthtakecourageandventure to approach. Urged by that curiosity which is instinctive in everycreature, they gradually draw nigher and nigher, until at length they boldlyventureintothemidstoftheoddobjectsandexaminethemminutely.Thoughpuzzledtomakeoutwhatitisallmeantfor,theycanperceivenoharmintheyellowglobe-shaped things that only bob about, butmake no attempt to dothemanyinjury.Thussatisfied,theircuriositysoonwearsoff,andthebirdsnolongerregardingthefloatingshellsasobjectsofsuspicion,swimfreelyaboutthroughtheirmidst,orsitquietlyonthewatersidebysidewiththem.ButthecrisishasnowarrivedwhenitisnecessarytheIndianshouldact,andforthishespeedilyequipshimself.Hefirsttiesastoutropearoundhiswaist,towhichareattachedmanyshortstringsorcords.Hethendrawsoverhisheada large gourd-shell, which, fitting pretty tightly, covers his whole skull,reachingdowntohisneck.Thisshell isexactlysimilar to theothersalreadyfloatingonthewater,withtheexceptionofhavingthreeholesononesideofit, two on the same level with the Indian’s eyes, and the third opposite hismouth,intendedtoservehimforabreathing-hole.He isnow ready forwork; and, thusoddlyaccoutred,he slipsquietlydownfrom his platform, and laying himself along thewater, swims gently in thedirectionoftheducks.Heswimsonlywherethewateristooshallowtopreventhimfromcrouchingbelowthesurface; forwerehe tostandupright,andwade,—even thoughhewerestilldistant fromthem,—theshybirdsmighthavesuspicionsabouthisafter-approaches.

Whenhereachesapointwherethelakeissufficientlydeep,hegetsuponhisfeet andwades, still keeping his shoulders below the surface.Hemakes hisadvanceveryslowlyandwarily,scarceraisingarippleon thesurfaceof theplacidlake,andthenearerhegetstohisintendedvictimsheproceedswiththegreatercaution.Theunsuspectingbirdsseethedestroyerapproachwithouthavingtheslightestmisgivingofdanger.Theyfancythatthenewcomerisonlyanotherofthoseinanimate objects by their side—another gourd-shell drifting out upon thewater to join its companions. They have no suspicion that this woodencounterfeit—likethehorseofTroy—isinhabitedbyaterribleenemy.Poor things! how could they?A stratagem sowell contrivedwould deceivemorerationalintellectsthantheirs;and,infact,havingnoideaofdanger,theyperhapsdonottroublethemselveseventonoticethenewarrival.Meanwhile the gourd has drifted silently into their midst, and is seenapproachingtheoddindividuals,firstoneandafterwardsanother,asifithadsome special business with each. This business appears to be of a verymysteriouscharacter;andineachcaseisabruptlybroughttoaconclusion,bythe duck making a sudden dive under the water,—not head foremost,accordingtoitsusualpractice,butinthereverseway,asifjerkeddownbythefeet,andsorapidlythatthecreaturehasnottimetoutterasingle“quack.”After quite a number of individuals have disappeared in this mysteriousmanner, the others sometimes grow suspicious of themoving calabash, andeithertaketowing,orswimofftoalessdangerousneighbourhood;butifthegourdperforms itsoffice in a skilfulmanner, itwillbe seenpassing severaltimestoandfrobetweenthebirdsandthewatervillagebeforethiseventtakesplace.Oneachreturntrip,whenfarfromtheflock,andnearthehabitations,itwill be seen to rise high above the surface of the water. It will then beperceivedthat itcovers theskullofacopper-colouredsavage,aroundwhosehipsmaybeobservedadoubletierofdeadducksdanglingbytheirnecksfromthe rope upon his waist, and forming a sort of plumed skirt, the weight ofwhichalmostdragsitswearerbackintothewater.Ofcourseacapture isfollowedbyafeast;andduringthefowlingseasonofthe year theMaracaibo Indian enjoys roast-duck at discretion. He does nottroublehisheadmuchabout thegreenpeas, nor is heparticular tohavehisducksstuffedwithsageandonions;butahotseasoningofredpepperisoneofthe indispensible ingredients of the South-American cuisine; and this heusuallyobtainsfromasmallpatchofcapsicumwhichhecultivatesupontheadjacent shore; or, if he be not possessed of land, he procures it by barter,exchanging his fowls or fish for that and a little maize or manioc flour,furnishedbythecoast-traders.

The Maracaibo Indian is not a stranger to commerce. He has been“Christianised,”—tousethephraseologyofhispriestlyproselytiser,—andthishasintroducedhimtonewwantsandnecessities.Expensesthatinhisformerpaganstatewereentirelyunknowntohim,havenowbecomenecessary,andacommercial effort is required tomeet them.TheChurchmusthave itsdues.Suchluxuriesasbeingbaptised,married,andburied,arenottobehadwithoutexpense, and the padre takes good care that none of these shall be had fornothing.Hehastaughthisproselytetobelievethatunlessalltheseriteshavebeenofficiallyperformedthereispottheslightestchanceforhiminthenextworld; and under the influence of this delusion, the simple savagewillinglyyieldsuphis tenth,his fifth,or,perhaps itwouldbemorecorrect tosay,hisall. Between fees of baptism and burial, mulcts for performance of themarriage rite, contributions towards the shows and ceremonies of dias defiesta,extravagantprices forblessedbeads, leadencrucifixes,and imagesofpatron saints, the poorChristianised Indian is compelled to partwith nearlythe whole of his humble gains; and the fear of not being able to pay forChristianburialafterdeath,isoftenoneofthetormentsofhislife.TosatisfythenumerousdemandsoftheChurch,therefore,heisforcedintoalittleactioninthecommercialline.Withthewater-dwellerofMaracaibo,fishformsoneofthestaplesofexporttrade,—ofcourseinthepreservedstate,asheistoodistantfromanygreattownormetropolistobeabletomakemarketof themwhile fresh.He understands, however, themode of curing them,—whichheaccomplishesbysun-dryingandsmoking,—and,thusprepared,theyaretakenoffhishandsbythetrader,whocarriesthemallovertheWestIndies,where,withboiled rice, they form the staple foodof thousandsof thedark-skinnedchildrenofEthiopia.TheMaracaiboIndian,however,hasstillanotherresource,whichoccasionallysupplieshimwith an article of commercial export.His country—that is, theadjacentshoresofthelake—producesthefinestcaoutchouc.TheretheIndia-rubber tree, ofmore than one species, flourishes in abundance; and the true“seringa,”thatyieldsthefinestandmostvaluablekindofthisgummyjuice,isnowhere found in greater perfection than in the forests of Maracaibo. Thecaoutchouc of commerce is obtained frommany other parts ofAmerica, aswellasfromothertropicalcountries;butasmanyofthebottlesandshoessowell-known in the india-rubber shops, are manufactured by the Indians ofMaracaibo,wemaynot findamoreappropriateplace togiveanaccountofthissingularproduction,andthemodebywhichitispreparedforthepurposesofcommerceandmanufacture.Asalreadymentioned,manyspeciesoftreesyieldindia-rubber,mostofthembelonging either to the order of the “Morads,” or Euphorbiaceae. Some arespeciesofficus,butboththegeneraandspeciesaretoonumeroustobegiven

here.Thatwhichsuppliesthe“bottleindia-rubber”isaeuphorbiaceousplant,—the seringa above mentioned,—whose proper botanical appellation isSiphonia elastica. It is a tall, straight, smooth-barked tree, havinga trunkofabout a foot in diameter, though in favourable situations reaching to muchlarger dimensions. The process of extracting its sap—out of which thecaoutchoucismanufactured—bearssomeresemblancetothetappingofsugar-maplesintheforestsofthenorth.Withhissmallhatchet,or tomahawk,theIndiancutsagashinthebark,andinserts into it a littlewedge ofwood to keep the sides apart. Just under thegash,hefixesasmallcup-shapedvesselofclay,theclaybeingstillinaplasticstate,sothatitmaybeattachedcloselytothebark.Intothisvesselthemilk-like sap of the seringa soon commences to run, and keeps on until it hasyieldedaboutthefifthofapint.This,however,isnotthewholeyieldofatree,but onlyof a singlewound; and it is usual toopen agreatmanygashes, or“taps,”uponthesametrunk,eachbeingfurnishedwithitsowncuporreceiver.Infromfourtosixhoursthesapceasestorun.Thecupsarethendetachedfromthetree,andthecontentsofall,pouredintoalargeearthenvessel,arecarriedtotheplacewheretheprocessofmakingthecaoutchoucistotakeplace,—usuallysomedryopenspotinthemiddleoftheforest,whereatemporarycamphasbeenformedforthepurpose.WhenthedwellingoftheIndianisatadistancefromwheretheindia-rubbertreegrows,—as is thecasewith thoseofLakeMaracaibo,—itwillnotdo totransportthesapthither.Theremustbenodelayafterthecupsarefilled,andtheprocessofmanufacturemustproceedatonce,orassoonasthemilkyjuicebeginstocoagulate,—whichitdoesalmostontheinstant.Previoustoreachinghiscamp,the“seringero”hasprovidedalargequantityofpalm-nuts,withwhichheintendstomakeafireforsmokingthecaoutchouc.These nuts are the fruit of several kinds of palms, but the best are thoseafforded by twomagnificent species,—the “Inaja” (Maximiliana regia), andthe“Urucuri”(Attaleaexcelsa).Afireiskindledofthesenuts;andanearthenpot,withaholeinthebottom,isplacedmouthdownwardoverthepile.Throughtheaperturenowrisesastrongpungentsmoke.Ifitisashoethatisintendedtobemade,aclaylastisalreadyprepared,withastickstandingoutofthetopofit,toserveasahandle,whiletheoperationisgoingon.Takingthestickinhishand,theseringerodipsthelastlightlyintothemilk,orwithacuppours thefluidgentlyover it,soas togivearegularcoating to thewhole surface; and then, holding it over the smoke, he keepsturning it, jack-fashion, till the fluid has become dry and adhesive.Anotherdipisthengiven,andthesmokingdoneasbefore;andthisgoeson,tillforty

orfiftydifferentcoatshavebroughtthesidesandsolesoftheshoetoaproperthickness.The soles, requiringgreaterweight, are, of course, oftenerdippedthanthe“upperleather.”Thewholeprocessofmakingtheshoedoesnotoccupyhalfanhour;butithasafterwardstoreceivesomefartherattentioninthewayofornament;thelinesandfiguresareyet tobeexecuted,and this isdoneabout twodaysafter thesmokingprocess.Theyaresimplytracedoutwithapieceofsmoothwire,oroftenerwith the spine obtained from some tree,—as the thorny point of thebromelialeaf.In about a week the shoes are ready to be taken from the last; and this isaccomplishedattheexpenseandutterruinofthelatter,whichisbrokenintofragments, and thencleanedout.Water isused sometimes to soften the last,andtheinnersurfaceoftheshoeiswashedaftertheclayhasbeentakenout.Bottlesaremadepreciselyinthesamemanner,—aroundball,orothershapedmass of clay, serving as themould for their construction. It requires a littlemoretroubletogetthemouldextractedfromthenarrowneckofthebottle.Itmayberemarkedthatitisnotthesmokeofthepalm-nutsthatgivestotheindia-rubber its peculiar dark colour; that is the effect of age.When freshlymanufactured,itisstillofawhitishorcreamcolour;andonlyattainsthedarkhueafterithasbeenkeptforaconsiderabletime.Wemightaddmanyotherparticularsabout themodeinwhich theIndianofMaracaiboemployshis time,butperhapsenoughhasbeensaid toshowthathisexistenceisaltogetheranoddone.

ChapterFour.TheEsquimaux.

TheEsquimauxareemphaticallyan“oddpeople,”perhapstheoddestupontheearth.Thepeculiarcharacteroftheregionstheyinhabithasnaturallyinitiatedthem into a system of habits andmodes of life different from those of anyother people on the face of the globe; and from the remoteness andinaccessibility of the countries in which they dwell, not only have theyremainedanunmixedpeople,butscarceanychangehas takenplace in theircustoms andmanners during the longperiod since theywere first known tocivilisednations.TheEsquimauxpeoplehavebeenlongknownandtheirhabitsoftendescribed.Our first knowledge of themwas obtained fromGreenland,—for the nativeinhabitants of Greenland are true Esquimaux,—and hundreds of years ago

accounts of them were given to the world by the Danish colonists andmissionaries—and also by the whalers who visited the coasts of thatinhospitable land. In later times theyhavebeenmade familiar tous throughtheArcticexplorersandwhale-fishers,whohavetraversedthelabyrinthoficyislandsthatextendnorthwardfromthecontinentofAmerica.TheEsquimauxmayboast of possessing the longest country in theworld. In the first place,Greenland is theirs, and theyare foundalong thewestern shoresofBaffin’sBay.InNorthAmericapropertheirterritorycommencesatthestraitsofBelleIsle, which separate Newfoundland from Labrador, and thence extends allaroundtheshoreoftheArcticOcean,notonlytoBehring’sStraits,butbeyondthese,around thePacificcoastofRussianAmerica,as far southas thegreatmountain Saint Elias. Across Behring’s Straits they are found occupying aportion of the Asiatic coast, under the name of Tchutski, and some of theislandsinthenorthernangleofthePacificOceanarealsoinhabitedbythesepeople,thoughunderadifferentname.Furthermore,thenumerousiceislandswhichliebetweenNorthAmericaandthePoleareeitherinhabitedorvisitedbyEsquimauxtothehighestpointthatdiscoveryhasyetreached.

There can be little doubt that the Laplanders of northern Europe, and theSamoyedes,andotherlittoralpeoplesdwellingalongtheSiberianshores,arekindredracesoftheEsquimaux;andtakingthisviewofthequestion,itmaybe said that the latter possess all the line of coast of both continents facingnorthward; in other words, that their country extends around the globe—thoughitcannotbesaid(asisoftenboastinglydeclaredoftheBritishempire)that“thesunneversetsuponit;”for,overthe“empire”oftheEsquimaux,thesunnotonlysets,butremainsoutofsightofitformonthsatatime.Itisnotusual,however,toclasstheLaplandersandAsiaticArcticpeoplewiththeEsquimaux.Therearesomeessentialpointsofdifference;andwhatisheresaid of theEsquimaux relates only to thosewho inhabit the northern coastsandislandsofAmerica,andtothenativeGreenlanders.Notwithstanding the immense extent of territory thus designated,notwithstanding the sparseness of the Esquimaux population, and the vastdistancesbywhichonelittletribeorcommunityisseparatedfromanother,theabsolute similarity in their habits, in their physical and intellectualconformation,and,aboveall,intheirlanguages,provesincontestablythattheyarealloriginallyofoneandthesamerace.Whatever,therefore,maybesaidofa“Schelling,”ornativeGreenlander,willbeequally applicable to anEsquimauxofLabrador, to anEsquimauxof theMackenzieRiverorBehring’sStraits,orwemightadd,toaKhadiakislander,or a Tuski of the opposite Asiatic coast; always taking into account suchdifferencesofcostume,dialect,modesoflife,etc,asmaybebroughtaboutby

the different circumstances in which they are placed. In all these things,however, they are wonderfully alike; their dresses, weapons, boats, houses,and house implements, being almost the same in material and constructionfromEastGreenlandtotheTchutskoiNoss.Iftheircountrybethelongestintheworld,itisalsothenarrowest.Ofcourse,ifwetakeintoaccountthelargeislandsthatthicklystudtheArcticOcean,itmaybedeemedbroadenough;butIamspeakingratheroftheterritorywhichtheypossessonthecontinents.Thismayberegardedasamerestripfollowingtheoutlineof the coast, andnever extendingbeyond thedistanceof aday’sjourney inland. Indeed, theyonlyseek the interior in thefewshortweeksofsummer, for the purpose of hunting the reindeer, the musk-ox, and otheranimals;aftereachexcursion,returningagaintotheshoresofthesea,wheretheyhavetheirwinter-housesandmorepermanenthome.Theyare,trulyandemphatically,alittoralpeople,anditistotheseatheylookfortheirprincipalmeansofsupport.Butforthissourceofsupply,theycouldnotlongcontinueto exist upon land altogether incapable of supplying the wants even of themostlimitedpopulation.ThenameEsquimaux—or,asit issometimeswritten,“Eskimo,”—likemanyothernational appellations, is of obscureorigin. It is supposed tohavebeengiventothembytheCanadianvoyageursintheemployoftheHudson’sBayCompany, andderived from thewordsCeuxquimiaux(thosewhomew), inrelation to their screaming like cats. But the etymology is, to say the least,suspicious.Theygenerallycallthemselves“Inuit”(pronouncedenn-oo-eet),awordwhich signifies “men;”—though different tribes of them have distincttribalappellations.In personal appearance they cannot be regarded as at all prepossessing—though some of the younger men and girls, when cleansed of the filth andgrease with which their skin is habitually coated, are far from ill-looking.Their natural colour is not much darker than that of some of the southernnations of Europe—the Portuguese, for instance—and the young girls oftenhavebloomingcheeks,andapleasingexpressionofcountenance.Theirfacesaregenerallyofabroad, roundishshape, the foreheadandchinbothnarrowand receding, and the cheeks very prominent, though not angular. On thecontrary,theyareratherfatandround.Thisprominenceofthecheeksgivestotheirnosetheappearanceofbeinglowandflat;andindividualsareoftenseenwithsuchhighcheeks,thatarulerlaidfromonetotheotherwouldnottouchthebridgeofthenosebetweenthem!Astheygrowoldertheircomplexionbecomesdarker,perhapsfromexposureto the climate. Very naturally, too, both men and women grow uglier, butespeciallythelatter,someofwhominoldagepresentsuchahideousaspect,thattheearlyArcticexplorerscouldnothelpcharacterisingthemaswitches.

Theaveragestatureof theEsquimaux is farbelowthatofEuropeannations,though individuals are sometimesmetwith nearly six feet in height. These,however,arerareexceptions;andanEsquimauxofsuchproportionswouldbea giant amonghis people.Themore commonheight is from four feet eightinches to fivefeeteight;and thewomenarestill shorter, rarelyattaining thestandardoffivefeet.Theshortnessofbothmenandwomenappears tobeadeficiency in length of limb, for their bodies are long enough; but, as theEsquimaux is almost constantly in his canoe, or “kayak,” or upon his dog-sledge, his legs have but little to do, and are consequently stunted in theirdevelopment.Asimilarpeculiarity ispresentedbytheComanche,andotherIndiansof theprairies, and also in the Guachos and Patagonian Indians, of the South-AmericanPampas,whospendmostoftheirtimeonthebacksoftheirhorses.TheEsquimauxhavenoreligion,unlesswedignifyby thatnameabelief inwitches,sorcerers,“Shamans,”andgoodorevilspirits,with,someconfusednotion of a good and bad place hereafter.Missionary zeal has been exertedamong them almost in vain. They exhibit an apathetic indifference to theteachingsofChristianity.Neither have they any political organisation; and in this respect they differessentiallyfrommostsavagesknown,thelowestofwhomhaveusuallytheirchiefsandcouncilsofelders.Thisabsenceofallgovernment,however,isnoproofoftheirbeinglowerinthescaleofcivilisationthanothersavages;but,perhaps,ratherthecontrary,fortheveryideaofchiefdom,orgovernment,isapresumption of the existence of vice among a people, and the necessity ofcoercionandrepression.Tooneanothertheserudepeoplearebelievedtoactinthemosthonestmanner;anditcouldbeshownthatsuchwaslikewisetheirbehaviour towards strangers until they were corrupted by excessivetemptation.AllArcticvoyagersrecordinstancesofwhattheytermpettytheft,on the part of certain tribes of Esquimaux,—that is, the pilfering of nails,hatchets,piecesofiron-hoops,etc,—butitmightbeworthwhilereflectingthatthesearticlesare,intheeyesoftheEsquimaux,whatingotsofgoldarearetoEuropeans,andworthwhileinquiringifafewbarsofthelast-mentionedmetalwere laid loosely and carelessly upon the pavements of London, how longtheywouldbeinchangingtheirowners?Theftshouldberegardedalongwiththeamountoftemptation;anditappearsevenintheserecordedcasesthatonlyafewoftheEsquimauxtookpartinit.Iapprehendthatsomethingmorethanafew Londoners would be found picking up the golden ingots. How manythieves have we among us, with no greater temptation than a cheap cottonkerchief?—morethanafew,itistobefeared.In truth, the Esquimaux are by no means the savages they have beenrepresented. The only important point inwhich they at all assimilate to the

purelysavagestateisinthefilthinessoftheirpersons,andperhapsalsointhefactoftheireatingmuchoftheirfood(fishandflesh-meat)inarawstate.Forthe latter habit, however, they are partially indebted to the circumstances inwhichtheyareplaced—firesorcookerybeingattimesaltogetherimpossible.They are not the only people who have been forced to eat raw flesh; andEuropeanswhohavetravelledinthatinhospitablecountrysoongetusedtothepractice,atthesametimegettingquitecuredoftheirdégoûtforit.It iscertainlynotcorrect tocharacterisetheEsquimauxasmeresavages.Onthe contrary, they may be regarded as a civilised people, that is, so far ascivilisation is permitted by the rigorous climate in which they live; and itwouldbesafetoaffirmthatacolonyofthemostpolishedpeopleinEurope,establishedastheEsquimauxare,andleftsolelytotheirownresources,wouldin a single generation exhibit a civilisation not one degree higher than thatnowmetwithamong theEsquimaux. Indeed, thefact isalreadyestablished:the Danish and Norwegian colonists ofWest Greenland, though backed byconstant intercoursewith theirmother-land,arebut littlemorecivilised thanthe“Skellings,”whoaretheirneighbours.Inreality, theEsquimauxhavemadethemostof thecircumstances inwhichtheyareplaced,andcontinuetodoso.Amongthemagricultureisimpossible,else theywould long since have taken to it. So too is commerce; and as tomanufactures, it is doubtfulwhetherEuropeans could excel themunder likecircumstances.Whateverrawmaterialtheircountryproduces,isbythembothstronglyandneatlyfabricated,asindicatedbythesurprisingskillwithwhichtheymaketheirdresses,theirboats,theirimplementsforhuntingandfishing;and in these accomplishments—the only ones practicable under theirhyperboreanheaven—theyareperfectadepts.InsuchartscivilisedEuropeansare perfect simpletons to them, and the theories of fireside speculators, solately promulgated in our newspapers, that Sir John Franklin and his crewcould not fail to procure a livingwhere the simpleEsquimauxwere able tomake a home, betrayed only ignorance of the condition of these people. Intruth,whitemenwouldstarve,where theEsquimauxcould live in luxuriousabundance,sofarsuperiortooursistheirknowledgebothoffishingandthechase.Itisawell-recordedfact,thatwhileourArcticvoyagers,attheirwinterstations,providedwithgoodguns,nets,andeveryappliance,couldbutrarelykilla reindeerorcaptureaseal, theEsquimauxobtainedboth inabundance,and apparently without an effort; andwe shall presently note the causes oftheirsuperiorityinthisrespect.The very dress of the Esquimaux is a proof of their superiority over othersavages.Atnoseasonoftheyeardotheygoeithernaked,oreven“ragged.”Theyhavetheirchangestosuittheseasons,—theirsummerdress,andoneofawarmerkindforwinter.Botharemadeinamostcomplicatedmanner;andthe

preparationofthematerial,aswellasthemannerbywhichitisputtogether,provetheEsquimauxwomen—fortheyarealikethetailorsanddressmakers—tobeamongthebestseamstressesintheworld.Captain Lyon, one of the most observant of Arctic voyagers, has given adescriptionof thecostumeof theEsquimauxofSavage Island, and thoseofRepulseBay,wherehewintered,andhisaccountissographicandminuteindetails, that itwouldbeidletoalterawordofhis language.Hisdescription,withslightdifferencesinmakeandmaterial,willanswerprettyaccuratelyforthecostumeofthewholerace.“Theclothesofbothsexesareprincipallycomposedoffineandwell-preparedreindeerpelts;theskinsofbears,seals,wolves,foxes,andmarmottes,arealsoused.Thesealskinsareseldomemployedforanypartofthedressexceptbootsand shoes, as being more capable of resisting water, and of far greaterdurabilitythanotherleather.“The general winter dress of the men is an ample outer coat of deer-skin,havingnoopeninginfront,andalargehood,whichisdrawnovertheheadatpleasure.Thishood is invariablyborderedwithwhite fur from the thighsofthedeer,andthuspresentsalivelycontrasttothedarkfacewhichitencircles.Thefrontorbellypartofthecoatiscutoffsquarewiththeupperpartofthethighs, but behind it is formed into a broad skirt, rounded at the lower end,whichreachestowithinafewinchesoftheground.Theloweredgesandtailsof thesedressesareinsomecasesborderedwithbandsoffurofanoppositecolour to the body; and it is a favourite ornament to hang a fringe of littlestrips of skin beneath the border. The embellishments give a very pleasingappearance to thedress. It iscustomary inblowingweather to tieapieceofskinorcordtightroundthewaistofthecoat;butinothercasesthedresshangsloose.“Within the covering I have just described is another, of precisely the sameform; but though destitute of ornaments of leather, it has frequently littlestrings of beads hanging to it from the shoulders or small of the back.Thisdressisofthinnerskin,andactsasashirt,thehairypartbeingplacednearthebody:itistheindoorshabit.Whenwalking,thetailistiedupbytwostringstotheback,sothatitmaynotincommodethelegs.Besidesthesetwocoats,theyhavealsoalargecloak,or,infact,anopendeer-skin,withsleeves:this,fromitssize,ismorefrequentlyusedasablanket;andIbutoncesawitwornbyamanat theship,although thewomen throwitover theirshoulders toshelterthemselvesandchildrenwhilesittingonthesledge.“Thetrowsers,whicharetightlytiedroundtheloins,havenowaistbands,butdepend entirely by the drawing-string; they are generally of deer-skin, andornamented in the same manner as the coats. One of the most favouritepatternsisanarrangementoftheskinsofdeer’slegs,soastoformverypretty

stripes. As with the jackets, there are two pair of these indispensables,reachingnolowerthantheknee-cap,whichisacauseofgreatdistressincoldweather, as that part is frequently severely frost-bitten; yet, with all theirexperienceofthisbadcontrivance,theywillnotaddaninchtotheestablishedlength.“Thebootsreachtothebottomofthebreeches,whichhanglooselyoverthem.Inthese,asinotherpartsofthedress,aremanyvarietiesofcolour,material,andpattern,yetinshapetheynevervary.Thegeneralwinterbootsareofdeer-skin;onehavingthehairnexttheleg,andtheotherwiththefuroutside.Apairofsoftslippersofthesamekindarewornbetweenthetwopairofboots,andoutsideofallastrongsealskinshoeispulledtotheheightoftheankle,whereitistightlysecuredbyadrawing-string.Forhuntingexcursions,orinsummerwhen the country is thawed, one pair of boots only is worn. They are ofsealskin, and so well sewed and prepared without the hair, that althoughcompletelysaturated,theyallownowatertopassthroughthem.Thesolesaregenerallyofthetoughhideofthewalrus,orofthelargesealcalledOö-ghïoo,sothatthefeetarewellprotectedinwalkingoverroughground.Slippersaresometimeswornoutside.Inbothcasesthebootsaretightlyfastenedroundtheinstepwith a thongof leather.Themittens in commonuse areof deer-skin,withthehairinside;but,infact,everykindofskinisusedforthem.Theyareextremelycomfortablewhendry;but ifoncewettedandfrozenagain, in thewinter afford as little protection to the hands as a case of icewould do. Insummer,andinfishing,excellentsealskinmittensareused,andhavethesamepowerofresistingwaterasthebootsofwhichIhavejustspoken.ThedressesI have just described are chiefly used in winter. During the summer it iscustomarytowearcoats,boots,andevenbreeches,composedofthepreparedskinsofducks,withthefeathersnextthebody.Thesearecomfortable, light,andeasilyprepared.The fewornaments in their possession arewornby themen.Thesearesomebandeauswhichencirclethehead,andarecomposedofvarious-colouredleather,plaitedinamosaicpattern,andinsomecaseshavinghumanhairwoven in them,asacontrast to thewhite skins.From the loweredge foxes’ teeth hang suspended, arranged as a fringe across the forehead.Somewearamusk-oxtooth,abitofivory,orasmallpieceofbone.“Theclothingofthewomenisofthesamematerialsasthatofthemen,butinshape almost every part is different from themale dress.An inner jacket iswornnexttheskin,andthefuroftheotherisoutside.Thehind-flap,ortail,isof the same form before described, but there is also a small flap in front,extending about halfway down the thigh. The coats have each an immensehood,which, aswell as covering thehead, answers thepurposeof a child’scradlefortwoorthreeyearsafter thebirthofaninfant.Inordertokeeptheburden of the child from drawing the dress tight across the throat, acontrivance,inagreatmeasureresemblingtheslingsofasoldier’sknapsack,

is affixed to the collar or neck part, whence it passes beneath the hood,crosses,and,beingbroughtunderthearms,issecuredoneachsidethebreastbyawoodenbutton.Theshouldersofthewomen’scoathaveabag-likespace,forthepurposeoffacilitatingtheremovalofthechildfromthehoodroundtothebreastwithouttakingitoutofthejacket.“Agirdleissometimeswornroundthewaist:itanswersthedoublepurposesof comfort and ornament; being composed of what they consider valuabletrinkets,suchasfoxes’bones(thoseoftherableeaghioo),orsometimesoftheears of deer,whichhang in pairs to the number of twentyor thirty, and aretrophies of the skill of the hunter, to whom the wearer is allied. Theinexpressibles of thewomen are in the some form as those of themen, buttheyarenotornamentedbythesamecuriousarrangementofcolours;thefrontpart isgenerallyofwhite, and thebackofdark fur.Themannerof securingthematthewaistisalsothesame;butthedrawing-stringsareofmuchgreaterlength,beingsufferedtohangdownbyoneside,andtheirendsarefrequentlyornamentedwithsomependentjewel,suchasagrinderortwoofthemusk-ox,apieceofivory,asmallballofwood,oraperforatedstone.“Thebootsofthefairsexare,withoutdispute,themostextraordinarypartoftheirequipment,andareofsuchanimmensesizeastoresembleleathersacks,andtogiveamostdeformed,and,at thesametime, ludicrousappearancetothewholefigure,thebulkypartbeingattheknee;theupperendisformedintoapointedflap,which,coveringthefrontofthethigh,issecuredbyabuttonorknotwithinthewaistbandofthebreeches.“Some of these ample articles of apparel are composed with considerabletaste, of various-coloured skins; they also have them of parchment,—seals’leather.Twopairsareworn;andthefeethavealsoapairofsealskinslippers,whichfitclose,andaretightlytiedroundtheankle.“Childrenhavenokindofclothing,butlienakedintheirmothers’hoodsuntiltwoorthreeyearsofage,whentheyarestuffedintoalittledress,generallyoffawn-skin,which has jacket and breeches in one, the back part being open;into these they are pushed,when a string or two closes all up again.A capforms an indispensable part of the equipment, and is generally of somefantastical shape; the skin of a fawn’s head is a favourite material in thecomposition,andissometimesseenwiththeearsperfect;thenoseandholesfor the eyes lying along the crown of the wearer’s head, which inconsequence,lookslikethatofananimal.”Thesameauthoralsogivesamostgraphicdescriptionof thecuriouswinterdwellingsoftheEsquimaux,whichonmanypartsofthecoastarebuiltoutoftheonlymaterials tobehad,—iceandsnow!Snowfor thewallsand ice forthewindows!youmightfancythehouseoftheEsquimauxtobeaverycolddwelling;such,however,isbynomeansitscharacter.

“Theentrancetothedwellings,”saysCaptainLyon,“wasbyahole,aboutayardindiameter,whichledthroughalow-archedpassageofsufficientbreadthfortwotopassinastoopingposture,andaboutsixteenfeetinlength;anotherhole then presented itself, and led through a similarly-shaped, but shorterpassage,havingatitsterminationaroundopening,abouttwofeetacross.Upthisholewecreptonestep,andfoundourselvesinadomeaboutsevenfeetinheight,andasmanyindiameter,fromwhencethethreedwelling-places,witharchedroofs,wereentered.Itmustbeobservedthatthisisthedescriptionofalarge hut, the smaller ones, containing one or two families, have the domessomewhatdifferentlyarranged.“Eachdwellingmightbeaveragedat fourteenorsixteen feet indiameterbysixorseveninheight,butassnowalonewasusedintheirconstruction,andwasalwaysathand,itmightbesupposedthattherewasnoparticularsize,thatbeing of course at the option of the builder. The laying of the arch wasperformedinsuchamanneraswouldhavesatisfiedthemostregularartist,thekey-pieceonthetop,beingalargesquareslab.Theblocksofsnowusedinthebuildingswerefromfourtosixinchesinthickness,andaboutacoupleoffeetin length, carefullyparedwitha largeknife.Where two familiesoccupiedadome,aseatwasraisedoneitherside,twofeetinheight.Theseraisedplaceswere used as beds, and covered in the first placewithwhalebone, sprigs ofandromeda,orpiecesofsealskin,overthesewerespreaddeer-peltsanddeer-skin clothes, which had a very warm appearance. The pelts were used asblankets, andmany of them had ornamental fringes of leather sewed roundtheiredges.“Each dwelling-place was illumined by a broad piece of transparent fresh-water ice,of about two feet indiameter,which formedpartof the roof, andwas placed over the door. These windows gave a most pleasing light, freefromglare,andsomethinglikethatwhichisthrownthroughgroundglass.Wesoonlearnedthatthebuildingofahousewasbuttheworkofanhourortwo,and that a coupleofmen—one to cut the slabs and theother to lay them—werelabourerssufficient.“For the support of the lamps and cooking apparatus, a mound of snow iserectedforeachfamily;andwhenthemasterhastwowivesoramother,bothhaveanindependentplace,oneateachendofthebench.“I find it impossible to attempt describing everything at a second visit, andshallthereforeonlygiveanaccountofthosearticlesoffurniturewhichmustbe always the same, and with which, in five minutes, any one might beacquainted. A frame, composed of two or three broken fishing-spears,supported in the first place a large hoop ofwood or bone, acrosswhich anopen-meshed,andill-madenetwasspreadorworkedforthereceptionofwetordampclothes,skins,etc,whichcouldbedriedbytheheatofthelamp.On

this contrivance the master of each hut placed his gloves on entering, firstcarefullyclearingthemofsnow.“Fromtheframeabovementioned,oneormorecoffin-shapedstonepotsweresuspended over lamps of the same material, crescent-shaped, and having aridge extending along their back; thebowlpartwas filledwithblubber, andtheoilandwickswererangedclosetogetheralongtheedge.Thewicksweremade ofmoss and trimmed by a piece of asbestos, stone, orwood; near athandalargebundleofmosswashangingforafuturesupply.Thelampsweresupportedbysticks,bones,orpiecesofhorn,atasufficientheighttoadmitanovalpotofwoodorwhalebonebeneath, inorder tocatchanyoil thatmightdropfromthem.The lampsvariedconsiderably insize, fromtwofeet tosixinchesinlength,andthepotswereequallyirregular,holdingfromtwoorthreegallonstohalfapint.AlthoughIhavementionedakindofscaffolding,thesepeopledidnotallpossesssograndanestablishment,manybeingcontentedtosuspendtheirpot toapieceofbonestuck in thewallof thehut.Oneyoungwomanwasquiteacaricatureinthisway:shewastheinferiorwifeofayoungman,whoseseniorladywasofalargesize,andhadacorrespondinglamp,etc,atonecorner;whilesheherself,beingshortandfat,hadalampthesizeofhalfadessert-plate,andapotwhichheldapintonly.“Almosteveryfamilywaspossessedofalargewoodentray,resemblingthoseusedbybutchersinEngland;itsoffices,however,aswesoonperceived,weremore various, some containing raw flesh of seals and blubber, and others,skins,whichwere steeping in urine.A quantity of variously-sized bowls ofwhalebone,wood,orskin,completedthelistofvessels,anditwasevidentthattheyweremadetocontainanything.”The Esquimaux use two kinds of boats,—the “oomiak” and “kayak.” Theoomiakismerelyalargespeciesofpunt,usedexclusivelybythewomen;butthekayakisatriumphintheartofnavalarchitecture,andisaselegantasitisingenious.Itisabouttwenty-fivefeetinlength,andlessthantwoinbreadthofbeam. In shape it has been compared to aweaver’s shuttle, though it tapersmuchmoreelegantlythanthispieceofmachinery.It isdeckedfromstemtostern, excepting a circular hole very nearly amidships, and this roundhatchwayisjustlargeenoughtoadmitthebodyofanEsquimauxinasittingposture.Aroundtherimofthecircleisalittleridge,sometimeshigherinfrontthanattheback,andthisridgeisoftenornamentedwithahoopofivory.Aflatpieceofwoodrunsalongeachsideoftheframe,andis,infact,theonlypieceofanystrengthinakayak.Itsdepthinthecentreisfourorfiveinches,anditsthickness about three fourths of an inch; it tapers to a point at thecommencementofthestemandsternprojections.Sixty-fourribsarefastenedtothisgunwalepiece;sevenslightrodsrunthewholelengthofthebottomandoutside the ribs. The bottom is rounded, and has no keel; twenty-two little

beamsorcross-pieceskeeptheframeonastretchabove,andonestrongbattenrunsalongthecentre,fromstemtostern,being,ofcourse,discontinuedattheseatpart.Theribsaremadeofgroundwillow,alsoofwhalebone,or,ifitcanbe procured, of good-grainedwood. Thewhole contrivance does notweighoverfiftyorsixtypounds;sothatamaneasilycarrieshiskayakonhishead,which,bytheformoftherim,hecandowithouttheassistanceofhishands.AnEsquimaux prides himself in the neat appearance of his boat, and has awarmskinplacedinitsbottomtositon.Hispostureiswiththelegspointedforward,andhecannotchangehispositionwithout theassistanceofanotherperson;inallcaseswhereaweightistobelifted,analterationofstowage,oranymovementtobemade,itiscustomaryfortwokayakstolietogether;andthepaddleof eachbeingplaced across theother, they forma steadydoubleboat.An inflated seal’s bladder forms, invariably, part of the equipage of acanoe, and the weapons are confined in their places by small lines ofwhalebone, stretched tightly across the upper covering, so as to receive thepointsorhandlesofthespearsbeneaththem.Fleshisfrequentlystowedwithinthestemorstern,asarealsobirdsandeggs;butaseal,althoughround,andeasily made to roll, is so neatly balanced on the upper part of the boat asseldomtorequirealashing.WhenEsquimauxarenotpaddling,theirbalancemustbenicelypreserved,andatremblingmotionisalwaysobservableintheboat.Themostdifficultpositionformanagingakayakiswhengoingbeforethewind,andwithalittleswellrunning.Anyinattentionwouldinstantly;byexposing the broadside, overturn this frail vessel. The dexterity with whichtheyareturned,thevelocityoftheirway,andtheextremeeleganceofformofthe kayaks, render an Esquimaux of the highest interest when sittingindependently,andurginghiscoursetowardshisprey.“The paddle is double-bladed, nine feet three inches in length, small at thegrasp, andwidening to four inches at the blades,which are thin, and edgedwithivoryforstrengthaswellasornament.“The next object of importance to the boat is the sledge, which findsoccupationduringatleastthreefourthsoftheyear.Amanwhopossessesboththis and a canoe is considered a person of property. To give a particulardescription of the sledgewould be impossible, as there are no two actuallyalike; and thematerials ofwhich they are composed are as various as theirform.Thebestaremadeof the jaw-bonesof thewhale, sawed toabout twoinches in thickness, and in depth from six inches to a foot. These are therunners,andareshodwitha thinplankof thesamematerial; theside-piecesare connected by means of bones, pieces of wood, or deers’ horns, lashedacross, with a few inches space between each, and they yield to any greatstrainwhichthesledgemayreceive.Thegeneralbreadthoftheupperpartofthesledgeisabouttwentyinches;buttherunnersleaninwards,andtherefore

atbottomit is rathergreater.The lengthofbonesledges is fromfourfeet tofourteen.Theirweightisnecessarilygreat;andoneofmoderatesize,thatistosay, about ten or twelve feet, was found to be two hundred and seventeenpounds.Theskinofthewalrusisverycommonlyusedduringthecoldestpartof thewinter, as being hard-frozen, and resembling an inch board,with tentimes the strength, for runners.Another ingenious contrivance is, by casingmossandearth in seal’s skin, so thatbypouringa littlewater, a roundhardbolster is easily formed.Across all these kinds of runners there is the samearrangement of bones, sticks, etc, on the upper part; and the surfacewhichpasses over the snow is coatedwith ice, bymixing snowwith freshwater,whichassistsgreatlyinlighteningtheloadforthedogs,asitslidesforwardswith ease. Boys frequently amuse themselves by yoking several dogs to asmallpieceofseal’sskin,andsittingonit,holdingbythetraces.Theirplanisthentosetoffatfullspeed,andhewhobears thegreatestnumberofbumpsbeforeherelinquisheshisholdisconsideredaveryfinefellow.“TheEsquimauxpossessvariouskindsofspears,buttheirdifferenceischieflyinconsequenceofthesubstancesofwhichtheyarecomposed,andnotintheirgeneralform.“Onecalledkä-të-tëek,isalargeandstrong-handledspear,withanivorypointmadefordespatchinganywoundedanimalinthewater.Itisneverthrown,buthasaplaceappropriatedforitonthekayak.“The oonak is a lighter kind than the former; also ivory-headed. It has abladder fastened to it, and has a loose headwith a line attached; this beingdarted intoananimal, is instantly liberated from thehandlewhichgives theimpetus.Somefewoftheseweaponsareconstructedofthesolidivoryoftheunicorn’s horn, about four feet in length, and remarkably well-rounded andpolished.“Ip-pöo-töo-yöo,isanotherkindofhand-spear,varyingbutlittlefromtheonelastdescribed.Ithas,however,noappendages.“TheNoôgh-wït isof twokinds;butbothareused for strikingbirds,younganimals, or fish. The first has a double fork at the extremity, and there arethree other barbed ones at about half its length, diverging in differentdirections,sothatiftheendpairshouldmiss,someofthecentreonesmightstrike.Thesecondkindhasonlythreebarbedforksatthehead.Allthepointsareof ivory, and thenatural curveof thewalrus tusk favours and facilitatestheirconstruction.“Amongsttheminorinstrumentsoftheice-huntingarealongbonefeelerforplumbinganycracksthroughwhichsealsaresuspectedofbreathing,andalsofortryingthesafetyoftheroad.Anothercontrivanceisoccasionallyusedwiththesameeffectasthefloatofafishing-line.Itspurposeittowarnthehunter,

whoiswatchingaseal-hole,whentheanimalrises to thesurface,so thathemaystrikewithoutseeing,orbeingseen,byhisprey.Thisisamostdelicatelittlerodofboneorivory,ofaboutafootinlength,andthethicknessofafineknitting-needle.At the lower end is a small knob like a pin’s head, and theupperextremityhasafinepieceofsinewtiedtoit,soastofastenitlooselytothesideofthehole.Theanimal,onrising,doesnotperceivesosmallanobjecthanging in the water, and pushes it up with his nose, when the watchfulEsquimaux, observinghis little beacon inmotion, strikes down, and secureshisprize.“Smallivorypegsorpinsareusedtostoptheholesmadebythespearsintheanimal’sbody;thustheblood,agreatluxurytothenatives,issaved.“Thesamewantofwoodwhichrendersitnecessarytofindsubstitutesintheconstructionofspears,alsooccasions thegreatvarietyofbows.Thehornofthemusk-ox,thinnedhornsofdeer,orotherbonysubstances,areasfrequentlyused or met with as wood, in the manufacture of these weapons, in whichelasticity isasecondaryconsideration.Threeorfourpiecesofhornorwoodarefrequentlyjoinedtogetherinonebow,—thestrengthlyingaloneinavastcollectionofsmallplaitedsinews;these,tothenumberofperhapsahundred,rundownthebackofthebow,andbeingquitetight,andhavingthespringofcatgut,causetheweapon,whenunstrung,toturnthewrongway;whenbent,theirunitedstrengthandelasticityareamazing.Thebowstringisoffifteentotwentyplaits,eachloosefromtheother,buttwistedroundwheninuse,sothatafewadditional turnswillatany timealter its length.Thegeneral lengthofthebowsisaboutthreefeetandahalf.“The arrows are short, light, and formed according to no general rule as tolengthorthickness.Agoodonehashalftheshaftofbone,andaheadofhardslate,orasmallpieceof iron;othershavesharply-pointedboneheads:nonearebarbed.Twofeathersareusedfortheend,andaretiedoppositeeachother,withtheflatsidesparallel.Aneatly-formedcasecontainsthebowandafewarrows.Sealskinispreferredforthispurpose,asmoreeffectuallyresistingthewetthananyother.Alittlebag,whichisattachedtotheside,containsastoneforsharpening,andsomesparearrow-headscarefullywrappedupinapieceofskin.“Thebowisheldinahorizontalposition,andthoughcapableofgreatforce,israrelyusedatagreaterdistancethanfromtwelvetotwentyyards.”Their houses, clothing, sledges, boats, utensils, and arms, being nowdescribed, it only remains to be seen in what manner these most singularpeoplepasstheir time,howtheysupplythemselveswithfood,andhowtheymanage to support life during the long dark winter, and the scarce lesshospitable summer of their rigorous clime. Their occupations from year toyear are carried on with an almost unvarying regularity, though, like their

dresses,theychangeaccordingtotheseason.Their short summer is chiefly employed in hunting the reindeer, and otherquadrupeds,—forthesimplereasonthatitisatthisseasonthattheseappearingreatestnumbersamong them,migratingnorthwardas the snow thaws fromthe valleys and hill-sides. Not but that they also kill the reindeer in otherseasons, for these animals do not allmigrate southward on the approach ofwinter, a considerablenumber remaining all theyearupon the shoresof theArctic Sea, as well as the islands to the north of them. Of course, theEsquimaux kills a reindeer when and where he can; and it may be hereremarked, that in no part of the American continent has the reindeer beentrainedor domesticated as among theLaplanders and the people ofRussianAsia. Neither the Northern Indians (Tinné) nor the Esquimaux have everreached this degree in domestic civilisation, and this fact is one of thestrongest points of difference between the American Esquimaux and theirkindredracesinthenorthofAsia.OnetribeoftrueEsquimauxaloneholdthereindeerinsubjection,viztheTuski,alreadymentioned,ontheAsiaticshore;and it might easily be shown that the practice reached them from thecontiguouscountriesofnorthernAsia.TheAmericanEsquimaux,likethoseofGreenland,possessonlythedogasadomesticatedanimal;andhimtheyhavetrainedtodrawtheirsledgesinastylethatexhibitsthehighestorderofskill,andevenelegance.TheEsquimauxdogistoowell-knowntorequireparticulardescription.He is oftenbrought to this country in the return shipsofArcticwhalersandvoyagers;andhisthick,stoutbodycoveredcloselywithlongstiffhairofawhitishoryellowishcolour,hiscockedearsandsmoothmuzzle,and,aboveall, thecircle-likecurlingofhisbushytail,willeasilyberememberedbyanyonewhohaseverseenthisvaluableanimal.Insummer,then,theEsquimauxdeserttheirwinterhousesupontheshore,andtakingwiththemtheirtentsmakeanexcursionintotheinterior.Theydonotgofarfromthesea—nofartherthanisnecessarytofindthevalleysbrowsedbythereindeer,andthefresh-waterlakes,which,atthisseason,arefrequentedby flocks of swans, geese of various kinds, ducks, and other aquatic birds.Hunting the reindeer forms their principal occupation at this time; but, ofcourse, “all is fish that comes into the net” of anEsquimaux; and they alsoemploy themselves in capturing the wild fowl and the fresh-water fish, inwhichtheselakesabound.Withthewildfowlitisthebreedingandmoultingseason, and the Esquimaux not only rob them of their eggs, but take largenumbersof theyoungbefore theyare sufficiently fledged to enable them tofly,andalsotheoldoneswhilesimilarlyincapacitatedfromtheirconditionof“moult.” In their swift kayaks which they have carried with them on theirheads, they can pursue the fluttering flocks over any part of a lake, andovertake themwherever theymaygo.This isaseasonofgreatplenty in thelarderoftheInuit.

Thefresh-waterfisharestruckwithspearsoutofthekayaks,or,whenthereisice on the water strong enough to bear the weight of a man, the fish arecaptured in a different manner. A hole is broken in the ice, the brokenfragmentsareskimmedoffandcastaside,andthenthefishermanletsdownashiningbauble—usuallythewhitetoothofsomeanimal—toactasabait.Thishe keeps bobbing about until the fish, perceiving it afar off through thetranslucentwater,usuallyapproachestoreconnoitre,partlyfromcuriosity,butmore, perhaps, to see if it be anything to eat. When near enough theEsquimauxadroitlypins thevictimwithhisfishspear,andlandsitupontheice.Thisspeciesoffishingisusuallydeliveredovertotheboys—thetimeofthehuntersbeingtoovaluabletobewastedinwaitingfortheapproachofthefishtothedecoy,aneventofprecariousanduncertainoccurrence.In capturing the reindeer, theEsquimaux practises nomethod very differentfromthatusedby“stillhunters”inotherpartsofAmerica.Hehastodependaloneuponhisbowandarrows,butwiththesepoorweaponshecontrivestomakemorehavocamongaherdofdeerthanwouldabackwoodshunterwithhis redoubtable rifle.There isnomysteryabouthis superiormanagement. Itconsistssimplyintheexhibitionofthegreatstrategyandpatiencewithwhichhe makes his approaches, crawling from point to point and using everyavailablecoverwhichthegroundmayafford.But all thiswould be of little availwere it not for a rusewhich he puts inpractice, andwhich brings the unsuspecting deerwithin reach of his deadlyarrows.Thisconsists inaclose imitationof thecriesof theanimal,soclosethatthesharp-earedcreatureitselfcannotdetectthecounterfeit,but,drawingnearerandnearertotherockorbushfromwhichthecallappearstoproceed,fallsavictimtothedeception.Thesilentarrowmakesnoaudiblesound;theherd, if slightly disturbed at seeing one of their number fall, soon composethemselves, and go on browsing upon the grass or licking up the lichen.Another is attracted by the call, and another, who fall in their turn victimseithertotheircuriosityortheinstinctofamorouspassions.Forthisspeciesofhunting,thebowfarexcelsanyotherweapon;eventherifleisinferiortoit.Sometimes theEsquimaux take the deer in large numbers, by hunting themwithdogs,drivingtheherdintosomedefileorculdesacamongtherocks,andthenkilling thematwillwith theirarrowsand javelins.This,however, isanexceptionalcase,assuchnatural“pounds”arenotalwaysathand.TheIndiansfarther south construct artificial enclosures; but in the Esquimaux countrythereisneithertimenormaterialforsuchelaboratecontrivances.TheEsquimauxwhodwell in thosepartsfrequentedby themusk-oxen,hunttheseanimalsverymuchas theydo the reindeer;butkillingamuskbull,orcoweither,Isafeatoffargrandermagnitude,andrequiresmoreaddressthan

shootingatinydeer.IhavesaidthattheEsquimauxdonot,eveninthesehuntingexcursions,strayveryfarintotheinterior.Thereisagoodreasonfortheirkeepingclosetotheseashore.Weretheytopenetratefarintothelandtheywouldbeindangerofmeeting with their bitter foemen, the TinnéIndians, who in this region alsohunt reindeerandmusk-oxen.War to theknife is thepracticebetween thesetwo races of people, and has ever been since the first knowledge of either.Theyoftenmeetinconflictupontheriversinland,andtheseconflictsareofsocruelandsanguinaryanatureastoimbueeachwithawholesomefearoftheother. The Indians, however, dread the Esquimauxmore than the latter fearthem;andup toa lateperiod tookgoodcarenever toapproach theircoasts;butthemusketandriflehavenowgotintothehandsofsomeofthenortherntribes,whoavail themselvesof thesesuperiorweapons,notonly tokeeptheEsquimauxatbay,butalsotorenderthemmorecautiousaboutextendingtheirrangetowardstheinterior.Whenthedrearywinterbeginstomakeitsappearance,andthereindeergrowscarce upon the snow-covered plains, the Esquimaux return to their wintervillagesupon thecoast.Quadrupedsandbirdsno longeroccupy theirwholeattention,forthedriftoftheirthoughtsisnowturnedtowardstheinhabitantsofthegreatdeep.Thesealandthewalrusarehenceforththemainobjectsofpursuit.Perhapsduringthesummer,whenthewaterwasopen,theymayhavevisitedtheshoreforthepurposeofcapturingthatgreatgiantoftheicyseas—awhale.Ifso,andtheyhavebeensuccessfulinonlyoneortwocaptures,theymaylookforwardtoawinterofplenty—sincethefleshofafull-grownwhale,or,betterstill,abraceofsuchamplecreatures,wouldbesufficient tofeedawholetribeformonths.Theyhavenocuringprocessforthisimmensecarcass;theystandinneedofnone.Neithersaltnorsmokingisrequiredintheirclimate.JackFrostistheirprovisioncurer,andperformsthetaskwithoutputtingthemeithertotroubleorexpense.Itisonlynecessaryforthemtohoistthegreatflitchesuponscaffolds,already erected for the purpose, so as to keep the meat from the wolves,wolverines, foxes, and their own half-starved dogs. From their aerial lardertheycancutapieceofblubberwhenevertheyfeelhungry,ortheyhaveamindtoeat,andthismindtheyareinsolongasamorselisleft.Theirmodeofcapturingawhaleisquitedifferentfromthatpractisedbythewhale-fishers.Whenthehugecreatureisdiscoverednear,thewholetribesallyforth, and surround it in their kayaks; they thenhurl darts into its body, butinstead of these having long lines attached to them, they are providedwithsealskins sewed up air-tight and inflated, like bladders.When a number ofthesebecomeattachedtothebodyofthewhale,theanimal,powerfulthoughhebe, findsgreatdifficulty insinkingfardown,orevenprogressingrapidly

throughthewater.Hesoonrisestothesurface,andthesealskinbuoysindicatehiswhereaboutstotheoccupantsofthekayaks,whointheirswiftlittlecrafts,soondartuptohimagain,andshootafreshvolleyintohisbody.Inthiswaythewhaleissoon“weariedout,”andthenfallsavictimtotheirlargerspears,justasinthecasewhereacaptureismadebyregular,whalers.Ineedscarcelyaddthatasuccessofthiskindishailedasajubileeofthetribe,sinceitnotonlybringsabenefittothewholecommunity,butisalsoapieceoffortuneofsomewhatrareoccurrence.Whennowhaleshavebeentaken,thelong,darkwintermayjustlybelookedforwardtowithsomesolicitude;anditisthenthattheEsquimauxrequirestoputforthallhisskillandenergiesforthecaptureofthewalrusortheseal—thelatterofwhichmayberegardedasthestaffofhislife,furnishinghimnotonlywithfood,butwithlight,fuel,andclothingforhisbodyandlimbs.Of the seals that inhabit the Polar Seas there are several species; but thecommon seal (Calocephalus vitulina) and the harp-seal (CalocephalusGroenlandicus) are those most numerous, and consequently the principalobjectofpursuit.TheEsquimauxusesvariousstratagemsfor takingthesecreatures,accordingtothecircumstancesinwhichtheymaybeencountered;andsimpletonsasthesealsmayappear,theyarebynomeanseasyofcapture.Theyareusuallyveryshyandsuspicious,even inplaceswheremanhasneverbeenseenby them.Theyhaveotherenemies,especiallyinthegreatpolarbear;andthedreadofthistyrantoftheicyseaskeepsthemeveronthealert.Notwithstandingtheirwatchfulness,however,boththebearandthebipedmakegreathavocamongthem,andeachyearhundredsofthousandsofthemaredestroyed.Thebear, in capturing seals, exhibits a skill and cunning scarce excelledbythatoftherationalbeinghimself.Whenthisgreatquadrupedperceivesasealbaskingontheedgeofanice-field,hemakeshisapproaches,notbyrushingdirectly towards it,which hewell knowswould defeat his purpose. If onceseenbytheseal,thelatterhasonlytobetakehimselftothewater,whereitcansoonsinkorswimbeyondthereachofthebear.Topreventthis,thebeargetswell to leeward, and then diving below the surface, makes his approachesunderwater,nowandthencautiouslyraisinghisheadtogetthetruebearingsofhisintendedvictim.Afteranumberofthesesubaqueous“reaches,”hegetscloseintotheedgeofthefloeinsuchapositionastocutofftheseal’sretreattothewater.Asinglespringbringshimontheice,andthen,beforethepoorsealhastimetomakeabraceofflounders,itfindsitselflockedinthedeadlyembrace of the bear. When seals are thus detected asleep, the Esquimauxapproachestheminhiskayak,takingcaretopaddlecautiouslyandsilently.Ifhesucceed ingettingbetween themand theopenwater,hekills themin theordinaryway—bysimplyknockingthemonthesnoutwithaclub,orpiercing

themwithaspear.Sometimes,however,thesealgoestosleeponthesurfaceoftheopenwater.Thentheapproachismadeinasimilarmannerbymeansofthekayak,andtheanimalisstruckwithaharpoon.Butasingleblowdoesnotalwayskill a seal, especially if it be a largeone, and theblowhasbeen ill-directed. In such cases the animalwould undoubtedlymake his escape, andcarrytheharpoonalongwith it,whichwouldbeaserious loss to theowner,whodoesnotobtainsuchweaponswithoutgreatdifficulty.Topreventthis,theEsquimauxusesacontrivancesimilar to thatemployed in thecaptureof thewhale,—thatis,heattachesafloatorbuoytohisharpoonbymeansofacord,and this so impedes the passage of the seal through the water, that it canneitherdivenorswimtoanyverygreatdistance.Thefloatisusuallyawalrusbladderinflatedintheordinaryway,andwhereverthesealmaygo,thefloatbetrays its track, enabling the Esquimaux to follow it in his shuttle-shapedkayak,andpierceitagainwithasureraim.Inwinter,when the sea is quite coveredwith ice, youmight fancy that theseal-fisherywouldbeatanend,forthesealisessentiallyamarineanimal;andalthough it can exist upon the ice or on dry land, it could not subsist there.Accesstothewateritmusthave,inordertoprocureitsfood,whichconsistsofsmallfishandmolluscs.Ofcourse,whentheiceformsonthesurface,thesealisinitstrueelement—thewaterunderneath—butwhenthisicebecomes,asitoftendoes,afullyardinthickness,extendingoverhundredsofmilesofthesea,howthenisthesealtobegotat?Itcouldnotbereachedatall;andatsuchaseasontheEsquimauxpeoplewouldundoubtedlystarve,wereitnotforahabitpeculiartothisanimal,which,happilyforthem,bringsitwithintheirreach.Though the seal can liveunderwater like a fish, andprobably couldpass awholewinterundertheicewithoutmuchinconvenience,itlikesnowandthento take a little fresh air, andhave a quiet napupon theupper surface in theopenair.With thisdesignitbreaksahole throughthe ice,while the latter isyetthin,andthisholeitkeepscarefullyopenduringthewholewinter,clearingouteachnewcrustasitforms.Nomattertowhatthicknesstheicemayattain,thisholealwaysformsabreathing-placefortheseal,andapassagebywhichhemayreachtheuppersurface,andindulgehimselfin—hisfavouritesiestaintheopenair.Knowingthishabit,theEsquimauxtakesadvantageofittomakethe seal his captive. When the animal is discovered on the ice, the hunterapproacheswiththegreateststealthandcaution.Thisisabsolutelynecessary:for if the enemy is perceived, or makes the slightest noise, the wary sealflounders rapidly into his hole, and is lost beyond redemption. If badlyfrightened, hewill not appear for a long time, denying himself his open airexerciseuntilthepatienceofhispersecutorisquitewornout,andthecoastisagainclear.

Inmakinghisapproaches,thehunterusesallhisart,notonlytakingadvantageofeveryinequality—suchassnow-driftsandice-hillocks—toconcealhimself;buthealsopractisesaningeniousdeceptionbydressinghimselfintheskinofa seal of like species, giving his body the figure of the animal, andcounterfeiting its motions, by floundering clumsily over the ice, andoscillatinghisheadfromsidetoside,justassealsareseentodo.Thisdeceptionoftenprovessuccessful,whenthehunterunderanyothershapewouldinvainendeavourtogetwithinstrikingdistanceofhisprey.Whensealsarescarce,andthesupplygreatlyneeded, theEsquimauxoftenliespatientlyforhours togetheron theedgeofaseal-holewaitingfor theanimal tocomeup. Inorder togive it time togetwelloutupon the ice, thehunterconcealshimself behind a heapof snow,whichhehas collected andpiledup for thepurpose.Afloat-stick, ingeniouslyplaced in thewaterof thebreathing-hole,serves as a signal to tell when the seal is mounting through his trap-likepassage, the motion of the stick betraying its ascent. The hunter then getshimself into therightattitude tostrike,andsummonsallhisenergies for theencounter.Evenduringthelong,darknightofwinter thismodeofcapturingtheseal ispractised. The hunter, having discovered a breathing-hole—which its darkcolour enables him to find—proceeds in the following manner: he scrapesawaythesnowfromaroundit,andliftingupsomewaterpoursitontheice,soastomakeacircleofadarkerhuearoundtheorifice.Hethenmakesasortofcakeof purewhite snow, andwith this covers thehole aswith a lid. In thecentreofthislidhepunchesasmallopeningwiththeshaft-endofhisspear,andthensitsdownandpatientlyawaitstheissue.The seal ascends unsuspiciously as before. The dark water, bubbling upthroughthesmallcentralorifice,betraysitsapproach,whichcanbeperceivedeveninthedarkestnight.Thehunterdoesnotwaitforitsclimbingoutupontheice.Perhapsifhedidso, thesuspiciouscreaturemightdetect thedevice,anddivedownagain.But it isnotallowed time for reflection.Before itcanturn its unwieldly body, the heavy spear of the hunter—struck through theyieldingsnow—descendsuponitsskull,andkillsitontheinstant.The great “walrus” or “morse” (Trichecus rosmarus) is another importantproduct of the Polar Seas, and is hunted by the Esquimaux with greatassiduity. This splendid amphibious animal is taken by contrivances verysimilar to thoseused for the seal;but thecaptureof awalrus is aneventofimportance,secondonlytothestrikingofawhale.Itsgreatcarcassnotonlysupplies food to a whole village, but an oil superior to that of the whale,besides various other useful articles. Its skin, bones, and intestines areemployedbytheEsquimauxformanydomesticpurposes,—and, inaddition,therearethehugemolartusks,thatfurnishoneofthemostvaluableivoriesof

commerce, from which are manufactured those beautiful sets of teeth, ofdazzlingwhiteness,that,gleamingbetweenvermilionlips,youmayoftenseeataballoraneveningparty!

ChapterFive.Mundrucus,orBeheaders.

Inourgeneralsketchof theAmazonianIndians itwasstatedthat thereweresome few tribeswho differed in certain customs from all the rest, andwhomight even be regarded as odd among the odd. One of these tribes is theMundrucu,which,fromitsnumbersandwarlikestrength,almostdeservestobe styled a nation. It is, at all events, a powerful confederacy, of differenttribes, linked together in one common nationality, and including in theirleague other Indians which theMundrucus themselves first conquered, andafterwards associatedwith themselves on terms of equality; in otherwords,“annexed” them.Thesamesortofannexationoralliance iscommonamongthetribesofNorthAmerica;asinthecaseofthepowerfulComanchenation,whoextendtheirprotectingallianceovertheWacoes,Washites,andCayguäasorKioways.The Mahüe is the principal tribe that is patronised in this fashion by theMundrucus,andthetwotogethernumberatleast20,000souls.BeforethedaysofthePortugueseslave-hunting,theMundrucusoccupiedthesouth bank of the Amazon, from the mouth of the Tapajos to that of theMadeira.Thisinfamoustraffichadtheeffectofclearingthebanksofthegreatriver of its native inhabitants,—except such of them as chose to submit toslavery,orbecomeneophytes,byadoptingthemonkishfaith.NeitherofthesecoursesappearedpleasingintheeyesoftheMundrucus,andtheyadoptedtheonlyalternativethatwaslikelytoinsuretheirindependence,—bywithdrawingfromthedangerousproximityofthesanguinaryslave-trade.This retreat of theMundrucus, however, was by no means an ignominiousflight.Thewithdrawalwasvoluntaryontheirpart,andnotcompulsory,aswasthecasewithweakertribes.FromtheearliesttimestheyhadpresentedafirmfronttothePortugueseencroachments,andthelatterwereevenforcedintoasortofnefariousalliancewith them.The leaving theAmazonon thepartoftheMundrucuswasrathertheresultofanegotiation,bywhichtheyconcededtheir territory—between the mouths of the Tapajos and Madeira—to theBrazilian government; and to this hour they are not exactly unfriendly toBrazilianwhites,thoughtothemulattoesandnegroes,whoconstitutealargeproportionoftheBrazilianpopulation,theMundrucuknowsnootherfeeling

thanthatofadeadlyhostility.TheoriginoftheirhatredoftheBrazilianblacksis to be found in a revolt which occurred in the provinces of the LowerAmazon(atPara)in1835.Itwasacasterevolutionagainstwhites,butmoreespecially against European Portuguese. In this affair the Mundrucus wereemployedagainstthedarker-skinnedrebels—theGabanos,astheywerecalled—and did great service in putting down the rebellion. Hence they retain alingering spark of friendship for their ci-devant white allies; or perhaps itwouldbemorecorrect tosay theydonotactuallyhate them,butcarryonalittlecommercewiththeirtraders.Forallthat,theyoccasionallycutthethroatsofafewofthelatter,—especiallythosewhodonotcometodealdirectlywiththem, butwho pass through their country in going from theAmazon to thediamondminesofBrazil.TheselastarecalledMonçaos,andtheirbusinessistocarrysupplies from the townson theAmazon (SantaremandPara) to theminers of gold andwashers of diamonds in the district ofMattoGrosso, ofwhich Cuiaba is the capital. Their route is by water and “portage” up theTapajosriver,andthroughtheterritoryofthedreadedMundrucus,—requiringajourneyofsixmonths,asperilousandtoilsomeasitistedious.ThepresentresidenceoftheMundrucusisbetweentheTapajosandMadeira,asformerly,butfaruponbothrivers.OntheTapajos,abovewhatareknownas the “Caxoeiras,” orCataracts, their villages are found. There they dwell,free from all molestation on the part of the whites; their borders extendingwidelyaroundthem,andlimitedonlybycontactwith thoseofotherwarliketribeslikethemselves,whoaretheirdeadlyenemies.AmongtheselastaretheMuras,whodwellatthemouthsoftheMadeiraandRioNegro.TheMundrucusbuildthemalocca,elsewheredescribed;onlyintheircaseitisnot used as a dwelling, but rather as a grand arsenal, a council-chamber, aballroom, and, if need be, a fortress.When fearing an attack, all sleep in it“underarms.”Itisastructureoflargesizeandgreatstrength,usuallyrenderedmore unassailable by being “chinked” and plastered with clay. It is in thisbuilding that are deposited those horrid trophies which have given to theMundrucus their terrible titleofdecapitadores,or “beheaders.”The title anditsoriginshallbepresentlyexplained.Aroundthegreatmaloccathehutsareplaced,formingavillage,andinthesethepeopleordinarilydwell.TheMundrucusarenotwithoutamplemeansofsubsistence.LikemostotherAmazonian tribes, they cultivate a littlemanioc, plantains, and evenmaize;and theyknowhow toprepare the farinhameal, and,unfortunately, also thedetestable chicha, the universal beverage of the South-American aborigines.They have their vessels of calabash—both of the vegetable and arborescentkinds—and a full set of implements and utensils for the field and kitchen.Their war weapons are those common to other Amazonian tribes, and they

sometimes also carry the spear. They have canoes of hollow trees; and, ofcourse,fishingandhuntingaretheemploymentsofthemen,—thewomen,asalmost everywhere else among Indians, doing the drudgery,—the tilling andreaping, the “hewing of wood and the drawing of water,” the making thehouseholdutensilsandusingthem,—allsuchofficesbeingbeneaththedignityofthe“lordly,”orratherlazysavage.Ihavesaidthattheycarryonacommercialintercoursewiththewhitetraders.Itisnotofmuchmagnitude,andtheirexportsconsistaltogetherofthenativeand spontaneous productions of the soil, sarsaparilla being one of the chiefarticles.Theygather this (thewomenandchildrendo)during sixmonthsoftheyear.Theothersixmonthsnoindustryisfollowed,—asthisperiodisspentinhostileexcursionsagainsttheneighbouringtribes.Theirimportsconsistofirontoolsandpiecesforweapons;buttheymoreespeciallybartertheproductoftheirlabourforornamentalgewgaws,—suchassavagesuniversallyadmireand desire. Their sarsaparilla is good, and much sought for in the medicalmarket.Every one is acquainted with the nature and character of this valuablemedicinal root, the appearance of which must also be known to almosteverybody,—since it is so very common for our druggists to display thebundlesofitintheirshopwindows.Perhapseveryoneisnotacquaintedwiththe fact, that the sarsaparilla root is the product of a great many differentspeciesofplantsmostofthemofthegenusSimlax,butnotafewbelongingtoplantsofothergenera,as thoseofCarexandHerreriatherootsofwhicharealso sold as sarsaparilla. The species of simlax are widely distributedthroughout the whole torrid zone, in Asia, Africa, and America, and somekindsarefoundgrowingmanydegreesoutsidethetropics,—asisthecaseinVirginia and the valley of theMississippi, and also on the other side of thePacificonthegreatcontinent-islandofAustralia.Thebestsarsaparilla,however,isthatwhichisproducedintropicalcountries,and especially inmoist situations,where the atmosphere is at once hot andhumid. It requires these conditions to concentrate the virtue of its sap, andrenderitmoreactive.Itwouldbeidletogivealistofthedifferentspeciesofsimlaxthatfurnishthesarsaparilla rootof thepharmacopeia.There is an almost endlessnumberofthem, and they are equally varied in respect to excellence of quality; somekinds are in reality almost worthless, and for this reason, in using it as amedicine,greatcare shouldbe taken in theselectionof thespecies.Likeallotherarticles,eitheroffoodormedicine, thevaluablekindsarethescarcest;thereasoninthiscasebeingthatthebestsarsaparillaisfoundinsituationsnotonly difficult of access, butwhere the gathering of its root is attendedwithconsiderabledanger,fromtheunhealthynatureoftheclimateandthehostility

of the savages in whose territory it grows. As to the quantity that may beobtained,thereisnolimit,onthescoreofanyscarcityoftheplantitself,sinceit is found throughout all the countries of tropical America plenteouslydistributed both in species and individual plants. Such quantities of it growalongthebanksofsomeSouth-Americanrivers,thattheIndianshaveabeliefthatthosestreamsknownasblackwaters—suchastheRioNegroandothers—derivetheirpeculiarcolourfromtherootsofthisplant.This,however,isanerroneous supposition, as there aremany of the white-water rivers that runthrough regions abundantly supplied with the sarsaparilla root. The blackwater,therefore,mustarisefromsomeothercause,asyetunknown.As observed, the sarsaparilla of the Mundrucu country is of the very bestquality.ItistheSimlaxpapyraceaofSoiret,andisknownincommerceasthe“Lisbon,” or “Brazilian.” It is a climbing plant, or under-shrub, the stem ofwhich is flattened and angular, with rows of prickles standing along theprominentedges.Itsleavesareofanovalacuminatedshape,andmarkedwithlongitudinal nerves. It shoots without any support, to a height of fifteen ortwenty feet, after which it embraces the surrounding branches of trees andspreadstoagreatdistanceineverydirection.Themainrootsendsoutmanylongtendrils,alloflikethickness,coveredwithabrownishbark,orsometimesofadark-greycolour.Thesetendrilsarefibrous,andaboutasthickasaquill.They present a constant tendency to become crooked, and they are alsowrinkled longitudinally, with here and there some smaller lateral fibresbranchingofffromthesides.Itisinthebarkorepidermisoftherhizomesthatthemedicinalvirtuelies;butthetendrils—bothrhizomeandbark—arecollectedtogether,andnoattemptismadetoseparatethem,until theyhavereachedtheircommercialdestination.Indeed,eventhesearesoldtogether,themodeofpreparingtherootbeinglefttothechoiceoftheconsumer,ortheapothecarywhoprocuresit.TheMundrucus collect it during the sixmonths of the rainy season, partlybecauseduringtheremainingsixtheyareotherwiseemployed,andpartlyforthereasonthat,inthetimeofrain,therootsaremoreeasilyextractedfromthedampsoil.Theprocesssimplyconsistsindiggingthemupordraggingthemout of the earth—the latter mode especially where the tendrils lie near thesurface, and theywill pull upwithoutbreaking. If themain rootbenotdugout, itwillsendforthnewtendrils,which inashort timewouldyieldanewcrop;buttheimprovidentsavagesmakenoprudentialcalculationsofthiskind—present convenience forming their sole consideration; andon this accountboththerootandplantaregenerallydestroyedbythemduringtheoperationofcollecting.Asalreadystated,thislabourdevolvesuponthewomen,whoarealsoassistedinitbytheirchildren.Theyproceedintothedepthsoftheforest—wherethe

simlaxgrowsingreatestabundance—andaftercollectingasmuchrootastheycancarryhomewiththem,theyreturnwiththeirbundlestothemaloccaWhenfreshgatheredthesarsaparillaisheavyenough—partlyonaccountofthesapwhich it thencontains,andpartly fromthequantityof themudorearth thatadherestothecorrugatedsurfaceoftheroots.Itisextremelyprobablethatinthisfreshstatethevirtueofthesarsaparilla,asablood-purifier,ismuchgreaterthanafterithaspassedthroughthechannelsof commerce; and the writer of this sketch has some reason, derived frompersonal experience, to believe that such is the case. Certain it is, that thereputationofthisinvaluabledrugisfarlessincountrieswheretheplantdoesnotgrow, than in thosewhere it iscommonandcanbeobtained in its freshstate. In all parts of Spanish America its virtues are unquestioned, andexperience has led to amore extensive use of it there than elsewhere. It isprobable, therefore, that thevirtue exists in the juice rather than the corticalintegumentoftherhizome;andthisofcoursewouldbemateriallyalteredanddeteriorated, ifnotaltogetherdestroyed, in theprocessofexsiccation,whichmustnecessarily takeplace in the time required for transporting it todistantparts of theworld. In theEuropean pharmacopeia it is the epidermis of therootwhichissupposedtocontainthesanitaryprinciple;andthis,whichisofamucilaginousnatureandslightlybittertaste, isemployed,bothindecoctionsand infusions, as a tonic andalterative. InAmerica,however, it isgenerallytaken for what is termed purifying the blood—for the same purpose as therhizomesoftheLaurassassafrasandotherplantsareused;butthesarsaparillais generally considered the best, and it certainly is the best of all knownmedicines for this purpose. Why it has fallen in the estimation of the OldWorldpractitioners,orwhyitneverobtainedsogreatareputationasithasinAmerica,may arise from two circumstances. First, that the root offered forsaleisgenerallytheproductofthelessvaluablespecies;andsecond,thatthesap,andnottherhizome,maybethepartthatcontainsthevirtuousprinciple.Whenthecollectedrootshavebeenkeptforawhiletheybecomedryandlight,andfortheconvenienceofstowageandcarriage—animportantconsiderationtothetraderinhiseight-tongarratea—itisnecessarytohavetherootsdoneupinpackagesofauniformlengthandthickness.Thesepackagesareformedbylayingtherootssidebyside,anddoublingin theendsof the longerones.Abundle of the proper size for stowage contains an arroba of twenty-fivepounds, though the weight varies according to the condition of the root.Uniformityinsizeisthechiefobjectaimedat,andthebundlesaremadeofaroundorcylindricalshape,aboutfiveinchesindiameter,andsomethingmorethanayardinlength.Theyaretrimmedoffsmallattheends—soastoadmitofstowagewithoutleavinganyemptyspacebetweentwotiersofthem—andeachbundleistightlycordedroundfromoneendtotheotherwitha“sipo,”orcreepingplant.

Ithasbeenstated that this“sipo” isa rootof thesarsaparilla itself,with thebarkscrapedoff;and,indeed,itsownrootwouldservewellenough—wereitnot thatputting it to suchausewoulddestroy itsmedicinalvalue, and thuscauseaconsiderablewasteofthecostlymaterial.Thesarsaparillaisnottobehad for nothing even upon the banks of the Tapajos. A bundle of the bestquality does not leave the hands of theMundrucu until about four dollars’worthofexchangecommoditieshavebeenputintothem,whichwouldbringthe price of it to something over sixpence a pound.He is, therefore, a littleparticularaboutwastingamaterial thathascosthim—orratherhiswifeandchildren—so much trouble in collecting. His cordage is obtained morecheaply,andconsistsofthelong,flexiblerootsofaspeciesofpothos,whichroots—beingwhataretermedaerialandnotburiedintheground—requirenolabourordigging togetat them. It isonlynecessary tostretchup thehand,andpull themdown from the topsof lofty trees, fromwhich theyhang likestreamers,often to the lengthofahundred feet.Theseare toughenedby thebarkbeingscrapedoff;andwhenthatisdonetheyarereadyforuse,andservenotonlytotieupthebundlesofsarsaparilla,butformanyotherpurposesinthedomesticeconomyoftheMundrucus.Inadditiontothesarsaparilla,theMundrucufurnishesthetraderwithseveralother items of commercial value—for his climate, although one of themostunhealthyinalltheAmazonregion,onaccountofitsgreatheatandhumidity,is for that very reason one of the most fertile. Nearly all those tropicalvegetableproductswhicharecharacteristicsofBrazilianexportcommercecanhere be produced of themost luxuriant kind; but it is only those that growspontaneouslyathisverydoorsthattempttheMundrucutotakethetroubleofcollectingthem.Thereisonearticlehowever,whichhenotonlytakessometroubletocollect,but also tomanufacture into an item of commercial exchange—a very rareitemindeed.Thisistheguarana,whichismanufacturedfromthefruitofatreealmost peculiar to the Mundrucu territory—since nowhere is it found soabundantlyasontheTapajos.ItissoprizedintheBraziliansettlementsastocommand almost its weight in silver when transported thither. It is theconstituentelementofadrink,whichhasastimulatingeffecton thesystem,somewhatmorepowerfulthanteaorcoffee.Itwillpreventsleep;butitsmostvaluable property is, that it is a good febrifuge, equal to the best quinine.Guaranaispreparedfromtheseedsofaninga—oneoftheMimosacae.Itisalow, wide-spreading tree like most of the mimosa family. The legumes aregathered,andtheseedsroastedinthem.Thelatterarethentakenout,andafterbeingground topowder, aremixedwithwater so as tomakea toughpaste,which is moulded into little bricks, and when dried is ready for use. Thebeverageisthenpreparedbyscrapingatable-spoonfulofdustfromthebrick,andmixing itwithaboutapintofwater;and thedrypaste,keeping forany

lengthoftime,isreadywheneverwanted.The guarana bush grows elsewhere in the Amazon valley, and on someheadwatersoftheOrinoco,wherecertaintribesalsoknowhowtopreparethedrink. But it is sparingly distributed, and is nowhere so common as on theupper Tapajos hence its high price in themarkets ofBrazil. TheMundrucumanufacturesit,notonlyfor“homeuse,”butfor“exportation.”Hepreparesanothersingulararticleof luxury,andthishemakesexclusivelyforhisownuse,—notforthegratificationofhislipsorpalate,butforhisnose,—in other words, a snuff. Do not fancy, however, that it is snuff of theordinarykind—thepulverisedproduceofinnocenttobacco.Nosuchthing;buta composition of such a powerful and stimulating character, that he whoinhales it feels as if struckbyanelectric shock;hisbody trembles;his eyesstart forwardas if theywouldforsake theirsockets;his limbsfail tosupporthim;andhedropstotheearthlikeoneinastateofintoxication!Forashorttimehe is literallymad;but thefit issoonover,—lastingusuallyonlya fewminutes,—and then a feeling of renewed strength, courage, and joyousnesssucceeds.SucharetheconsequencesoftakingsnuffwithaMundrucu.And now to describe the nature of the substance which produces thesepowerfuleffects.Liketheguaranathissnuffisapreparation,havingforitsbasistheseedsofaleguminous tree. This time, however, it is an acacia, not an inga. It is theacacianiopo;socalledbecause“niopo”isthenamegiventothesnuffitselfbycertaintribes(theOttomacsandothers),who,liketheMundrucus,aresnuff-takers.Itisalsocalledcurupa,andtheapparatusforpreparingandtakingit—forthereisanapparatusofanextensivekind—istermedparica,inthegenerallanguage(lingoageral)oftheAmazonianregions.Weshalldescribethepreparation,theapparatus,andtheceremonial.ThepodsoftheAcacianiopo—asmalltree,withverydelicatepinnateleaves—arepluckedwhenripe.Theyarethencutintosmallpiecesandflungintoavesselofwater.Inthistheyremainuntilmacerated,anduntil theseedshaveturnedblack.Thesearethenpickedout,poundedinamortar,whichisusuallythe pericarp of the sapuçaia, or “monkey-pot” tree (Lecythys ollaria). Thepounding reduces them to a paste, which is taken up, clapped between thehandsandformedintolittlecakes—butnotuntilithasbeenmixedwithsomemaniocflour,somelimefromaburntshell(ahelix),andalittlejuicefromthefreshleavesofthe“abuta”—amenispermousplantofthegenusCocculus.Thecakes are then dried or “barbecued” upon a primitive gridiron—the bars ofwhicharesaplingsofhardwood—andwhenwell-hardenedthesnuffisreadyfor the“box.” Inabox it isactuallycarried—usuallyonemadeoutofsomerareandbeautifulshell.

The ceremonial of taking the snuff is the most singular part of theperformance. When a Mundrucu feels inclined for a “pinch”—though it issomethingmorethanapinchthatheinhaleswhenhedoesfeel inclined—hetakesthecakeoutofthebox,scrapesoffaboutaspoonfulofitintoashallow,saucer-shaped vessel of the calabash kind, and then spreads the powder alloverthebottomofthevesselinaregular“stratification.”Thespreadingisnotperformedby the fingers, butwith a tiny, pencil-like brushmade out of thebristlesofthegreatant-eater(Myrmecophagajubata).Heisinnohurry,buttakeshistime,—forasyoumayguessfromitseffects,theperformanceisnotonesooftenrepeatedasthatofordinarysnuff-taking.When theniopodust is laid tohis liking, another implement isbrought intoplay, the construction of which it is also necessary to describe. It is a“machine”ofsixtoeightinchesinlength,andismadeoftwoquillsfromthewingofthegaviaoreal,or“harpyeagle”(Harpyiadestructor).Thesequillsareplaced side by side for the greater part of their length, forming twoparalleltubes,andtheyarethusneatlywhippedtogetherbyathread.Atoneendtheyare pressed apart so as to diverge to a width corresponding to the breadthbetween theMundrucu’s nostrils,—where it is intended they shall be placedduringtheceremonyofsnuff-taking.And thus are they placed,—one end of each quill being slightly intrudedwithin the line of the septum, while the other end rests upon the snuff, orwanders over the surface of the saucer, till all the powder placed there isdrawnupandinhaled,producingtheconvulsiveeffectsalreadydetailed.The shank-boneof a speciesof bird—thought tobe aplover—is sometimesusedinsteadofthequills.Itishollow,andhasaforking-tubeattheend.Thiskind is not common or easily obtained, for the niopo-taker who has one,esteemsitasthemostvaluableitemofhisapparatus.SnuffingtheniopoisnotexclusivelyconfinedtotheMundrucu.Wehaveseenelsewherethatitisalsoahabitofthedirt-eatingOttomacs;andothertribesontheupperAmazonpractiseit.ButtheMahües,alreadymentionedasthealliesoftheMundrucus,arethemostconfirmedsnuff-takersofall.AnotheroddcustomoftheMundrucusistheirhabitof“tatooing.”Ispeakofreal tatooing,—that is, marking the skin with dots and lines that cannot beeffaced,incontradistinctiontomerepainting,orstaining,whichcaneasilybewashed off. The Mundrucus paint also, with the anotto,kuitoc, caruta, andotherpigments,butinthistheyonlyfollowthepracticeofhundredsofothertribes.The true tatoo isa fardifferentaffair,andscarcelyknownamong theaborigines of America, though common enough in the islands of the SouthSea.AfewotherIndiantribespractiseittoalimitedextent,—asiselsewherestated,—but among theMundrucus it is an “institution;” and painful thoughthe process be, it has to be endured by every one in the nation, “every

mother’sson,”anddaughteraswell,thatarecursedwithaMundrucufortheirfather.Itisupontheyoungpeopletheinflictionisperformed,—whentheyareabouteightortenyearsofage.Thetatoohasbeensooftendescribed,thatIshouldnotrepeatithere;butthereare a few “points” peculiar to Mundrucu tatooing, and a few others, notelsewhereunderstood.The performance is usually thework of certain old crones,who, from longpractice,haveacquiredgreatskillintheart.The chief instrument used is a comb of thorns,—not a single thorn, as isgenerallystated,—butatierorrowofthemsetcomb-fashion.Thesethornsarethe spines of the “murumuru,” or “pupunha” palm (Gullielmia speciosa).Humboldtstates that thispalmissmoothandspineless,but in this thegreat,goodmanwasinerror.Itstrunkissocoveredwiththornsorspines,thatwhenthe Indians require to climb it—for the purpose of procuring the valuablefruits,whichtheyeatvariouslyprepared—theyhavetoerectastaging,orrudesortofladder,tobeabletogetatthem.The comb, then, is pressed down upon the skin of the “tatooee,” till all thepointshavepenetratedtheflesh,andarowofholesislaidopen,fromwhichthebloodflowsprofusely.Assoonasthiscanbewipedoff,ashesofaburntgumorpitcharerubbedintothewounds,which,whenhealed,appearlikesomanydotsofadeepbluishorblackcolour.InthiswaytheyoungMundrucus,bothboysandgirls,getthoseregularrowsofdottedlines,whichtraversetheirforehead and cheeks, their arms and limbs, breasts, and bodies in sucheccentricfashion.Ithasoftenbeenaskedhowtheselinesofdotswerecarriedovertheskininsuchstraightandsymmetricalrows,formingregularparallellines,orothergeometricalpatterns.The“comb”willexplainthemystery.The tatoo, with a few strings of shell-beads or necklaces, and bracelets ofmonkeyandjaguarteeth,isallthedresswhichispermittedtotheMundrucubelle.InMundrucu-landitisthereverseofwhatispractisedamongcivilisedpeople: themen are the exponents of the fashions, and keep exclusively tothemselves the cosmetics and bijouterie. Not contented with being tatooed,thesealsopainttheirbodies,bywayof“overcoat,”andalsoadornthemselveswiththebrightfeathersofbirds.Theywearontheirheadsthebeautifulcircletofmacaw-plumes,andongrandoccasionsappearinthemagnificent“featherdress,”solongcelebratedasthepeculiarcostumeofthetropical-forestIndian.Thesedresses theirwomenweaveandborder,atasacrificeofmuch tediouslabour.Theyalsoornamenttheirarmsandlegswithrowsoffeathersaroundthem,thetipsturnedupwardandbackward.The tatooing is confined to theMundrucusproper,—their allies, theMahües

notfollowingthepractice,butcontentingthemselveswithasimple“coat”ofpaint.Itisdifficulttosaywhatmotivefirstinductedhumanbeingsintothissingularandbarbarouscustom.Itiseasiertotellwhyitisstillfollowed,andthe“why”isansweredbysayingthattheMundrucus“scarify”themselves,becausetheirfathersdidsobeforethem.Manyacustomamongcivilisednations,butlittlelessridiculous, ifwecouldonlythinkso,restsuponasimilarbasis.Perhapsour modern abominable hat—though it has a different origin—is not lessludicrousthanthetatooedpatternsofthesavage.Certainlyitisquiteequaltoitinugliness,andislikelytorivalitinpermanence,—tooursorrowbeitsaid.Butevenwedealslightlyinthetatoo.OurjollyJackwouldbenobodyintheforecastle without “Polly,” in blue, upon his weather-beaten breast, and thefoulanchoruponhisarm.But theMundrucu baptises his unfortunate offspring in a still more savagefashion. The tattoo may be termed the baptism in blood, performed at thetender age of ten. When the youth—fortunately it does not extend to theweaker sex—hasattained to theageof eighteen,hehas then toundergo thetocandeira,whichdeservestobecalledthebaptismoffire!This too merits description. When the Mundrucu youth would become acandidateformanhood,apairof“gloves”ispreparedforhim.Theseconsistoftwopiecesofapalm-treebark,withthepithhollowedout,butleftinatoneend.Thehollowpartisofsufficientdiametertodrawoverthehandsloosely,andsolongastoreachuptomid-arm,afterthefashionofgauntlets.The “gloves” being got ready, are nearly filled with ants, not only thevenomousredants,butallotherspecies,largeorsmall,thatcaneitherbiteorsting,ofwhichtropicalSouthAmericapossessesanendlessvariety.Withthis“lining”the“mittens”arereadyforuse,andthe“novice”iscompelledtodrawthem on. Should he refuse, or even exhibit a disposition to shrink from thefiery trial,he isa lostman.From thathourheneedneverholduphishead,muchlessofferhishandandheart,forthereisnotamaideninallMundrucu-land thatwould listen tohis softest speech.He is foreverdebarred from thepleasureofbecomingabenedict.Ofcoursehedoesnotrefuse,butplunginghishandsintothe“mittens,”intotheverymidstofthecrawlinghost,hesetsabouttheceremony.Hemustkeepontheglovestillhehasdancedbeforeeverydoorinthevillage.Hemustsingasiffromveryjoy;andthereisplentyofmusictoaccompanyhim,drumsandfifes,andhumanvoices,—forhisparentsandrelativesarebyhis side encouraging him with their songs and gestures. He is in pain,—inpositiveagony,—forthesevenomousantsbothstingandbite,andhavebeenbusyatbothfromtheveryfirstmoment.Eachmomenthisagonygrowsmoreintense,hissufferingsmoreacute,forthepoisonisthrillingthroughhisveins,

—he turns pale,—his eyes become blood-cast,—his breast quivers withemotionandhislimbstremblebeneathhim;butdespiteallthis,woetohimifheutter a cryofweakness! Itwouldbrandhimwith an eternal stigma,—hewouldneverbesufferedtocarrytheMundruculancetobattle,—topoiseuponits point the ghastly trophy of the Beheaders. On, on, through the howlingthrong,amidst friendsandrelativeswithfacesanxiousashisown;on to thesoundoftheshrill-pipingreedandthehoarseboomingoftheIndiandrum;ontillhestandsinfrontofthecabinofthechief!Thereagainthesongissung,the“jig”isdanced,bothproudlyprolongedtill thestrengthof theperformerbecomescompletelyexhausted.Then,andnottillthen,theglovesarethrownaside, and the wearer falls back, into the arms of his friends, “sufficientlypunished!”This is the hour of congratulation. Girls gather round him, and fling theirtatooed arms about his neck. They cluster and cling upon him, singing hissongoftriumph;butjustatthatcrisisheisnotinthemoodforsoftcaresses;and,escapingfromtheirblandishments,hemakesarushtowardstheriver.Onreachingitsbankheplungesbodilyin,andthereremainsuptohisneckinthewater, till the cooling fluid has to some extent eased his aching arms, andtranquillised the current of his boiling blood. When he emerges from thewater,heisaman,fitstuffforaMundrucuwarrior,andeligibletothehandofaMundrucumaiden.It may be remarked that this terrible ordeal of the Mundrucus, though,perhaps, peculiar among South-American Indians, has its parallel amongcertaintribesofthenorth,—theMandansandothers,asdetailedbyCatlin,oneofthemostacuteofethnologicalobservers.Thescalp trophy, too,of theNorthern Indianhas itsanalogy inaMundrucucustom—thatwhichdistinguisheshimmostofall,andwhichhaswonforhimtheterribletitleof“Beheader.”Thissingularappellationisnowtobeexplained.When a Mundrucu has succeeded in killing an enemy, he is not, like hisnortherncompeer,satisfiedwithonlytheskinofthehead.Hemusthavethewholehead,scalpandskull,bones,brains,andall!Andhetakesall,severingtheheadwithhisknifebyacleancutacrossthesmalloftheneck,andleavingthetrunktothevultureking.Withtheghastlytrophypoiseduponthepointofhislance,hereturnstriumphanttothemaloccatoreceivethegreetingsofhistribeandthepraisesofhischief.But thewarlike exploit requires amemento—some token bywhich hemayperpetuateitsfame.TheartofprintingdoesnotexistamongtheMundrucus,andthereisnofriendlypentorecordthedeed.Ithasbeendone,—beholdtheevidence! much clearer than often accompanies the exploits of civilised

heroes. There is the evidence of an enemy slain; there is the grim, goryvoucher,palpablebothtosightandtouch—proofpositivethatthereisadeadbodysomewhere.Of course, such evidence is sufficient for the present; but how about thefuture? As time passes, the feat may be forgotten, as great deeds areelsewhere. Somebody may even deny it. Some slanderous tongue maywhisper,or insinuate,oropenlydeclare that itwasnoexploit after all—thattherewasnodeadman;forthevulturesbythistimewouldhaveremovedthebody,andthewhiteants(termites)wouldhaveequallyextinguishedalltracesof the bones.How, then, are the proofs to be preserved?By preserving thehead!AndthisistheveryideathatisinthemindoftheMundrucuwarrior.Heis resolvednot topermit his exploit tobeburied inoblivionbyburying thehead of his enemy.That tongue, thoughmute,will tell the tale to posterity;that pallid cheek, though, perhaps, it may become a little shrivelled in the“drying,”willstillbesmoothenoughtoshowthatthereisnotatoo,andtobeidentifiedas the skinofanenemy.SomeyoungMundrucu,yetunborn,willreadinthecountenanceofthatgrinningandgorywitness,thetestimonyofhisfather’sprowess.Thehead, therefore,mustbepreserved;and it ispreservedwithasmuchcareasthecherishedportraitofafamousancestor.Thecranialrelicisevenembalmed,asifoutofaffectionforhimtowhomitbelonged.Thebrainsandeye-ballsareremoved, tofacilitate theprocessofdesiccation;butfalseeyesare inserted,andthetongue, teeth,andears,scalp,skull,andhair,are all retained, not only retained, but “titivated” out in themost approvedstyleoffashion.Thelonghairiscarefullycombedout,parted,andarranged;brilliant feathers of rock-cock and macaw are planted behind the ears andtwisted in the hanging tresses. An ornamental string passes through thetongue, and by this the trophy is suspended from the beams of the greatmalocca.Itisnotpermittedtoremainthere.InsomedarknicheofthisGolgotha—thisMundruquinWestminster—itmightbeoverlookedand forgotten.Topreventthisitisoftenbroughtforth,andreceivesmanyanairing.Onallwarlikeandfestiveoccasionsdoesitappear,poiseduponthepointofthewarrior’slance;andeveninpeacefultimesitmaybeseen—alongwithhundredsofitslike—placedinthecircularrowaroundthemaniocclearing,andlendingitsdemurecountenancetothelaboursofthefield.It is not a little singular that this custom of embalming the heads of theirenemiesisfoundamongtheDyaksofBorneo,andtheprocessinbothplacesis ludicrously similar. Another rare coincidence occurs between theAmazonian tribesand theBornean savages,viz inbothbeingprovidedwiththeblow-gun.ThegravitanaoftheAmericantribesisalmostidenticalwiththesumpitan of Borneo. It furnishes a further proof of our theory regarding an

originalconnectionbetweentheAmericanIndiansandthesavagesofthegreatSouthSea.The Mundrucu is rarely ill off in the way of food. When he is so, it isaltogetherhisownfault,andchargeabletohisindolentdisposition.Thesoilofhis territory is of themost fertile kind, and producesmany kinds of ediblefruitsspontaneously,asthenutsofthepupunhapalmandthesplendidfruitsoftheBertholetia excelsa, or juvia-tree, known in Europe as “Brazil-nuts.”Ofthesethenaretwokinds,asmentionedelsewhere,thesecondbeingatreeofthe genus Lecythys,—the Lecythys ollaria, or “monkey-pot” tree. It obtainsthis trivialnamefromthecircumstance, first,of itsgreatpericarp,almostaslargeasachild’shead,havingamovabletoporlid,whichfallsoffwhenthefruit ripens; and secondly, from the monkeys being often seen drawing theseedsornutsoutof thatpartof theshellwhichremainsattachedtothetree,andwhich, bearing a considerable resemblance to a pot in its shape, is thusvery appropriately designated the pot of the monkeys. The common Indiannameof themonkey-pot tree is sapuçaia, and thenutsof this speciesare socalled in commerce, though they are also termedBrazil-nuts. They are of amoreagreeableflavourthanthetrueBrazil-nuts,andnotsoeasilyobtained,asthe Lecythys is less generally distributed over the Amazonian valley. Itrequiresapeculiarsoil,andgrowsonlyinthosetracts thataresubject totheannualinundationsoftherivers.The trueBrazil-nuts are the “juvia” trees of the Indians; and the season forcollecting them is one of the harvests of the Mundrucu people. The greatpericarps—resembling large cocoa-nutswhen stripped of the fibres—do notopenandshedtheirseeds,asisthecasewiththemonkey-pottree.Thewholefruitfallsatonce;andasitisveryheavy,andthebranchesonwhichitgrowsareoftennearlyahundredfeetfromtheground,itmayeasilybeimaginedthatitcomesdownlikeaten-poundshot;infact,oneofthemfallingupontheheadofaMundrucuwouldbeverylikelytocrushhiscranium,asabulletwouldanegg-shell; and such accidents not unfrequently occur to persons passingimprudently under the branches of the Bertholetia when its nuts are ripe.Sometimes themonkeys, when on the ground looking after those that havefallen, become victims to the like accident; but these creatures are cunningreasoners, andbeingbyexperienceawareof thedanger,will scarceevergounderajuvia-tree,butwhenpassingonealwaysmakeawidecircuitaroundit.Themonkeyscannotofthemselvesopenthegreatpericarp,astheydothatofthe “sapuçaia,” but are crafty enough to get at the precious contents,notwithstanding. In doing this they avail themselves of the help of othercreatures,thathavealsoamotiveinopeningthejuviashells—caviesandothersmallrodentanimals,whoseteeth,formedforthisverypurpose,enablethemto gnaw a hole in the ligneous pericarps, hard and thick as they are.Meanwhile themonkeys, squattedaround,watch theoperation inacareless,

nonchalantsortofway,asiftheyhadnoconcernwhateverintheresult;butassoonastheyperceivethatanentrancehasbeeneffected,bigenoughtoadmittheirhand,theyrushforward,driveofftheweakercreature,whohasbeensolongandlaboriouslyatwork,andtakepossessionoftheprize.Neither does the Mundrucu nut-gatherer get possession of the juvia fruitwithoutacertaindegreeofdangerandtoil.Hehastoclimbthetallesttrees,tosecurethewholecropatonetime;andwhileengagedincollectingthoseupontheground,heisindangerofablowfromoddonesthatareconstantlyfalling.Tosecurehisskullagainstaccidents,hewearsuponhisheadathickwoodencaporhelmet,—afterthefashionofthehatswornbyourfiremen,—andheisalwayscarefultokeephisbodyinanuprightattitude,stoopingasseldomashe can avoiddoing so, lest hemight get a thumpbetween the shoulders, oruponthespineofhisback,whichwouldbeverylikelytoflattenhimoutupontheearth.TheseBrazil-nutsfurnishtheMundrucuwithaportionofhisfood,—astheyalsodomanyothertribesofAmazonianIndians,—andtheyarealsoanitemofIndiancommerce,beingcollectedfromamongthedifferenttribesbythePortugueseandSpanishtraders.ButtheMundrucudoesnotdependaltogetheronthespontaneousproductionsof the forest, which at best furnish only a precarious supply. He doessomething in the agricultural line,—cultivating a little manioc root, with,plantains,yams,andothertropicalplantsthatproduceanenormousyieldwiththeveryslightesttroubleorattention;andthisisexactlywhatsuitshim.Afewdaysspentbythelittlecommunityintheyampatch—orrather,bythewomenand children, for these are the agricultural labourers in Mundrucu-land—issufficienttoensureanabundantsupplyofbread-stuffforthewholeyear.Withregardtoflesh-meatheisnotsowelloff,forthedomesticanimals,andoxenmoreespecially,donotthriveintheAmazoncountry.InMundrucu-land,thecarnivorousjaguar,aidedbyfliesandvampirebats,wouldsoondestroythem,eveniftheIndianhadtheinclinationtoraisethem,whichhehasnot.Instead of beef, therefore, he contents himselfwith fish, and occasionally asteakfromthegreattapir,oragriskinofmanati.Birds,too,furnishhimwithanoccasionalmeal;butthestaplearticleofhisfleshdietisobtainedfromthequadrumana,—the numerous species of monkeys with which his forestsabound.Theseheobtainsbyshootingthemdownfromthetreeswithhisbowandarrows,andalsobyvariousotherhuntingdevices.Hismodeofcookingthemissufficientlypeculiartobedescribed.Alargelogfire is first kindled and permitted to burn until a sufficient quantity of redcinders are produced. Over these cinders a grating is erected with greensaplingsofwood, laid parallel to eachother like thebars of a gridiron, anduponthisthe“joint”islaid.Nothingisdonetothemonkeybeforeitsbeingplacedonthegridiron.Itsskin

isnotremoved,andeventheintestinesarenotalwaystakenout.ThefirewillsingeoffthehairsufficientlytocontentaMundrucustomach,andthehideisbroiledandeaten,withtheflesh.Itisthusliterally“carneconcuero.”Itmay be observed that this forest gridiron, or “barbecue,” as it is properlytermed, is not an idea exclusively confined to South America. It is in useamongtheIndiansofthenorth,andvariousuncivilisedtribesinotherpartsoftheworld.Sometimes theMundrucudoesnot take the trouble toconstruct thegridiron.Whenon themarch in somewarlike expedition thatwill not allow time forbeing particular about themode of cooking, the joint is broiled upon a spitoverthecommonfire.Thespitissimplyastick,sharpenedatbothends,oneofwhichimpalesthemonkey,andtheotherisstuckintotheground.Thestickis then set with a lean towards the fire, so as to bring the carcass over theblaze.Whileonthespitthemonkeyappearsinasittingposition,withitsheadupward, and its long tail hanging along the sapling,—just as if it were stillliving,andinoneofitsmostnaturalattitudes,clingingtothebranchofatree!Thesight issufficientlycomical;butsometimesapainfulspectaclehasbeenwitnessed,—painfultoanyonebutasavage:whentheyoungofthemonkeyhas been captured along with its dam, and still recognising the form of itsparent,—evenwhenallthehairhasbeensingedoff,andtheskinhasbecomecalcinedbythefire,—isseenrushingforwardintotheveryflames,andwithplaintive cry inviting the maternal embrace! Such an affecting incident hasbeenoftenwitnessedamidtheforestsofAmazopia.We conclude our sketch of the Mundrucus, by stating that their form ofgovernment is despotic, though not to an extreme degree. The “tushao,” orchief,hasconsiderablepower,thoughitisnotabsolute,anddoesnotextendtothe takingof life,—unless theobjectofdispleasurebea slave, andmanyoftheseareheldinabjectbondageamongtheMundrucus.TheMundrucureligionresemblesthatofmanyothertribesbothinNorthandSouthAmerica.Itconsistsinabsurdceremonies,andappealstothegoodandevilspiritsoftheotherworld,andismixedupwithavastdealofquackeryinrelationtotheillsthatafflicttheMundrucuinthislife.Inotherwords,itisacombinationofthepriestanddoctorunitedinone,thatarch-charlatanknownto the North-American Indians as the “Medicine-man,” and among theMundrucusasthe“Puge.”

ChapterSix.TheCentaursofthe“GranChaco.”

IhaveelsewherestatedthatabroadbandofindependentIndianterritory—thatis,territoryneverreallysubduedorpossessedbytheSpaniards—traversestheinterior of South America, extending longitudinally throughout the wholecontinent. Beginning at Cape Horn, it ends in the peninsula of the freeGoajiros,whichprojectsintotheCaribbeanSea,—inotherwords,itisnearly5,000milesinlength.Inbreadthitvariesmuch.InPatagoniaandaportionofthePampascountryitextendsfromtheAtlantictothePacific,anditisofstillwider extent on the latitude of theAmazon river,where thewhole country,fromtheAtlantictothePeruvianAndes,—withtheexceptionofsomethinly-placedBrazilian settlements,—is occupied by tribes of independent Indians.At either point this territorywill appear—uponmaps—to be interrupted bytracts of country possessing civilised settlements. The names of towns andvillagesaresetasthicklyasifthecountrywerewellpeopled;andnumerousroadsaretraced,formingalabyrinthinenetworkuponthepaper.AbroadbeltofthiskindextendsfromtheLowerParana(LaPlate)totheAndesofChili,constituting the upper provinces of the “Argentine Confederation;” anotherapparentlyjoinsthesettlementsofBoliviaandBrazil;andagaininthenorth,theprovincesofVenezuelaappeartobeunitedtothoseofNewGranada.Allthis,however,ismoreapparentthanreal.Thetownsuponthemapsareingeneralmererancherias,orcollectionsofhuts;someofthemarethenamesoffortified posts, and a large proportion are but ruins,—the ruins of monkishmissionsettlementslongsincegonetodestruction,andwithlittleelsethanthenameonthemaptotestifythattheyeverhadanexistence.Theroadsarenoroadsatall,nothingmorethantracingsonthechartshowingthegeneralrouteoftravel.Even across the Argentine provinces—where this nomenclature appearsthickestuponthemap—thehorseIndianofthePampasextendshisforaysatwill; his “range”meeting, and, in some cases, “dovetailing” into that of thetribesdwellinguponthenorthernsideofthesesettlements.Thelatter,intheirturn,carrytheirplunderingexpeditionsacrosstotheCamposParexis,ontheheadwatersoftheAmazon,whencestretchestheindependentterritory,farandwidetotheAmazonitself;thencetotheOrinoco,andacrosstheLlanostotheshoresoftheMaracaiboGulf—thefreerangeoftheindependentGoajiros.Thisimmensebeltofterritory,then,isinactualpossessionoftheaborigines.Although occupied at a few points by the white race,—Spanish andPortuguese,—the occupation scarce deserves the name. The settlements aresparseandratherretrogradethanprogressive.TheIndianrangesthroughandaroundthem,whereverandwheneverhisinclinationleadshim;andonlywhensomehumiliating treatyhas securedhima temporary respite fromhostilitiesdoesthecolonistenjoytranquillity.Atothertimeshelivesincontinualdread,scarcedaring to trusthimselfbeyond the immediatevicinityofhishouseor

village,bothofwhichhehasbeenunderthenecessityoffortifying.ItistruethatatoneperiodofSouth-Americanhistorythingswerenotquitesobad. When the Spanish nation was at the zenith of its power a differentcondition existed; but even then, in the territory indicated, therewere largetractscircumstancedjustasat thepresenthour,—tractswhich theSpaniards,withalltheirboastedwarlikestrength,wereunableeventoexplore,muchlesstosubdue.Oneof thesewas thatwhich forms thesubjectofour sketch,“ElGranChaco.”OfallthetractsofwildterritoryexistinginSouthAmerica,andknownbythedifferent appellations of Pampas, Paramos, Campos Parexis, thePuna, thePajonal,Llanos, andMontanas, there is none possessed of a greater interestthanthatofElGranChaco,—perhapsnotonethatequalsitinthisrespect.Itisinteresting,notonlyfromhavingapeculiarsoil,climate,andproductions,butquiteasmuchfromthecharacterandhistoryofitsinhabitants,bothofwhichpresentuswithtraitsandepisodestrulyromantic.The“GranChaco”is200,000squaremilesinextent,ortwicethesizeoftheBritish Isles. Its eastern boundary iswell-defined, being the Paraguay river,anditscontinuationtheParana,downtothepointwherethelatterreceivesoneofitsgreatwesterntributaries,theSalado;andthislastisusuallyregardedasthe southern and western boundary of the Chaco. Northward its limits arescarcely sodefinite; though thehighlandsofBolivia and theoldmissionaryprovince ofChiquitos, forming thewater-shed between the rivers of the LaPlata and the Amazonian basins—may be geographically regarded as theterminationoftheChacointhatdirection.Northandsouthitextendsthroughelevendegreesoflatitude;eastandwestitisofunequalbreadth,—sometimesexpanding,sometimescontracting,accordingtotheabilityofthewhitesettlersalongitborderstomaintaintheirfrontier.Onitseasternside,asalreadystated,the frontier is definite, and terminates on the banks of the Paraguay andParana.Eastofthisline—coincidingalmostwithameridianoflongitude—theIndian of the Gran Chaco does not roam, the well-settled province ofCorrientes and the dictatorial government of Paraguay presenting a firmerfront of resistance; but neither does the colonist of these countries think ofcrossingtothewesternbankoftheboundaryrivertoformanyestablishmentthere.He dares not even set his foot upon the territory of theChaco. For athousandmiles,upanddown,thetworaces,EuropeanandAmerican,holdtheoppositebanksof thisgreat stream.Theygazeacross at eachother: theonefrom theporticoofhiswell-builtmansion,orperhaps from the streetofhistown; theother,standingbyhishumble“toldo,”ormat-covered tent,—moreprobably, upon the back of his half-wild horse, reined up for amoment onsomeprojecting promontory that commands the viewof the river.And thushavethesetworacesgazedateachotherfor threecenturies,with littleother

intercoursepassingbetweenthemthanthatofadeadlyhostility.ThesurfaceoftheGranChacoisthroughoutofachampaigncharacter.Itmaybedescribedasavastplain.Itisnot,however,acontinuationofthePampas,sincethetwoareseparatedbyamorebrokentractofcountry,inwhichliethesierras of Cordova and San Luis, with the Argentine settlements alreadymentioned.Besides, the twogreat plains differ essentially in their character,eventoagreaterextentthandothePampasthemselvesfromthedesertsteppesofPatagonia.OnlyafewoftheanimalandvegetableproductionsoftheGranChaco are identicalwith thoseof thePampas, and its Indian inhabitants arealtogether unlike the sanguinary savages of the more southern plain. TheChaco,approachingmanydegreesnearertotheequator,ismoretropicalinitscharacter;infact,thenorthernportionofitistrulyso,lyingasitdoeswithinthetorridzone,andpresentingtheaspectofatropicalvegetation.EveryinchoftheChacoiswithinthepalmregion;butinitsnorthernhalfthesebeautifultreesaboundinnumberlessspecies,yetunknowntothebotanist,andformingthe characteristic features of the landscape. Some grow in forests of manymiles in extent, others only in “clumps,” with open, grass-covered plainsbetween,whilestillotherspeciesmingletheirgracefulfrondswiththeleavesandbranchesofdicotyledonous trees,orclasped in theembraceof luxuriantllianas and parasitical climbers form groves of themost variegated verdureand fantastic outlines. With such groves the whole surface of the Chacocountry isenamelled; the intervalsbetweenbeingoccupiedbyplainsof richwaving grass, now and then tracts of morass covered with tall and elegantreeds,a fewaridspotsbristlingwithsingular formsofalgarobiaandcactus,and,insomeplaces,isolatedrockymounds,ofdomeorconicalshape,risingabovethegeneralleveloftheplains,asifintendedtobeusedaswatch-towersfortheirguardianshipandsafety.Such are the landscapes which the Grand Chaco presents to the eye—fardifferentfromthebaldanduniformmonotonyexhibitedintheaspectofeitherPrairie or Pampa; far grander and lovelier than either—in point of scenicloveliness,perhaps,unequalledonearth.Nowonder, then, that theIndianofSouthAmericaesteemsitasanearthlyElysium;nowonderthattheSpaniarddreamsofitassuch,—thoughtotheSpanishpriestandtheSpanishsoldierithaseverprovedmoreofaPurgatorythanaParadise.Bothhaveentereduponits borders, but neither has been able to dwell within its domain; and theattemptsatitsconquest,byswordandcross,havebeenalikeunsuccessful,—equallyandfatallyrepulsed, throughoutaperiodofmorethanthreehundredyears.At this hour, as at the timeof thePeruvian conquest,—ason thedaywhen the ships of Mendoza sailed up the waters of the Parana,—the GranChacoisanunconqueredcountry,ownedbyitsaboriginalinhabitants,andbythemalone.Itistruethatitisclaimed,bothbySpaniardandPortuguese;andbyno less than four separate claimantsbelonging to these twonationalities.

BrazilandBolivia,ParaguayandtheArgentineConfederation,allasserttheirtitle to a slice of this earthly paradise; and even quarrel as to how theirboundarylinesshouldintersectit!There is something extremely ludicrous in these claims,—since neither onenorotherofthefourpowerscanshowtheslightestbasisforthem.Notoneofthem can pretend to the claim of conquest; and far less can they rest theirrightsuponthebasisofoccupationorpossession.Sofarfrompossessingtheland,notoneofthemdaresetfootoveritsborders;andtheyareonlytoowellpleased if its present occupants are contented to remain within them. Theclaim,therefore,ofbothSpaniardandPortuguese,hasnohighertitle,thanthatsomethreehundredandfiftyyearsagoitwasgiventhembythePope,—atitlenotlessludicrousthantheirkissingthePope’stoetoobtainit!Inthemidstofthesefourconflictingclaimants,thereappearsafifth,andthatistherealowner,—the“redIndian”himself.Hisclaimhas“threepointsofthelaw”inhisfavour,—possession,—andperhapsthefourth,too,—thepowertokeeppossession.Atallevents,hehasheldit for threehundredyearsagainstall odds and all comers; and who knows that he may not hold it for threehundredyearsmore?—only,itistobehoped,foradifferentuse,andundertheinfluenceofamoreprogressivecivilisation.TheIndian, then, is theundoubted lordof the“GranChaco.”Letusdrop inupon him, and see what sort of an Indian he is, and how he manages thismajesticdomain.After having feasted our eyes upon the rich scenery of the land,—upon theverdant plains, mottled with copses of “quebracho” and clumps of theCaranday palm,—upon landscapes that resemble the most lordly parks, welookaround for themansionsand theowners.Themansion isnot there,buttheownerstandsbeforeus.Weareatoncestruckbyhisappearance:hispersontall,andstraightasareed,his frame muscular, his limbs round and well-proportioned, piercing coal-blackeyes,well-formedfeatures,andslightlyaquilinenose,—andperhapswearea littlesurprisedat thelightcolourofhisskin.Inthiswenoteadecidedpeculiaritywhichdistinguisheshimfrommostothertribesofhisrace.Itisnota red Indianwe behold, nor yet acopper-coloured savage; but amanwhosecomplexionisscarcedarkerthanthatofthemulatto,andnotatalldeeperinhuethanmanyaSpaniardofAndalusiandescent,whoboastspossessionofthepurest “sangre azul;” not one shade darker than thousands of PortuguesedwellingupontheothersideoftheBrazilianfrontier.Andremember,thatitisthetrueskinoftheChacoIndianwehavebeforeourview,—and not a painted one,—for here, almost for the first time, do weencounter the native complexion of the aboriginal, undisfigured by those

horridpigmentswhichinthesepageshavesooftenglaredbeforetheeyesofourreaders.Ofpaint,theChacoIndianscarceknowstheuse;or,atallevents,employsitsparingly,andonlyat intervals,onveryparticularandceremonialoccasions.Wearespared,therefore,thedescribinghisescutcheon,andapositivereliefitis.Itwouldbeaninterestinginquirytotraceoutthecauseofhisthusabstainingfromacustomalmostuniversalamonghisrace.Whydoesheabjurethepaint?Isitbecausehecannotaffordit,orthatitisnotprocurableinhiscountry?No;neitherofthesecanbeofferedasareason.The“annotto”bush(Bixaorellana),andthewild-indigo,aboundinhisterritory;andheknowshowtoextractthecoloursofboth,—forhiswomendoextract them,anduse themindying theyarnof theirwebs.Otherdyewoods—amultitudeofothers—hecouldeasilyobtain; and even the cochineal cactus, with its gaudy vermilion parasite, isindigenous tohis land. Itcannotbe thescarcityof thematerial thatpreventshimfromemployingit,—whatthen?The cause is unexplained; but may it not be that this romantic savage,otherwisemorehighlygiftedthantherestofhisrace,isendowedalsowithatruersenseofthebeautifulandbecoming?Quiensabe?Letitnotbeunderstood,however,thatheisaltogetherfreefromthe“taint,”—forhedoespaintsometimes,asalreadyadmitted;anditmustberemembered,moreover, that the Chaco Indians are not all of one tribe, nor of onecommunity. There aremany associations of them scattered over the face ofthisvastplain,whoarenotallalike,eitherintheirhabitsorcustoms,but,onthe contrary, very unlike; who are not even at all times friendly with eachother,butoccupiedwith feudsandvendettasof themostdeadlydescription.Some of these tribes paint most frightfully, while others of them go stillfarther, and scarify their faces with the indelible tattoo,—a custom that inAmericaisalmostconfinedtotheIndiansoftheChacoandafewtribesonthesoutherntributariesoftheAmazon.Happilythiscustomisonthedecline:themen practise it no longer; but, by a singular perversity of taste, it is stilluniversalamongthewomen,andnoChacobellewouldbeesteemedbeautifulwithout a crossof bluish-blackdots uponher forehead, a lineof likepointsextending from the angle of each eye to the ears, with a variety of similarmarkingsuponhercheeks,arms,andbosom.Allthisisdonewiththepointofathorn,—thespineofamimosa,orofthecaraguatayaloe;andthedarkpurplecolourisobtainedbyinfusingcharcoalintothefreshandbleedingpunctures.Itisanoperationthatrequiresdaystocomplete,andthepainfromitisofthemost acute and prolonged character, enduring until the poisoned woundsbecomecicatrised.Andyet it isbornewithoutamurmur,—justaspeople incivilisedlifebearthepainfulapplicationofhair-dyesandtweezers.

Ineednotsaythat thehairoftheChacoIndiandoesnotneedtobedyed,—thatis,unlessheweretofancyhavingitofawhite,orared,oryellowcolour,—notanuncommonfancyamongsavages.His taste, however, does not run that way any more than among civiliseddandies,andheiscontentedwithitsnaturalhue,whichisthatoftheraven’swing.Butheisnotcontentedtoleaveittoitsnaturalgrowth.Onlyaportionofit,—thatwhichcoverstheupperpartofhishead,—ispermittedtoretainitsfulllengthandflowingglories.Fortheremainder,hehasapeculiartonsureofhisown;andthehairimmediatelyovertheforehead—andsometimesastriperunning all around above the ears, to the back of the head—is either closeshavenwithasharpshell,orpluckedentirelyoutbyapairofhorntweezersofnativemanufacture.Were it not that the long and luxuriant tresses that stillremain,—covering his crown, as with a crest,—the shorn circle wouldassimilatehimtosomeordersoffriars;but,notwithstandingthesimilarityoftonsure,thereisnotmuchresemblancebetweenaChacoIndianandabrotherofthecrucifixandcowl.Thismodeof“dressingthehair”isnotaltogetherpeculiartotheIndianoftheGranChaco.Itisalsopractisedbycertainprairietribes,—theOsage,Pawnee,and two or three others; but all these carry the “razor” a little higher up,leavingamerepatch,or“scalp-lock,”uponthecrown.TheChaco tribesarebeardlessbynature;and ifa fewhairschance toshowthemselvesuponcheekorchin,theyarecarefully“wed”out.Inalikefashionboth men and women serve their eyebrows and lashes,—sacrificing theseundoubted ornaments, as they say, to a principle of utility, since they allegethattheycanseebetterwithoutthem!Theylaughatwhitemen,whopreservethese appendages, calling them “ostrich-eyed,”—from a resemblance whichtheyperceivebetweenhairybrowsandthestiff,hair-likefeathersthatbristleroundtheeyesoftherhea,orAmericanostrich,—awell-knowndenizenoftheGranChaco.Thecostumeof theChacoIndian isoneofexceedingsimplicity;and in thisagainweobserveapeculiartraitofhismind.Insteadofthetawdryandtinselornaments,inwhichmostsavagesdelighttoarraythemselves,heiscontentedwithasinglestripofcloth,foldedtightlyaroundhisloins.Itisusuallyeitherapieceofwhitecotton,orofwoolwoveninatri-colourofred,white,andblue,andofhuessobrilliant,as toproducealtogetheraprettyeffect.Thewearofthewomenscarcediffersfromthatofthemen,andthecoveringofboth,scantasitis,isneitherinelegantnorimmodest.Itiswelladaptedtotheirmodeoflife,andtotheirclimate,whichisthatofaneternalspring.Whencoldwindssweepovertheirgrassyplains,theyseekprotectionunderthefoldsofamoreamplecovering,withwhichtheyareprovided,—acloakusuallymadeofthesoft fur of the “nutria,” or South-American otter, or a robe of the beautiful

spotted skin of the jaguar. They wear neither head-dress norchaussure,—neither pendants from the nose, not the hideous lip ornaments seen amongother tribes of SouthAmerica; butmany of them pierce the ears; andmoreespeciallythewomen,whosplitthedelicatelobes,andinsertintothemspiralappendagesofrolledpalm-leaf,thathangdanglingtotheirveryshoulders.Itwillbeobserved,therefore,thatamongtheChacotribesthewomendisfigurethemselvesmorethanthemen,andall,nodoubt,intheinterestoffashion.Itwillbeseen that thesimpledresswehavedescribed leaves the limbsandmostpartofthebodybare.Tothesuperficialobserveritmightbedeemedaninelegantcostume,andperhapssoitwouldbeamongEuropeans,orso-called“whites.”ThedeformedfiguresofEuropeanpeople—deformedbyagesoftoilandmonarchicalserfdom—wouldillbearexposuretothelight,neitherwouldthe tripe-coloured skin, of which they are so commonly conceited. A verydifferentimpressionisproducedbytherichbrunettehue,—bronze,ifyouwill,—especially when, as in the case of the Chaco Indian, it covers a body ofpropershape,witharmsandlimbsinsymmetricalproportion.Then,andthenonly,doescostlyclothingappearsuperfluous,andtheeyeatonceadmitsthatthereisnofashiononearthequaltothatofthehumanformitself.Abovealldoesitappeargracefulonhorseback,andalmostuniversallyinthisattitudedoestheChacoIndianexhibitit.Scarceevermaywemeethimafoot,butalwaysonthebackofhisbeautifulhorse,—thetwotogetherpresentingtheaspectoftheCentaur.Andprobablyintheresemblanceheapproachesnearerto the true idealof theGrecianmyth, thananyotherhorsemanin theworld;fortheChacoIndiansdiffernotonlyfromother“horseIndians”intheirmodeof equitation,but also fromeveryother equestrianpeople.Theabsurdhigh-peakedsaddlesofTartarandArab,withtheirgaudytrappings,areunknowntohim,—unknown, too, the ridiculous paraphernalia, half-hiding the horse, inuse among Mexicans, South-American Spaniards, and even the Indians ofothertribes,—despisedbyhimtheplatedbits,theembroideredbridles,andthetinklingspurs,so tickling to thevanityofotherNew-Worldequestrians.TheChaco horseman needs no such accessories to his elegance. Saddle he hasnone,oronly theslightestpatchof jaguar-skin,—spursandstirrupsarealikeabsent.Nakedhesitsuponhisnakedhorse,thebeautifulcurvatureofwhoseform is interrupted by no extraneous trappings,—even the thong that guideshimscarceobservablefromitsslightness.Whothencandenyhisresemblancetothecentaur?Thusmounted,withnoothersaddle than thatdescribed,nobridlebuta thinstrip of raw hide looped around the lower jaw of his horse, he will gallopwildly over the plain,wheel in graceful curves to avoid the burrows of theviscacha,passatfullspeedthroughtheclose-standingandoftenthornytrunksof thepalms,or, ifneedbe,standerectupon thewithersofhishorse, likea

“star rider” of the Hippodrome. In this attitude he looks abroad for hisenemies,orthegameofwhichhemaybeinsearch;and,thuselevatedabovesurroundingobjects,hediscoverstheostrichfaroffupontheplain, thelargedeer (cervus campestris), and the beautiful spotted roebucks that browse incountlessherdsuponthegrass-coveredsavannas.ThedwellingoftheChacoIndianisatent,notcoveredwithskins,butusuallywithmatswovenfromtheepidermisofyoungleavesofapalm-tree.Itissetupbytwolonguprightsandaridge-pole,overwhichthematissuspended—verymuchafter the fashionof the tented’abriusedbyZouavesoldiers.Hisbedisahammock,swungbetweentheuprightpoles,oroftener,betweentwopalm-treesgrowingnear.Heonlyseeksshelterinhistentwhenitrains,andhepreventsitsfloorgettingwetbydiggingatrencharoundtheoutside.Hecareslittleforexposuretothesun;buthiswifeismoredelicate,andusuallycarriesoverherheadalargebunchofrheafeathers,àlaparasol,whichprotectsherfacefromthehotscorchingbeams.The tentdoesnot stand long inonesituation.Ampleas is the supplywhichNatureaffords in thewildsof theChaco, it isnotallpouredout inanyoneplace. This would be too much convenience, and would result in an evilconsequence. The receiver of such a benefit would soon become indolent,fromtheabsenceofallnecessityforexertion;andnotonlyhishealth,buthismoralnature,wouldsufferfromsuchabundance.FortunatelynosuchfateislikelytobefalltheIndianoftheChaco.Thefooduponwhichhesubsistsisderivedfrommanyvariedsources,afewofwhichonly are to be found in any one particular place, and each only at its ownseasonoftheyear.Forinstance,uponthedryplainshepursuestherheaandviscacha, the jaguar, puma, and partridges; inwoods andmarshy places thedifferentspeciesofwildhogs(peccaries).Onthebanksofriversheencountersthetapirandcapivara,andintheirwaters,fish,utrias,geese,andducks.Inthedenser forest-covered tracts hemust look for the various kinds ofmonkeys,which also constitute a portion of his food. When he would gather thelegumes, of thealgarobias—of several species—or collects the sugary sapofthecaraguatay,hemustvisitthetractswherethemimosaeandbromeliasaloneflourish;and thenheemploysmuchofhis timeinsearchingfor thenestsofwildbees,fromthehoneyofwhichandtheseedsofthealgarobiahedistilsapleasantbuthighlyintoxicatingdrink.Tohiscredit,however,heusesthisbutsparingly,andonlyupongrandoccasionsofceremony;howdifferentfromthebestialchicha-drinkingrevellersofthePampas!These numerous journeys, and the avocations connectingwith them, hindertheChacoIndianfromfallingintohabitsofidleness,andpreservehishealthtoa longevity that is remarkable: somuch so, that “to liveas longas aChacoIndian,” has become a proverbial expression in the settlements of South

America.TheoldStyrianmonkDobrizhofferhaschronicled theastounding facts, thatamong these people a man of eighty is reckoned to be in the prime ofmanhood;thatahundredyearsisaccountedacommonage;andthatmanyofthemarestillhaleandheartyattheageofonehundredandtwenty!Allowingforalittleexaggerationinthestatementsofthemonk,itisneverthelesscertainthat the Indians of the Gran Chaco, partly owing to their fine climate, andpartlytotheirmodeoflifeandsubsistence,enjoyhealthandstrengthtoaveryold age, and to adegreeunknown in less-favoured regionsof theworld.Ofthisthereisampleandtrustworthytestimony.Thefoodof theChacoIndian isofasimplecharacter,andhemakesnouseeitherofsaltorspices.Heisusuallytheownerofasmallherdofcattleandafewsheep,whichhehasobtainedbyplunderingtheneighbouringsettlementsof theSpaniards. It is towards thoseof the southandwest thathegenerallydirects his hostile forays; for he is at peace with the riverine provinces,—Brazilian,Paraguayan,andCorrentine.Intheseexcursionshetravelslongdistances,crossingmanyafordlessstreamand river, and taking along with him wife, children, tents, and utensils, inshort, everything which he possesses. He fords the streams by swimming,usingonehandtoguidehishorse.Withthishandhecanalsopropelhimself,whileintheother,hecarrieshislonglance,onthetopofwhichhepoisesanyobjecthedoesnotwishshouldbewetted.A“balza,”called“pelota,”madeofbull’s hide, andmore like a square box than a boat, carries over the houseutensils and the puppies, of which there are always a large number. The“preciousbaby” isalsoapassengerby thebalza.Thepelota ispropelled,orrather, pulled over, by means of a tiller-rope, held in the teeth of a strongswimmer,ortiedtothetailofahorse;andthusthecrossingiseffected.Returningwithhisplunder—withherdsofhomedcattleorflocksofsheep—not unfrequently with human captives, women and children, the crossingbecomesmoredifficult;butheiscertaintoeffect itwithoutloss,andalmostwithoutdangerofbeingovertakeninthepursuit.Hisfreebootinghabitsshouldnotbecensuredtoogravely.Manyextenuatingcircumstancesmustbe takenintoconsideration,—hiswrongsandsanguinarypersecutions. It must be remembered that the hostilities commenced on theoppositeside;andwith the Indian thehabit isnotaltogether indigenous,butrathertheresultoftheprincipleofretaliation.HeisnearkindredtotheIncas,—in fact, some of the Chaco tribes are remnants of the scattered Peruvianrace,andhestill remembers thesanguinaryslaughterofhisancestorsbythePizarros and Almagros. Therefore, using the phraseology of the Frenchtribunals,wemaysaythereare“extenuatingcircumstancesinhisfavour.”Onecircumstanceundoubtedlyspeaks trumpet-tonguedfor theChacoIndian;and

thatis,hedoesnottorturehiscaptives,evenwhenwhitemenhavefallenintohis hands! As to the captive women and children, their treatment is rathergentlethanotherwise;infact,theyareadoptedintothetribe,andshare,alikewiththerest,thepleasuresaswellasthehardshipsofasavagelife.WhentheChacoIndianpossesseshornedcattleandsheep,heeatsmuttonandbeef;but if thesearewanting,hemust resort to thechase.Hecapturesdeerandostrichesby running themdownwithhis swift steed,andpiercing themwithhis longspear; andoccasionallyheuses thebolas.For smallergameheemploys thebowandarrow,and fisharealsocaughtbyshooting themwitharrows.TheChaco Indian is theownerofabreedofdogs, and largepacksof theseanimalsmaybeseenaroundhiscamping-ground,orfollowingthecavalcadeinitsremovalfromplacetoplace.Theyaresmallcreatures,—supposedtobederivedfromaEuropeanstock,but theyarewonderfullyprolific, thefemaleoftenbringingforthtwelvepuppiesatabirth.Theyburrowintheground,andsubsiston theoffalof thecamp.Theyareused in runningdown thespottedroebuck,inhuntingthecapivara,thegreatant-bear,viscachas,andothersmallanimals.The tapir is taken in traps, and also speared,when the opportunityoffers. His flesh is relished by the Chaco Indian, but his hide is of moreconsequence, as from it bags, whips, and various other articles can bemanufactured.Thepeccaryoftwospecies(dicotylestorquatusandcollaris)isalsopursuedbythedogs,andspearedbythehunterwhilepausingtobaytheyelpingpack;andthegreatAmericantiger(jaguar)iskilledinalikemanner.The slayingof this fierce andpowerful quadruped is oneof the featsof theChaco hunter, and both its skin and flesh are articles of eager demand.Thelatter is particularly sought for; as by eating the flesh of so strong andcourageousacreaturetheIndianfancieshisownstrengthandcouragewillbeincreased.Whenajaguariskilled,itscarcassbecomesthecommonpropertyof all; and each individual of the tribe must have his slice, or “griskin,”—however small the piece may be after such multiplied subdivision! For thesamereason,thefleshofthewildboarisrelished;alsothatoftheant-bear—oneof themost courageous of animals,—andof the tapir, on account of itsgreatstrength.Thebreadof theChacoIndianisderived,asbeforementioned,fromseveralspecies of mimosae, called indefinitely algarobias, and by the missionarymonksknownas“SaintJohn’sbread.”Palmsofvariouskindsfurnishediblenuts;andtherearemanytreesintheChacoforeststhatproducelusciousfruits.With these the Indian varies his diet, and also with wild honey,—a mostimportantarticle,forreasonsalreadyassigned.IntheChacotherearestinglessbees, of numerous distinct species,—a proof of the many blossoms whichbloomasitwere“unseen”inthatfloweryElysium.Thehoneyofthesebees—

ofsomeof thespecies inparticular—isknowntobeof thefinestandpurestquality.IntheSpanishsettlementsitcommandsthehighestprice,andisverydifficulttobeobtained,—fortheChacoIndianisbutlittlegiventocommerce,andonlyoccasionallybringsittomarket.Hehasbutfewwantstosatisfy,andcares not for the tinsel of the trader: hence it is that most of the honey hegathers is reserved for his own use. He searches for the bees’ nest byobservingtheflightoftheinsect,asitpassesbackandforwardoverthewildparterre; and his keenness of sight—far surpassing that of a European—enableshim to trace itsmovements in theair, and follow it to itshoard.Healleges that he couldnot accomplish this sowell,werehe encumberedwitheyebrowsandlashes,andoffersthisasoneofhisreasonsforextractingthesehirsuteappendages.Theremaybesomething inwhathesays,—strangeas itsoundstotheearofonewhoisnotabee-hunter.Hefindsthenestatlength,—sometimesinahollowtree,sometimesuponabranch,—thelatterkindofnestbeingalargemass,ofasubstancelikeblotting-paper,andhangingsuspendedfromthetwigs.Sometimeshetracestheinsecttoasubterraneandwelling;butitmustberemarkedthatallthesearedifferentspeciesofbees,thatbuildtheirnests and construct the cells of their honeycombs each in its own favouriteplace, and according to its own fashion. The bee-hunter cares not how—solongashecanfindthenest;thoughhewouldpreferbeingguidedtoonebuiltupon a species of thick octagonal cactus, known as the habitat of the bee“tosimi.”Thispreferenceiscausedbythesimplefact—thatofallthehoneyintheChaco,thatofthebee“tosimi”isthesweetest.It is to be regretted that,with hismany virtues, and his fine opportunity ofexercising them, the Chaco Indian will not consent to remain in peace andgood-will with all men. It seems a necessity of his nature to have anoccasionalshyatsomeenemy,whetherwhiteorofhisowncomplexion.But,indeed,itwouldberidiculoustocensurehimforthis,sinceitappearsalsotobeaviceuniversalamongmankind;forwhereisthetribeornation,savageorcivilised,who does not practise it, whenever it feels bold enough or strongenoughtodoso?TheChacoIndianisnotaloneinhisdisregardofofthesixthcommandment,—nottheonlybeingonearthwhotoofrequentlygoesforthtobattle.Hehastwodistinctkindsofenemies,—oneofEuropean,theotherofhisownrace,—almostofhisownkindred,youwouldsay.Butitmustberememberedthat there are several distinct tribes dwelling in the Chaco; who, althoughpresentingacertainsimilitude,areinmanyrespectswidelydissimilar;and,sofarfromformingonenation,orlivinginharmoniousalliancewitheachother,aremorefrequentlyengagedinthemostdeadlyhostilities.Theirwarsareallconducted on horseback,—all cavalry skirmishes,—the Chaco Indiandisdaining to touch the ground with his foot. Dismounted he would feelhimselfvanquished,—asmuchoutofhiselementasafish,outofwater!

Hiswarweaponsareofaprimitivekind; theyare thebowand lance,andaspecies of club, known in Spanish phraseology as the “macana.” This lastweaponisalsofoundinthehandsofseveraloftheAmazoniantribes,thoughdiffering slightly in its construction.The“macana”of theChaco Indian is ashort, stout piece of heavy iron-wood,—usually a species known as thequebracha, or “axe-breaker,” which grows plentifully throughout theParaguayancountries.Numerousspeciesaretermed“quebracha”inSpanish-American countries, as there are numerous “iron-woods.”That of Paraguay,likemostothersthathaveobtainedthisname,isaspeciesofebony-wood,orlignum-vitae,—inshort,a trueguaiacum.Thewood ishard, solid,andheavyalmostasmetal;andthereforejusttheverystuffforawar-club.ThemacanaoftheChacoIndianisshort,—notmuchovertwofeetinlength,and is used both for striking in the hand and throwing to a distance. It isthicker,andofcourseheavier,atbothextremities;andthemodeofgraspingitisroundthenarrowpart in themiddle.TheIndianyouths,while trainingforwar,practisethrowingthemacana,asotherpeopleplayatskittlesorquoits.The lazo and bolas are both in the hands of the Chaco tribes, but thesecontrivances areused sparingly, andmore forhunting thanwar.They rarelytroublethemselveswiththemonarealwarexpedition.Theirchiefweaponsagainstanenemyaretheirlonglances,—forthesearefarthemosteffectivearmsforamanmountedonhorseback.ThoseoftheChacoIndianareofenormouslength,theirshaftsbeingoftenfifteenfeetfrombutttobarb.Theyusethemalsowhenmountingonhorseback,inafashionpeculiartothemselves.Theymountbytherightside,contrarytoourEuropeanmode;nor is there the slightest resemblance in any other respect between the twofashionsofgettingintothesaddle.WiththeChacoIndianthereisnoputtingtoes into stirrups,—no tugging at the poor steed’s withers,—no clinging orclimbingintotheseat.Heplacesthebuttofhislanceupontheground,graspsit a littleabovehisheadwith the righthand,and then raisinghis lithebodywithanelastic spring,hedrops likea catupon the spineofhiswell-trainedsteed.Aword,—atouchofhisknee,orotherwell-understoodsignal,—andtheanimalisofflikeanarrow.When the Chaco Indian goes to war against the whites, his arms are thosealreadydescribed.Heisnotyetinitiatedintotheuseofgunsandgunpowder,thoughheoftenexperiencestheirdeadlyeffects.Indeed,thewonderisthathecouldhavemaintainedhisindependencesolong,withsuchweaponsopposedtohim.Gunpowderhasoftengivencowardsthevictoryoverbravemen;buttheChacoIndian,evenwithoutgunpowder,hasmanagedsomehoworothertopreservehisfreedom.When he makes an expedition against the white settlements, he carries noshieldorotherdefensivearmour.Hedidsoatoneperiodofhishistory;but

experience has taught him that these contrivances are of little use againstleadenbullets;andhehasthrownthemaway,takingthemupagain,however,whenhegoestowarwithenemiesofhisownkind.Inattackingasettlementorvillageofthewhites,oneofhisfavouritestrategicplansistosetthehousesonfire;andinthisheveryoftensucceeds,—almostcertainlywhen the thatch chances to bedry.His plan is to project an arrowwithapieceofblazingcottonfastenednearthehead.Forthispurposeheusesthestrongestkindofbow,andlyinguponhisback,bendsitwithhisfeet.Bythis means a much longer range is obtained, and the aim is of littleconsequence,solongasthearrowfallsupontheroofahouse.On going towarwith a hostile tribe of his own kind and colour, he equipshimself in a manner altogether different His face is then painted mostfrightfully,andinthemosthideousdesignsthathisimaginationcansuggest,whilehisbodyisalmostentirelycoveredbyacompletesuitofmail.Thethickhideofthetapirfurnisheshimwiththematerialsforhelmet,cuirass,cuisses,greaves, everything,—and underneath is a lining of jaguar-skin. Thusaccoutredheisinlittledangerfromthearrowsoftheenemy,thoughheisalsosadly encumbered in the management of his horse; and were he upon aplundering expedition against the whites, such an encumbrance wouldcertainlybringhimtogrief.Heknowsthatverywell,andthereforehenevergoesinsuchguiseuponanyforaythatisdirectedtowardsthesettlements.TheChaco Indianhasnowbeenatpeacewithhis easternneighbours—bothSpaniards and Portuguese—for a considerable length of time; but he stillkeepsuphostilitywith the settlementson the south,—thoseofCordovaandSanLuis,—andoftenreturnsfromthesewretchedprovincesladenwithbooty.Ifhe shouldchance tobringawayanything that isofnouse tohim,or thatmay appear superfluous in his savage home,—a harp or guitar, a piece ofcostly furniture, or even a handsome horse,—he is not required to throw itaway:heknows thathecanfindpurchaserson theothersideof theriver,—amongtheSpanishmerchantsofCorrientesorParaguay,whoarereadyatanytimetobecomethereceiversof thepropertystolenfromtheirkindredofthesouth!Such queer three-cornered dealings are also carried on in the northerncountries of Spanish America,—in the provinces of Chihuahua, New Leon,andNewMexico.Theyaretherecalled“cosasdeMexico.”Itappearstheyareequally“cosasdeParaguay.”

ChapterSeven.TheFeegees,orMan-Eaters.

Have I a readerwhohasnotheardof the“Kingof theCannibal Islands?” IthinkImaytakeitforgrantedthatthereisnotoneinmylargecircleofboy-readerswhohasnotheardof that royal anthropophagist, that “mightyking”who,—“Inonehut,Hadfiftywivesasblackassut,Andfiftyofadoublesmut—ThatKingoftheCannibalIslands.”Andyet,strangeasitmayappear,theoldsongwasnoexaggeration—neitherasregards thenumberofhiswives,noranyotherparticularrelatingtoKing“Musty-fusty-shang.” On the contrary, it presents a picture of the life andhabitsofhispolygamousmajestythatis,alas!tooludicrouslylikethetruth.ThoughthekingoftheCannibalIslandshasbeenlongknownbyreputation,people never had any very definite idea in what quarter of the world hismajesty’s dominions lay. Being, as the name implies, an island-kingdom, itwas to be looked for of course, in some part of the ocean; and the PacificOcean or Great South Sea was generally regarded as that in which it wassituated;butwhetheritwastheTongaIslands,ortheMarquesas,ortheLoo-Choos, or the Soo-loos—or some other group, that was entitled to thedistinction of being theman-eating community,with theman-eating king attheirhead—wasnotverydistinctlyascertaineduptoarecentperiod.Onthishead there is uncertainty no longer. Though in several groups of South-SeaIslands the horrible propensity is known to exist, yet the man-eaters, parexcellence, therealbona-fidefollowersof thehabit,are theFeegees.Beyonddoubt these are the greatest cannibals in all creation, their islands the true“CannibalIslands,”andtheirkingnootherthan“Musty-fusty-shang”himself.Alas!thesubjectistooserioustojestupon,anditisnotwithoutpainthatweemployourpenuponit.Thetruthmustneedsbetold;andthereisnoreasonwhy theworld should not know how desperatelywickedmenmay becomeundertheinfluenceofadespotismthatleavesthemassesinthepoweroftheirresponsible few, with no law, either moral or physical, to restrain theirunbridledpassions.Youwill find theFeegee Islands, in thePacificOcean, in the latitudeof 18degrees south. This parallel passes nearly through the centre of the group.Their longitude is remarkable: it is the complement of the meridian ofGreenwich—theline180degrees.Therefore,whenitisnooninLondon,itismidnight among the Feegees. Take the intersection of these two lines, 18degreeslatitudeand180degreeslongitudeasacentre;describeanimaginarycircle, with a diameter of 300 miles; its circumference, with the slight

exceptionofasmalloutlyinggroup,willenclose,ina“ringfence,”asitwere,thewholeFeegeearchipelago.The group numbers, in all, no fewer than 225 islands and islets, of whichbetween80and90areatpresent inhabited—thewholepopulationbeingnotmuch under 200,000. The estimates of writers differ widely on this point;somestate150,000—others,morethandoublethisamount.Thereisreasontobelieve that150,000 is too low.Say, then,200,000; since theoldadage:“Inmediasres,”isgenerallytrue.Onlytwooftheislandsarelarge,—“Viti,”and“Vanua.”Vitiis90mileslong,by50 inbreadth,andVanua100by25.Somearewhatareknownas“coralislands;” others are “volcanic,” presenting all varieties of mountain aspect,ruggedandsublime.Afewofthemountain-peaksattaintheelevationof5,000feet above sea-level, and every form is known—table-topped, dome-shaped,needle,andconical.Infact,nogroupinthePacificaffordssomanyvarietiesofformandaspect,asaretobeobservedintheFeegeearchipelago.Insailingthroughtheseislands,themostlovelylandscapesopenoutbeforetheeye,themost picturesque groupings of rocks, ridges, and mountain-peaks, ravinesfilledwithluxuriantvegetation,valleyscoveredwithsoftverdure,sodivinelyfairastoappeartheabodeofangelicbeings.“Sobeautifulwastheiraspect,”writes one who visited them, “that I could scarcely bring my mind to therealisingsenseofthewell-knownfact, thattheyweretheabodeofasavage,ferocious, and treacherous race of cannibals.” Such, alas! is the fact, well-known,asthewriterobserves.Perhaps to no part of theworld hasNature beenmore bountiful than to theFeegeeIslands.Shehasherepouredoutherfavoursinveryprofusion;andthecornucopiamightberegardedasanemblemoftheland.Therichestproductsof a tropicvegetation flourish in anabundanceelsewhereunknown, and thegrowth of valuable articles of food is almost spontaneous. Many kinds arereally of spontaneous production; and those under cultivation are almostendlessinnumbersandvariety.Yamsgrowtothelengthofsixfeet,weighingone hundred pounds each! and several varieties are cultivated. The sweetpotato reaches the weight of five or six pounds, and the “taro” (Arumesculentum) also produces a root of enormous size, which forms the staplearticle of the Feegeean’s food. Still another great tuber,weighing twenty orthirtypounds,andusedasaliquorice,istheproduceofthe“massawe,”orti-tree(dracaenaterminalis);andtherootofthepipermethisticumoftenattainstheweightofonehundredandfortypounds!Thislastispossessedofhighlynarcoticproperties;and is thematerialuniversallyused in thedistillation,orratherbrewing,ofthenativedrinkcalled“yaqona”—the“kava”oftheSouth-Sea voyagers.Breadfruit grows in abundance: there being no less than ninevarietiesof this celebrated treeupon thedifferent islandsof thegroup, each

producing a distinct kind of fruit; and what is equally remarkable, of themusaceae—the plantain and banana—there are in the Feegee isles thirtydifferentkinds,eitherofspontaneousgrowth,orcultivated!Allthesearewelldistinguishedfromoneanother,andbeardistinctappellations.Threekindsofcocoa-palmadd to the extraordinaryvarietyofvegetable food, aswell as tothepicturesquenessofthescenery;butthereisnolackoflovelyformsinthevegetation,wherethebeautifulti-treegrows,—wherethefernandthescrew-pinesflourish,—whereplantainsandbananasunfoldtheirbroadbrightleavesto the sun; where arums spread their huge fronds mingling with the thicksucculentbladesofthebromelia,andwherepawpaws,shaddocks,orangeandlime-treesexhibiteveryhueoffoliage, fromdeep-green to themostbrilliantgolden.Fruitsofahundredspeciesaregrowninthegreatestplenty;theorangeandthePapuanapple,theshaddockandlemon;inshort,almosteveryspeciesoffruitthat will flourish in a tropical clime. In addition, many indigenous andvaluablekinds,bothofrootsandfruits,arepeculiartotheFeegeegroup,yetunknownanduncultivatedinanyotherpartoftheworld.Eventheveryclothof the country—and a beautiful fabric it makes—is the product of anindigenous tree, the “malo” or paper-mulberry (Brousonetia papyrifera), the“tapa”ofvoyagers.Notonlythematerialfordresses,butthetapestryfortheadornmentoftheirtemples,thecurtainsandhangingsoftheirhouses,areallobtainedfromthisvaluabletree.We have not space for amore detailed account of the productions of theseisles. It would fill a volume to describewith any degree ofminuteness thevariousgeneraandspeciesofitsplantsalone.Enoughhasbeensaidtoshowhowbountiful, or rather howprodigal, nature has been to the islands of theFeegeeanArchipelago.Oftheanimalkingdomthereisnotmuchtobesaid.OfquadrupedsthereistheusualpaucityofspeciesthatisnoticedeverywherethroughoutthePolynesianislands.Dogsandpigsarekept;thelatterinconsiderablenumbers,asthefleshformsanimportantarticleoffood;buttheyarenotindigenoustotheFeegeegroup,thoughtheperiodoftheirintroductionisunknown.Twoorthreesmallrodents are the only quadrupeds yet known to be true natives of the soil.Reptiles are alike scarce in species,—though the turtle is common upon thecoasts,anditsfisheryformstheregularoccupationofaparticularclassoftheinhabitants. The species of birds aremore numerous, and there are parrots,peculiartotheislands,ofrichandbeautifulplumage.Butwearenotallowedtodwelluponthesesubjects.InterestingasmaybethezoologyandbotanyoftheFeegeeanArchipelago,bothsinkintoinsignificancewhenbrought intocomparisonwith its ethnology,—thenaturalhistoryof itshumaninhabitants;—asubjectofdeep,butalas!ofaterriblypainfulinterest.

Byinquiryintotheconditionandcharacterofthesepeople,weshallseehowlittle they have deserved the favours which nature has so bounteouslybestoweduponthem.IntheportraitoftheFeegeeanyouwillexpectsomethingfrightfullyhideous,—knowing,asyoualreadydo,thatheisaneaterofhumanflesh,—amanofgigantic stature, swarthy skin, bloodshot eyes, gaunt, bony jaws, and terrificaspect.Youwillexpectthismantobedescribedasbeingnaked,—oronlywiththe skin of a wild beast upon his shoulders,—building no house,manufacturingnohouseholdorotherutensils,andarmedwithahugeknottedclub,whichhe is ever ready touse:—amanwhodwells in a cavern, sleepsindifferently in the open air or under the shelter of a bush; in short, a truesavage.That is thesortofcreatureyouexpectmetodescribe,andIconfessthatjustsuchaphysicalaspect—justsuchaconditionofpersonalhideousness—wouldbeexactlyinkeepingwiththemoraldeformityoftheFeegeean.Youwould furthermore expect this savage to be almost devoid of intellectualpower,—altogetherwantinginmoralsense,—withoutknowledgeofrightandwrong,—withoutknowledgeofanykind,—withoutideas.Itseemsbutnaturalyoushouldlookforsuchcharacteristicsinacannibal.TheportraitIamabouttopaintwilldisappointyou.Idonotregretit,sinceitenablesmetobringforwardanothertestimonythatmaninhisoriginalnatureisnotabeingofsuchdesperatewickedness.Thatsimpleandprimitivestate,whichmengliblycallsavage,isnottheconditionfavourabletocannibalism.Iknow that it is to such people that the habit is usually ascribed, but quiteerroneously.TheAndamanislanderhasbeenblamedwithitsimplybecauseshechancestogonaked,andlooks,asheis,hungryandemaciated.Thechargeis proved false. The Bushman of South Africa has enjoyed a similarreputation. It also turns out to be a libel. The Carib long lived under theimputation, simplybecausehepresenteda fierce front to theSpanish tyrant,whowouldhaveenslavedhim;andwehaveheardthesamestigmacastuponadozenothertribes,thelowestsavagesbeingusuallyselected;inotherwords,those whose condition appeared the most wretched. In such cases theaccusationhaseverbeenfound,uponinvestigation,tobeerroneous.Inthemostprimitivestateinwhichmanappearsupontheearth,heiseitherwithoutsocialorganisationaltogether,orifanydoexist,itiseitherpatriarchalofrepublican.Neitheroftheseconditionsisfavourabletothedevelopmentofvice,—muchlessthemosthorribleofallvices.ItwillnotdotoquotethecharacteroftheBushman,orcertainotherofthelowtribes, to refute this statement. These are not men in their primitive stateascending upward, but a condition altogether the reverse. They are thedecayingremnantsofsomecorruptcivilisation,sinkingbackintothedustoutofwhichtheywerecreated.

No—andIamhappytosayit—man,asheoriginallycamefromthehandsofthe Creator, has no such horrid propensity as cannibalism. In his primitivestatehehasneverbeenknowntopractiseit,—exceptwhenthemotiveshavebeensuchashaveequallytemptedmenprofessingthehighestcivilisation,—but this cannot be considered cannibalism. Where that exists in its trueunmitigated form,—and unhappily it does so,—the early stages of socialorganisationmusthavebeenpassed;therepublicanandpatriarchalformsmustboth have given place to the absolute and monarchical. This condition ofthingsisabsolutelynecessary,beforemancanobtainsufficientpowertopreyuponhisfellow-mantotheextentofeatinghim.Therecanbeno“cannibal”withouta“king.”SofarfromtheFeegeeancannibalsbeingsavages,accordingto theordinaryacceptationoftheterm,theyareinrealitytheveryreverse.Ifweadheretotheusual meaning of the word civilisation, understanding by it a peoplepossessing an intelligent knowledge of arts, living in well-built houses,fabricatingfinegoods,tillingtheirlandsinascientificandsuccessfulmanner,practisingthelittlepolitenessesandaccomplishmentsofsociallife,—ifthesebethecriteriaofcivilisation, thenit isnomorethanthetruthtosaythat thestandardpossessedbytheFeegeeislandersisincomparablyabovethatofthelowerordersofmostEuropeannations.It is startling to reflect—startling as sad—that a people possessed of suchintellectual power, andwhohave ever exercised it to awonderful extent, inarts,manufactures,andevenintheaccomplishingoftheirownpersons,shouldat the same time exhibit moral traits of such an opposite character. Anatrocious cruelty,—an instinct for oppression, brutal and ferocious,—a heartpitilessasthatofthefiendhimself,—ahandeverreadytostrikethemurderousblow,even though thevictimbeabrother,—lips that lie in everyword theyspeak,—a tongue ever bent on barbaric boasting,—a bosom that beats onlywith sentiments of treachery and abject cowardice,—these are the revoltingcharacteristicsof theFeegeean.Dark as ishis skin, his soul ismany shadesdarker.It is time,however, todescend toamoreparticulardelineationof thisman-eating monster; and first, we shall give a description of his personalappearance.TheFeegeeansareabovetheaverageheightofEuropeansorwhitemen:menofsixfeetarecommonamongthem,thoughfewreachtheheightofsixfeetsix. Corpulent persons are not common, though large and muscular menabound.Their figure correspondsmorenearly to that of thewhiteman thanany other race known. The proportions of their limbs resemble those ofnorthernEuropeans, thoughsomearenarroweracross the loins.Theirchestsare broad and sinewy, and their stout limbs and short, well-set necks are

conspicuous characters. The outline of the face is a good oval; the mouthlarge,withwhiteteethregularlyarranged—ah!thosehorridteeth!—thenoseiswell-shaped,withfullnostrils;yetquitedistinct,asarethelipsalso,fromthetypeoftheAfricannegro.Indeed,withtheexceptionoftheircolour,theybearvery little resemblance to the negro,—that is, the thick-lipped, flat-nosednegroofourfancy;fortherearenegrotribesinAfricawhosefeaturesareasfine as those of the Feegeeans, or even as our own. In colour of skin theFeegeeanisnearly,ifnotquite,asdarkasthenegro;butitmayberemarkedthattherearedifferentshades,astherearealsoamongpureEthiopians.IntheFeegeegrouptherearemanymenofmulattocolour,butthesearenotoftheoriginal Feegee stock. They are either a mixed offspring with the Tongaislander, or pure-bred Tonga islanders themselves who for the past twohundredyearshavebeeninsinuatingthemselvesintothesocialcompactoftheFeegeeans. These light-coloured people are mostly found on the eastern orwindwardsideoftheFeegeegroup,—thatis,thesidetowardsTongaitself,—and the trade-winds will account for their immigration, which was at firstpurelyaccidental.TheyatpresentplayaconspicuouspartintheaffairsoftheFeegeeans,beinginfavourwiththekingsandgreatchiefs,partlyonaccountoftheirbeingbettersailorsthanthenativeFeegeeans,andpartlyonaccountofother serviceswhich these tyrants require them toperform. In somearts theTongansaresuperiortotheFeegeeans,butnotinall.Inpottery,wood-carving,making of mats or baskets, and the manufacture of the tapa cloth, theFeegeeansstandunrivalledoverallthePacificOcean.We need say no more of the Tongans here; they are elsewhere described.Those dwelling in Feegee are not all fixed there for life. Some are so, andthese are called Tonga-Feegeeans; the others are only visitors, giving theirservicestemporarilytotheFeegeeanchiefs,oroccupiedinship-building,—inconstructingthosegreatwarcanoesthathavebeentheastonishmentofSouth-Sea voyagers, and which Feegee sends forth from her dockyards in thegreatestperfection.These,whenfinishedbytheTonganstrangers,areusedtocarrythembacktotheirownislands,thatlieaboutthreehundredmilestothewindward(southeast).But to continue theportrait of theFeegeean.Wehave touchedalmost everypartofitexceptthehair;butthisrequiresamostelaboratelimning,suchastheownerhimselfgivesit.InitsnaturalstatetheheadoftheFeegeeaniscoveredbyamassofblackhair,long,frizzled,andbushy,sometimesencroachingonthe forehead, and joined bywhiskers to a thick, round, or pointed beard, towhichmoustachesareoftenadded.Black is,ofcourse, thenaturalcolourofthehair,butitisnotalwayswornofthishue.Othercoloursarethoughtmorebecoming;and thehair,bothof themenandwomen, isdyed inavarietyofways,limeburningittoareddishorwhitey-brownshade.Aturmeric-yellow,orevenavermilion-redarenotuncommoncolours;butallthesekeepvarying,

accordingtothechangeoffashionsatcourt!CommodoreWilkes,whohasgivenagooddealofhistimetoanexplorationof theFeegee Islands, states that theFeegeehair, in its natural condition, isstraight, andnot“frizzled,”asdescribedabove—hesays that the frizzling istheworkofthebarber;buttheCommodoreisaltogethermistakeninthisidea.Thousands of Feegeeans, whose hair was never touched by a barber, nordressedevenbythemselves,exhibitthispeculiarity.Weregrettoaddthatthisis only one of a thousand erroneous statements which the Commodore hasmadeduringhisgiganticexploration.Hemayhavebeenexcellentathisownspeciality of making soundings and laying down charts; but on all matterspertainingtonaturalhistoryorethnology,theworthyCommodoreappearstohavebeenpurblind,and,indeed,hisextensivestaffofnaturalistsofeverykindhave produced far less thanmight have been expected from such excellentopportunities as they enjoyed. The observation of the Commodore will notstandthetestoftime,andcannotbedependeduponassafeguides,exceptingin those cases where he was an actual eye-witness. About his truthfulintentionstherecanbenodoubtwhatever.OfoneverypeculiarperformanceamongtheFeegeesheappearstohavehadactualdemonstration,andashehasdescribedthiswithsufficientminuteness,we shall copy his account; though, after what we have said, we shouldapologise largely for the liberty. The performance referred to is that of“barberising” a barbarian monarch, and may be taken as a proof of highcivilisationamongtheFeegees.Itwillbeseenthat,withtheexceptionofthetabooedfingers,thereisnotmuchdifferencebetweenabarberofBondStreetandanartistoflikecallingintheCannibalIslands.“Thechiefsinparticular,”writesCommodoreWilkes,“paygreatattentiontothe dressing of their heads, and for this purpose all of them have barbers,whose soleoccupation is thecareof theirmasters’heads.Thesebarbers arecalleda-vu-ni-ulu.Theyareattachedtothehouseholdofthechiefsinnumbersoffromtwotoadozen.Thedutyisheldtobeofsosacredanature,thattheirhandsaretabooedfromallotheremployment,andtheyarenotevenpermittedto feed themselves.Todress theheadof a chief requires several hours.Thehair ismadetospreadoutfromthehead,oneveryside, toadistance that isofteneightinches.Thebeard,whichisalsocarefullynursed,oftenreachesthebreast, and when a Feegeean has these important parts of his person welldressed,heexhibitsadegreeofconceitthatisnotalittleamusing.“Intheprocessofdressingthehairitiswellanointedwithoil,mixedwithacarbonaceousblack,untilitiscompletelysaturated.Thebarberthentakesthehairpin,which isa longandslender rod,madeof tortoise-shellorbone,andproceeds to twitch almost every separate hair. This causes it to frizzle andstanderect.Thebushofhairisthentrimmedsmoothbysingeingit,untilithas

the appearanceof an immensewig.When thishasbeen finished, apieceoftapa,sofineastoresembletissue-paper,iswoundinlightfoldsaroundit,toprotectthehairfromthedewordust.Thiscovering,whichhasthelookofaturban, is called sala, and none but the chiefs are allowed to wear it; anyattempt to assume this head-dress by a kai-si, or commonperson,would beimmediately punishedwith death.The sala,when taken proper care of,willlast three weeks or a month, and the hair is not dressed except when it isremoved;butthehighchiefsanddandiesseldomallowadaytopasswithoutchangingthesalaandhavingthehairputinorder.”Withthisaccount,weconcludeourdescriptionoftheFeegeean’sperson.Hiscostume is of the simplest kind, and easily described. With the men it ismerelyastripof“tapa”or“malo”clothpassedseveraltimesroundthewaist,and the ends left to hang down in front. The length of the hanging endsdeterminestherankofthewearer,andonlyinthecaseofkingsorgreatchiefsaretheyallowedtotouchtheground.Aturbanofthefinesttapaclothamongthegreatmopofhairisanotherbadgeofrank,wornonlybykingsandchiefs;and this head-dress, which adds greatly to the dignified appearance of thewearer, isnotalwayscoiffed in thesamefashion,buteachchiefadapts it tohisownortheprevailingtasteofthecourt.Thedressofthewomenisamerewaist-belt,withafringefromsixtoteninchesinlength.Itiswornlongerafterthey have becomewives, sometimes reaching near the knee, and forming avery picturesque garment. It is called the “liku,” and many of them aremanufacturedwith surprising skill andneatness, thematerial beingobtainedfromvarious climbing plants of the forest.Under the “liku” thewomen aretattooed,andthereonly.Theirmen,onthecontrary,donotundergothetattoo;but on grand occasions paint their faces and bodies in the most fancifulcoloursandpatterns.Thekingsandsomechiefssuspend fromtheirnecksshellornaments—oftenas largeasadining-plate—thatdownupon thebreast.Some, insteadof this,wearanecklaceofwhales’teeth,carvedtoresembleclaws,andbearingaverycloseresemblancetothenecklacesofthePrairieIndians,madeoftheclawsofthegrizzlybear.Anotherkindofnecklace—perhapsmoreappropriate to theFeegee—isastringofhumanteeth;andthiskindisnotunfrequentlywornbytheseferociousdandies.Itmust not be supposed that the scantiness of the Feegeean costume arisesfrompovertyorstinginessonthepartofthewearer.Nothingofthekind.Itissimply because such is the fashion of the time.Were it otherwise, he couldeasilysupplythematerials,buthedoesnotwishitotherwise.Hisclimateisaneternal summer, and he has no need to encumber his bodywith extraneousclothing.Withtheexceptionoftheturbanuponhishead,hiskingisasnakedashimself.

Youmaysuppose that theFeegeeanshavebut littlenotionsofmodesty;but,strangeasitmayappear,thisisinrealitynotoneoftheirfailings.Theyregardthe“malo”and“liku”asthemostmodestofgarments;andamanorwomanseeninthestreetswithoutthesescantycoveringswouldbeindangerofbeingclubbedtodeath!It must be acknowledged that they are not altogether depraved—for in thisrespecttheypresentthemostastoundinganomaly.Certainvirtuesareascribedtothem,andasIhavepaintedonlythedarksideoftheircharacter,itisbutfairtogivetheother.Indeed,itisapleasuretodothis—thoughthereisnotenoughof the favourable to make any great alteration in the picture. The wholecharacterissowelldescribedbyoneofthemostacuteobserverswhohasyetvisited theSouthSeas—theWesleyanmissionaryWilliams—thatweborrowthedescription.“TheaspectoftheFeegeean,”saysMrWilliams,“withreferencetohismentalcharacter,sofarfromsupportingthedecisionwhichwouldthrusthimalmostout of mankind, presents many points of great interest, showing that, if anordinaryamountofattentionwerebestowedonhim,hewouldtakenomeanrank in the human family, towhich, hitherto, he has been a disgrace. Dull,barrenstupidityformsnopartofhischaracter.Hisfeelingsareacute,butnotlasting;hisemotionseasily roused,but transient;hecan love truly, andhatedeeply; he can sympathise with thorough sincerity, and feign withconsummateskill;his fidelityand loyaltyarestrongandenduring,whilehisrevengeneverdies,butwaitstoavailitselfofcircumstances,oroftheblackesttreachery, to accomplish its purpose. His senses are keen, and so wellemployed,thatheoftenexcelsthewhitemaninordinarythings.Tacthasbeencalled‘readycash,’andofthisthenativeofFeegeehasafullshare,enablinghim to surmount at oncemanydifficulties, and accomplishmany tasks, thatwouldhave‘fixed’anEnglishman.Tools,cord,orpackingmaterials,hefindsdirectly,wherethewhitemanwouldbeatalossforeither;andnatureseemsto him but a general store for his use,where the article hewants is alwayswithinreach.“In socialdiplomacy theFeegeean isverycautiousandclever.Thatheeverpaidavisitmerelyenpassant,ishardtobebelieved.Ifnorequestleaveshislips,hehasbroughtthedesire,andonlywaitsforagoodchancetopresentitnow,orprepare thewayfor its favourable receptionatsomeother time.Hisfaceandvoiceareallpleasantness;andhehastherareskilloffindingoutjustthesubjectonwhichyoumostliketotalk,orseesatoncewhetheryoudesiresilence. Barelywill he fail to read your countenance; and the casemust beurgent indeedwhichobligeshimtoaska favourwhenheseesa frown.Themoreimportanthefeelshisbusinessthemoreearnestlyheproteststhathehasnoneatall;andthesubjectuppermostinhisthoughtscomeslasttohislips,or

isnotevennamed;forhewillmakeasecond,orevenathirdvisit,ratherthanriska failure throughprecipitancy.Heseems to readothermenby intuition,especially where selfishness or lust are prominent traits. If it serves hispurpose, hewill study difficult and peculiar characters, reserving the resultsforfutureuse;ifafterwardshewishtopleasethem,hewillknowhow,andiftoannoythem,itwillbedonemostexactly.“His sense of hearing is acute, and by a stroke of his nail he judges theripenessoffruits,orsoundnessofvarioussubstances.”Fromwhat source theFeegeeanhas sprung ispurelyamatterofconjecture.Hehasnohistory,—notevenatraditionofwhenhisancestorsfirstpeopledtheArchipelago in which we now find him. Of his race we have not a muchclearerknowledge.Speculationplaceshiminthesamefamilyasthe“PapuanNegro,”andhehassomepointsofresemblancetothisrace,inthecolourandfrizzledhair;but there isasmuchdifferencebetweenthewretchednativeofWest Australia and the finely-developed Feegeean as there is between thestuntedLaplanderandthestalwartNorwegian;noristhecoarseroughskinofthetruePapuantoberecognisedinthesmooth,glossyepidermisoftheFeegeeIslander.This,however,maybetheresultofbetterliving;andcertainlyamongthemountain-tribes of the Feegees, who lead lives of greater privation andhardship, the approach to the Papuan appearance is observable. It is hardlynecessarytoaddthattheFeegeeanisofaracequitedistinctfromthatknownasthePolynesianorSouth-SeaIslander.Thislastisdifferentnotonlyinform,complexion,andlanguage,butalsoinmanyimportantmentalcharacteristics.It is to thisrace theTongansbelong,anditspeculiaritieswillbesketchedintreatingofthatpeople.WerewetoenteruponaminutedescriptionofthemannersandcustomsoftheFeegees,—of their mode of house and canoe building,—of their arts andmanufactures, for theypossessboth,—oftheir implementsofagricultureanddomestic use,—of their weapons of war,—their ceremonies of religion andcourtetiquette,—ourtaskwouldrequiremorespacethanishereallottedtous:itwouldinfactbeasmuchas todescribe thecompletesocialeconomyofacivilisednation; andawholevolumewould scarce suffice to contain suchadescription.Inasketchlikethepresent,theaccountofthesepeoplerequirestobegiveninthemostcondensedandsynopticalform,andonlythosepointscanbetoucheduponthatmayappearofthegreatestinterest.ItmustberememberedthatthecivilisationoftheFeegees—ofcourse,Ialludeto their proficiency in the industrial arts—is entirely an indigenous growth.TheyhaveborrowedideasfromtheTongans,—astheTonganshavealsofromthem,—butbotharenativeproductionsoftheSouthSea,andnotderivedfromany of the so-called great centres of civilisation. Such as have sprung fromthese sources are of modern date, and make but a small feature in the

panoramaofFeegeeanlife.Thehousestheybuildaresubstantial,andsuitableto their necessities. We cannot stay to note the architecture minutely. Theprivatedwellingsareusuallyabouttwenty-fivefeetlongbyfifteeninbreadth,the interior forming one room, butwith a sort of elevated divan at the end,sometimes screened with beautiful “tapa” curtains, and serving as thedormitory.Theground-planofthehouseisthatofanoblongsquare,—or,tospeakmoreproperly,aparallelogram.Thewallsareconstructedoftimber,—beingstraightposts of cocoa-palm, tree-fern, bamboo, or breadfruit,—the spaces betweencloselywarpedorotherwisefilledinwithreedsofcaneorcalamus.Thethatchis of the leaves of the wild or cultivated sugar-cane,—sometimes of apandanus,—thickly laid on, especially near the eaves, where it is carefullycropped,exposinganedgeoffromonetotwofeetinthickness.Theroofhasfourfaces,—thatis,itisa“hiproof.”Itismadewithaverysteeppitch,andcomes down low, projecting fer over the heads of the upright timbers. Thisgivesasortofshadedverandaallaroundthehouse,andthrowstherainquiteclear of thewalls. The ridge-pole is a peculiar feature; it is fastened to theridge of the thatch by strong twisted ropes, that give it an ornamentalappearance;anditscarvedendsprojectatbothgables,orrather,overthe“hiproofs,” to the length of a foot, or more; it is further ornamented by whiteshells,thoseofthecypreaovulabeingmostusedforthepurpose.TheFeegeehouse presents altogether a picturesque and not inelegant appearance. Theworstfeatureis thelowdoor.Thereareusuallytwoof them,neither ineachhousebeingover threefeet inheight.TheFeegeeassignsnoreasonwhyhisdoorismadesolow;butasheisfrequentlyinexpectationofavisitor,withamurderousbludgeoninhisgrasp,itispossiblethismayhavesomethingtodowithhismakingtheentrancesodifficult.Thehousesofthechiefs,andthegreatcouncil-house,ortemple,—calledthe“Bure,”—arebuiltprecisely in the same style;only thatbothare larger, andthe doors, walls, and ridge-poles more elaborately ornamented. Thefashionablestyleofdecorationisaplaitingofcocoa-fibre,or“sinnet,”whichisworkedandwovenaroundthepostsinregularfiguresof“relievo.”Thehousedescribedisnotuniversalthroughoutallthegroup.Therearemany“orders” of architecture, and that prevailing in the Windward Islands isdifferent from the style of the Leeward, and altogether of a better kind.Differentdistrictshavedifferentforms.Inoneyoumayseeavillagelookinglikeanassemblageofwickerbaskets,while in anotheryoumight fancy it acollectionofrusticarbours.Athirdseemsacollectionoblonghayricks,withholesintheirsides;while,inafourththesericksareconical.Itwillbeseen that,with thisvariety inhousebuilding, itwouldbea tedioustasktoillustratethecompletearchitectureofFeegeeans.EvenMasterKuskin

himselfwouldsurrenderitupindespair.Equally tedious would it be to describe the various implements or utensilswhich a Feegee house contains. The furniture is simple enough. There areneitherchairs,tables,norbedsteads.Thebedisabeautifulmatspreadonthedäis, or divan; and in the houses of the rich the floors are covered with asimilarcarpet.Thesematsareofthefinesttexture,farsuperiortothosemadeelsewhere. The materials used are theHibiscus tiliaceus, Pandanusodoratissimus, and a species of rush. They are in great abundance in everyhouse,—even the poorest person having hismat to sit or lie upon; and it istheythatserveforthebroad-spreadingsailsofthegiganticcanoes.Inadditiontothemats,plentyoftapaclothmaybeseen,andbasketsofeveryshapeandsize,—the wicker being obtained from the rattan (flagellaria), and othersources.Onepieceoffurnituredeservesespecialmention,—thisisthepillowuponwhich theFeegee lord layshisheadwhenhegoes tosleep. Itpresentsbutlittleclaimtotheappellationofadownypillow;sinceitisamerecylinderofhardpolishedwood,withshortarchedpedestalstoit,tokeepitfirmlyinitsplace. Its object is to keep the great frizzled mop from being tossed ordisarranged, during the hours of repose; and Feegeean vanity enables theowner of themop to endure this flintybolsterwith themost uncomplainingequanimity.Ifhewerepossessedoftheslightestsparkofconscience,eventhiswouldbesoft,comparedwithanypillowuponwhichhemightresthisguiltyhead.Inadditiontothebaskets,othervesselsmeettheeye.Theseareofpottery,asvariedinshapeandsizeastheyareinkind.Therearepotsandpans,bowls,dishes,cupsandsaucers,jarsandbottles,—manyofthemofrareandcuriousdesigns,—somered,someornamentedwithaglazeobtainedfromthegumofthekauripine,—for this tree is alsoan indigenousproductionof theFeegeeIslands.Thoughnopotter’swheelisknowntotheFeegees,theproportionsoftheirvesselsareas justand true,and theirpolishascomplete,as ifStaffordhadproducedthem.Therearecooking-potstobeseenofimmensesize.Thesearejarsformedwithmouthswideenoughtoadmitthelargestjoint.Idarenotmention the kind of joint that is frequently cooked in those great caldrons.Ugh!thehorridpots!Theirimplementsareequallyvariedandnumerous,—someformanufacturingpurposes, andothers foragriculture.The latter areof the simplestkind.TheFeegeeploughismerelyapointedstickinserteddeeplyintotheground,andkeptmoving about till a lumpof the soil is brokenupward.This is crushedintomould, first by a light club, and afterwardspulverisedwith the fingers.Theprocess isslow,but fastenoughfor theFeegeean,whosefarmisonlyagarden. He requires no plough, neither bullocks nor horses.With taro-rootsandsweetpotatoes thatweigh tenpoundseach,yamsandyaqonasoverone

hundred,andplantainsproducingbunchesofahundredandfiftyfruitstothesinglehead,whyneedhe troublehimselfbybreakingupmore surface?HissingleacreyieldshimasmuchvegetablewealthasfiftywouldtoanEnglishfarmer!Itisnottobesupposedthathehasitalltohimself;no,norhalfofiteither;noryetthefifthpartofit.Atleastfourfifthsofhissweathastobeexpendedintax or tithe; and this brings us to the formof his government.We shall notdwelllonguponthissubject.Sufficeittosaythatthegreatbodyofthepeopleare in a condition of abject serfdom,—worse than slavery itself. They ownnothingthattheycancalltheirown,—nottheirwives,—nottheirdaughters,—noteventheirlives!Allthesemaybetakenfromthematanyhour.Thereisnolaw against despoiling them,—no check upon thewill and pleasure of theirchiefsorsuperiors;and,astheseconstituteanumerousbody,thepoorcanaillehavenoendofruffiandespoilers. It isaneverydayact forachief torob,orclubtodeath,oneofthecommonpeople!andnounfrequentoccurrencetobehimself clubbed to death by his superior, the king!Of these kings there areeightinFeegee,—notone,astheoldsonghasit;butthewordsoftheballadwillapply toeachof themwithsufficientappropriateness.Anyoneof themwillanswertothecharacterof“Musty-fusty-shang?”Thesekingshavetheirresidencesonvariousislands,andthedifferentpartsofthegrouparedistributedsomewhatirregularlyundertheirrule.Someislands,orparts of islands, areonly tributary to them;others connectedby a sort ofdeferentialalliance;and therearecommunitiesquite independent,and livingunderthearbitraryswayoftheirownchieftains.Thekingsarenotallofequalpowerorimportance;butinthisrespecttherehavebeenmanychanges,evenduring the Feegeean historical period,—which extends back only to thebeginning of the present century. Sometimes one is the most influential,sometimes another; and inmost cases the pre-eminence is obtained by himwho possesses the greatest amount of truculence and treachery. He who ismostsuccessfulinmurderinghisrivals,andriddinghimselfofopposition,bythesimpleapplicationoftheclub,usuallysucceedsinbecomingforthetimehead “king of theCannibal Islands.” I do notmean that he reigns over thewholeArchipelago.Nokinghasyetsucceededinunitingalltheislandsunderonegovernment.Heonlygetssofarastobefearedeverywhere,andtohavetributary presents, and all manner of debasing compliments offered to him.These kings have all their courts and court etiquette, just as their “royalbrothers” elsewhere; and the ceremonials observed are quite as complicatedanddegradingtothedignityofman.The punishment for neglecting their observance is rather more severe inFeegee thanelsewhere.Foradecidedorwilfulnon-compliance, the skullofthedelinquent is frequentlycrushed inby theclubofhismajestyhimself,—

eveninpresenceofafull“drawing-room.”Lesseroraccidentalmistakes,oreventheexhibitionofanungracefulgaucherie,arepunishedbythelossofafinger: the consequence of which is, that in Feegee there are many fingersmissing!Indeed,acompletesetisrathertheexceptionthantherule.Ifakingorgreatchiefshouldchancetomisshisfootandslipdown,itisthetruetonforallthosewhoarenearoraroundhimtofalllikewise,—thecrowdcomingdown,literallylikea“thousandofbricks!”Imightdetaila thousandcustomstoshowhowfar thedignityof thehumanformisdebasedanddisgraceduponFeegeesoil;butthesubjectcouldbewellillustratednearerhome.Flunkeyismisafashionunfortunatelynotconfinedtothe Feegeean archipelago; and though the forms in which it exhibits itselfthere may be different, the sentiment is still the same. It must ever appearwhere men are politically unequal,—wherever there is a class possessed ofhereditaryprivileges.Icometothelast,—thedarkestfeatureintheFeegeeancharacter,—thehorridcrimeandcustomofcannibalism.Icouldpaintapicture,andfillupthedetailswiththetestimonyofscoresofeyewitnesses,—apicturethatwouldcauseyourheart toweep. It is toohorrid tobegivenhere.Mypendeclines theoffice;and,therefore,Imustleavethepainfulstoryuntold.

ChapterEight.TheTongans,orFriendlyIslanders.

ItisapleasuretopassoutofthecompanyoftheferociousFeegeesintothatofanother people, which, though near neighbours of the former, are differentfrom them in almost every respect,—I mean the Tongans, or FriendlyIslanders.Thisappellationscarcerequires tobeexplained.Everyoneknowsthat it was bestowed upon them by the celebrated navigator Cook,—whoalthough not the actual discoverer of the Tonga group, was the first whothoroughly explored these islands, andgave any reliable accountof them tothecivilisedworld.Tasman,whomightbetermedthe“DutchCaptainCook,”isallowedtobetheirdiscoverer,solongagoas1643;thoughthereisreasontobelieve that some of the Spanish explorers from Perumay have touched atthese islands before his time. Tasman, however, has fixed the record of hisvisit,andisthereforeentitledtothecreditofthediscovery,—asheisalsotothat of Australia, New Zealand, Van Diemen’s Land, and other now well-knownislandsof theSouth-westernPacific.Tasmanbestowedupon threeoftheTongagroup thenames—Amsterdam,Rotterdam, andMiddleburgh;but,fortunately,geographershaveactedinthismatterwithbettertastethanistheirwont;andTasman’sDutchnational titleshave fallen intodisuse,—while the

truenativenamesof the islandshavebeenrestored to themap.This iswhatshouldbedonewithotherPacificislandsaswell;foritisdifficulttoconceiveanything in worse taste than such titles as the Caroline and Loyalty Isles,PrinceWilliam’sLand,KingGeorge’sIsland,andthetenthousandAlbertandVictoria Lands which the genius of flattery, or rather flunkeyism, has soliberally distributed over the face of the earth. The title of Friendly Isles,bestowedbyCookupontheTongaarchipelago,deservestolive;sinceitisnotonly appropriate, but forms the record of a pleasant fact,—the pacificcharacterofourearliestintercoursewiththeseinterestingpeople.

It may be here remarked, thatMrWylde and other superficial map-makershavetakenamostunwarrantablelibertywiththistitle.Insteadofleavingitasbestowedbythegreatnavigator,—applicabletotheTongaarchipelagoalone,—they have stretched it to include that of the Samoans, and—would it bebelieved—thatoftheFeegees?Itishardlynecessarytopointouttheextremeabsurdity of such a classification: since it would be difficult to find twonationalities much more unlike than those of Tonga and Feegee. That theyhavemanycustomsincommon,isdue(unfortunatelyfortheTongans)totheintercoursewhichproximityhasproduced;butinanethnologicalsense,whiteis not a greater contrast to black, nor good to evil, than that which existsbetweenaTonganandaFeegeean.CooknevervisitedtheFeegeearchipelago,—heonlysawsomeofthesepeoplewhileatTongataboo,andheardof theircountry as being a large island. Had he visited that island,—or rather thatgroupofovertwohundredislands,—itisnotatalllikelyhewouldhaveseenreason toextend to them the titlewhich themap-makershave thought fit tobestow.Insteadof“FriendlyIslands,”hemightbywayofcontrasthavecalledthem the “Hostile Isles,” or given them that—above all others mostappropriate,andwhichtheytrulydeservetobear—thatoldtitlecelebratedinsong!the“CannibalIslands.”AnobserversoacuteasCookcouldscarcehaveoverlookedtheappropriatenessoftheappellation.The situation of the Tonga, or Friendly Isles, is easily registered in thememory.The parallel of 20 degrees south, and themeridian of 175 degreeswest,verynearlyintersecteachotherinTofoa,whichmayberegardedasthecentral island of the group. It will thus be seen that their central point is 5degrees east and2 degrees south of the centre of theFeegeean archipelago,andthenearestislandsofthetwogroupsareaboutthreehundredmilesapart.Itisworthyofobservation,however,thattheTongaIsleshavetheadvantage,asregardsthewind.Thetradesareintheirfavour;andfromTongatoFeegee,ifweemploya landsman’sphraseology, it is“downhill,”while it isall“uphill” in the contrary direction. The consequence is, that many Tongans areconstantly making voyages to the Feegee group,—a large number of them

having settled there (as stated elsewhere),—while but a limited number ofFeegeeansfindtheirwaytotheFriendlyIslands.Thereisanotherreasonforthis unequally-balanced migration: and that is, that the Tongans are muchbolderandbettersailorsthantheirwesternneighbours;foralthoughferexcelanyotherSouth-Sea islanders in theartofbuilding theircanoes (orshipsastheymightreasonablybecalled),yettheyareasfarbehindmanyothersintheartofsailingthem.Their superiority in ship-buildingmay be attributed, partly, to the excellentmaterials which these islands abundantly afford; though this is not the solecause.HowevermuchwemaydenytotheFeegeeansthepossessionofmoralqualities, we are at the same time forced to admit their great intellectualcapacity,—asexhibitedintheadvancedstateoftheirartsandmanufactures.Inintellectualcapacity,however,theFriendlyIslandersaretheirequals;andthesuperiority of the Feegeeans even in “canoe architecture” is no longeracknowledged.ItistruetheTongansgototheFeegeegroupformostoftheirlarge double vessels; but that is for the reasons already stated,—the greaterabundance and superior quality of the timber and other materials producedthere.IntheFeegee“dockyards,”theTongansbuildforthemselves;andhaveevenimprovedupontheborrowedpattern.This intercourse,—partaking somewhat of the character of an alliance,—although in some respects advantageous to the Friendly Islanders, may beregarded, upon thewhole, as unfortunate for them. If it has improved theirknowledgeinartsandmanufactures,ithasfarmorethancounterbalancedthisadvantage by the damage done to their moral character. It is always mucheasiertomakeproselytestovicethantovirtue,—asisprovedinthisinstance:forhisintercoursewiththeferociousFeegeehasdonemuchtodeterioratethecharacteroftheTongan.Fromthatsourcehehasimbibedafondnessforwarand other wicked customs; and, in all probability, had this influence beenpermittedtocontinueuninterruptedforafewyearslonger,thehorridhabitofcannibalism—though entirely repugnant to the natural disposition of theTongans—would have become common among them. Indeed, there can belittledoubtthatthiswouldhavebeentheultimateconsequenceofthealliance;foralready itsprecursors—humansacrificesand thevengeful immolationofenemies—hadmade their appearanceupon theFriendly Islands.Happily fortheTongan,anotherinfluence—thatofthemissionaries—camejustintimetoavertthisdirecatastrophe;and,althoughthismissionaryinterferencehasnotbeen the best of its kind, it is still preferable to the paganismwhich it haspartiallysucceededinsubduing.TheTonganarchipelagoismuchlessextensivethanthatoftheFeegees,—theislands being of a limited number, and only five or six of them of anyconsiderable size. Tongataboo, the largest, is about ninety miles in

circumference.FromthemostsouthernofthegroupEoo,toYavanattheotherextremity,itstretches,northerlyornortheasterly,abouttwohundredmiles,inanearlydirect line.Theislandsareall,withoneortwoexceptions, low-lying,their surfacebeingdiversifiedbya fewhillocksormounds,of fiftyor sixtyfeetinheight,mostofwhichhavetheappearanceofbeingartificial.Someofthesmaller islets,asKao,aremountainsofsomesixhundredfeetelevation,rising directly out of the sea; while Tofoa, near the eastern edge of thearchipelago, presents the appearance of an elevated tableland. The largernumberof themareclothedwitha rich tropicalvegetation,bothnaturalandcultivated,andtheirbotanyincludesmostofthespeciescommontotheotherislandsoftheSouthSea.Wefindthecocoa,andthreeotherspeciesofpalm,the pandanus, the breadfruit in varieties, as also the useful musacaae,—theplantain, and banana. The ti-tree (Dracaena terminalis), the paper-mulberry(Brousonetia papyrifera), the sugar-cane, yams of many kinds, the treeyieldingthewell-knownturmeric,thebeautifulcasuarina,andahundredothersortsofplants,shrubs,ortrees,valuablefortheproductoftheirrootsorfruits,their sap and pith, of their trunks and branches, their leaves and the fibrousmaterialoftheirbark.Asa scenicdecoration to the soil, there isnopartof theworldwheremorelovelylandscapesareproducedbytheaidofaluxuriantvegetation.TheyareperhapsnotequalinpicturesqueeffecttothoseoftheFeegeegroup,—wheremountainsformanadjuncttothescenery,—butinpointofsoft,quietbeauty,the landscapes of the Tonga Islands are not surpassed by any others in thetropicalworld;andwiththeclimatetheyenjoy—thatofanendlesssummer—theymightwellanswertothedescriptionofthe“abodeoftheBlessed.”And,indeed,whenTasmanfirstlookedupontheseislands,theyperhapsmeritedthetitlemorethananyotherspotonthehabitableglobe;for,ifanypeopleonthisearthmight be esteemedhappy andblessed, surely itwas the inhabitants ofthese fair islesof the farSouthernSea.Tasmaneven records the remarkablefact,thathesawnoarmsamongthem,—noweaponsofwar!andperhaps,atthattime,neitherthedetestabletradenoritsimplementswereknowntothem.Alas! in little more than a century afterwards, this peaceful aspect was nolonger presented.When the greatEnglish navigator visited these islands, hefound the war-club and spear in the hands of the people, both of Feegeepattern,andundoubtedlyofthesameill-omenedorigin.ThepersonalappearanceoftheFriendlyIslandersdiffersnotagreatdealfromthatof theotherSouth-Seatribesornations.Ofcoursewespeakonlyof thetrue Polynesians of the brown complexion, without reference to the black-skinned islanders—as the Feegees and others of the Papuan stock. The twohaveneitherresemblancenorrelationshiptooneanother;anditwouldnotbedifficulttoshowthattheyareofatotallydistinctorigin.Asfortheblacks,itisnot even certain that they are themselves of one original stock; for the

splendidly-developed cannibal of Feegee presents very few features incommon with the wretched kangaroo-eater of West Australia. Whether theblackislanders(orMelanesiansastheyhavebeendesignated)originallycamefromonesource,isstillaquestionforethnologists;buttherecanbenodoubtas to thedirectionwhence theyenteredupon thecolonisationof thePacific.Thatwascertainlyuponitswesternborder,beyondwhichtheyhavenotmademuch progress: since the Feegeean archipelago is at the present time theirmostadvancedstationtotheeastward.ThebrownorPolynesianraces,onthecontrary,begantheirmigrationsfromtheeasternborderofthegreatocean—inotherwords, theycamefromAmerica;and theso-calledIndiansofAmericaare,inmyopinion,theprogenitors,notthedescendants,ofthesepeopleoftheOceanworld. If learnedethnologistswillgive their attention to thisviewofthesubject,anddisembarrasstheirmindsofthatfabulousoldfancy,aboutanoriginal stock situated somewhere (they know not exactly where) upon thesteppesofAsia, theywillperhapsarriveatamore rationalhypothesisaboutthe peopling of the so-called new worlds, both the American and Oceanic.Theywillbeabletoprove—whatmightbeheredoneifspacewouldpermit—that the Polynesians are emigrants from tropical America, and that theSandwichIslanderscameoriginallyfromCalifornia,andnottheCaliforniansfromtheislandhomesofHawaii.It is of slight importanceherehow thisquestionmaybeviewed.Enough toknowthatthenativesoftheTongagroupbearastrongresemblancetothoseoftheotherPolynesianarchipelagos—totheOtaheitansandNewZealanders,butmostofalltotheinhabitantsoftheSamoanorNavigators’Islands,ofwhom,indeed, they may be regarded as a branch, with a separate political andgeographical existence. Their language also confirms the affinity, as it ismerelyadialectofthecommontonguespokenbyallthePolynesians.Whatever difference exists between the Tongans and other Polynesians inpointofpersonalappearance,isinfavouroftheformer.Themenaregenerallyregardedasthebest-lookingofallSouth-SeaIslanders,andthewomenamongthefairestoftheirsex.Manyofthemwouldbeaccountedbeautifulinanypartoftheworld;andasageneralrule,theypossesspersonalbeautyinaferhigherdegreethanthemuch-talked-ofOtaheitans.The Tongans are of tall stature—rather above than under that of Europeannations.Men of six feet are common enough; though few are seen ofwhatmightbetermedgiganticproportions.Infact,thetruemediumsizeisalmostuniversal,andtheexcessineitherdirectionformstheexception.Thebulkoftheirbodiesisinperfectproportiontotheirheight.UnliketheblackFeegeeans—whoareoftenbonyandgaunt—theTonganspossesswell-roundedarmsandlimbs;and thehandsand feet, especially thoseof thewomen,are small andelegantlyshaped.

Togiveadelineationof their featureswouldbeadifficult task—since theseare so varied in different individuals, that it would be almost impossible toselect a good typical face. Indeed the same might be said of nearly everynationonthefaceoftheearth;andthedifficultywillbeunderstoodbyyourmaking an attempt to describe some face that will answer for every set offeatures in a large town, or even a small village; or still, with greaterlimitation,for thedifferent individualsofasinglefamily.Justsuchavarietytherewill be foundamong the facesof theFriendly Islanders, asyoumightnoteintheinhabitantsofanEnglishtownorcounty;andhencethedifficultyofmaking a correct likeness. A few characteristic points, however, may begiven,bothastotheirfeaturesandcomplexion.Theirlipsarescarcelyeverofa thickor negro form; and although thenoses are in general rounded at theend, this rule isnotuniversal;—manyhavegenuineRomannoses, andwhatmay be termed a full set of the best Italian features. There is also lessdifference between the sexes in regard to their features than is usually seenelsewhere—thoseofthewomenbeingonlydistinguishedbytheirlesssize.Theformsofthewomenconstituteamoremarkeddistinction;andamongthebeautiesofTongaaremanythatmightbetermedmodels inrespect toshapeandproportions.Incolour,theTongansarelighterthanmostotherSouth-SeaIslanders. Some of the better classes ofwomen—those least exposed to theopenair—showskinsof a light olive tint; and the childrenof all arenearlywhite after birth. They become browner less from age than exposure to thesun; for, as soon as they are able to be abroad, they scarce ever afterwardsenterundertheshadowofaroof,exceptduringthehoursofnight.TheTonganshavegoodeyesandteeth;butinthisrespecttheyarenotsuperiortomanyotherOceanictribes—eventheblackFeegeeanspossessingbotheyesand “ivories” scarce surpassed anywhere. The Tongans, however, have theadvantageof theirduskyneighboursin thematterofhair—theirheadsbeingclothedwithaluxuriantgrowthoftruehair.Sometimesitisquitestraight,asamongtheAmericanIndians,butoftenerwithaslightwaveorundulation,oracurlapproaching,butneverquitearrivingattheconditionof“crisp.”His hair in its natural colour is jet black; and it is to be regretted that theTonganshavenotthegoodtastetoleaveittoitsnaturalhue.Onthecontrary,their fashion is to stain it of a reddish-brown, a purple or an orange. Thebrown is obtained by the application of burnt coral, the purple from avegetabledyeappliedpoultice-fashiontothehair,andtheorangeisproducedby a copious lathering of common turmeric,—with which the women alsosometimes anoint their bodies, and those of their children. This fashion ofhair-dyeingisalsocommontotheFeegees,andwhethertheyobtaineditfromthe Tongans, or the Tongans from them, is an unsettled point. The moreprobablehypothesiswouldbe,thatamongmanyotheruglycustoms,ithadits

origin in Feegee-land,—where, however, the people assign a reason forpractisingitverydifferentfromthemeremotiveofornament.Theyallegethatitalsoservesausefulpurpose, inpreventing the toogreat fructificationofabreedofparasitic insects,—thatwouldotherwise find—the immensemopofthe frizzlyFeegeeanamost convenientdwelling-place, anda secure asylumfrom danger. This may have had something to do with the origin of thecustom;butonceestablishedforpurposesofutility,itisnowconfirmed,andkeptupby theTongansasauselessornament.Their taste in thecolourrunsexactlycountertothatofEuropeanfashionables.Whatapityitisthatthetwocould not make an exchange of hair! Then both parties, like a pair ofadvertisementsinthe“Times,”wouldexactlyfiteachother.Besidesthevariedfashionincolours,thereisalsogreatvarietyinthestylesinwhichtheTongansweartheirhair.Somecutitshortononesideoftheirhead,leavingitatfulllengthontheother;someshaveasmallpatch,orcutoffonlyasinglelock;whileothers—andthesecertainlydisplaythebesttaste—leaveitto grow out in all its full luxuriance. In this, again, we find the Europeanfashion reversed, for the women are those who wear it shortest. The men,althoughtheyarenotwithoutbeard,usuallycropthisappendageveryclose,orshave it off altogether,—a piece of shell, or rather a pair of shells, servingthemforarazor.Themodeistoplacethethinedgeofoneshellunderneaththehair,—justasahair-cutterdoeshiscomb,—andwiththeedgeoftheotherappliedabove,thehairs are rasped through and divided. There are regular barbers for thispurpose, who by practice have been rendered exceedingly dexterous in itsperformance;and thevictimof theoperationalleges that there is littleornopainproduced,—atallevents,itdoesnotbringthetearstohiseyes,asadullrazoroftendoeswithuspoorthin-skinnedEuropeans!The dress of the Tongans is very similar to that of theOtaheitans, so oftendescribed and well-known; but we cannot pass it here without remarking anotable peculiarity on the part of the Polynesian people, as exhibited in thecharacteroftheircostume.Thenativetribesofalmostallotherwarmclimatescontentthemselveswiththemostscantcovering,—generallywithnocoveringatall,butrarelywithanythingthatmaybetermedaskirt.InSouthAmericamost tribeswear the “guayuco,”—amere strip around the loins, and amongthe Feegees the “malo” or “masi” of the men, and the scant “liku” of thewomen are the only excuse for amodest garment. In Africawe find tribesequally destitute of clothing, and the same remarkwill apply to the tropicalcountriesallaround theglobe.Here,however,amongstapeopledwelling inthemiddleofavastocean,—isolatedfromthewholecivilisedworld,wefindanaturalinstinctofmodestythatdoescredittotheircharacter,andiseveninkeepingwith thatcharacter,as firstobservedbyvoyagers to theSouthSeas.

Whatever acts of indelicacymay be alleged against theOtaheitans, this hasbeenmuchexaggeratedbytheirintercoursewithimmoralwhitemen;butnoneof such criminal conduct can be charged against the natives of theFriendlyIsles.Onthecontrary,thebehaviourofthese,bothamongthemselvesandinpresenceofEuropeanvisitors,hasbeenevercharacterisedbyamodestythatwouldshameeitherRegentStreetorRatcliffeHighway.Adescriptionof thenationalcostumeof theTongans, thoughoftengiven, isnot unworthy of a place here; and we shall give it as briefly as a properunderstandingofitwillallow.Thereisbutone“garment”tobedescribed,andthat is the “pareu,”whichwill bebetter understood, perhaps, by calling it a“petticoat.” The material is usually of “tapa” cloth,—a fabric of nativemanufacture, to be described hereafter,—and the cutting out is one of thesimplest of performances, requiring neither a tailor for the men, nor adressmakerfortheothersex,foreveryonecanmaketheirownpareu.Itneedsonly to clip a piece of “tapa” cloth in the form of an “oblong square”—anampleone,beingabouttwoyardseitherway.Thisiswrappedroundthebody,—themiddlepartagainstthesmalloftheback,—andthenbothendsbroughtroundtothefrontarelappedovereachotherasfarastheywillgo,producing,ofcourse,adoublefoldofthecloth.Agirdleisnexttiedaroundthewaist,—usuallyacordofornamentalplait;andthisdividesthepieceoftapaintobodyandskirt.Thelatterisofsuchalengthastostretchbelowthecalfoftheleg,—sometimesdowntotheankle,—andtheupperpartorbodywouldreachtotheshoulders, if the weather required it, and often does when the missionariesrequireit.Butnotatanyothertime:suchanungracefulmodeofwearingthepareuwasnever intendedbythesimpleTongans,whoneverdreamtof therebeing any immodesty in their fashion until told of it by their puritanicalpreceptors!Tongan-fashion, thepareu is a sort of tunic, andamostgracefulgarment toboot;Methodistfashion,itbecomesagownorratherasleevelesswrapperthatresemblesasack.Butifthebodypartisnottobeusedinthisway,how,youwillask, is it tobedisposedof?Is itallowedtohangdownoutside, like thegownofaslatternwoman,whohasonlyhalfgotintoit?Nosuchthing.Thenatural arrangement is both simple and peculiar; and produces,moreover, acostume that is not only characteristic but graceful to the eye that oncebecomesusedtoit.Theupperhalfofthetapaclothisneatlyfoldedorturned,untilitbecomesathickroll;andthisroll,broughtroundthebody,justabovethegirdle,issecuredinthatposition.Theswellthusproducedcausesthewaistto appear smaller by contrast; and the effect of a well-formed bust, risingabove the roll of tapa cloth, is undoubtedly striking and elegant. In coldweather,butmoreespeciallyatnight, theroll is takenout,andtheshouldersare then covered; for it is to be observed that the pareu, worn by day as adress, is also kept on at night as a sleeping-gown,more especially by those

whopossessonlyalimitedwardrobe.Itisnotalwaysthecoldthatrequiresittobekeptonatnight.Itismoreused,atthistime,asaprotectionagainstthemosquitoes,thataboundamidsttheluxuriantvegetationoftheTonganIslands.The“pareu” isnotalwaysmadeof the“tapa”cloth.Finemats,woven fromthe fibres of the screw-pine (pandanus), are equally in vogue; and, uponfestive occasions, a full-dress pareu is embellished with red feather-work,addinggreatlytotheeleganceandpicturesquenessofitsappearance.Acoarserand scantier pareu is to be seen among the poorer people, the material ofwhich is a rough tapa, fabricated from the bark of the breadfruit, and notunfrequently this is only a mere strip wrapped around the loins; in otherwords, a “malo,” “maro,” or “maso,”—as it is indifferently written in thevaried orthography of the voyagers. Having described this only and uniquegarment,wehavefinishedwiththecostumeoftheTonganIslanders,bothmenandwomen,—for bothwear the pareu alike.The head is almost universallyuncovered; and no head-dress is ever worn unless a cap of feathers by thegreatchiefs,andthisonlyuponrareandgrandoccasions.Itisasortofchapletencircling the head, and deeper in front than behind.Over the forehead theplumesstanduptoaheightoftwelveorfifteeninches,graduallyloweringoneachsideastherayextendsbackwardbeyondtheears.Themainrowismadewith the beautiful tail-plumes of the tropic birdPhaeton aetherus, while thefront or fillet part of the cap is ornamented with the scarlet feathers of aspeciesofparrot.Thehead-dressofthewomenconsistssimplyoffreshflowers:aprofusionofwhich—amongothersthebeautifulblossomsoftheorange—isalwayseasilyobtained.Anear-pendantisalsoworn,—apieceofivoryofabouttwoinchesin length, passed through two holes, pierced in the lobe of the ear for thispurpose. The pendant hangs horizontally, the two holes balancing it, andkeeping it in position.A necklace also of pearl-shells, shaped into beads, isworn. Sometimes a string of the seeds of the pandanus is added, and anadditionalornamentisanarmletofmother-o’-pearl,fashionedintotheformofa ring. Only themen tattoo themselves; and the process is confined to thatportionofthebodyfromthewaisttothethighs,whichisalwayscoveredwiththe pareu. The practice of tattooing perhaps first originated in the desire toequalise agewith youth, and to hide an ugly physiognomy.But theTonganIslanderhasnougliness to conceal, andbothmenandwomenhavehad thegood taste to refrain from disfiguring the fair features which nature has sobountifullybestoweduponthem.Theonlymarksoftattootobeseenuponthewomen are a few fine lines upon the palms of their hands; nor do theydisfigure their fair skins with the hideous pigments so much in use amongothertribes,ofwhatweareinthehabitoftermingsavages.Theyanointthebodywithafineoilprocuredfromthecocoanut,andwhichis

alsoperfumedbyvariouskindsofflowersthatareallowedtomacerateintheoil;but this toilet issomewhatexpensive,and isonlypractisedby thebetterclasses of the community.All, however, both rich and poor, are addicted tohabits of extreme cleanliness, and bathing in fresh water is a frequentperformance.Theyobjecttobathinginthesea;andwhentheydoso,alwaysfinish the bath by pouring freshwater over their bodies,—a practice whichtheyallegepreventstheskinfrombecomingrough,whichthesea-waterwouldotherwisemakeit.Housearchitecture in theTonganIslands is in ratherabackwardstate.Theyhave produced no Wrens nor Inigo Joneses; but this arises from a naturalcause. They have no need for great architects,—scarce any need for houseseither,—andonlythericherTonganserectanydwellingmorepretentiousthanamereshed.Afewpostsofpalm-trunksaresetup,andupontheseareplacedthecross-beams,rafters,androof.Pandanusleaves,orthoseofthesugar-cane,form the thatch;and thesidesare leftopenunderneath. In thehousesof thechiefsandmorewealthypeopletherearewallsofpandanusmats,fastenedtothe uprights; and some of these houses are of considerable size and neatlybuilt.Theinteriorsarekeptscrupulouslyclean,—thefloorsbeingcoveredwithbeautiful mats woven in coloured patterns, and presenting all the gayappearanceofcostlycarpeting.Thereareneitherchairsnortables.Themensittailor-fashion,andthewomeninarecliningposture,withbothlimbsturnedalittletoonesideandbackwards.Acuriousenclosureorpartitionisformedbysettingastiffmat,ofabouttwofeetwidth,uponitsedge,—therollateachendsteadyingitandkeepingitinanuprightposition.Theutensilstobeobservedaredishes,bowls,andcups,—usuallyofcalabashorcocoa-shells,—andanendlessvarietyofbasketsofthemostingeniousplaitandconstruction.The“stool-pillow”isalsoused;butdifferingfromthatoftheFeegees in the horizontal piece having a hollow to receive the head.Manykindsofmusicalinstrumentsmaybeseen,—thePandeanpipes,thenose-flute,and various kinds of bamboo drums, all of which have been minutelydescribed by travellers. I am sorry to add that war-clubs and spears for asimilar purpose are also tobeobserved conspicuous among themoreusefulimplementsofpeace.Bowsandarrows,too,arecommon;buttheseareonlyemployed for shootingbirds and small rodents, especially rats, that areverynumerousanddestructivetothecrops.For food, the Tongans have the pig,—the same variety as is so generallydistributed throughout the Oceanic Islands. It is stated that the Feegeeansobtained thisanimalfromtheFriendlyIsles;but Iamofopinion that in thiscase thebenefitcame theotherway,as theSusPapuaismore likely tohaveentered theSouthSea from its leeward rather than itswindward side. In alllikelihoodthedogmayhavebeenderivedfromtheeasternedge;butthepigs

and poultry would seem to be of western origin,—western as regards thepositionofthePacific.TheprincipalfoodoftheFriendlyIslanders,however,isofavegetablenature,andconsistsofyams,breadfruit, taro,plantains,sweetpotatoes,and, in fact,mostofthoserootsandfruitscommontotheotherislandsofthePacific.Fishalsoformsanimportantarticleoftheirfood.Theydrinkthe“kava,”orjuiceofthePipermethisticum—orratherofitsrootschewedtoapulp;buttheyrarelyindulgetothatexcessobservedamongtheFeegees,andtheyarenotoverfondof thedrink,exceptasameansofproducingaspeciesof intoxicationwhichgivesthemamomentarypleasure.Manyofthem,especiallythewomen,makewry faces while partaking of it; and no wonder they do, for it is at best adisgustingbeverage.The timeof theTonganIslanders ispassedpleasantlyenough,when there isno wicked war upon hand. The men employ themselves in cultivating thegroundorfishing;andherethewomanisnolongerthemereslaveanddrudge—as almost universally elsewhere among savage or even semi-civilisednations. This is a great fact, which tells a wondrous tale—which speakstrumpet-tongued to the credit of the Tongan Islander. Not only do themenshare the labourwith theirmoredelicate companions, but everything else—theirfood,conversation,andeveryenjoymentoflife.Bothpartakealike—eattogether, drink together, and join at once in the festive ceremony. In theirgranddances—orballs as theymightmoreproperlybe termed—thewomenplayanimportantpart;andtheseexhibitions,thoughintheopenair,aregotupwith an elegance and éclat that would not disgrace the most fashionableballroom in Christendom. Their dances, indeed, are far more graceful thananythingeverseeneitherat“Almacks”orthe“JardinMabille.”The principal employment of themen is in the cultivation of their yam andplantaingrounds,manyofwhichextendtothesizeoffields,withfencesthatwouldalmostappear tohavebeenerectedasornaments.Theseareofcanes,closelyset,raisedtotheheightofsixfeet—widespacesbeingleftbetweenthefencesofdifferentownerstoserveasroadsforthewholecommunity.Inthemidstofthesefieldsstandthesheds,orhouses,surroundedbysplendidformsoftropicvegetation,andformingpicturesofasoftlybeautifulcharacter.The men also occupy themselves in the construction of their canoes,—toprocure the large ones, making a voyage as already stated, to the FeegeeIslands,andsometimesremainingabsentforseveralyears.These, however, are usually professional boat-builders, and form but a verysmallproportionofthefortythousandpeoplewhoinhabitthedifferentislandsoftheTonganarchipelago.Themen also occasionally occupy themselves in weavingmats and wicker

baskets,andcarvingfancy toysoutofwoodandshells;but thechiefpartofthemanufacturingbusinessisinthehandsofthewomen—moreespeciallythemaking of the tapa cloth, already so often mentioned. An account of themanufacturemaybehereintroduced,withtheproviso,thatitiscarriedonnotonlyby thewomenof theFeegeegroup,butby thoseofnearlyall theotherPolynesianIslands.Thereareslightdifferencesinthemodeofmanufacture,aswell as in the quality of the fabric; but the account here given, both of themakinganddyeing,willanswerprettynearlyforall.Thebarkofthemalo-tree,or“paper-mulberry,”istakenoffinstrips,aslongas possible, and then steeped in water, to facilitate the separation of theepidermis,whichiseffectedbyalargevoluteshell.Inthisstateitiskeptforsometime,althoughfitforimmediateuse.Alog,flattenedontheupperside,issofixedastospringalittle,andonthisthestripsofbark—ormasi,asitiscalled—are beaten with an iki, or mallet, about two inches square, andgroovedlongitudinallyonthreeof itssides.Twolengthsofthewetmasiaregenerally beaten together, in order to secure greater strength—the glutenwhichtheycontainbeingsufficienttokeeptheirfibresunited.Atwo-inchstripcanthusbebeatenouttothewidthofafootandahalf;butthelengthisatthesametimereduced.Thepiecesareneatlylappedtogetherwiththestarchofthetaro,orarrowroot,boiledwhole;andthusreachalengthofmanyyards.The“widths”arealsojoinedbythesamemeanslaterally,soastoformpiecesoffifteen or thirty feet square; and upon these, the ladies exhaust theirornamenting skill.Themiddleof the square is printedwith a red-brown,bythefollowingprocess:—Uponaconvexboard,severalfeetlong,arearrangedparallel,ataboutafinger-widthapart,thinstraightslipsofbamboo,aquarterofaninchwide.Bythesideofthese,curvedpieces,formedofthemidribofcocoanut leaflets, arearranged.On theboard thusprepared thecloth is laid,and rubbed overwith a dye obtained from the lauci (Aleurites triloba).Theclothofcourse,takesthedyeuponthosepartswhichreceivepressure,beingsupportedbytheslipsbeneath;andthusshowsthesamepatterninthecolouremployed.Astrongerpreparationofthesamedye,laidonwithasortofbrush,is used to divide the square into oblong compartments,with large round orradiateddots in thecentre.Thekesa,ordye,whengood,driesbright.Blankborders,twoorthreefeetwide,arestillleftontwosidesofthesquare;andtoelaboratetheornamentationofthese,soastoexciteapplause,istheprideofeverylady.Thereisnowanentirechangeofapparatus.Theoperatorworksonaplainboard;thereddyegivesplacetoajetblack;thepatternisnowformedofastripofbanana-leafplacedon theuppersurfaceof thecloth.Outof theleafiscutthepattern—notmorethananinchlong—whichtheladywishestoprint upon the border, and holds by her first andmiddle finger, pressing itdownwiththethumb.Thentakingasoftpadofclothsteepedinthedye,inherrighthand,sherubsitfirmlyoverthestencil,andasharpfigureismade.The

practised fingers of the operatormove quickly, but it is, after all, a tediousprocess.I regret to add, that themenemploy themselves in an art of lessutility: themanufacture of war weapons—clubs and spears—which the people of thedifferent islands,andeven thoseof thesame, toooftenbrandishagainstoneanother.ThiswarspiritisentirelyowingtotheirintercoursewiththeferociousFeegees,whoseboastingandambitiousspirittheyaretoopronetoemulate.Infact, their admiration of the Feegee habits is something surprising; and canonly be accounted for by the fact, that while visiting these savages andprofessedwarriors, theTongans have become imbuedwith a certain fear ofthem.Theyacknowledge themorerecklessspiritof theirallies,andarealsoawarethatinintellectualcapacitytheblackmenarenotinferiortothemselves.Theycertainlyareinferiorincourage,asineverygoodmoralquality;buttheTonganscanhardlybelievethis,sincetheircruelandferociousconductseemstogivecolourtothecontraryidea.Infact,itisthisthatinspiresthemwithakind of respect, which has no other foundation than a vague sense of fear.Hence theyendeavour toemulate theactions thatproduce this fear, and thisleadsthemtogotowarwithoneanother.It is tobe regretted that themissionarieshave supplied themwith amotive.Theirlatewarsaresolelyduetomissionaryinfluence,—forMethodismupontheTonganIslandshasadoptedoneofthedoctrinesofMahomet,andbelievesinthefaithbeingpropagatedbythesword!Ausurper,whowishestobekingover thewholegroup,hasembraced theMethodist formofChristianity,andlinkedhimselfwithitsteachers,—whooffertoaidhimwithalltheirinfluence;and these formerly peaceful islands now present the painful spectacle of adividednationality,—the“Christianparty,”andthe“Devil’sparty.”Theobjectofconqueston thepartof the former is toplace theDevil’spartyunder theabsolute sovereignty of a despot, whose laws will be dictated by hismissionaryministers. Of the mildness of these laws we have already somespecimens,whichofcourseextendonlytothe“Christianised.”Oneofthem,whichreferstothemodeofwearingthepareu,hasbeenalreadyhintedat,—andanotherisastillmoreoff-handpieceoflegislation:beinganedictthatnoonehereaftershallbepermittedtosmoketobacco,underpainofamostseverepunishment.WhenitisconsideredthattheTonganIslanderenjoysthe“weed”(andgrowsit too) more than almost any other smoker in creation, the severity of the“taboo”may be understood.But it is very certain, if hisMethodistmajestywereoncefirmlyseatedonhisthrone,bluerlawsthanthiswouldspeedilybeproclaimed. TheAmericanCommodoreWilkes found things in thiswarlikeattitudewhenhevisitedtheTonganIslands;butperceivingthattherightwasclearlyon thesideof the“Devil’sparty,”declined to interfere;or rather,his

interference,whichwould have speedily brought peace,was rejected by theChristian party, instigated by the sanguinary spirit of their “Christian”teachers. Not so, Captain Croker, of Her Britannic Majesty’s service, whocame shortly after. This unreflecting officer—loath to believe that royaltycouldbe in thewrong—at once took sidewith the king andChristians, anddashedheadlongintotheaffair.Themelancholyresultiswell-known.ItendedbyCaptainCrokerleavinghisbodyuponthefield,alongsidethoseofmanyofhisbravetars;andadisgracefulretreatoftheChristianpartybeyondthereachoftheirenemies.ThisinterferenceofaBritishwar-vesselintheaffairsoftheTonganIslanders,offersastrongcontrasttoourconductwheninpresenceoftheFeegees.Therewehave the fact recordedofBritishofficersbeingeyewitnessesof themosthorridscenes,—wholesalemurderandcannibalism,—withfullpower tostaythe crime and full authority to punish it,—that authoritywhichwould havebeenfreelygiventhembytheaccordandacclamationof thewholecivilisedworld,—andyet they stoodby, in the character of idle spectators, fearful ofbreakingthroughthedelicateicylineofnon-intervention!Astrangetheoryitseems,thatmurderisnolongermurder,whenthemurdererand his victim chance to be of a different nationality from our own! It is adistinctiontoodelicatetobeartheinvestigationofthephilosophicmind;andperhapswillyetyieldtoatruerappreciationoftheprinciplesofjustice.TherewasnosuchsqueamishnessdisplayedwhenroyaltyrequiredsupportupontheTongan Islands; nor ever is there when self-interest demands it otherwise.Mercyandjusticemaybothfailtodisarrangethehypocriticalfallacyofnon-intervention; but the principle always breaks down at the call of politicalconvenience.

ChapterNine.TheTurcomans.

Asia has been remarkable, from the earliest times, for having a largepopulation without any fixed place of residence, but who lead a nomadeorwanderinglife.Itisnottheonlyquarteroftheglobewherethiskindofpeopleare found: as there are many nomade nations in Africa, especially in thenortherndivisionof it;and ifwe take the Indian race intoconsideration,wefind that both theNorth andSouth-American continents have their tribes ofwanderingpeople.ItisinAsia,nevertheless,thatwefindthisunsettledmodeof life carriedout to its greatest extent,—it is there thatwe find thosegreatpastoral tribes,—or “hordes,” as they have been termed,—who at differenthistorical periods havenot only increased to the numerical strength of large

nationalities,buthavealsobeenpowerfulenoughtooverrunadjacentempires,pushingtheirconquestsevenintoEuropeitself.SuchweretheinvasionsoftheMongolsunderZenghisKhan,theTartarsunderTimour,andtheTurks,whosedegenerate descendants now so feebly hold the vast territory won by theirwanderingancestors.Thepastorallife,indeed,hasitscharms,thatrenderitattractivetothenaturaldispositionofman, andwherever theopportunityoffersof following it, thislifewillbepreferredtoanyother.Itaffordstomananabundantsupplyofallhis most prominent wants, without requiring from him any very severeexertion, either of mind or body; and, considering the natural indolence ofAsiatic people, it is not to be wondered at that so many of them betakethemselves to thismode of existence.Their country,moreover, is peculiarlyfavourabletothedevelopmentofapastoralrace.PerhapsnotonethirdofthesurfaceoftheAsiaticcontinentisadaptedtoagriculture.Atleastonehalfofitisoccupiedbytreeless,waterlessplains,manyofwhichhaveallthecharactersofadesert,whereanagriculturalpeoplecouldnotexist,oratallevents,wheretheirlabourwouldberewardedbyonlythemostscantandprecariousreturns.

Even a pastoral people in these regionswould find but a sorry subsistence,weretheyconfinedtoonespot;fortheluxuriousherbagewhich,forthemostpart, characterises the great savanna plains of America, is either altogetherwantingupon the steppesofAsia, or at best verymeagre and inconstant.Afixedabodeisthereforeimpossible,exceptinthemostfertiletractsoroases:elsewhere,thenomadlifeisanecessityarisingfromthecircumstancesofthesoil.Itwouldbedifficulttodefineexactlythelimitsoftheterritoryoccupiedbythewanderingraces inAsia;but inageneralway itmaybesaid that thewholecentralportionof thecontinent is thuspeopled: indeed,muchmore than thecentralportion,—for,ifweexcepttherichagriculturalcountriesofHindostanandasmallportionofPersia,Arabia,andTurkey,thewholeofAsiaisofthischaracter.ThecountriesknownasBalkandBokara,YarkandandKhiva,withseveral others of equal note, are merely the central points of oases,—largetowns,supportedratherbycommercethanbytheproduceofagriculture,andhaving nomad tribes dwelling within sight of their walls. Even the presentboundariesofAsiaticTurkey,ArabiaandPersia,containwithinthemalargeproportionofnomadicpopulation;andthesameistrueofEasternPolandandRussia in Europe. A portion of the Affghan and Belochee country is alsoinhabitedbynomadpeople.Thesewandering people are ofmany different types and races ofmen; butthere is a certain similarity in the habits and customs of all: as might beexpectedfromthesimilarcircumstancesinwhichtheyareplaced.

It isalwaysthemoresterilesteppesthatarethusoccupied;andthisiseasilyaccounted for: where fertile districts occur the nomad life is no longernecessary.Evenawanderingtribe,enteringuponsuchatract,wouldnolongerhaveamotiveforleavingit,andwouldsoonbecomeattachedtothesoil,—inother words, would cease to be wanderers; and whether they turned theirattentiontothepursuitofagriculture,ornot,theywouldbecertaintogiveuptheir tent-life, and fix themselves in a permanent abode. This has been thehistory ofmanyAsiatic tribes; but there aremany others, again, who fromtimeimmemorial,haveshownarepugnancetotheideaoffixingthemselvestothe soil. They prefer the free roving life which the desert enables them toindulgein;andwanderingfromplacetoplaceasthechoiceofpastureguidesthem,occupythemselvesentirelyinfeedingtheirflocksandherds,—thesolemeans of their subsistence. These never have been, and never could be,inducedtoresideintownsorvillages.Norisitthattheyhavebeendrivenintothesedeserttractstoseekshelterfrompoliticaloppression,—as is thecasewith someof thenative tribesofAfricaand America. On the contrary, these Asiatic nomads are more often theaggressors than theobjectsof aggression. It is rather amatterof choiceandpropensity with them: as with those tribes of the Arabian race,—known as“Bedouins.”The proportion of the Asiatic wandering population to those who dwell intowns,or fixedhabitations, varies according to thenatureof the country. Inmany extensive tracts, the former greatly exceed the latter; and the moresterile steppes are almost exclusively occupied by them. In general, theyacknowledge the sovereignty of some of the great powers,—such as theempiresofChina,Russia,andTurkey,thekingdomofPersia,orthatofseveralpowerfulkhans,asthoseofKhivaandBokara;butthissovereigntyis,forthemostpart,littlemorethannominal,andtheirallegianceisreadilythrownoff,whenevertheydesireit.Itisrarelysostrong,astoenableanyoftheaforesaidpowerstodrawaheavytributefromthem;andsomeof themorewarlikeofthewandering tribes aremuch courted and caressed,—especiallywhen theirwar services are required. In general they claim an hereditary right to theterritoriesoverwhichtheyroam,andpaybutlittleheedtotheordersofeitherking,khan,oremperor.Asalreadystated,thesewanderingpeopleareofdifferentraces;infact,theyareofnearlyallthevarietiesindigenoustotheAsiaticcontinent;andawholecatalogue of namesmight be given, ofwhichMongols,Tartars,Turcomans,Usbecks,Kirghees,andCalmucks,areperhaps themostgenerallyknown. Ithasbeenalsostatedthatinmanypointstheyarealike;buttherearealsomanyimportantparticulars inwhich theydiffer,—physical,moral,and intellectual.Someofthe“hordes,”ortribes,arepurelypastoralintheirmodeoflife,and

ofmildandhospitaldispositions,exceedingly fondofstrangers,andkind tosuch as come among them. Others again are averse to all intercourse withothers, than those of their own race and religion, and are shy, if notinhospitable, when visited by strangers. But there is a class of a still lesscreditablecharacter,—alargenumberoftribesthatarenotonlyinhospitable,andhostile to strangers, but as ferocious andbloodthirsty as any savages inAfrica,America,ortheSouth-SeaIslands.AsafairspecimenofthisclassweselecttheTurcomans;infact,theymayberegarded as its type; and our description henceforwardmay be regarded asapplyingparticularlytothesepeople.ThecountryoftheTurcomanswillbefounduponthemapwithoutdifficulty;but to define its exact boundarywould be an impossibility, since none suchexists.WereyoutotravelalongthewholenorthernfrontierofPersia,almostfrom the gates of Teheran to the eastern frontier of the kingdom,—or evenfurther towards Balk,—you would be pretty sure of hearing of Turcomanrobbers, and in very great danger of being plundered by them,—which lastmisfortunewould be of less importance, as itwould only be the prelude toyourbeingeithermurderedonthespot,orcarriedoffbythemintocaptivity.In making this journey along the northern frontier of Persia, you wouldbecome acquaintedwith thewhereabouts of theTurcoman hordes; or ratheryouwoulddiscoverthatthewholenorthpartofPersia,—agoodbroadbandofit extending hundreds of miles into its interior,—if not absolutely inpossessionoftheTurcomans,isoverrunandplunderedbythematwill.This,however,isnottheirhome,—itisonlytheir“stamping-ground,”—thehomeoftheirvictims.Theirplaceofhabitualresidenceliesfurthertothenorth,andisdefinedwith tolerableaccuracyby itshaving thewholeeastern shoreof theCaspianSeaforitswesternborder,whiletheAmouRiver(theancientOxus)maybegenerallyregardedasthelimitof theirrangetowardstheeast.Sometribes go still further east than the Amou; but those more particularlydistinguished for theirplunderinghabitsdwellwithin the limitsdescribed,—north of the ElburzMountains, and on the great steppe ofKaurezm,wheretheyarecontiguoustotheUsbeckcommunityofKhiva.Thewholeof this immenseterritory,stretchingfromtheeasternshoreof theCaspiantotheAmouandAralSea,maybecharacterisedasatruedesert.Hereandthereoasesexist,butnoneofanyimportance,savethecountryofKhivaitself: andeven that isbut amere irrigated strip, lyingonbothbanksof theOxus. Indeed, it is difficult to believe that this territory of Khiva, soinsignificant in superficial extent, could have been the seat of a powerfulempire,asitoncewas.The desert, then, between the Caspian Sea and the Oxus River may beregarded as the true land of the Turcomans, and is usually known as

Turcomania. It is to be remembered, however, that there are some kindredtribesnotincludedwithintheboundariesofTurcomania—fortheTurkistanofthe geographers is a country of much larger extent; besides, an importantdivisionoftheTurcomanracesaresettlers,orratherwanderersinArmenia.ToTurcomaniaproper,then,anditsinhabitants,weshallconfineourremarks.We shall not stay to inquire into the origin of the people now calledTurcomans.Werewe tospeculateupon thatpoint,weshouldmakebut littleprogress in an account of their habits andmode of living. They are usuallyregardedasofTartarorigin,orofUsbeckorigin,orofMongolianrace;andingiving this account of them, I am certain that I add very little to yourknowledge of what they really are. The truth is, that the words Tartar andMongolandsomehalf-dozenothertitles,usedinrelationtotheAsiaticraces,are without any very definite signification,—simply because the relativedistinctions of the different nations of that continent are very imperfectlyknown; and learned ethnologists are river loath to a confession of limitedknowledge.Oneofthisclass,MrLatham,—whorequiresonlyafewwordsoftheir language to decide categorically to what variety of the human race apeople belongs,—has unfortunately added to this confusion by pronouncingnearlyeverybodyMongolian:placingtheproudturbanedTurkinjuxtapositionwiththesquatandstuntedLaplander!Ofcoursethisisonlybringingusbacktotheoldidea,thatallmenaresprungfromasinglepairoffirstparents,—adoctrine, which, though popular, is difficult to reconcile with the rationalknowledgederivedfromethnologicalinvestigation.Itmatters little toourpresentpurposefromwhatoriginalracetheTurcomanhasdescended:whetherhebeatrueTurk,assomeregardhim,orwhetherheisadescendantofthefollowersoftheGreatKhanoftheTartars.Hepossessesthe Tartar physiognomy to a considerable extent—some of the tribes morethanothersbeingthusdistinguished,—andhighcheek-bones,flatnoses,smallobliqueeyes,andscantybeards,areallcharacteristicsthatareverygenerallyobserved. Some of these peculiarities aremore common among thewomenthan the men—many of the latter being tall, stout, and well-made, while alargenumbermaybeseenwhohavetheregularfeaturesofaPersian.PerhapsitwouldbesafesttoconsiderthepresentTurcomantribesasnotbelongingtoa pure stock, but rather an admixture of several; and their habit of takingslaves from other nations, which has for a long time existed among them,would give probability to this idea. At all events, without some suchhypothesis,itisdifficulttoaccountforthewonderfulvariety,bothinfeatureand form, that is found among them.Their complexion is swarthy, in somecasesalmostbrownas thatofanAmerican Indian;butconstantexposure totheopenair, inall sortsofweather,hasmuch todo indarkening thehueoftheirskin.ThenewbornchildrenarenearlyaswhiteasthoseofthePersians;andtheiryounggirlsexhibitaruddybrunettetint,whichsomeconsidereven

morepleasingthanaperfectlywhitecomplexion.Thecostumeof theTurcoman, like thatofmostOrientalnations, isrichandpicturesque.Thedressofthemenvariesaccordingtorank.Someoftheverypoorerpeoplewearnothingbutashortwoollen tonicorshirt,withapairofcoarse woollen drawers. Others, in place of this shirt, are clad in a longergarment,asortofrobeorwrapper,likeagentleman’sdressing-gown,madeofcamel’s-haircloth,orsomecoarsebrownwoollenstaff.ButthetrueTurcomancostume, and that worn by all who can afford it, consists of a garment ofmixed silk and cotton,—thebaronnee,—whichdescendsbelow theknee, andthoughopeninfront,ismadetobuttonoverthebreastquiteuptotheneck.Agay sash around the waist adds to the effect; and below the skirt are seentrowsersof cottonor even silk.Clothwrappers around the legs serve in theplaceofbootsorgaiters;andonthefeetarewornslippersofPersianfashion,withsocksofsoftKoordishleather.Asthematerialofwhichthebaronneeismadeisofgoodquality—amixtureofsilkandcotton—andasthefabricisalwaysstripedorcheckeredincoloursof red, blue, purple, and green, the effect produced is that of a certainpicturesqueness. The head-dress adds to this appearance—being a high furcap, with truncated top, the fur being that beautiful kind obtained from theskins of the Astracan lamb, well-known in commerce. These caps are ofdifferentcolours,eitherblack,red,orgrey.Anotherstyleofhead-dressmuchwornisaround-toppedorhelmet-shapedcap,madeofquiltedcotton-stuff;butthis kind, although in use among the Turcomans, is a more characteristiccostumeoftheirenemies,the“Koords,”whowearituniversally.The“jubba”isakindofrobegenerallyintendedtogoovertheothergarments,andisusuallyofwoollenorcamel’s-haircloth.Itisalsomadelikeadressing-gown, with wide sleeves,—tight, however, around the wrist. It is of ampledimensions, and one side is lapped over the other across the front, like adouble-breastedcoat.The“jubba”isessentiallyanationalgarment.The dress of the women is exceedingly picturesque. It is thus minutelydescribedbyatraveller:—“Thehead-dressofthesewomenissingularenough:mostofthemwearaloftycap,withabroadcrown,resemblingthatofasoldier’scapcalledashako.Thisisstuckuponthebackofthehead;andoveritisthrownasilkhandkerchiefofverybrilliantcolours,whichcoversthetop,andfallsdownoneachsidelikeaveil.Thefrontofthisiscoveredwithornamentsofsilverandgold,invariousshapes;morefrequentlygoldcoins,mohrs,or tomauns,strung in rows,withsilver bells or buttons, and chains depending from them; hearts and otherfanciful forms, with stones set in them. Thewhole gives rather the idea ofgorgeoustrappingsforahorse,thanornamentsforafemale.

“Theframesofthesemonstrouscapsaremadeoflightchipsofwood,orsplitreeds,coveredwithcloth;andwhentheydonotwearthese,theywrapaclotharoundtheirheadsinthesameform;andcarelesslythrowanother,likeaveiloverit.Theveilorcurtainabovespokenofcoversthemouth;descendingtothebreast.Earrings areworn in the ears; and their longhair is divided, andplaited into four parts, disposed two on each side; one ofwhich falls downbehindtheshouldersandonebefore,andbotharestrungwithaprofusionofgoldornaments,agates,cornelians,andotherstones,according to themeansandqualityofthewearer.Therestoftheirdressconsistsofalong,loosevestorshirt,withsleeves,whichcoversthewholepersondowntothefeet,andisopen at the breast, in front, but buttons or ties close up to the neck: this ismadeofsilkorcotton-stuff,red,blue,green,stripedred,andyellow,checked,or various-coloured: underneath this, are the zere-jameh, or drawers, alsoofsilk or cotton; and somewear a short peerahn or shirt of the same. This, Ibelieve,isall;butinthecoldweathertheywear,inaddition,jubbas,orcoatslike thoseof themen, of striped stuffmadeof silk and cotton; on their feettheygenerallywearslipperslikethoseofthePersianwomen.”Thetents,or“portablehouses”oftheTurcomans—astheirmovabledwellingsrather deserve to be called—differ frommost structures of the kind in useelsewhere.Theyarethusdescribedbythesameintelligenttraveller:—“The portable wooden houses of the Turcomans have been referred to byseveralwriters;butIamnotawarethatanyexactdescriptionoftheirstructurehasbeengiven.Theframeiscuriouslyconstructedoflightwood,disposedinlaths of about an inch broad by three quarters thick, crossing one anotherdiagonally, but at right angles, about a foot asunder, and pinned at eachcrossing with thongs of raw hide, so as to be movable; and the wholeframework may be closed up or opened in the manner of those toys forchildrenthatrepresentacompanyofsoldiers,andcloseorexpandatwill,soastoformopenorclosecolumn.“Oneormorepiecesthusconstructedbeingstretchedout,surroundacircularspace of from fifteen to twenty feet diameter; and form the skeleton of thewalls,—whicharemadefirmbybandsofhairorwoollenropes,hitchedroundtheendofeachrod,tosecureitinitsposition.Fromtheupperendsofthese,rodsofasimilarkind,bentnearthewallendintosomewhatlessthanarightangle,aresodisposed that the longerportionsslope to thecentre,andbeingtiedwithropes,formtheframeworkofaroof.Overthisisthrownacoveringofblacknumud,leavinginthecentrealargeholetogiveventtothesmoke,and light to thedwelling.Similarnumudsarewrapped round thewalls; andoutsideofthese,tokeepalltight,isboundanotherframe,formedofsplitreedsorcane,orofverylightandtoughwood,tiedtogetherwithstrongtwine,thepiecesbeingperpendicular.This is itself securedby a strong,broadbandof

woven hair-stuff, which firmly unites. The large round opening at top iscovered,asoccasionrequires,byapieceofnumud,whichisdrawnofforonbyastrongcord, likeacurtain. If thewindbepowerful,astick isplaced toleeward,whichsupportsthefabric.“In most of these houses they do not keep a carpet or numud constantlyspread;but thebetterclassesuseacarpetshapedsomewhat in theformofahorseshoe,havingthecentrecutoutforthefireplace,andtheendstruncated,thatthoseofinferiorcondition,orwhodonotchoosetotakeofftheirboots,maysitdownupontheground.Uponthiscarpettheyplaceoneortwoothernumuds,asmayberequired,forguestsofdistinction.Whentheyhavewomenin the tent, a division of split reeds is made for their convenience; but thericherpeoplehaveaseparatetentfortheirprivateapartments.“Thefurnitureconsistsoflittlemorethancamelsandhorses;joals,orbagsinwhichtheirgoodsarepacked,andwhichareoftenmadeofaveryhandsomespecies of worsted velvet carpet, of rich patterns; the swords, guns, spears,bowsandarrows,andotherimplementsofthefamily,withoddsandendsofeverydescription,maybeseenhungon theendsof thewoodenrods,whichform very convenient pins for the purpose. Among some tribes all thedomestic utensils aremadeofwood,—calleeoons, trays for presenting food,milk-vessels,etc:amongothers,all thesethingsareformedofclayormetal.Upontheblacktopsofthetentsmayfrequentlybeseenlargewhitemassesofsour curd, expressed from buttermilk, and set to dry as future store; this,broken down andmixedwithwater, forms a very pleasant acidulous drink,andisusedasthebasisofthatintoxicatingbeveragecalledkimmiz.Themostcommonandmost refreshingdrinkwhich theyoffer to theweary andover-heated traveller in the forenoon is buttermilk, or sour curds andwater; and,indeed,amodificationof this,withsomeothersimplesherbets,are theonlyliquorspresentedattheirmeals.“Such are thewoodenhouses of theTurcomans, one ofwhich justmakes acamel’s load. There are poorer ones, of a less artificial construction, theframeworkofwhichisformedofreeds.“Theencampmentisgenerallysquare,enclosinganopenspace,orformingabroadstreet,thehousesbeingrangedoneitherside,withtheirdoorstowardseach other. At these may always be seen the most picturesque groups,occupiedwiththeirvariousdomesticduties,orsmokingtheirsimplewoodencalleeoons. Themore important encampments are surrounded by a fence ofreeds,whichservetoprotecttheflocksfrompettythefts.”ItisnowourplacetoinquirehowtheTurcomansoccupytheirtime.Wehavealreadydescribedthemasapastoralandnomadicpeople;and,underordinarycircumstances, their employment consists in looking after their flocks. In afewofthemorefertileoasestheyhavehabitations,orrathercamps,ofamore

permanent character, where they cultivate a little corn or barley, to supplythemwith thematerial for bread; but these settlements, if they deserve thename, areonly exceptional; and areused chiefly as akindofhead-quarters,wherethewomenandpropertyarekept,whilethementhemselvesareabsentontheirthievingexpeditions.Moregenerallytheirherdsarekeptonthemove,andaredrivenfromplace toplaceatshort intervalsofa fewweeksorevendays.Thestrikingandpitchingoftheirtentsgivesthememployment;towhichis added that of milking the cattle, and making the cheese and butter. Thewomen,moreover, fillup their idlehours inweaving thecoarseblankets,or“numuds,” in plaiting mats, and manufacturing various articles of dress orhousehold use. Themore costly parts of their costume, however, are not ofnativemanufacture:theseareobtainedbytrade.Themenalonelookafterthecamelsandhorses,takingspecialcareofthelatter.Their flockspresentaconsiderablevarietyofspecies.Besideshorses,cattle,andsheep, theyownmanycamels, and theyhaveno less than threedistinctvarietiesofthisvaluableanimalintheirpossession,—thedromedarywithtwohumps,andthecommoncamel.Thethirdsortisacrossbreed—or“mule”—betweenthesetwo.Thedromedaryisslightlymade,andswifterthaneitheroftheothers,butitisnotsopowerfulaseither;andbeinginferiorasabeastofburden,isleastcaredforbytheTurcomans.Theone-humpedcamelisinmoregeneraluse,andagoodonewillcarryaloadofsixorsevenhundredpoundswithease.Themulecamelismorepowerfulthaneitherofitsparents,andalsomoredocileandcapableofgreaterendurance.Itgrowstoaverylargesize,butislowinproportiontoitsbulk,withstout,bonylegs,andalargequantityofcoarse,shaggyhaironitshaunch,shoulders,neck,andevenonthecrownofitshead,whichgives it a strange, somewhat fantastic appearance. Its colourvariesfromlightgreytobrown,thoughitisasoftennearlyblack.Thiskindofcamelwillcarryaloadoffromeighthundredtoathousandpounds.TheTurcomansheepareofthelarge-tailedbreed,—theirtailsoftenattainingenormousdimensions.Thisvarietyofsheepisatruedenizenofthedesert,thefattailbeingunquestionablyaprovisionofnatureagainstseasonsofhunger,—justasinthesingleprotuberance,or“hump,”uponthecamel.ThehorseoftheTurcomanistheanimaluponwhichhesetsmostvalue.ThebreedpossessedbyhimiscelebratedoverallEasternAsia,asthatoftheArabis in the West. They cannot be regarded, however, as handsome horses,accordingtothetruestandardof“horsebeauty;”buttheTurcomancareslessforthisthanforothergoodqualities.Inpointofspeedandendurancetheyarenotexcelled,ifequalled,bythehorsesofanyothercountry.Their size is thatof thecommonhorse,but theyareverydifferent inmake.Their bodies are long in proportion to the bulk of carcass; and they do notappear to possess sufficient compactness of frame.Their legs are also long,

generallyfallingoffinmusculardevelopmentbelowtheknee-joint;andtheywouldappeartoanEnglishjockeytoonarrowinthecounter.Theyhavealsolongnecks,withlargeheavyheads.ThesearethepointswhicharegenerallyobservedintheTurcomanhorses;butitistoberemarked,thatitisonlywhenin an under-condition they look so ungraceful; and in this condition theirowners are accustomed to keep them, especially when they have any veryheavy service toperform.Feedingproduces abetter shape, andbrings themmuchnearertothelookofawell-bredEnglishhorse.Theirpowersofenduranceare indeed,almost incredible:when trained forachappow,orplunderingexpedition, theywillcarry their riderandprovisionsforsevenoreightdaystogether,attherateoftwentyoreventhirtyfursungs—that is, from eighty to one hundredmiles—aday.Theirmode of training ismore like thatofourpugilistic andpedestrianperformers, than that adoptedfor race-horses. When any expedition of great length, and requiring theexertionofmuchspeed,isincontemplation,theycommencebyrunningtheirhorseseverydayformanymilestogether;theyfeedthemsparinglyonbarleyalone,andpilenumudsuponthematnighttosweatthem,untileveryparticleof fathasbeenremoved,and thefleshbecomeshardand tendonous.Of thistheyjudgebythefeelofthemuscles,particularlyonthecrest,atthebackoftheneck,andonthehaunches;andwhenthesearesufficientlyfirmandhard,theysay inpraiseof theanimal, that“his flesh ismarble.”After thissortoftraining,thehorsewillproceedwithexpeditionandperseverance,foralmostany length of time, without either falling off in condition or knocking up,whilehorsesthatsetoutfatseldomsurvive.Theyaretaughtaquickwalk,alighttrot,orasortofamble,whichcarriestherideroneasily,attherateofsixmilesanhour;but theywillalsogoataroundcanter,orgallop,forfortyorfifty miles, without ever drawing bridle or showing the least symptom offatigue.Theiryaboos,orgalloways,andlargeponiesarefullyasremarkable,if not superior, to their horses, in theirpowerof sustaining fatigue; theyarestout,compact,spiritedbeasts,withoutthefinebloodofthelargerbreeds,butmorewithinthereachof thepoorerclasses,andconsequentlyusedinbyfargreaternumbersthanthesuperiorandmoreexpensivehorses.“ItisacommonpracticeoftheTurcomanstoteachtheirhorsestofightwiththeirheels,and thusassist theirmasters in the timeofaction.At thewilloftheirriders theywillrunatandlayholdwiththeir teethofwhatevermanoranimalmaybebeforethem.Thisacquirementisusefulinthedayofbattleandplunder,forcatchingprisonersandstraycattle,butitatthesametimerendersthemviciousanddangeroustobehandled.”In addition to the flocks and herds, the Turcomans possess a breed of verylarge fierce dogs, to assist them in keeping their cattle. These are alsonecessary aswatch-dogs, to protect the camp from thieves aswell asmore

dangerous enemies to their peace; and so well-trained are those faithfulcreatures,thatitwouldbeimpossibleforeitherfriendorenemytoapproachaTurcomancampwithout the inmatesbeingforewarnedin time.Twoor threeof these dogs may always be seen lying by the entrance of each tent; andthroughoutthenightseveralotherskeepsentryattheapproachestothecamp.Other breeds of dogs owned by them are used for hunting,—for thesewildwandererssometimesdevotetheirhourstothechase.Theyhavetwosorts,—asmooth-skinneddog,halfhoundhalfpointer, thathuntschieflyby thescent;andagreyhound,ofgreatswiftness,withacoatoflong,silkyhair,whichtheymakeuseofincoursing,—haresandantelopesbeingtheirgame.They have a mode of hunting—also practised by the Persians—which ispeculiar. It should rather be termed hawking than hunting, as a hawk isemployedforthepurpose.Itisaspeciesoffalcondenominated“goork,”andistrainednotonlytodashatsmallgame,suchaspartridgesandbustards,butuponantelopesandeventhewildassthatisfoundinplentyupontheplainsofTurcomania.Youwillwonderhowabird,notlargerthanthecommonfalcon,could capture such game as this but itwill appear simple enoughwhen themethodhasbeenexplained.The“goork”istrainedtoflyatthequadruped,andfix itsclaws inoneparticularplace,—that is,upon the frontlet, justbetweenthe eyes. When thus attached, the bird, instead of closing its wings andremaining at rest, keeps them constantly inmotion, flapping them over theeyesofthequadruped.Thisitdoes,nodoubt,toenableittoretainitsperch;while the unfortunate animal, thus assailed, knows not in what direction torun, and is soonovertakenby thepursuing sportsmen,andeither spearedorshotwiththebowandarrow.WildboarsarefrequentlyhuntedbytheTurcomans;andthis,likeeverythingelsewiththeserudecentaurs,isperformedonhorseback.Thebowandarrowis but a poor weapon when employed against the thick, tough hide of theHyrcanian boar (for he is literally the Hyrcanian boar), and of course thematchlock would be equally ineffective. How, then, does the Turcomansportsmanmanagetobagthisbristlygame?Withalltheeaseintheworld.Itcostshimonlytheeffortofgallopinghishorsecloseuptothesideoftheboarafter he has been brought to by the dogs, and then suddenly wheeling thesteed. The latter, well-trained to the task, without further prompting, goesthrough the rest of the performance, which consists in administering to theboarsuchaslapwithhisiron-shodheel,astoprostratetheporcinequadruped,oftenkillingitontheinstant!Such employments and such diversions occupy only a small portion of theTurcoman’stune.Hefollowsanothercallingofafarlesscreditablecharacter,whichunfortunatelyheregardsasthemosthonourableoccupationofhislife.This is the calling of the robber. His pastoral pursuits are matters of only

secondaryconsideration.Heonly looks to themasameansofsupplyinghisdailywants,—hisfoodandthemorenecessaryportionofhisclothing;buthehasotherwantsthatmaybedeemedluxuries.Herequirestokeepuphisstockofhorsesandcamels,andwishes to increase them.Heneedscostlygear forhis horse, and costly garments for himself—and he is desirous of beingpossessedoffineweapons,suchasspears,swords,bows,matchlocks,daggers,andpistols.Hismosteffectiveweaponsarethespearandsword,andthesearethekindshechieflyuses.Hisspearconsistsofasteelheadwithfourflutes,andedgesverysharp,fixeduponaslendershaftoffromeighttotenfeetinlength.Inusingithecouchesitundertheleftarm,anddirectsitwiththerighthand,either;straightforward,ortotherightorleft;iftotheright,thebuttoftheshaftliesacrossthehinderpartofthesaddle;iftotheleft,theforepartofthespearrestsonthehorse’sneck.TheTurcomansmanagetheirhorseswiththelefthand,butmostofthesearesowell broken as to obey themovement of the knee, or the impulse of thebody.When close to their object, they frequently grasp the spearwith bothhands,togivegreatereffecttothethrust.Thehorse,spurredtothefullspeedof a charge, in this way, offers an attack no doubt very formidable inappearance,butperhapslessreallydangerousthantheother,inwhichsuccessdepends so greatly on skill and address. The Turcomans are all sufficientlydexterouswith the sword,which is almost universally formed in the curvedPersian fashion, and very sharp; they also wear a dagger at the waist-belt.Firearmsareasyet little inuseamongthem; theypossessafew, takenfromthetravellerstheyhaveplundered,andprocureafewmoreoccasionallyfromtheRussiansbythewayofBokara.Someusebowsandarrows,buttheyareby no means so dexterous as their ancestors were in the handling of thoseweapons.Mounted,then,uponhismatchlesssteed,andarmedwithspearandsword,theTurcomangoesforthtopractisehisfavouriteprofession,—thatofplunder.Hedoes not go alone, nor with a small number of his comrades, either. Thenumber depends altogether on the distance or danger of the expedition; andwheretheseareconsideredgreat,atroopoffivehundred,orevenathousand,usuallyproceedtogetherupontheirerrand.Youwillbeinquiringtowhatpointtheydirectthemselves,—east,west,north,or south? That altogether depends upon who may be their enemies for thetime, foralongwith theirdesire forbooty, there isalsomixedupsomethinglikeasentimentofhostility. In this respect,however, theTurcomanisa trueIshmaelite, and in lack of other victim he will not hesitate to plunder thepeople of a kindred race. Indeed, several of the Turcoman tribes have longbeen atwarwithone another; and their animosity is quite as deadly amongthemselvesaswhendirectedagainststrangerstotheirrace.Thebutt,however,

ofmostoftheTurcomanexpeditionsisthenorthernpartofPersia,—Korassaninparticular.Itisintothisprovincethatmostoftheirgreatforaysaredirected,either against the peaceful citizens of the Persian towns and villages, or asoften against the merchant caravans that are constantly passing betweenTeheranandthecitiesoftheeast,—Mushed,Balkh,Bokara,Herat,andKelat.IhavealreadystatedthattheseforaysarepushedfarintotheinteriorofPersia;andthefactofPersiapermittingsuchastateofthingstocontinuewillperhapssurpriseyou;butyouwouldnotbesurprisedwereyoubetteracquaintedwiththeconditionofthatkingdom.Fromhistoricassociations,youbelievePersiato be a powerful nation; and so it oncewas, both powerful and prosperous.Thatdayispast;andatthepresenthour,thisdecayingmonarchyisnotonlypowerless to maintain order within its own borders, but is even threatenedwithannihilationfromthoseverynomadracesthathavesooftengivenlawstothe great empires of Asia. Even at this moment, the more powerful TartarKhansturnalonginglooktowardsthetotteringthroneofNadirShah;andheofKhivahasmorethanoncemadeafeintat invasion.Butthesubjectis tooextensive to be discussed here. It is only introduced to explain with whatfacilityafewhundredsofTurcomanrobberscanenterandharasstheland.Wefindaparallel inmanyotherpartsof theworld,—oldaswellasnew. In thelatter,thenorthernprovincesofMexico,andthesoutherncountriesofLaPlataandParaguay,areinjustsuchacondition:theweak,worn-outdescendantsoftheSpanishconquerorsononeside,wellrepresentingtheremnantsoftheraceofNadirShah;while,on theother, theTurcoman is typeenoughof theRedIndian. The comparison, however, is not just to the latter. He, at least, ispossessedofcourageandprowess;while theTurcoman,notwithstandinghispropensities for plunder, and the bloodthirsty ferocity of his character, is asarrant a coward as ever carried lance. Even the Persian can copewith him,whenfairlymatched;andthemerchantcaravans,—whichareusuallymadeupof trueTurks,andotherracespossessinga little“pluck,”areneverattacked,unlesswhenoutnumberedintheratioofthreetoone.Forall this, thewholenorthernportionof thePersiankingdomis left to themercy of these desert-robbers.The towns and villages have each their largefortress, into which the people retire whenever the plunderers make theirappearance,andtheredwelltillthelatterhaveriddenaway,—drivingofftheirflocksandherds to thedesert fastnesses.Even thepoor farmer isobliged tobuild a fortress in themiddleof his fields, towhichhemay retire upon theoccasion of any sudden alarm, and his labourers till the ground with theirswordsbytheirsides,andtheirmatchlockslyingnear!These field fortresses of Korassan are altogether so curious, both as toconstruction and purpose, that we cannot pass them without a word ofdescription. They are usually placed in some conspicuous place, at aconvenient distance from all parts of the cultivated tract. They are built of

mud, and raised to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, of a circular form,—bearingsomeresemblancetothewell-knownroundtowersofIreland.Asmallaperture is leftopenat thebottom, throughwhich thoseseekingsheltermayjust squeeze their bodies, and this being barricaded inside, the defence iscomplete. From the top—which can be reached easily on the inside—thefarmer and his labourers can use their matchlocks with effect; but they arenever called upon to do so,—as the cowardly freebooter takes good care togivethemudtowerawidebirth.Hehasnoweaponsbywhichhemightassailit;and,moreover,hehasnotimeforsieges:sinceanhour’sdelaymightbringhimintodangerfromtheforcethatisfastapproaching.Hisonlythoughtistokeep on his course, and sweep off such cattle, or make prisoners of suchpeople as hemay chance to find unwarned and unarmed.Now and then heventuresuponanattack—wherethereismuchbootytotempthim,andbutaweakforcetodefendit.Hisenemies,—thehated“Kuzzilbashes,”ashecallsthePersians,—ifdefeated,havenomercytoexpectfromhim.Allwhoresistare killed upon the spot, and often torture is themode of their death; but ifthey can bemade prisoners, the desert-robber prefers letting them live, as acaptive is tohimamorevaluableconsideration than thedeathofanenemy.Hisprisoner,oncesecured,knows tolerablywellwhat is to follow.The firstthing the Turcoman does is to bind the victim’s hands securely behind hisback;hethenputsalonghalteraroundhisneck,attachingtheotherendofittothetailofhishorse,andinthisfashionthehomewardmarchcommences.Ifthepoorpedestriandoesnotkeeppacewiththehorse,heknowswhathemayexpect,—to be dragged at intervals along the ground, and perhaps torn topiecesupontherocks.Withthishorridfatebeforehisfancy,hemakeseffortsalmostsuperhumantokeeppacewiththetroopofhisinhumancaptors:thoughwellawarethattheyareleadinghimoffintoahopelessbondage.Atnight,hisfeetarealsotied;and,throwndownupontheearth,heiscoveredwithacoarse“numud.”Donotfancythatthisisdonetoscreenhimfromthecold: the object is very different indeed. The numud is placed over him inorder that twoofhiscaptorsmaysleepuponitsedges—oneoneachsideofhim—thusholdinghimdown,andfrustratinganychanceofescape.Onarrivingattherobber-camp,thecaptiveisnotkeptlonginsuspenseastohis future fate. His owner—for he is now in reality a slave—wants a newword,orapieceof silkencloth,oracamel,or someotherarticleof luxury.ThathecanobtaineitheratKhivaorBokara, inexchangeforhisslave;andthereforethenewcaptive—orcaptives,asthechancemaybe—ismarchedofftothereadymarket.Thisisnoisolatednorrareincident.Itisoneofeverydayoccurrence; and it is anoted fact, thatof the threehundred thousandpeoplewhoconstitute the subjectsof theKhivanKhan,nearlyonehalf arePersianslavesobtainedfromtherobbersofTurcomania!

The political organisation of the Turcomans is of the patriarchal character.Fromnecessity theydwell in smallcommunities thatare termed“teers,” theliteralsignificationofwhichis“arrows,”—thoughforwhatreasontheyaresostyled does not appear. Perhaps it is on account of the rapidity of theirmovements: for, in hostile excursions, or moving from place to place, theyproceedwithaceleritythatmaybecomparedtoarrows.Over each tribe or teer there is a chief, similar to the “sheik” of the Arabtribes,—and indeed,manyof theircustomsofferacloseanalogy to thoseofthewanderingBedouins ofArabia and Egypt, and theKabyles ofMoroccoandtheAlgerineprovinces.Thecircumstancesoflife—almostaliketoboth—couldnotfailtoproducemanystrikingresemblances.The Turcoman tribes, as already observed, frequently go to war with eachother,but theyoftenerunite to rob thecommonenemy,—thecaravanor thePersianvillage.Inthesemereplunderingexpeditionstheygoinsuchnumbersasthecasemayrequire;butwhencalledforthtotakesideinanythinglikeanational war, they can muster to the strength of many thousands; and thenindeed,theybecometerrible,—eventothemostpotentsovereignsofCentralAsia,bywhommuchdiplomacyisemployedtoenlistthemononesideortheother.Itmatterslittletothemwhatthecausebe,—hewhocanpromisethemthelargestbootyincattleorslavesissuretohavethehelpoftheirspearsandswords.TheTurcomansarenotPagans,—thatis,theyarenotprofessedlyso,—though,foralltheregardwhichtheypaytoreligiousobservances,theymightaswellbe termed true Infidels. They profess a religion, however, and that isMohametanism in its worst and most bigoted form,—the “Sunnite.” ThePersians, as is well-known, hold the milder Sheean doctrines; and as thevotariesofthetwo,inmostcountrieswherebotharepractised,cordiallyhateeachother, so it isbetweenTurcomansandPersians.The formerevenscornthe Persian creed, calling its followers “Infidel” dogs, orKuzzilbashes; andthis bigoted rancour gives them a sort of plausible excuse for the hostileattitudewhichtheyholdtowardsthem.Taking them upon the whole, the Turcomans may be looked upon as truesavages,—savagesdressedinsilkinsteadofinskins.

ChapterTen.TheOttomacs,orDirt-Eaters.

On the banks of the Orinoco, a short distance above the point where thatmighty river makes its second great sweep to the eastward, dwells a

remarkable people,—a tribe of savages that, even among savages, areremarkableformanypeculiarandsingularcustoms.ThesearetheOttomacs.They have been long known,—and by the narratives of the early Spanishmissionaries, rendered notorious,—on account of some curious habits; butalthoughthemissionarieshaveresidedamongthem,andendeavouredtobringthemwithin“soundofthebell,”theireffortshavemetwithaverypartialandtemporary success; and at this present hour, the Ottomacs are as savage intheir habits; and as singular in their customs, as they were in the days ofColumbus.TheOttomacsareneitherastuntednoryetaweakraceofmen.Theirbodiesare strong, and their arms and limbs stout and muscular; but they areremarkably ill-featured, with an expression of countenance habitually sternandvindictive.Their costume is easilydescribed,or rather cannotbedescribedat all, sincetheyhavenone.Both, sexesgoentirelynaked,—ifweexcept a littlebeltofthreeorfourinchesinwidth,madefromcottonorthebarkoftrees,andcalledtheguayuco,whichtheyweararoundthewaist,—buteventhisiswornfromnomotivesofmodesty.What they regard in the lightofacostume isacoatofpaint, andabout thistheyareasniceandparticularasaParisiandandy.Talkabout“bloomingup”afadedbellefortheballroom,orthetimespentbyanexquisiteinadjustingthetie of his cravat! these are trifles when compared with the lengthy andelaboratetoiletteofanOttomacladyorgentleman.Thegreaterpartofadayisoftenspentbytheminasingledressing,withoneor two helpers to assist in the operation; and this is not atattooing process,intended to last for a lifetime, but a costume certain to be disfigured, orentirelywashed off, at the first exposure to a heavy shower of rain.Add tothis,thatthepigmentswhichareusedforthepurposearebynomeanseasilyobtained: the vegetable substances which furnish them are scarce in theOttomaccountry;anditcostsoneoftheseIndianstheproduceofseveraldaysofhislabourtopurchasesufficientpainttogivehiswholeskinasingle“coat.”For this reason the Ottomac paints his body only on grand occasions,—contentinghimselfatordinarytimeswithmerelystaininghisfaceandhair.When an Ottomac wishes to appear in “full dress” he first gives himself a“priming”ofred.Thisconsistsofthedyecalled“annotto,”whichisobtainedfromthefruitpulpof theBixaorellana,andwhichtheIndiansknewhowtoprepareprevioustotheirintercoursewithEuropeans.Overthisredgroundisthenformedalattice-workoflinesofblack,withadotinthecentreofeverylittle square or diamond. The black dye is the “caruto,” also a vegetablepigment, obtained from the Genipa Americana. If the gentleman be rich

enoughtopossessalittle“chica”whichisabeautifullake-colouredred,—alsotheproduceofaplant,—theBignoni,chica,hewill then feelall theecstaticdelightofafashionabledandywhopossessesagoodwardrobe;and,withhalfapoundofturtle-oilrubbedintohislongblacktresses,hewillregardhimselfasdressed“withinaninchofhislife.”Itisnotalways,however,thathecanafford the chica,—for it is one of the costliest materials of which a South-Americansavagecanmanufacturehissuit.TheOttomactakesfarlesstroubleinthebuildingofhishouse.Veryoftenhebuildsnone;butwhenhewishestoguardhisbodyfromtheraysofthesun,orthe periodical rains, he constructs him a slight edifice—amere hut—out ofsaplingsorbamboos,withathatchofpalm-leaves.His arms consist of the universal bow and arrows, which hemanages withmuch dexterity; and he has also a harpoonwhich he employs in killing themanateeandthealligator.Hehas,besides,severalotherweapons,toaidhiminthechaseandfishing,—thelatterofwhichformshisprincipalemploymentaswellashischiefsourceofsubsistence.TheOttomacbelongstooneofthosetribesofIndianstermedbytheSpanishmissionariesIndiosandantes,thatis“wandering,”or“vagabondIndians,”whoinsteadofremaininginfixedandpermanentvillages,roamaboutfromplaceto place, as necessity or inclination dictates. Perhaps this arises from thepeculiarityof thecountrywhich they inhabit: for the Indiosandantesdonotlivein the thickforests,butuponvast treelesssavannas,whichstretchalongtheOrinocoaboveitsgreatbend.Inthesetractsthe“juvia”trees(bertholletiaand lecythys), which produce the delicious “Brazil-nuts”—and other plantsthatsupplythesavagespontaneouslywithfood,aresparselyfound;andasthesavannas are annually inundated for severalmonths, theOttomac is forced,whetherhewillorno,toshifthisquartersandtryforsubsistenceelsewhere.Whentheinundationshavesubsidedandthewatersbecomesettledenoughtopermit of fishing, the Ottomac “winter” is over, and he can obtain food inplenty from the alligators, themanatees, the turtles, the toninas or dolphins,andother large fish that frequent thegreat streamuponwhichhedwells.Ofthese themanatee is themost important in theeyesof theOttomac—as it isthelargestinsize,andconsequentlyfurnisheshimwiththegreatestamountofmeat.This singular semi-cetaceous creature is almost too well-known to requiredescription.ItisfoundinnearlyallthelargeriversoftropicalAmerica,whereit feeds upon the grass and aquatic plants growing along their banks. It isknownby various names, according to the place and people.TheSpaniardscall it vaca marina, or “sea-cow,” and the Portuguese peixe hoi, or “fish-ox,”—bothbeingappellationsequallyinappropriate,andhavingtheiroriginina slight resemblancewhich there exists between the animal’s “countenance”

andthatofanox.TheWestIndiannameistheonewethoughthetrueorthographyismanati,notmanatee,sincethewordisofIndianorigin.Somewritersdenythis,allegingthat it is a derivative from the Spanish word “mano,” a hand, signifying,therefore, the fishwith hands,—in allusion to the rudimentary handswhichform one of its distinguishing characteristics. This is the account of thehistorianOviedo,but anotherSpanishmissionary,FatherGili, offers amorecorrectexplanationofthename,—infact,heproves,whatisneithermorenorlessthanthesimpletruth,that“manati”wasthenamegiventothisanimalbythenativesofHaytiandCuba,—whereaspeciesisalsofound,—andthewordhasnoreferencewhatevertothe“hands”ofthecreature.Theresemblancetothe Spanish word which should signify “handed,” is merely an accidentalcircumstance; and, as the acuteHumboldt very justly remarks, according tothegenius of theSpanish language, theword thus appliedwouldhavebeenwrittenmanudo,ormanon,andnotmanati.TheIndianshavealmostasmanydifferentnamesforthiscreatureasthereareriversinwhichitisfound;butitsappellationinthe“lingoageral”ofthegreatAmazonvalley, is “juarua.”Among theOttomacs it is called the “apoia.” ItmaybesafelyaffirmedthatthereareseveralspeciesofthisamphibiousanimalintheriversoftropicalAmerica;andpossiblynooneofthemisidenticalwiththat of theWest Indies.All havehithertobeen regarded asbelonging to thesamespecies,anddescribedunderthescientifictitleofManatusAmericanus—anamegiventotheAmericanmanati,todistinguishitfromthe“lamantin”of Africa, and the “dugong” of the East-Indian seas. But the West-Indianspeciesappearstohavecertaincharacteristicdifferences,whichshowsthatitisaseparateone,or,atallevents,avariety.ItisofmuchlargersizethanthoseoftheSouth-Americanriversgenerallyare—thoughtherealsoalargevarietyisfound,butmuchrarerthanthosecommonlycapturedbythefishermen.TheWest-Indianmanatihasnailswelldevelopedupontheouteredgeofitsfins,orforearms;whilethoseontheotherkindsareeithernotseenatall,oronlyinaveryrudimentarystate.Thattherearedifferentspecies,maybededucedfromthe accounts of the natives, who employ themselves in its capture: and theobservationsofsuchpeopleareusuallymoretrustworthythanthespeculationsoflearnedanatomists.TheAmazonfishermenallagreeinthebeliefthattherearethreekindsofmanatiintheAmazonanditsnumeroustributaries,thatnotonly differ greatly in size—from seven to twenty feet long—and inweight,from four hundred to two thousandpounds,—but also in the colour of theirskin,and theshapeof their tailsandfins.Thespecies found in theOrinoco,andcalled“apoia”bytheOttomacs,isusuallyabouttwelvefeetinlength,andweighsfromfivehundredtoeighthundredpounds;butnowandthenamuchlargerindividualiscaptured,perhapsowingtogreaterage,orotheraccidentalcircumstance. Humboldt heard of one that weighed eight thousand pounds;

and the French naturalist D’Orbigny speaks of one killed in the BolivianwatersoftheAmazonthatwastwentyfeetinlength.ThissizeisoftenattainedbytheManatusAmericanusofCubaandHayti.Themanatiisshapedsomewhatlikealargeseal,andhascertainresemblancesto a fish. Its body is of an oval oblong,with a large, flat, rounded tail, sethorizontally,andwhichservesasaruddertodirectitscourseinthewater.Justbehind its shoulders appear, insteadof fins, a pair of flippers,whichhave acertain resemblance to hands set on to the body without arms. Of these itavails itself, when creeping out against the bank, and the female also usesthemincarryingheryoung.Themammae(foritmustberememberedthatthiscreature is a mammiferous animal) are placed just below and behind theflippers. Themuzzle is blunt,with thick lips,—the upper projecting severalinches beyond the lower, and covered with a delicate epidermis: showingevidently that it avails itself of this prominence—which possesses a keensenseoftouch—justastheelephantofhisproboscis.Thelipsarecoveredwithbristles, or beard, which impart a kind of human-like expression to theanimal’scountenance,—acircumstancemoreobservable in the“dugongs”oftheOrientalwaters.“Womanfish,”too,thesehavebeencalled,andnodoubtsuchcreatures,alongwith thesealsandwalruses,havegivenrise tomanyastory of sirens and mermaids. The “cow-face,” however, from which themanatiobtainsitsSpanishandPortugueseepithets,isthemostcharacteristic;and in its foodwe find a still greater analogy to thebovinequadrupedwithwhich it isbrought incomparison.Beyond this the resemblanceceases.Thebodyisthatofaseal;butinsteadofbeingcoveredwithhair,asthecetaceousanimal, themanatihas a smooth skin that resembles india-rubbermore thananything else. A few short hairs are set here and there, but they are scarceobservable.Thecolourofthemanatiisthatoflead,withafewmottlingsofapinkish-white hue upon the belly; but in this respect there is no uniformity.Someareseenwiththewholeunder-partsofauniformcreamcolour.Thelungsofthisanimalpresentapeculiarityworthyofbeingnoted.Theyareveryvoluminous,—beingsometimesthreefeetinlength,andofsuchaporousand elastic nature as to be capable of immense extension.Whenblownout,theypresenttheappearanceofgreatswimmingbladders;anditisbymeansofthis capacity for containing air that themanati is enabled to remain so longunderwater,—though,likethetruecetaceae,itrequirestocomeatintervalstothesurfacetoobtainbreath.ThefleshofthemanatiiseatenbyallthetribesofIndianswhocanprocureit,—though by some it is more highly esteemed than by others. It was oncemuchrelishedinthecolonialsettlementsofGuianaandtheWestIndies,andformedaconsiderablearticleofcommerce;butinthesequartersmanatishavegrownscarce,—fromtheincessantpersecutionofthefishermen.Thefleshhas

beendeemedunwholesomebysome,andapttoproducefevers;butthisisnotthegeneralopinion.Ithasagreaterresemblancetoporkthanbeef,—thoughitbe the fleshof a cow,—and isvery savourywhen fresh, thoughneither is itbadeatingwhensaltedordriedinthesun.Inthiswayitwillkeepforseveralmonths;and ithasalwaysbeenastockarticlewith themonksof theSouth-American missions,—who, in spite of its mammiferous character, find itconvenient, during the days of Lent, to regard it as a fish! The skin of themanati is of exceeding thickness,—on the back an inch and a half at least,thoughitbecomesthinnerasitapproachestheunder-partsofthebody.Itiscutinto slipswhich serve various purposes, as for shields, cordage, andwhips.“Thesewhipsofmanati leather,”BaysHumboldt,“areacruel instrumentofpunishmentfortheunhappyslaves,andevenfortheIndiansofthemissions,though,accordingtothelaws,thelatteroughttobetreatedasfreemen.”Anothervaluable commodityobtained from this animal is oil, known in themissionsasmanati-butter(mantecademanati).Thisisproducedbythelayerofpurefat,ofaninchandahalfinthickness,which,lyingimmediatelyundertheskin,envelopsthewholebodyoftheanimal.Theoilisusedforlampsinthemissionchurches;butamongtheIndiansthemselvesitisalsoemployedinthecuisine,—asithasnotthatfetidsmellpeculiartotheoilofwhalesandsalt-watercetaceae.Thefoodofthemanatiisgrassexclusively,whichitfindsonthebanksofthelakesandriversitfrequents.Ofthisitwilleatanenormousquantity;anditsusualtimeofbrowsingisatnight,—thoughthishabitmayhavearisenfromitsobservanceof thefact, thatnight is thesafest timetoapproach theshore. Inthoseplaces,whereishasbeenleftundisturbed,itmaybeoftenseenbrowsingbyday.Ihavebeen thusparticular inmyaccountof this animal,because it ismorenearlyconnectedwiththehistoryofOttomachabitsthanperhapsthatofanyother tribe of South-American Indians,—the Guamos alone excepted, whomay themselves be regarded as merely a branch of the Ottomac family.Though, as already remarked, all the tribes who dwell upon manati riverspursue this creature and feed upon its flesh, yet in no other part of SouthAmericaisthisspeciesoffisherysoextensivelyorsodexterouslycarriedonasamongtheOttomacsandGuamos,—thereasonbeing,that,amidstthegreatgrassysavannaswhichcharacterise theOttomaccountry, therearenumerousstreamsandlagoons thatare thefavouritehauntsof thisherbivorousanimal.In one river in particular, so great a number are found that it has beendistinguishedbytheappellationoftheRiodeManatis(riverofmanatis).Themanati, when undisturbed, is gregarious in its habits, going in troops (or“herds,” ifwepreserve theanalogy)ofgreateror lessnumbers,andkeepingtheyoung“calves”inthecentre,whichthemothersguardwiththetenderest

affection.Soattachedaretheparentstotheiryoung,thatifthecalfbetaken,themothercanbeeasilyapproached;andthedevotionisreciprocatedonthefilial side; since in cases where the mother has been captured and draggedashore,theyoungonehasoftenbeenknowntofollowthelifelessbodyuptotheverybank!As themanati plays such an important part in thedomestic economyof theOttomacs, of course the capturing of this animal is carried on upon thegrandest scale among these people, and, like the “harvest of turtle-eggs,”hereafter to be described, the manati fishery has its particularseason. Somewritershaveerroneouslystatedthisseasonasbeingtheperiodofinundation,andwhen thewater is at itsmaximum height. This is quite contrary to thetruth; since that period, both on theAmazon andOrinoco rivers, is just thetime when all kinds of fishing is difficult and precarious. Then is the truewinter,—the “blue months” of the South-American river Indians; and it isthen, aswill presently be seen, that theOttomac comes nearest the point ofstarvation,—whichheapproacheseveryyearofhislife.Therearemanatiandotherkindsoffishtakenatalltimesoftheyear;butthetrue seasonof themanati-fishing iswhen thewatersof thegreat floodhaveconsiderablysubsided,andarestillcontinuingtodiminishrapidly.Whentheinundationisatitsheight,themanatipassesoutofthechannelcurrentofthegreat river, and in search of grass it finds its way into the lakes andsurroundingmarshes,remainingtheretobrowsealongtheirbanks.Whenthefloodisrapidlypassingawayfromit,itbeginstofinditselfa“littleoutofitselement,”andjustthenisthetimewhenitismosteasilycaptured.SometimestheIndiansassembleinabodywiththeircanoes,formingalargefleet;and,proceedingtothebesthauntsofthe“cow-fish,”carryonthefisheryinawholesalemanner.Themonksofthemissionsalsoheadthetametribesontheseexpeditions,—astheydowhencollectingtheeggsoftheturtle,—andaregular systematic course is carried on under the eye of discipline andauthority.Acampisformedatsomeconvenientplaceontheshore.Scaffoldsareerectedforsun-drying thefleshandskins;andvesselsandotherutensilsbroughtuponthegroundtorenderthefatintooil.Themanatisthathavebeencapturedareallbroughtinthecanoestothiscentralpoint,anddelivereduptobe “flensed,” cured, and cooked. There is the usual assemblage of smalltraders fromAngostura and other ports on the lowerOrinoco,who come tobartertheirIndiantrinketsforthemantecademanatiinthesamemannerasitwillpresentlybeseen they tradefor themantecade tortugas. Ineednotaddthatthisisaseasonofjoyandfestivity,likethewine-gatheringsandharvest-homesoftheEuropeanpeasantry.The mode of capturing the manati is very similar to that employed by theEsquimauxintakingtheseal,andwhichhasbeenelsewheredescribed.There

isnotmuchdangerinthefishery,fornocreaturecouldbemoreharmlessandinoffensive than this. Itmakes not the slightest attempt either at defence orretaliation,—thoughtheaccidentsometimesoccursofacanoebeingswampedor drawn under water,—but this is nothing to the Ottomac Indian, who isalmostasamphibiousasthemanatiitself.Attheproperhourthefishermanstartsoffinsearchofthemanati.Hisfishing-boat is a canoe hollowed from a single trunk, of that kind usually styled a“dugout.”On perceiving the cow-fish resting upon the surface of thewater,theOttomacpaddles towards it, observing thegreatest caution; for althoughthe organs of sight and hearing in this animal are, externally, but very littledeveloped, it both hears and sees well; and the slightest suspicious noisewouldbeasignalforittodiveunder,andofcourseescape.Whennearenoughto insureagoodaim, theOttomachurlshisharpoonintothe animal’s body; which, after piercing the thick hide, sticks fast. To thisharpoonacordisattached,withafloat,andthefloatremainingabovewaterindicates the direction inwhich thewounded animal nowendeavours to getoff.Whenitistiredofstruggling,theIndianregainsthecord;andtakingitin,handover hand, drawsuphis canoe to the side of the fish. If it be still toolively, he repeatedly strikes it with a spear; but he does not aim to kill itoutright until he has got it “aboard.” Once there, he ends the creature’sexistence by driving a wooden plug into its nostrils, which in a momentdeprivesitoflife.TheOttomacnowprepareshimselftotransportthecarcasstohishome;or,iffishingincompany,tothecommonrendezvous.Perhapshehassomedistanceto take it, and against a current; and he finds it inconvenient to tow such aheavy and cumbrous article. To remedy this inconvenience, he adopts theexpedient already mentioned, of placing the carcass in his canoe. But howdoes he get it there? How can a single Indian of ordinary strength raise aweightofathousandpoundsoutofthewater,andliftitoverthegunwaleofhisunsteadycraft?Itisinthisthatheexhibitsgreatcunningandaddress:forinsteadof raising thecarcassabove thecanoe,he sinks thecanoebelow thecarcass,by first filling thevesselnearly fullofwater;and then,afterhehasgothisfreightaboard,hebalesoutthewaterwithhisgourd-shell.Heatlengthsucceedsinadjustinghisload,andthenpaddleshomewardwithhisprize.Onarrivingathisvillage,—ifitbetothevillagehetakesit,—heisassistedintransportingtheloadbyothersofhistribe;buthedoesnotcarryittohisownhouse,—fortheOttomacsaretruesocialists,andtheproducebothofthechaseandthefisheryisthecommonpropertyofall.Thechiefofthevillage,seatedinfrontofhishut,receivesall that isbroughthome,anddistributesitout tothevariousheadsoffamilies,—givingtoeachinproportiontothenumberofmouthsthataretobefed.

Themanati is flayed,—its thickhide, as alreadyobserved, serving formanyusefulpurposes;thestrataoffat,or“blubber,”whichliesbeneathisremoved,tobeconvertedintooil;andfinally,theflesh,whichisesteemedequaltopork,both in delicacy and flavour, is cut into thin slices, either to be broiled andeatenatthetime,ortobepreservedforafutureoccasion,notbysalt,ofwhichtheOttomacisentirelyignorant,butbydryinginthesunandsmokingoveraslowfire.Fishand thefleshof thealligatoraresimilarly“cured;”andwhentheprocessiscarefullydone,bothwillkeepformonths.Thealligatoriscapturedinvariousways:sometimesbyabaitedhookwithastrongcordattached,—sometimesheiskilledbyastaboftheharpoonspear,andnotunfrequentlyishetakenbyanooseslippedoverhispaw,theOttomacdivingfearlesslyunderhimandadjustingthesnare.SomeoftheIndiantribeswillnoteatthemuskyfleshofthealligator;buttheOttomacsarenotthusparticular.Indeed,thesepeoplerefusescarceanyarticleof food, however nasty or disagreeable; and it is a saying among theirneighbours—the Indians of other tribes—that “nothing is too loathsome forthestomachofanOttomac.”Perhaps the saying will be considered as perfectly true when we come todescribeaspeciesoffoodwhichthesepeopleeat,andwhich,foralongtime,has rendered them famous—or rather infamous—under the appellation of“dirt-eaters.”Ofthemitmayliterallybesaidthatthey“eatdirt,”forsuch,inreality,isoneoftheircustoms.This singular practice is chiefly resorted to during thosemonths in the yearwhentheriversswelltotheirgreatestheight,andcontinuefull.Atthistimeallfishing ceases, and the Ottomac finds it difficult to obtain a sufficiency offood. To make up for the deficiency, he fills his stomach with a kind ofunctuousclay,whichhehasalreadystoredupfortheemergency,andofwhichheeatsaboutapoundperdiem!Itdoesnotconstitutehissolediet,butoftenfor several days together it is the only foodwhich passes his lips! There isnothingnourishinginit,—thathasbeenprovedbyanalysis.Itmerelyfillsthebelly,—producing a satiety, or, at least, giving some sort of relief from thepangs of hunger. Nor has it been observed that the Ottomac grows thin orunhealthyonthisunnaturalviand:onthecontrary,heisoneofthemostrobustandhealthyofAmericanIndians.TheearthwhichtheOttomaceatsgoesbythenameofpoya.Hedoesnoteatclay of every kind: only a peculiar sort which he finds upon the banks ofstreams. It is soft and smooth to the touch, and unctuous, like putty. In itsnatural state it is of a yellowish-grey colour; but,whenhardenedbefore thefire,itassumesatingeofred,owingtotheoxideofironwhichisinit.ItwasforalongtimebelievedthattheOttomacmixedthisclaywithcassava

andturtle-oil,orsomeothersortofnutritivesubstance.EvenFatherGumilla—who was credulous enough to believe almost anything—could not“swallow” the story of the clay in its natural state, but believed that itwaspreparedwith some combination of farinha or fat.This, however, is not thecase. It is a pure earth, containing (according to the analysis of Vauquelin)silexandalumina,withthreeorfourpercentoflime!This clay the Ottomac stores up, forming it into balls of several inches indiameter;which;being slightlyhardenedbefore the fire,hebuilds into littlepyramids, just as cannon-balls are piled in an arsenal or fortress.When theOttomacwishes toeatof thepoya,hesoftensoneof theballsbywetting it;andthen,scrapingoffasmuchashemayrequireforhismeal,returnsthepoyatoitsplaceonthepyramid.The dirt-eating does not entirely end with the falling of the waters. Thepracticehasbegotacravingforit;andtheOttomacisnotcontentedwithoutalittlepoya,evenwhenmorenutritiousfoodmaybeobtainedinabundance.This habit of eating earth is not exclusively Ottomac. Other kindred tribesindulgeinit,thoughnottosogreatanextent;andwefindthesameunnaturalpracticeamongthesavagesofNewCaledoniaandtheIndianarchipelago.Itisalso common on the west coast of Africa. Humboldt believed it to beexclusivelyatropicalhabit.Inthisthegreatphilosopherwasinerror,sinceitisknowntobepractisedbysometribesofnorthernIndiansonthefrigidbanksoftheMackenzieRiver.Whenthefloodssubside,asalreadystated,theOttomaclivesbetter.Thenhecan obtain both fish and turtles in abundance.The former he captures, bothwith hooks and nets, or shoots with his arrows, when they rise near thesurface.The turtlesof theOttomac riversareof twokinds thearauand terecay.Theformeris theonemostsoughtafter,asbeingbyfarthelargest.It isnearlyayardacross theback,andweighsfromfifty toahundredpounds. It isashycreature, andwould be difficult to capture,were it not for a habit it has ofraisingitsheadabovethesurfaceofthewater,andthusexposingthesoftpartofitsthroattotheIndian’sarrow.Eventhenanarrowmightfailtokillit;buttheOttomactakescaretohavethepointwellcoatedwithcurarepoison,whichinafewsecondsdoesitswork,andsecuresthedeathofthevictim.The terecay is taken in a different and still more ingenious manner. Thisspecies,floatingalongthesurface,orevenwhenlyingstill,presentsnomarkat which a shaft can be aimed with the slightest chance of success. Thesharpestarrowwouldglanceoffitsflatshellybackasfromasurfaceofsteel.In order, therefore, to reach the vitals of his victim, the Indian adopts anexpedient,inwhichheexhibitsadexterityandskillthataretrulyremarkable.

Heaimshisshaft,notattheturtle,butupintotheair,describingbyitscourseaparaboliccurve,andsocalculatingitsvelocityanddirectionthatitwilldropperpendicularly,pointforemost,uponthebackoftheunsuspectingswimmer,andpiercethroughtheshellrightintothevitalveinsofitsbody!It is rare that an Indian will fail in hitting such a mark; and, both on theOrinocoandAmazon,thousandsofturtlesareobtainedinthismanner.The great season ofOttomac festivity and rejoicing, however, is that of thecosechadetortugas,or“turtle-crop.”Ashasbeenalreadyobserved,inrelationto themanati fishery, it is tohimwhat theharvest-home is to thenationsofnorthernEurope,orthewine-gatheringtothoseofthesouth;forthisismoretruly the character of the cosecha. It is then that he is enabled, not only toprocureasupplyofturtle-oilwithwhichtolubricatehishairandskin,butheobtains enough of this delicious greasewherewith to fry his dried slices ofmanatiandasurplusforsaletotheturtle-tradersfromtheLowerOrinoco.Inthispettycommercenocoinisrequired;harpoonspears,andarrow-headsofiron,rudeknives,andhatchets;but,aboveall,afewcakesofannotto,chica,and caruto, are bartered in exchange for the turtle-oil.The thickhide of themanati,—formaking slave-whips,—the spotted skinof the jaguar, and someotherpeltswhichthechaseproduces,arealsoitemsofhisexporttrade.Thepigmentsabovementionedhavealreadybeenprocuredby the trader,astheexportarticlesofcommerceofsomeothertribe.The turtle-oil is the product of the eggs of the larger species,—the arau,—known simply by the name tortuga, or turtle. The eggs of the terecaywouldserveequallyaswell;but,fromadifferenceinthehabitofthisanimal,itseggscannotbeobtainedinsufficientquantityforoil-making.Thereisnosuchthingasagrand“cosecha,”orcropofthem—forthecreatureisnotgregarious,likeits congener,but each femalemakeshernest apart from theothers, in somesolitaryplace,andtherebringsforthheryoungbrood.Notbutthatthenestsoftheterecayarealsofoundanddespoiledoftheireggs,—butthisonlyoccursatintervals; and as the contents of a single nest would not be sufficient for a“churning,”no“butter”canbemadeofthem.Theyare,therefore,gatheredtobeusedonlyaseggs,andnotasbutter.The arau, on the other hand, although not gregarious under ordinarycircumstances,becomespre-eminentlysoduringthe“layingseason.”ThenalltheturtlesintheOrinocoanditstributariescollectintothreeorfourvastgangs—numbering in all over a million of individuals—and proceed to certainpointsofrendezvouswhichtheyhavebeeninthehabitofvisitingfromtimeimmemorial. These common breeding-places are situated between thecataracts of the river and the great bend,where itmeets theApure; and aresimplybroadbeachesofsand,risingwithagentleslopefromtheedgeofthewater,andextendingformilesalongthebank.Therearesomesmallrookeries

ontributarystreams,butthethreemostnotedareupontheshoresofthemainriver,betweenthepointsalreadyindicated.ThatfrequentedbytheOttomacsisupon an island, at themouthof theUruanaRiver, uponwhich these peopleprincipallydwell.The laying season of the arau turtle varies in the different rivers of tropicalAmerica,—occurring in the Amazon and its tributaries at a different periodfrom thatof theOrinoco. It is regulatedby the rise, or rather the fall of theinundations;andtakesplacewhenthewaters,attheirloweststage,havelaidbare the low sand-banks upon the shores. This occurs (in the Orinoco) inMarch,andearlyinthismonththegreatassemblagesarecomplete.Forweeksbefore,theturtlesareseen,inallpartsoftheriverneartheintendedbreeding-places,swimmingaboutonthesurface,orbaskingalongthebanks.Asthesungrows stronger, thedesireofdepositing their eggs increases,—as though theheat had something to dowith their fecundation. For some time before thefinal action, the creaturesmay be seen ranged in a long line in front of thebreeding-place,with their heads and necks held high above thewater; as ifcontemplating their intended nursery, and calculating the dangers to whichtheymaybeexposed.Itisnotwithoutreasonthattheymaydwelluponthese.Along thebeachstalks the lordly jaguar,waiting tomakeamealof the firstthatmaysethis footon terra firma,or to fillhis stomachwith thedelicious“new-laid” eggs. The ugly alligator, too, is equally friand of a giganticomelette; and not less so the “garzas” (white cranes), and the “zamuros”(blackvultures),whohoverinhundredsintheair.Hereandthere,too,maybeobservedan Indiansentinel,keepingasmuchaspossibleoutof sightof theturtles themselves, but endeavouring to drive off all other enemies whosepresencemaygivethemfear.Shouldacanoeorboatappearupontheriver,itiswarnedbythesesentinelstokeepwellofffromthephalanxoftheturtles,—lest theseshouldbedisturbedoralarmed,—fortheIndianwellknowsthat ifanythingshouldoccurtoproduceapanicamongthearaus,hiscosechawouldbeverymuchshortenedthereby.When at length the turtles havehad sun enough towarm them to thework,they crawl out upon the dry sand-beach, and the laying commences. It is atnight that the operation is carried on: for then their numerous enemies—especially the vultures—are less active. Each turtle scoops out a hole, ofnearlyayardindiameteranddepth;andhavingthereindepositedfromfiftytoonehundredeggs,itcoversthemupwiththesand,smoothingthesurface,andtreadingitfirmlydown.Sometimestheindividualsaresocrowdedastolayinone another’s nests, breakingmanyof the eggs, and causing an inextricableconfusion;whilethecreakingnoiseoftheirshellsrubbingagainsteachothermaybeheardafaroff,liketherushingofacataract.Sometimesanumberthathavearrivedlate,orhavebeenslowattheirwork,continueengagedinittillafterdaybreak,andevenaftertheIndianshavecomeupontheground—whose

presence they no longer regard. Impelled by the instinct of philo-progenitiveness, these “mad turtles,” as the Indians call them, appearutterlyregardlessofdanger,andmakenoefforttoescapefromit;butareturnedoverontheirbacks,orkilleduponthespotwithoutdifficulty.Thebeachbeingnowdesertedbytheturtles,theegg-gatherersproceedtotheirwork.Asthereareusuallyseveraltribes,whoclaimashareinthecosecha,theground is measured out, and partitioned among them. The regularity withwhichthenestsareplaced,andthenumberofeggsineachbeingprettynearlythesame,anaverageestimateof thequantityunderagivensurface iseasilymade. By means of a pointed stick thrust into the sand, the outline of thedeposit is ascertained—usually running along the beach in a strip of aboutthirtyyardsinbreadth.When the allotments are determined, thework of oil-making begins,—eachtribeworkingby itself, andupon the social system.Thecoveringof sand isremoved, and the eggs placed in baskets,which are then emptied into largewoodentroughs,asacommonreceptacle.Thecanoes,drawnuponthesand,arefrequentlymadetododutyastroughs.Whenasufficientnumberofeggshave been thrown in, they are broken and pounded together, and whippedabout, as if intended for a gigantic omelette.Water is added; and then themixture is put into large caldrons, andboileduntil theoil comes to the top;after which it is carefully skimmed off and poured into earthen jars(“botigas,”)providedbythetraders.Ittakesabouttwoweekstocompletetheoperations,duringwhichtimemanycurious scenesoccur.The sand swarmswithyoung turtles about asbig as adollar,whichhavebeenprematurelyhatched;andhavecontrivedtocrawloutoftheshell.Thesearechasedinalldirections,andcapturedbythelittlenakedOttomacs,whodevourthem“body,bones,andall,”withasmuchgustoasiftheyweregooseberries.Thecranesandvultures,andyoungalligatorstoo,takea part in this by-play—for the offspring of the poor arau has no end ofenemies.Whentheoilisallboiledandbottled,thetraderdisplayshistemptingwares,and makes the best market he can; and the savage returns to his palm-hutvillage,—takingwithhimthearticlesofexchangeandafewbasketsofeggs,whichhehasreservedforhisowneating;andsoendsthecosechadetortugas.ItisinthisseasonthattheOttomacindulgesmostingoodliving,andeatsthesmallestquantityofdirt.Thewatersaffordhimabundanceoffishandturtle-flesh,beeffromthesea-cow,andsteaksfromthetailofthealligator.Hehashis turtle and manati-butter, in which to fry all these dainties, and also tolubricatehishairandskin.Hecandress, too, “withinan inchofhis life,”havingobtained forhisoil a

fresh supply of the precious pigments. He indulges, moreover, in fits ofintoxication, caused by a beverage made from maize or manioc root; butoftenerproducedbyaspeciesofsnuffwhichheinhalesintohisnostrils.Thisis the niopo,manufactured from the leaves of amimosa, andmixedwith akindoflime,whichlastisobtainedbyburningashellofthegenushelix,thatisfoundinthewatersof theOrinoco.Theeffectof thenioporesemblesthatproduced by chewing betel, tobacco, opium, or the narcotic coca of Peru.Whenfreelytaken,aspeciesofintoxicationorrathermaniaisproduced;butthis snuff and its effects are more minutely described elsewhere. It is hereintroducedbecause,inthecaseoftheOttomac,thedrugoftenproducesmostbanefulconsequences.DuringthecontinuanceofhisintoxicationtheOttomacisquarrelsomeanddisorderly.Hepicksaholeinthecoatofhisneighbour;butif there chance tobe any“old sore”betweenhimanda rival, thevindictivefeelingissuretoexhibititselfontheseoccasions;andnotunfrequentlyendsinanencounter,causingthedeathofoneorbothofthecombatants.Theseduelsare not fought either with swords or pistols, knives, clubs, nor any similarweapons. The destruction of the victim is brought about in a very differentmanner;andistheresultofaveryslightscratchwhichhehasreceivedduringthefightfromthenailofhisantagonist.Thatawoundofsotriflinganatureshouldprovemortalwouldbe somethingverymysterious,didwenotknowthat the nail which inflicted that scratch has been already enfiltrated withcurare,—one of the deadliest of vegetable poisons, which the Ottomacunderstandshowtoprepareinitsmostpotentandvirulentform.Should it everbeyourunfortunate fate therefore, toget into a “scrimmage”withanOttomacIndian,youmustremembertokeepclearofhis“claws!”

ChapterEleven.TheComanches,orPrairieIndians.

Youngreader,Ineedscarcetellyouthatthenoblestofanimals—thehorse—isnotindigenoustoAmerica.YoualreadyknowthatwhenColumbusdiscoveredthe NewWorld, no animal of the horse kind was found there; and yet thegeologisthasprovedincontestablythatatonetimehorsesexistedintheNewWorld,—at a period too, geologically speaking, not very remote. Thefossilised bones examined by one of the most accomplished of moderntravellers—DrDarwin—establishthistruthbeyondadoubt.ThehorsethatatpresentinhabitsAmerica,thoughnotindigenous,hasprovedaflourishingexotic.Notonlyinadomesticstatehasheincreasedinnumbers,buthehasinmanyplacesescapedfromthecontrolofman,andnowrunswildupon the great plains both ofNorth andSouthAmerica.Althoughyoumay

findinAmericaalmostevery“breed”ofhorsesknowninEurope,yetthegreatmajority belong to two very distinct kinds. The first of these is the largeEnglish horse, in his different varieties, imported by the Anglo-Americans,andexistingalmostexclusivelyinthewoodlandterritoryoftheUnitedStates.The second kind is the Andalusian-Arab,—the horse of the Spanishconquerors,—amuchsmallerbreedthantheEnglish-Arabian,butquiteequaltohiminmettleandbeautyofform.It is theAndalusianhorsethat isfoundthroughout all Spanish America,—it is he that has multiplied to such awonderfulextent,—itishethathas“runwild.”

Thatthehorseinhisnormalstateisadwelleruponopenplains,isprovedbyhis habits in America,—for in no part where the forest predominates is hefoundwild,—onlyupontheprairiesofthenorth,andthellanosandpampasofthesouth,whereatimberedtractformstheexception.Hemusthavefoundthesegreatsteppescongenialtohisnaturaldisposition,—since, only a very short time after the arrival of the Spaniards in the NewWorld,wefindthehorsearunawayfromcivilisation,—notonlyexistinginawildstateupontheprairies,butinpossessionofmanyoftheIndiantribes.It would be an interesting inquiry to trace the change of habits which thepossession of the horse must have occasioned among these Arabs of theWesternworld.However hostile theymay have been to his European rider,theymust havewelcomed the horse as a friend.Nodoubt they admired thebold,freespiritofthenobleanimalsoanalogoustotheirownnature.Heandthey soonbecame inseparablecompanions; andhavecontinued so from thattimetothepresenthour.Certainitisthattheprairie,or“horseIndians”ofthepresent day, are in many respects essentially different from the staid andstoical sons of the forest so often depicted in romances; and almost equallycertain is it, that the possession of the horse has contributed much to thisdissimilarity. It could not be otherwise. With the horse new habits wereintroduced,—newmannersandcustoms,—newmodesof thoughtandaction.Notonlythechase,butwaritself,becameachangedgame,—tobeplayedinanentirelydifferentmanner.WeshallnotgobacktoinquirewhattheseIndianswerewhenafoot.Itisourpurpose only to describe what they are now that they are on horseback.Literally,maywesayonhorseback;for,unlessatthispresentwritingtheyareasleep, we may safely take it for granted they are upon the backs of theirhorses,—youngandoldofthem,richandpoor,—forthereisnoneofthemsopoorasnottobethemasterofa“mustang”steed.In“Prairie-land”every tribeof Indians is inpossessionof thehorse.On thenorththeCrees,Crows,andBlackfeet,theSioux,Cheyennes,andArapahoes;on theplainsof thePlatte, theKansas,andOsage,wefind thePawnees, the

Kansas,andOsages,—allhorseIndians.Westofthegreatmountainrange,theApache is mounted: so likewise the Utah, the Navajo, and the Snake, orShoshonee,—the latter rather sparingly. Other tribes, to a greater or lessdegree,possessthisvaluableanimal;butthetruetypeofthe“horseIndian”istobefoundintheComanche,thelordofthatwidedomainthatextendsfromthe Arkansas to the Rio Grande. He it is who gives trouble to the frontiercolonists of Texas, and equally harasses the Spanish settlements of NewMexico;heitiswhocarrieshisforaysalmostintotheheartofNewSpain,—eventothegatesofthepopulousDurango.Regarding the Comanche, then, as the type of the horse Indians, we shallspeak more particularly of him. Allowing for some slight difference in thecharacterofhisclimateandcountry,hishabitsandcustomswillbefoundnotverydissimilartothoseoftheothertribeswhomaketheprairietheirhome.

TosaythattheComancheisthefinesthorsemanintheworldwouldbetostatewhatisnotthefact.Heisnotmoreexcellentinthisaccomplishmentthanhisneighbour and bitter foeman, the Pawnee,—no better than the “vaquero” ofCalifornia, the “ranchero” of Mexico, the “llanero” of Venezuela, the“gaucho” of Buenos Ayres, and the horse Indians of the “Gran Chaco” ofParaguay,ofthePampas,andPatagonia.Heisequal,however,toanyofthese,and that is saying enough,—in aword, that he takes rank among the finesthorsemenintheworld.TheComancheisonhorsebackalmostfromthehourofinfancy,—transferred,asitwere,fromhismother’sarmstothewithersofamustang.Whenabletowalk, he is scarce allowed to practise this naturalmode of progression, butperforms all hismovements on the back of a horse.AComanchewould nomorethinkofmakingajourneyafoot—evenifitwereonlytothedistanceofafewhundredyards—thanhewouldofcrawlinguponhishandsandknees.Thehorse, ready saddled and bridled, stands ever near,—it differs littlewhetherthereiseithersaddleorbridle,—andflinginghimselfontheanimal’sback,orhisneck,orhiscroup,orhangingsuspendedalonghisside,theIndianguideshimtothedestinedspot,usuallyatarapidgallop.Itisofnoconsequencetothe rider how fast the horse may be going: it will not hinder him frommounting,ordismountingatwill.Atanytime,byclutchingthemane,hecanspringuponthehorse’sshoulders,—justasmaybeoftenseeninthearenaofthecircus.The horse Indian is a true type of the nomadic races,—a dweller in tents,whichhis four-footedassociateenableshim to transport fromplace toplacewith the utmost facility. Someof the tribes, however, and even someof theComanches,havefixedresidences,or“villages,”whereatacertainseasonoftheyear they—orrather theirwomen—cultivate themaize, thepumpkin, the

melon, the calabash, anda fewother speciesofplants,—allbeingvegetableproducts indigenous to their country. No doubt, before the arrival ofEuropeans, this cultivationwas carried onmore extensively than at present;butthepossessionofthehorsehasenabledtheprairietribestodispensewithacallingwhichtheycordiallycontemn:thecallingofthehusbandman.Thesemisguidedsavages,oneandall,regardagriculturalpursuitsasunworthyofmen;andwherevernecessitycompelsthemtopractisethem,theworkfallstothelotofthewomenandslaves,—forbeitknownthattheComancheisaslave-owner;andholdsinbondagenotonlyIndiansofothertribes,butalsoalarge number of mestizoes and whites of the Spanish race, captured duringmanya sanguinary raid into the settlementsofMexico! Itwouldbe easy toshowthatitisthisfalseprideofbeinghuntersandwarriors,withitsassociatedaversion for an agricultural life, that has thinned the numbers of the Indianrace—farmore than any persecution they have endured at the hands of thewhiteman.Thisitisthatstarvesthem,thatmakesunendurableneighboursofthem,andhasrendereditnecessaryinsomeinstancesto“civilisethemoffthefaceoftheearth.”Buttheyarenotyetallcivilisedfromoffthefaceoftheearth;norisittheirdestiny todisappearso readilyasshort-seeingprophetshavedeclared.Theiridlehabitsand internecinewarshavedonemuch to thin theirnumbers,—farmorethanthewhiteman’shostility,—butwhereverthewhitemanhassteppedin andput a stop to their tribal contentions,—wherever hehas succeeded inconqueringtheiraversiontoindustrialpursuits,—theIndianisfoundnotonlytoholdhisground,but to increase rapidly innumbers.This is thecasewithmanytribes,—Greeks,Choctaws,andCherokees,—sothatIcanpromiseyou,youngreader,thatbythetimeyougettobeanoldman,therewillbeasmanyIndiansintheworldasuponthatdaywhenColumbusfirstsethisfootupon“Cat”Island.You will be inquiring how the horse could render the prairie Indian moreindependentofagriculture?Theanswerissimple.Withthisvaluableauxiliarya newmode of subsistencewas placedwithin his reach.An article of food,whichhehadhithertobeenabletoobtainonlyinalimitedquantity,wasnowprocurableinabundance,—thefleshofthebuffalo.The prairies of North America have their own peculiarities. They are notstocked with large droves of ruminant animals, as the plains of SouthernAfrica,—wherethesimplestsavagemayeasilyobtainadinnerofflesh-meat.Afewspeciesofdeer,thinlydistributed,—allswift,shyanimals,—theprong-horn antelope, still swifter and shyer,—and the “big-horn,” shyest of all,—weretheonlyruminantsofPrairie-land,withtheexceptionofthegreatbison,or buffalo, as he is generally called. But even this last was not so easilycapturedinthosedays.Thebison,thoughnotaswiftrunner,isyetmorethana

match for the bipedman; and though the Indianmight steal upon the greatdrove,andsucceedinbringingdownafewwithhisarrows,itwasnotalwaysa sure game.Moreover, afoot, the hunter couldnot follow the buffalo in itsgrandmigrations,—oftenextendingforhundredsofmilesacrossplains,rivers,and ravines.Oncemounted, the circumstances became changed. The Indianhunter could not only overtake the buffalo, but ride round him at will, andpursue him, if need be, to themost distant parts of Prairie-land. The result,therefore, of the introductionof thehorsewas aplentiful supplyofbuffalo-meat, or,when that failed, the flesh of the horse himself,—uponwhich twoarticlesofdiettheprairieIndianhasalmostexclusivelysubsistedeversince.The Comanche has several modes of hunting the buffalo. If alone, and hewishes to make a grand coup, he will leave his horse at a distance,—theanimalbeingtrainedtoremainwherehismasterhaslefthim.Thehunterthenapproachestheherdwithgreatcaution,keepingtoleeward,—lesthemightbe“winded”bytheoldsentinelbullswhokeepwatch.Shouldtherebenocovertosheltertheapproachofthehunter,theresultwouldbethatthebullswoulddiscover him; and, giving out their bellow of alarm, cause the others toscamperoff.Toguardagainst this, the Indianhasalreadypreparedhimselfbyadoptingaruse,—whichconsistsindisguisinghimselfintheskinofabuffalo,hornsandall complete, and approaching the herd, as if hewere some stray individualthathadbeenleftbehind,andwasjustonthewaytojoinitsfellows.Eventhemotionsofthebuffalo,whenbrowsing,arecloselyimitatedbytheredhunter;and,unlessthewindbeinfavourofhisbeingscentedbythebulls,thisdevicewillinsurethesuccessofashot.Sometimestheskinofthelargewhitish-greywolfisusedinthismasqueradewithequalsuccess.Thismayappearsingular,since theanimal itself isoneof thedeadliestenemiesof thebuffalo:a largepackofthemhangingontheskirtsofeveryherd,andpatientlywaitingforanopportunitytoattackit.Butasthisattackisonlydirectedagainsttheyoungercalves,—or some disabled or decrepit individualwhomay lag behind,—thestrongandhealthyoneshavenofearofthewolves,andpermitthemtosquatupon theprairiewithin a few feetofwhere theyarebrowsing! Indeed, theycouldnothinderthem,eveniftheywished:asthelong-leggedwolfinafewsprings can easily get out of the way of the more clumsy ruminant; and,therefore, does not dread the lowering frontlet of the most shaggy and ill-temperedbullintheherd.Ofcoursethehunter,intheguiseofawolf,obtainsthelikeprivilegeofclosequarters;and,whenhehasarrivedat theproperdistance forhispurpose,heprepareshimselffortheworkofdestruction.Thebowistheweaponheuses,—thoughtherifleisnowacommonweaponinthehandsofmanyofthehorseIndians. But the bow is preferred for the species of “still hunting” here

described.Thefirstcrackofariflewouldscatterthegang,leavingthehunterperhapsonlyanemptygunforhispains;whileanarrowatquartersisequallyasdeadlyinitseffect;and,beingasilentweapon,noalarmisgiventoanyofthebuffaloes,exceptthatonewhichhasfeltthedeadlyshaftpassingthroughitsvitals.Oftentheanimalthusshot—evenwhenthewoundisamortalone—doesnotimmediatelyfall;butsinksgraduallytotheearth,asiflyingdownforarest.Sometimesitgetsonlytoitsknees,anddiesinthisattitude;atothertimesitremainsalongwhileuponitslegs,spreadingitsfeetwidelyapart,asiftopropitselfup,andthenrockingfromsidetosidelikeashipinaground-swell,tillatlast,weakenedbylossofblood,ityieldsitsbodytotheearth.Sometimesthestrugglesofawoundedindividualcausetheherdto“stampede,”andthenthehunter has to content himself withwhat hemay already have shot; but notunfrequently the unsuspicious gang keeps the ground till the Indian hasemptiedhisquiver.Nay,longerthanthat:foritoftenoccursthatthedisguisedbuffaloorwolf(asthecasemaybe)approachesthebodiesofthosethathavefallen, recovers some of his arrows, and uses them a second timewith likedeadlyeffect!Forthispurposeitishispractice,iftheaimanddistancefavourhim, to send his shaft clear through the bodyof the bison, in order that thebarbmaynothinderitfrombeingextractedontheotherside!Thisfeatisbynomeansofuncommonoccurrenceamongthebuffalo-huntersoftheprairies.Of course, a grandwholesale slaughter of the kind just described is not aneverydaymatter; and canonlybe accomplishedwhen thebuffaloes are in astateofcomparativerest,orbrowsingslowly.Moregenerallytheydetectthedangerous counterfeit in time to save their skins; or else keep moving toorapidlyforthehuntertofollowthemonfoot.Hisonlyresource,then,istoriderapidly up on horseback, fire his arrows without dismounting, or strike thevictimwithhislonglancewhilegallopingsidebysidewithit.Ifinthiswayhecanobtain twoor threefatcows,beforehishorsebecomesblown,or theherdscattersbeyondhisreach,heconsidersthathehashadgoodsuccess.Butinthiskindofchasethehunterisrarelyalone:thewholetribetakespartinit; and, mounted on their well-trained mustangs, often pursue the buffalogangsfor,anhourormore,beforethelattercangetoffandhidethemselvesinthedistance,orbehindtheswellsoftheprairie.Thecloudsofdustraisedinamêléeof thiskindoftenaffordthebuffaloachanceofescaping,—especiallywhentheyarerunningwiththewind.A“buffalosurround” iseffectedbya largepartyofhuntersriding toagreatdistance; deploying themselves into a circle around the herd; and thengalloping inward with loud yells. The buffaloes, thus attacked on all sides,become frightened and confused, and are easily driven into a close-packedmass,aroundtheedgesofwhichthemountedhunterswheelanddelivertheir

arrows,orstrikethosethattrytoescape,withtheirlongspears.Sometimestheinfuriatedbullsrushuponthehorses,andgorethemtodeath;andthehunters,thus dismounted, often run a narrow risk of meeting with the same fate,—morethanarisk,fornotunfrequentlytheyarekilledoutright.Oftenaretheyobligedtoleapuponthecroupofacompanion’shorse,togetoutofthewayof danger; and many instances are recorded where a horseman, by thestumblingofhishorse,hasbeenpitchedright into the thickof theherd,andhasmadehis escapebymountingon thebacksof thebulls themselves, andleapingfromonetoanotheruntilhehasreachedcleargroundagain.Thebuffalo isnevercaptured ina“pound,”as largemammaliaare inmanycountries.Heistoopowerfulacreaturetobeimprisonedbyanythingbutthestrongest stockade fence; and for this the prairie country does not affordmaterials. A contrivance, however, of a somewhat similar character isoccasionallyresortedtobyvarioustribesofIndians.Whenitisknownthatthebuffaloeshavebecomehabituated to range inanypartof thecountry,wherethe plain is intersected by deep ravines,—cañons, or barrancas, as they arecalled,—thenagrandbattueisgotupbydrivingtheanimalspellmellovertheprecipitousbluffs,whichuniversallyformthesidesofthesesingularravines.Toguidetheherdtothepointwhereit is intendedtheyshouldtakethefatalleap,asingularcontrivanceisresortedto.Thisconsistsinplacingtworowsofobjects—whichappeartothebuffalotobehumanbeings—insuchamannerthatoneendofeachrowabutsupontheedgeoftheprecipice,notverydistantfrom the other,while the lines extend far out into the plain, until theyhavedivergedintoawideandextensivefunnel.Itissimplythecontrivanceusedforguiding animals into a pound; but, insteadof a pair of close log fences, theobjects forming these rows stand at a considerable distance apart; and, asalreadystated,appear to thenotverydiscriminatingeyeof thebuffalo tobehumanbeings.Theyareinrealitydesignedtoresemblethehumanforminarude fashion; and the material out of which they are constructed is neithermorenorlessthanthedungofthebuffaloesthemselves,—theboisdevache,asitiscalled,bytheCanadiantrappers,whooftenwarmtheirshins,androasttheirbuffaloribsoverafireofthissamematerial.The decoy being thus set, the mounted hunters next make a wide sweeparoundtheprairie,—includingintheirdeploymentsuchgangsofbuffaloesasmaybebrowsingbetweentheirlineandthemouthofthefunnel.Atfirstthebuffaloesaremerelyguidedforward,ordrivenslowlyandwithcaution,—asboys in snow-time often drive larks toward their snares.When the animals,however, have entered between the converging lines of mock men, a rush,accompaniedbyhideousyells, ismadeuponthemfrombehind:theresultofwhich is, that they are impelled forward in a headlong course towards theprecipice.

The buffalo is, at best, but a half-blind creature. Through the long, shaggylockshangingoverhisfrontletheseesobjectsinadubiouslight,ornotatall.Hedependsmoreonhisscentthanhissight;butthoughhemayscentalivingenemy, the keenness of his organdoes notwarnhimof the yawning chasmthat opens before him,—not till it is too late to retire: for although hemayperceive the fearful leap before taking it, and would willingly turn on histrack,andrefuse it,hefinds itno longerpossible todoso. Infact,he isnotallowed timefor reflection.Thedensecrowdpresses frombehind,andhe isleft no choice, except that of springing forward or suffering himself to betumbledoveruponhishead.Ineithercaseit ishislast leap;and,frequently,thelastofawholecrowdofhiscompanions.With such persecutions, I need hardly say that the buffaloes are becomingscarcer every year; and it is predicted that at no distant period this reallyvaluablemammalwillbealtogetherextinct.Atpresent their range isgreatlycontractedwithinthewideboundarieswhichitformerlyoccupied.Goingwestfrom theMississippi,—at any point below themouth of theMissouri,—youwillnotmeetwithbuffalo for the first threehundredmiles; and, though theherds formerly ranged to the south and west of the Rio Grande, theComanchesonthebanksof thatrivernolongerknowthebuffalo,exceptbytheirexcursionstothegrandprairiefartothenorthoftheircountry.TheGreatSlaveLake is the northern terminus of the buffalo range; andwestward thechain of the Rocky Mountains; but of late years stray herds have beenobserved at somepointswest of these,—impelled through thepassesby thehunter-pressure of the horse Indians from the eastward. Speculators haveadoptedseveralingeniousandplausiblereasonstoaccountforthediminutionofthenumbersofthebuffalo.Thereisbutonecauseworthassigning,—averysimpleonetoo,—thehorse.Withthedisappearanceofthebuffalo,—orperhapswiththethinningoftheirnumbers,—the prairie Indians may be induced to throw aside their rovinghabits. This would be a happy result both for them and their neighbours;thoughitisevendoubtfulwhetheritmightfollowfromsuchacircumstance.No doubt some change would be effected in their mode of life; butunfortunately theseBedouins of theWesternworld can live upon the horse,evenifthebuffalowereentirelyextirpated.Evenasitis,wholetribesofthemsubsist almost exclusively upon horse-flesh, which they esteem and relishmorethananyotherfood.Butthisresourcewould,intime,alsofailthem;forthey have not the economy to raise a sufficient supply for the demand thatwouldoccurwere thebuffaloesonceoutof theway:since thecaballadasofwildmustangsarebynomeanssoeasytocaptureasthe“gangs”ofunwieldyandlumberingbuffaloes.Itistobehoped,however,thatbeforethehorseIndianshavebeenputtothis

trial, the strong arm of civilisation shall be extended over them, and,withholdingthemfromthosepredatoryincursions,whichtheyannuallymakeinto the Mexican settlements, will induce them to dismount, and turnpeaceably to the tillage of the soil,—now so successfully practised bynumeroustribesoftheirrace,whodwellinfixedandflourishinghomesupontheeasternborderoftheprairies.Atthismoment,however,theComanchesareinopenhostilitywiththesettlersof theTexan frontier.The lex talionis is in active operationwhilewewrite,andeverymailbringstheaccountofsomesanguinarymassacre,orsomeactofterribleretaliation.Thedeedsofbloodandsavagecrueltypractisedalikebybothsides—whitesaswellasIndians—havehad theirparallel, it is true,buttheyarenotthelessrevoltingtoreadabout.Thecolonistshavesufferedmuchfrom these Ishmaelites of the West,—these lordly savages, who regardindustry as a dishonourable calling; and who fancy that their vast territoryshouldremainanidlehunting-ground,orratherafortress,towhichtheymightbetakethemselvesduringtheirintervalsofwarandplundering.Thecolonistshave a clear title to the land,—that title acknowledged by all right-thinkingmen, who believe the good of the majority must not be sacrificed to theobstinacyoftheindividual,ortheminority,—thattitlewhichgivestherighttoremove the dwelling of the citizen,—his very castle,—rather than that thepublicwaybeimpeded.Alladmitthisright;andjustsuchatitlehastheTexancolonist to the soil of the Comanche. There may be guilt in the mode ofestablishing the claim,—there may have been scenes of cruelty, and bloodunnecessarily spilt,—but it is some consolation to know that there hasoccurrednothingyettoparallelincold-bloodedatrocitytheannalsofAlgiers,orthesimilaractscommittedinSouthernAfrica.Thecrimeofsmoke-murderisyetpeculiartoPellisierandPotgieter.In their present outbreak, the Comanches have exhibited but a poor, short-sightedpolicy.TheywillfindtheyhavecommittedagranderrorinmistakingthecourageouscolonistsofTexasfor theweakMexicans,—withwhomtheyhavelongbeenatwar,andwhomtheyhavealmostinvariablyconquered.Theresult iseasily told:muchbloodmaybeshedonbothsides,but it issure toendasallsuchcontestsdo;andtheComanche,liketheCaffre,must“gotothewall.”Perhaps it isbetter that thingsshouldbebrought toaclimax,—itwillcertainlybebetterforthewretchedremnantoftheSpano-Americansdwellingalong the Comanche frontiers,—a race who for a hundred years have notknownpeace.As this long-standing hostility with the Mexican nation has been apredominantfeatureinthehistoryoftheComancheIndian,itisnecessarytogivesomeaccountofhowitisusuallycarriedon.TherewasatimewhentheSpanish nation entertained the hope of Christianising these rude savages,—

thatis,tamingandtrainingthemtosomethingoftheconditiontowhichtheyhave brought the Aztec descendants of Montezuma,—a condition scarcedifferingfromslaveryitself.AsnogoldorsilvermineshadbeendiscoveredinTexas, itwas not their intention tomakemine-labourers of them; but ratherpeons,or field-labourers, and tendersof cattle,—preciselyas theyhaddone,andwerestilldoing,with thetribesofCalifornia.Thesoldierandtheswordhadproveda failure,—as inmanyotherpartsofSpanishAmerica,—in fact,everywhere,exceptamong thedegenerated remnantsofmonarchicalmisrulefound inMexico,Bogota, and Peru. In these countrieswas encountered thedébrisofadecliningcivilisation,andnot,asisgenerallybelieved,thechildrenofaprogressivedevelopment;andofcoursetheygaveway,—asthepeopleofallcorruptedmonarchiesmustintheend.It was different with the “Indios bravos,” or warrior tribes, still free andindependent,—theso-calledsavages.Against thesethesoldierandtheswordprovedacompletefailure;anditthereforebecamenecessarytousetheotherkindofconqueringpower,—themonkandhiscross.AmongtheComanchesthiskindofconquesthadattainedacertainamountofsuccess.Mission-housessprung up through thewhole province ofTexas,—theComanche country,—thoughthenewneophyteswerenotaltogetherComanches,butratherIndiansof other tribes whowere less warlike.Many Comanches, however, becameconverts; and some of the “missiones” became establishments on a grandscale,—eachhaving,according toSpanishmissionary-fashion, its“presidio,”orgarrisonoftroops,tokeepthenewbelieverswithinsoundofthebell,andtohunt and bring them back, whenever they endeavoured to escape from thatChristian vassalage for which they had too rashly exchanged their paganfreedom.Allwentwell,solongasSpainwasapowerupontheearth,andtheMexicanviceroyaltywasrichenoughtokeepthepresidiosstockedwithtroopers.Themonks led as jolly a life as their prototypes of “BoltonAbbey in the oldentime.”Theneophytesweresimplytheirslaves,receiving,inexchangeforthesweatof theirbrow,baptism,absolution, littlepewtercrucifixes,andvariouslikevaluablecommodities.Buttherecameatimewhentheygrewtiredoftheexchange,andlongedfortheir old life of roving freedom.Their brethren had obtained the horse; andthiswasanadditionalattractionwhichaprairielifepresented.Theygrewtiredof the petty tricks of the Christian superstition,—to their view less rationalthan their own,—they grew tired of the toil of constant work, the childlikechastisementsinflicted,andsickofthesoundofthatever-clangingclapper,—thebell.Infine,theymadeonedesperateeffort,andfreedthemselvesforever.ThegrandestablishmentofSanSaba,ontheriverofthesamename,fellfirst.Thetroopswereabroadonsomeconvert-huntingexpedition.TheComanches

entered the fort,—their tomahawks and war-clubs hidden under their greatrobes of buffalo-hide: the attack commenced, and ended only with theannihilationofthesettlement.Onemonk alone escaped the slaughter,—aman renowned for his holy zeal.HefledtowardsSanAntonio,pursuedbyasavageband.Alargerivercoursedacrosstherouteitwasnecessaryforhimtotake;butthisdidnotintercepthim:itswatersopenedforamoment, till thebottomwasbarefrombanktobank.He crossedwithout wetting his feet. Thewaves closed immediately behindhim,offeringanimpassablebarriertohispursuers,whocouldonlyventtheirfuryinidlecurses!Butthemonkcouldcursetoo.Hehad,perhaps,takensomelessonsat theVatican;and, turninground,heanathematisedevery“mother’sson”ofthered-skinnedsavages.Thewholesaleexcommunicationproducedawonderfuleffect.Everyoneoftheaccursedfellbackwherehestood,andlayfaceupwardupontheplain,deadasapost!Themonk,afterbaptisingtheriver“BrazosdeDios”(armofGod),continuedhisflight,andreachedSanAntonioinsafety,—wherehedulydetailedhismiraculousadventure to thecredulousconvertsofBejar,andtheothermissions.Such is the supposed origin of the nameBrazos deDios,which the secondriver inTexasbears to thisday. It is tobe remarked,however, that the rivercrossed by the monk was the present Colorado, not the Brazos: for, by acuriouserrorofthecolonists,thetworivershavemadeanexchangeoftitles!The Comanches—freed from missionary rule, and now equal to theiradversaries by possession of the horse—forthwith commenced theirplunderingexpeditions;and,withshortintervalsoftruce,—periodsenpaz,—havecontinuedthemtothepresenthour.AllNorthernandWesternTexastheysoonrecovered;but theywerenotcontentwith territory: theywantedhorsesand cattle and chattels, andwhitewives and slaves; and itwould scarce becredited,were I to state thenumberof these theyhave takenwithin the lasthalf-century. Nearly every year they have been in the habit of making anexpedition to the Mexican settlements of the provinces Tamaulipas, NewLeon, and Chihuahua,—every expedition a fresh conquest over their feebleand corrupt adversaries. On every occasion they have returned with booty,consisting of horses, cattle, sheep, household utensils, and, sad to relate,humancaptives.Womenandchildrenonlydotheybringback,—thementheykill upon sight. The childrenmay be eithermale or female,—itmatters notwhich,as theseare tobeadopted into their tribe, tobecomefuturewarriors;and,strangetorelate,manyofthese,whengrownup,notonlyrefusetoreturntothelandoftheirbirth,butprovethemostbitteranddangerousfoestothepeople from whom they have sprung! Even the girls and women, after aperiod,becomereconciledtotheirnewhome,andnolongerdesiretoleaveit.Some, when afterwards discovered and ransomed by their kindred, have

refusedtoaccepttheconditions,butprefertocontinuethesavagecareerintowhichmisfortunehas introduced them!Manyaheartrendingscenehasbeentheconsequenceofsuchapparentlyunnaturalpredilections.Youwouldwonderwhysuchastateofthingshasbeensolongsubmittedtobyacivilisedpeople;butitisnotsomuchtobewonderedat.Theselfishnessthatsprings from constant revolutions has destroyed almost every sentiment ofpatriotismintheMexicannationalheart;and,indeed,manyofthesecaptivesare perhaps not much worse off under the guardianship of the braveComanches than they would have been, exposed to the petty tyranny androbber-rulethathassolongexistedinMexico.Besides,itisdoubtfulwhethertheMexicangovernment,withallherunitedstrength,couldretakethem.TheComanche country is as inaccessible to a regular army as the territory ofTimbuctoo;anditwillgiveeventhepowerfulrepublicofthenorthnosmalltrouble to reduce these red freebooters to subjection. Mexico had quitedespairedofbeingabletomakeaneffort;andinthelasttreatymadebetweenherandtheUnitedStates,oneof thearticleswasaspecialagreementonthepart of the latter to restrain the Comanches from future forays into theMexicanstates,andalsocausethemtodeliveruptheMexicancaptivestheninthehandsoftheIndians!Itwascomputedthattheirnumberatthetimeamountedtofourthousand!ItiswithregretIhavetoadd,thattheseunfortunatesarestillheldinbondage.Thegreat republic, too busy with its own concerns, has not carried out thestipulationsof the treaty; and thepresentComanchewar is but the result ofthiscriminalnegligence.Hadenergeticmeasuresbeenadoptedatthecloseofthe Mexico-American war, the Comanche would not now be harrying thesettlersofTexas.ToprovetheincapacityoftheMexicanstodealwiththiswarlikerace,itonlyneeds to consider the present condition of the northernMexican states.Onehalf the territory in that extensive region has returned to the condition of adesert. The isolated “ranchos” have been long since abandoned,—the fieldsareovergrownwithweeds,—andthecattlehaverunwildorbeencarriedoffbytheComanches.Onlythestrongersettlementsandlargefortifiedhaciendasanylongerexist;andmanyofthese,too,havebeendeserted.Wherechildrenonceplayedinthesecurityofinnocence,—wheregaily-dressedcavaliersandelegant ladies amused themselves in thepleasantdiade campo, such scenesare no longer witnessed. The rancho is in ruins,—the door hangs upon itshinge,brokenandbattered,orhasbeen tornoff to feed thecamp-fireof thesavage; the dwelling is empty and silent, except when the howlingwolf orcoyotewakesuptheechoesofitswalls.Abouttenyearsago,theproudgovernorofthestateofChihuahua—oneofthemostenergeticsoldiersoftheMexicanrepublic—hadasontakencaptiveby

theComanches.Powerfulthoughthismanwas,heknewitwasidletoappealto arms; andwas only too contented to recover his child by paying a largeransom!Thisfact,morethanavolumeofwords,will illustratetheconditionofunhappyMexico.TheComanche leads a gay,merry life,—he is far from being the Indian ofCooper’sdescription.Inscarcelyanyrespectdoesheresemblethesombresonoftheforest.Heislively,talkative,andeverreadyforalaugh.HisbuttistheMexican presidio soldier,whom he holds in too just contempt.He is rarelywithout ameal. If thebuffalo fails him,he candrawa steak fromhis sparehorses, of which he possesses a large herd: besides, there are the wildmustangs,whichhecancaptureonoccasions.Hehasnowork todoexceptwar and hunting: at all other times he has slaves to wait upon him, andperformthedomesticdrudgery.Whenidle,hesometimesbestowsgreatpainsuponhisdress,—whichistheusualdeer-skintunicoftheprairieIndian,withmocassinsand fringed leggings.Sometimesahead-dressofplumes isworn;sometimesoneof theskinof thebuffalo’sskull,with thehorns lefton!Therobeofbuffalopelthangsfromhisshoulders,withallthegrandeurofatoga;but when he proceeds on a plundering expedition, all these fripperies arethrown aside, and his body appears naked from thewaist to the ears. Thenonly the breech-clout isworn,with leggings andmocassins on his legs andfeet.Acoatofscarletpaint takes theplaceof thehunting-shirt,—inorder torenderhispresencemore terrific in theeyesofhis enemy. Itneedsnot this.Withoutanydisguise,thesightofhimissufficientlyhorrifying,—sufficientlysuggestiveof“bloodandmurder.”

ChapterTwelve.ThePehuenches,orPampasIndians.

The vast plain known as the “Pampas” is one of the largest tracts of levelcountryuponthefaceoftheearth.EastandwestitstretchesfromthemouthoftheRiodelaPlatatothefoothillsoftheAndesmountains.Itisinterruptedonthenorthbyaseriesofmountainsandhillcountry,thatcrossfromtheAndesto the Paraguay River, forming the Sierras of Mendoza, San Luis, andCordova;while its southern boundary is not so definitelymarked, though itmayberegardedasendingattheRioNegro,whereitmeets,comingupfromthesouth,thedesertplainsofPatagonia.Geologically,thePampas(orplains,asthewordsignifies,inthelanguageofthePeruvianIndians) isanalluvial formation,—thebedofanancientsea,—upheavedbysomeunknowncausetoitspresentelevation,whichisnotmuchabovetheocean-level. It isnot, therefore,aplateauor“tableland,”butavast

natural meadow. The soil is in general of a red colour, argillaceous incharacter,andatallpointsfilledwithmarineshellsandothertestimoniesthattheseaoncerolledoverit.ItisinthePampasformationthatmanyofthefossilmonstershavebeenfound,—thegiganticmegatherium,thecolossalmylodon,and the giant armadillo (glyptodon), with many other creatures, of suchdimensions as tomake it a subject of speculation how the earth could haveproducedfoodenoughfortheirmaintenance.In giving to the Pampas the designation of a vast meadow, do not sufferyourself to bemisled by this phrase,—which is here and elsewhere used inratheralooseandindefinitemanner.ManylargetractsinthePampascountrywould correspond well enough to this definition,—both as regards theirappearanceandthecharacteroftheherbagewhichcoversthem;butthereareotherpartswhichbearnot theslightest resemblance toameadow.Therearevasttractsthicklycoveredwithtallthistles,—sotallastoreachtotheheadofamanmountedonhorseback,andso thicklyset, thatneithermannorhorsecouldenterthemwithoutapathbeingfirstclearedforthem.Other extensive tracts aregrownoverwith tall grass so rankas to resemblereedsorrushesmorethangrass;andanequallyextensivesurfaceistimberedwithsmalltrees,standingthinlyandwithoutunderwood,likethefruit-treesinanorchard.Again,therearewidemorassesandextensivelakes,manyofthembrackish, and some as salt as the sea itself. In addition to these, there are“salinas,” or plains of salt,—the produce of salt lakes, whose waters haveevaporated, leavingastratumofpuresaltoftenoverafoot in thickness,andcoveringtheirbedstoanextentofmanysquareleagues.Therearesomeparts,too, where the Pampas country assumes a sterile and stony character,—corresponding to that of the great desert of Patagonia. It is not correcttherefore, to regard the Pampas as one unbroken tract of meadow. In onecharacter alone is it uniform inbeinga countrywithoutmountains,—oranyconsiderableelevationsinthewayofridgesorhills,—thoughafewscatteredsierrasarefoundbothonitsnorthernandsouthernedges.TheThistlePampas,aswetakethelibertyofnamingthem,constituteperhapsthemostcurioussectionofthisgreatplain;andnotthelesssothatthe“weed”whichcoversthemissupposednottobeanindigenousproduction,buttohavebeen carried there by the early colonists. About this, however, there is adifferenceofopinion.Nomatterwhencesprung, the thistleshave flourishedluxuriantly, andat thisdayconstitute amarked feature in the sceneryof thePampas.Theirpositionisupontheeasternedgeofthegreatplain,contiguoustothebanksoftheLaPlata;butfromthisrivertheyextendbackwardsintotheinterior,atsomepointstothedistanceofnearlytwohundredmiles.Overthisvastsurfacetheygrowsothicklythat,asalreadymentioned,itisnotpossibleforeithermanorhorsetomakewaythroughthem.Theycanonlybetraversed

by devious paths—already formed by constant use, and leading throughnarrowlanesorglades,where,forsomereason,thethistlesdonotchoosetogrow.Otherwisetheycannotbeenteredevenbycattle.Thesewillnot,unlesscompelled, attempt penetrating such an impervious thicket; and if a herddriven along the paths should chance to be “stampeded” by any object ofterror,anddriventotaketothethistles,scarceaheadofthewholeflockcaneverafterwardsberecovered.Even the instinctsof thedumbanimalsdonotenablethemtofindtheirwayoutagain;andtheyusuallyperish,eitherfromthirst, or by the claws of the fierce pumas and jaguars, which alone findthemselves at home in the labyrinthine “cardonales.” The little viscachacontrives to make its burrow among them, and must find subsistence byfeedingupon their leavesandseed, since there isnootherherbageupon theground,—thewell-armedthistleusurpingthesoil,andhinderingthegrowthofanyotherplants.Itmaybepropertoremark,however,thattherearetwokindsof these plants, both ofwhich cover large tracts of the plain.One is a truethistle,whiletheotherisaweedoftheartichokefamily,calledbytheSpanishAmericans “cardoon.” It is a speciesofCardunculus.The twodonotmingletheir stalks, though both form thickets in a similarmanner and often in thesame tract of country. The cardoon is not so tall as the thistle; and, beingwithout spines, its “beds” are more easily penetrated; though even amongthese,itwouldbeeasyenoughtogetentangledandlost.It is proper to remark here, that these thistle-thickets do not shut up thecountryalltheyearround.Onlyforaseason,—fromthetimetheyhavegrownupand“shoot,” till their tall ripenedstalkswitherandfallback to theearth,wheretheysoonmoulderintodecay.Theplainsarethenopenandfreetoallcreatures,—manamong the rest,—and theGaucho,withhisherdsofhorses,hornedcattle,andsheep,orthetroopsofrovingIndians,spreadoverandtakepossessionofthem.Theyoungthistlesnowpresenttheappearanceofavastfieldofturnips;andtheirleaves,stilltender,aregreedilydevouredbybothcattleandsheep.Inthiscondition thePampas thistles remainduring their shortwinter;but as springreturns, they once more “bristle” up, till, growing taller and stouter, theypresent a chevaux-de-frise that at length expels all intruders from theirdomain.Onthewesternselvageofthisthistletractliesthegrass-coveredsectionofthePampas.Itismuchmoreextensivethanthatofthe“cardonales,”—havinganaveragewidthof threehundredmiles,andrunninglongitudinally throughoutthe whole northern and southern extension of the Pampas. Its chiefcharacteristicisacoveringofcoarsegrass,—whichatdifferentseasonsoftheyear is short or tall, green, brown, or yellowish, according to the differentdegrees of ripeness. When dry, it is sometimes fired,—either by design or

accident,—as are also the withered stems of the thistles; and on theseoccasions a conflagrationoccurs, stupendous in its effects,—oftenextendingovervasttracts,andreducingeverythingtoblackashes.Nothingcanbemoremelancholytotheeyethantheaspectofaburntpampa.The grass section is succeeded by that of the “openings,” or scanty forests,alreadymentioned;butthetreesinmanyplacesaremorecloselyset;assumingthecharacterofthickets,or“jungles.”ThesetractsendamongthespursoftheAndes,—which, at somepoints, are thrownout into the plain, but generallyriseupfromitabruptlyandbyawell-definedborder.Themarshes andbitter lakes abovementioned are theproduceof numerousstreams,whichhave their rise in theGreatCordilleraof theAndes, and runeastwardacrossthePampas.Afewofthese,thattrendinasoutherlydirection,reach the Atlantic by means of the two great outlets,—the “Colorado” and“Negro.”Alltheothers—and“theirnameislegion”—emptytheirwatersintothemorassesandlakes,orsinkintothesoiloftheplains,atagreaterorlessdistance from theCordillera, according to thebodyofwater theymaycarrydown.Evaporationkeepsuptheequilibrium.Who are the dwellers upon the Pampas? To whom does this vast pasture-groundbelong?Whoseflocksandherdsaretheythatbrowseuponit?Youwillbe told that thePampasbelongto therepublicofBuenosAyres,orrathertothe“StatesoftheArgentineConfederation,”—thattheyareinhabitedbyaclassofcitizenscalled“Gauchos,”whoareofSpanishrace,andwhosesole occupation is that of herdsmen, breeders of cattle and horses,—menfamed for their skill as horsemen, and for their dexterity in the use of the“lazo”and“bolas,”—twoweaponsborrowedfromtheaboriginalraces.All this isbutpartially true.Theproprietorshipof thisgreatplainwasneveractuallyinthehandsoftheBuenos-Ayreangovernment,norinthoseoftheirpredecessors,—theSpaniards.Neitherhaseverownedit—eitherbyconquestorotherwise:—nofurtherthanbyanemptyboastofownership;for,fromthedaywhen theyfirst set footupon itsborders to thepresenthour,neitherhasever been able to cross it, or penetrate any great distance into it, without agrandarmytobacktheirprogress.Buttheirpossessionvirtuallyceasedattheterminationofeachmelancholyexcursion;andthelandrelapsedtoitsoriginalowners.Withtheexceptionofsomescantystripsalongitsborders,andsomewiderranges,thinlyoccupiedbythehalf-nomadeGauchos,thePampasareinrealityanIndianterritory,astheyhavealwaysbeen;andtheclaimofthewhitemanisnomorethannominal,—amere titleuponthemap.It isnot theonlyvastexpanseofSpanishAmericansoilthatneverwasSpanish.The true owners of the Pampas, then, are the red aborigines,—the PampasIndians;andtogivesomeaccountoftheseisnowourpurpose.

Formingso largeanextent, it isnot likely itshouldallbelong tooneunitedtribe,—thatwouldatonceelevatethemintothecharacterofanation.Buttheyarenotunited.Onthecontrary,theyformseveraldistinctassociations,withanendless number of smaller subdivisions or communities,—just in the samewayasitisamongtheirprairiecousinofthenorth.Theymayall,however,bereferred to four grand tribal associations or nationalities,—the Pehuenches,Puelches,Picunches,andRanqueles.Someadd thePuilliches,whodwellon the southern rimof thePampas;butthese,althoughtheyextendtheirexcursionsoveraportionofthegreatplain,are different from theotherPampas Indians inmany respects,—altogether abraver and better race of men, and partaking more of the character of thePatagonians,—bothinpointofphysiqueandmorale,—ofwhichtribes,indeed,theyareevidentlyonlyabranch.Intheirdealingswithwhitemen,whenfairlytreated, thesehaveexhibited the samenoblebearingwhichcharacterises thetrue Patagonian. I shall not, therefore, lower the standard—neither of theirbodiesnortheirminds—byclassingthemamong“PampasIndians.”Of these tribes—one and all of them—we have, unfortunately, amuch lessfavourable impression; and shall therefore be able to say but little to theircredit.The different names are all native. Puelchesmeans the people living to theeast,from“puel,”east,andche,people.ThePicunchesderivethisappellation,ina similar fashion, from“picun,” signifying thenorth.ThePehuenchesarethepeopleofthepine-treecountry,from“pehuen,”thenameforthecelebrated“Chilipine”(Araucaria);andtheRanquelesarethemenwhodwellamongthethistles,fromranquel,athistle.These national appellations will give some idea of the locality which eachtribeinhabits.TheRanquelesdwell,notamongthethistles,—forthatwouldbeanunpleasant residence, even to a red-skin;but along thewesternborderofthis tract.To thewestwardof them,andup into thecleftsof theCordillerasextendsthecountryofthePehuenches;andnorthwardofbothliesthelandofthePicunches.Theirboundaryinthatdirectionshouldbethefrontiersofthequasi-civilisedprovincesofSanLuis andCordova,but they arenot; for thePicunchecanatwillextendhisplundering foraysas farnorthashepleases:eventodovetailingthemintothesimilarexcursionsofhisGuaycurukinsmenfromthe“GranChaco”onthenorth.The Puelche territory is on the eastern side of the Pampas, and south fromBuenosAyres.AtonetimethesepeopleoccupiedthecountrytothebanksoftheLaPlata;andnodoubtitwastheywhofirstmettheSpaniardsinhostilearray.Evenuptoalateperiodtheirforaysextendedalmost toBuenosAyresitself;butRosas,tyrantashemayhavebeen,wasneverthelessatruesoldier,and in a grand military expedition against them swept their country, and

inflicted such a terrible chastisement upon both them and the neighbouringtribes,astheyhadnotsufferedsincethedaysofMendoza.Theresulthasbeena retirementof thePuelche frontier to amuchgreaterdistance fromBuenosAyres;buthowlongitmaycontinuestationaryisaquestion,—nolongerthansomestrongarm—suchasthatofRosas—isheldthreateninglyoverthem.Itisusualtoinquirewhencecomeapeople;andthequestionhasbeenaskedofthePampasIndians.Itisnotdifficulttoanswer.TheycamefromthelandofArauco.Yes, theyare thekindredof that famedpeoplewhom theSpaniardscouldneversubdue,—evenwithalltheirstrengthputforthintheeffort.Theyare near kindred too,—the Pehuenches especially,—whose country is onlyseparated from that of theAraucaniansby thegreatCordillera ofChili; andwithwhom,aswellas theSpaniardson theChilianside, theyhaveconstantandfriendlyintercourse.Butitmustbeadmitted,thattheAraucanianshavehadfarmorethantheirjustmeedofpraise.Theromanticstories,inthatendlessepicoftherhymerErcilla,havecreptintohistory;andthecredulousMolinahasendorsedthem:sothatthetruecharacteroftheAraucanianIndianhasneverbeenunderstood.Bravehehasshownhimself,beyonddoubt,indefendinghiscountryagainstSpanishaggression; but so, too, has the Carib and Guaraon,—so, too, has theComanche and Apache, the Yaqui of Sonora, the savage of the Mosquitoshore,theGuaycuruoftheGranChaco,andascoreofotherIndiantribes,—inwhoseterritorytheSpaniardhasneverdaredtofixasettlement.BraveistheAraucanian; but, beyond this, he has few virtues indeed. He is cruel in theextreme,—uncivilandselfish,—filthyandindolent,—apolygamistinthemostapprovedfashion,—averytyrantoverhisown,—inshort,takingrankamongthebeastliestofsemi-civilisedsavages,—foritmaybehereobserved,thatheisnotexactlywhatistermedasavage:thatis,hedoesnotgonaked,andsleepin the open air. On the contrary, he clothes himself in stuff of his ownweaving,—or rather, that of his slave-wives,—and lives in ahutwhich theybuild forhim.Heowns land, too,—beautiful fields,—ofwhichhemakesnouse:except tobrowseafewhorses,andsheep,andcattle.For therest,he istoo indolent to pursue agriculture; and spendsmost of his time in drinkingchicha, or tyrannising over his wives. This is the heroic Araucanian whoinhabitstheplainsandvalleysofSouthernChili.Unfortunately,bypassingtotheothersideoftheAndes,hehasnotimprovedhismanners.TheairofthePampasdoesnotappeartobeconducivetovirtue;anduponthatsideofthemountainsitcanscarcebesaidtoexist,—evenintheshapeofpersonalcourage.Themenofthepinesandthistlesseemtohavelostthis quality, while passing through the snows of the Cordilleras, or left itbehindthem,astheyhavealsolefttheincipientcivilisationoftheirrace.OnthePampaswefindthemoncemoreinthecharacterofthetruesavage:living

by the chase or by plunder; and bartering the produce of the latter for thetrappings and trinkets of personal adornment, supplied them by theunprincipled white trader. Puelches and Picunches, Pehuenches andRanqueles, all share this character alike,—all are treacherous, quarrelsome,andcowardly.Butweshallnowspeakmoreparticularlyoftheircustomsandmodesoflife,andwemaytakethe“pinepeople”asourtext,—sincethesearesupposedtobemost nearly related to the trueAraucanians,—and, indeed,many of their“ways”areexactlythesameasthoseofthat“heroicnation.”The “people of the pines” are of the ordinary stature of North-AmericanIndians,orofEuropeans;andtheirnaturalcolourisadarkcopperyhue.Butitisnotoftenyoucanseethemintheirnaturalcolour:forthePampasIndians,like nearly all the aboriginal tribes, are “painters.” They have pigments ofblack and white, blue, red, and yellow,—all of which they obtain fromdifferent coloured stones, found in the streams of the Cordilleras. “Yama,”theycalltheblackstone;“colo,”thered;“palan,”thewhite;and“codin,”theblue; theyellow theyobtain froma sortof argillaceousearth.The stonesofeachcolour theysubmit toa rubbingorgrindingprocess,untilaquantityofdustisproduced;which,beingmixedwithsuet,constitutesthepaint,readyforbeinglaidon.ThePampasIndiansdonotconfinethemselvestoanyparticular“escutcheon.”Inthisrespecttheirfancyisallowedawidescope,andtheirfashionschange.Afacequiteblack,orred,isacommoncountenanceamongthem;andoftenmaybeseenasingleband,ofabouttwoinchesinwidth,extendingfromeartoear across the eyes andnose.Onwar excursions theypaint hideous figures:notonlyontheirownfacesandbodies,butontheirtrappings,andevenuponthe bodies of their horses,—aiming to render themselves as appalling aspossible in the sight of their enemies. The same trick is employed by thewarriors of the prairies, aswell as inmany other parts of theworld.Underordinary circumstances, the Pampas Indian is not a naked savage. On thecontrary, he is well clad; and, so far from obtaining the material of hisgarmentsfromtheloomsofcivilisednations,heweavesitforhimself,—thatis,hiswivesweaveit;andinsuchquantitythathehasnotonlyenoughforhisown“wear,”butmorethanenough,asurplusfortrade.Theclothisusuallyastuffspunandwovenfromsheep’swool.Itiscoarse,butdurable;andintheshapeofblanketsor“ponchos,” iseagerlypurchasedbytheSpanish traders.Silver spurs, long, pointed knives, lance-heads, and a few other ironcommodities, constitute the articles of exchange, with various ornamentalarticles, as beads, rings, bracelets, and large-headed silver bodkins to fastentheir cloaks around the shoulders of his “ladies.” Nor is he contented withmeretinsel,asothersavagesare,—hecantellthedifferencebetweenthereal

metalandthecounterfeit,aswellasthemostexpertassayer;andifheshouldfancytohaveapairofsilverspurs,notevenaJewpeddlercouldputoffuponhim the plated “article.” In this respect the Araucanian Indian has beendistinguished, since his earliest intercoursewithEuropeans; and his Pampaskindredareequallysubtleintheirappreciation.ThePampasIndian,whenwelldressed,hasacloakuponhisshouldersofthethickwoollenstuffalreadydescribed.Itisusuallywovenincolours;andisnotunlikethe“poncho”wornbythe“gauchos”ofBuenosAyres,orthe“serape”oftheMexicans.Besidesthecloak,hisdressconsistsofamereskirt,—alsoofcolouredwoollenstuff,beinganoblongpieceswathedaroundhis loins,andreaching to the knee. A sash or belt—sometimes elaborately ornamented—bindstheclotharoundthewaist.Bootsofapeculiarconstructioncompletethecostume. These are manufactured in a very simple manner. The fresh skintakenfromahorse’shindlegisdrawnon—justasifitwereastocking—untiltheheelrestsinthatpartwhichcoveredthehock-jointoftheoriginalwearer.Thesuperfluousportionisthentrimmedtoaccommodateitselfasacoveringfor the foot; and the boot is not only finished, but put on,—there to remainuntilitiswornout,andanewonerequired!Ifitshouldbealittlelooseatfirst,thatdoesnotmatter.Thehotsun,combinedwiththewarmthofthewearer’sleg, soon contracts the hide, and brings it to “fit like a glove.”The head isoftenleftuncovered;butasoftenasortofskullcaporhelmetofhorse-skinisworn;andnotunfrequentlyahigh,conicalhatofpalmfibre.Thislastisnotanative production, but an importation of the traders. So also is a pair ofenormousringsofbrass,whicharewornintheears;andareasbulkyasapairof padlocks. In this costume,mounted on horsebackwith his long lance inhand,thePampasIndianwouldbeapicturesque,object;andreallyisso,whenclean;butthatisonlyontheveryrarestoccasions,—onlywhenhehasdonnedanewsuit.Atallothertimes,notonlyhisfaceandtheskinofhisbody,buteveryraguponhisback,arecoveredwithgreaseandfilth,—soastoproduceaneffectrather“tatterdemalion”thanpicturesque.The“squaw”iscostumedsomewhatdifferently.First,shehasa long“robe,”whichcoversherfromnecktoheels,leavingonlyherneckandarmsbare.Therobeisofredorbluewoollenstuffofherownweaving.Thisgarmentis the“quedeto.”Abelt,embroideredwithbeads,called“quepique,”holdsitaroundthewaist, bymeans of a large silver buckle. This belt is an article, of firstfashion. Over the shoulders hangs the “iquilla,” which is a square piece ofsimilarstuff,—butusuallyofadifferentdye;andwhichisfastenedinfrontbyapinwithalargesilverhead,calledthe“tupo.”Theshockofthick,blackhair—afterhavingreceivedtheusualanointmentofmare’stallow,thefashionablehair-oilofthePampasIndians—iskeptinitsplacebyasortofcaporcoiffure,likeashallowdishinverted,andbristlingalloverwithtrader’sbeads.Tothisalittle bell is fastened; or sometimes a brace of them are worn as earrings.

These tinklesoagreeably in theearsof thewearer, thatshecanscarceforamoment hold her head at rest, but keeps rocking it from side to side, as aSpanishcoquettewouldplaywithherfan.Inadditiontothisvariedwardrobe, thePampasbellecarriesalargestockofbijouterie,—suchasbeadsandbanglesuponherneck,ringsandcircletsuponher arms, ankles, and fingers; and, to set her snaky locks in order, sheseparates them bymeans of a stiff brush,made from the fibrous roots of areed. She is picturesque enough, but never pretty. Nature has given theAraucanianwoman a plain face; and all the adornment in theworld cannothideitshomeliness.ThePehuenche builds no house.He is a true nomade, and dwells in a tent,thoughoneoftherudestconstruction.AsitdiffersentirelyfromthetentoftheprairieIndians,itmaybeworthwhiledescribingit.Itsframeworkisofreeds,—ofthesamekindasareusedforthelonglancessooftenmentioned; andwhich resemble bambusa canes. They grow in plentythroughout the Pampas, especially near the mountains,—where they formimpenetrable thicketson thebordersof themarshy lakes.Anyother flexiblepoleswillserveaswell,whenthecanesarenot“handy.”Thepolesbeingprocured,oneisfirstbentintoasemicircle,andinthisshapebothendsarestuckintotheground,soastoformanarchaboutthreefeetinheight.Thisarchafterwardsbecomesthedoorwayorentrancetothetent.Theremainingpolesareattachedto thisfirstoneatoneend,andat rightangles;andbeing carriedbackwardwith a slight bend, their other ends are insertedintotheturf.Thisformstheskeletonof thetent;anditscoveringisahorse-skin,orratheranumberofhorse-skinsstitchedtogether,makingasortoflargetarpaulin.Theskinsaresewedwiththesinewsofthehorseorox,—whicharefirstchewedbythewomen,untiltheirfibresbecomeseparatedlikehemp,andareafterwardsspunbythemintotwine.The tent is not tall enough to admit of a man standing erect; and in it thePehuenchecrouches,whenever itsnows,rains,orblowscold.Hehassheep-skinsspreadtosleepupon,andotherskinstoserveasbed-clothes,—allinsofilthyacondition,thatbutforthecold,hemightfinditfarmorecomfortabletosleepintheopenair.Heneverattemptstosweepoutthismiserablelair;butwhen the spot becomes very filthy, he “takes up his sticks” and shifts hispenatestoafresh“location.”Heisgenerally,however,tooindolenttomakea“remove,”—untilthedirthasaccumulatedsoasto“beintheway.”ThePampasIndianislessofahunterthanmostothertribesofsavages.Hehasless need to be,—at least, inmodern days; for he is in possession of threekinds of valuable domestic animals, upon which he can subsist withouthunting,—horses, horned cattle, and sheep. Of course, these are of colonial

origin.Hehunts,nevertheless,foramusement,andtovaryhisfood.Thelargerostrich (rhea Americana), the guanaco, and the great “gama” stag of thePampas (cervus campestris) are his usual game. These he captureswith thebolas,—whichishischiefimplementforthechase.Inthefleshofthestaghemay find a variety, but not a delicacy. Its venison would scarce tempt aLucullianpalate,—sinceeventhehungriestGauchowillnoteatit.Itisalargebeast,oftenweighingabovethreehundredpounds;andinfectingtheairwithsucha rankodour, thatdogsdecline to follow it in thechase.Thisodour isgenerated in apairofglands situatednear theeyes; and it has thepowerofprojectingitatwill,—justasskunksandpolecatswhencloselychasedbyanenemy.If theseglandsarecutout immediatelyafter theanimal iskilled, theflesh tasteswell enough: otherwise it is too rank to be eatable.The Indianscureitofthe“badsmell”byburyingitforseveraldaysintheground;whichhas the effect of “sweetening” it, while at the same time it makes it moretender.ButthePampasIndiandoesnotrelyuponthechaseforhissubsistence.Heisasmallgrazier inhisway;and isusuallyaccompanied inhiswanderingsbyaherdofhornedcattleandsheep.Hehasalsohisstudofhorses;whichfurnishthe staple of his food,—for whenever he hungers, a horse is “slaughtered.”Strictly speaking, it is not a horse, for it is the mare that is used for thispurpose.InnopartofthePampasregion,—noteveninthewhitesettlement,—are the mares used for riding. It would be considered derogatory to thecharacterofeitherGauchoorIndiantomountamare;andthesearekeptonlyfor breeding purposes. Not that the Indian is much of a horse-breeder. Hekeepsuphisstockinquiteanotherway,—bystealing.Thesameremarkwillapply to themode by which he recruits his herds of horned cattle, and hisflocks of sheep. The last he values only for their wool; out of which hisgarmentsarewoven;andwhichhasreplacedthescantierfleeceofthevicunaandguanaco,—thematerialusedbyhimindaysgoneby.Fromwhomdoes he steal these valuable animals,—and in suchnumbers asalmost tosubsistuponthem?That isaquestionthatcanbeeasilyanswered;thoughit isnotexact languagetosaythathesteals them.Rathersaythathetakesthem,bymainforceandinopendaylight,—takesthemfromtheCreoleSpaniard,—the Gaucho and estanciero. Nay, he does not content himselfalways with four-footed plunder; but often returns from his forays with acrowdofcaptives,—womenandchildren,withwhiteskinsandruddycheeks,—afterwards to be converted into his drudges and slaves. Not alone to thefrontierdoesheextendtheseplunderingexpeditions;butevenintotheheartofthe Spanish settlements,—to the estancias of grandees, and the gates offortifiedtowns;and,strangeasitmayread,thisconditionofthingshasbeeninexistence,notforyears,but,atintervals,extendingoveracentury!

Butwhatmayreadstrangerstill—andIcanvouchforitastrue—is,thatwhitemenactuallypurchase thisplunder fromhim,—not thehumanpartof it,butthefour-footedand thefurniture,—for this, too,sometimesformspartofhisbooty.Yes,thesurplus,ofwhichtheIndiancanmakenouseorcaresnothingabout,—more especially the large droves of fine horses, taken from theSpaniardsofBuenosAyres,—aredriventhroughthepassesoftheCordilleras,and sold to the Spaniards of Chili! the people of one province actuallyencouraging the robbery of their kindred race in another! The very sameconditionof thingsexists inNorthAmerica.TheComanche,steals,orrathertakes, from the white settler of Tamaulipas and New Leon,—the ApacherievesfromthewhitesettlerofChihuahuaandSonora:bothselltothewhitesettlers,whodwellalongthebanksoftheRiodelNorte!Andallthesesettlersareofonerace,—onecountry,—onekindred!Thesethingshavehithertobeenstyled cosas de Mexico. Their signification may be extended to SouthAmerica:sincetheyareequallycosasdelasPampas.Wearenot permitted todoubt the truthof these appalling facts,—neither asregardsthenefarioustraffic,northecaptivewomenandchildren.Atthisveryhour,notlessthanfourthousandindividualsofSpanish-Mexicanraceareheldcaptivesbytheprairietribes;andwhenRosassweptthePampas,hereleasedfifteen hundred of similar unfortunates from their worse than Egyptiantaskmasters,—thePuelches!With such facts as these before our eyes,who can doubt the decline of theSpanish power? the utter enfeeblement of that once noble race? Who cancontradict thehypotheticalprophecy—morethanonceofferedinthesepages—thatifthetworacesbelefttothemselves,theaboriginal,beforethelapseofa single century,will oncemore recover the soil; and his haughty victor besweptfromthefaceoftheAmericancontinent?Norneed sucha changebe tookeenly regretted.TheSpanishoccupationofAmericahasbeenanutter failure. Ithasservednohighhumanpurpose,butthecontrary.Ithasonlycorruptedandencowardicedaoncebraveandnoblerace;and,savageasmaybethecharacterofthatwhichwouldsupplantit,stillthatsavagehaswithinhimtheelementsofafuturecivilisation.NotsotheSpaniard.Thefireofhiscivilisationhasblazedupwithahighbutfitfulgleam.Ithaspassedlikethelightning’sflash.Itssparkshavefallenanddiedout,—nevertoberekindledagain.

ChapterThirteen.TheYamparicos,orRoot-Diggers.

ItisnowprettygenerallyknownthattherearemanydesertsinNorthAmerica,—as wild, waste, and inhospitable as the famed Sahara of Africa. Thesedesertsoccupyalargeportionofthecentralregionsofthatgreatcontinent—extending,northandsouth,fromMexicototheshoresoftheArcticSea;andeast andwest for several hundredmiles, on each side of the great vertebralchain of the Rocky Mountains. It is true that in the vast territory thusindicated, the desert is not continuous; but it is equally true that the fertilestripesorvalleysthatintersectit,bearbutaverysmallproportiontothewholesurface.Manytractsarethere,oflargerareathanalltheBritishIslands,wherethedesertisscarcevariedbyanoasis,andwheretheveryriverspursuetheircourseamidst rocksandbarrensands,withoutabladeofvegetationon theirbanks.Usually,however,anarrowselvageofgreen—causedbythegrowthofcotton woods, willows, and a few humbler plants—denotes the course of astream,—agladsightatalltimestothewearyandthirstingtraveller.Thesedesertwastesarenotallalike,butdiffermuchincharacter.Inonepointonly do they agree,—they are all deserts. Otherwise they exhibit manyvarieties,—both of aspect and nature. Some of them are level plains, withscarceahill tobreak themonotonyof theview: andof this character is thegreater portion of the desert country extending eastward from the RockyMountains to about 100 degrees of west longitude. At this point the soilgradually becomesmore fertile,—assuming the character of timbered tracts,with prairie opening between,—at length terminating in the vast, unbrokenforestsoftheMississippi.This easterndesert extendsparallelwith theRockyMountains,—throughoutnearlythewholeoftheirlength,—fromtheRioGrandeinMexico,northwardtotheMackenzieRiver.Onetractof itdeservesparticularmention.It is thatknownasthellanoestacado,or“stakedplain,”ItliesinNorth-westernTexas,andconsistsofabarrenplateau,ofseveralthousandsquaremilesinextent,thesurface of which is raised nearly a thousand feet above the level of thesurroundingplains.Geologistshaveendeavouredtoaccountfor thissingularformation, but in vain. The table-like elevation of the Llano estacado stillremainsapuzzle. Itsname,however, iseasierofexplanation. In thedaysofSpanish supremacy over this part of Prairie-land, caravans frequentlyjourneyedfromSantaFéinNewMexico,toSanAntonioinTexas.Themostdirect route between these two provincial capitals lay across the Llanoestacado;butastherewereneithermountainsnorotherlandmarkstoguidethetraveller, he oftenwandered from the right path,—amistake that frequentlyendedin themost terriblesufferingfromthirst,andveryoften in the lossoflife.Topreventsuchcatastrophes,stakesweresetupatsuchintervalsastobeseen from one another, like so many “telegraph posts;” and although thesehave long sincedisappeared, thegreatplain still bears thename,given to itfromthiscircumstance.

Besides the contour of surface, there are other respects in which the deserttracts of North America differ from one another. In their vegetation—if itdeserves thename—theyareunlike.Somehavenovegetationwhatever;butexhibitasurfaceofpuresand,orsandandpebbles;othersarecoveredwithastratumofsoda,ofsnow-whitecolour,andstillotherswithalayerofcommonsalt, equallywhite andpure.Manyof these salt and soda “prairies”—as thetrapperstermthem—arehundredsofsquaremilesinextent.Again,therearedeserts of scoria, of lava, and pumice-stone,—the “cut-rock prairies” of thetrappers,—aperfect contrast incolour to theabovementioned.All theseareabsolutelywithoutvegetationofanysort.On some of thewastes—those of southern latitudes,—the cactus appears ofseveralspecies,andalsothewildagave,or“pita”plant;buttheseplantsareinreality but emblems of the desert itself. So, also, is the yucca,which thinlystandsovermanyof thegreatplains, in the south-westernpart of thedesertregion,—itsstiff,shaggyfoliageinnowayrelievingthesterilelandscape,butratherrenderingitsaspectmorehorridandaustere.Again, there are the deserts known as “chapparals,”—extensive jungles ofbrushandlowtrees,allofathornycharacter;amongwhichthe“mezquite”ofseveral species (mimosas and acacias), the “stink-wood” or creosote plant(kaeberlinia),the“grease-bush”(obionecanescens),severalkindsofprosopis,and now and then, as if to gratify the eye of the tired traveller, the tallflowering spike of the scarlet fouquiera. Further to the north—especiallythroughouttheuppersectionoftheGreatSaltLaketerritory—arevasttracts,upon which scarce any vegetation appears, except the artemisia plant, andotherkindredproductsofasterilesoil.Of all the desert tracts upon the North-American continent, perhaps nonepossessesgreater interestfor thestudentofcosmographythanthatknownasthe “Great Basin.” It has been so styled from the fact of its possessing ahydrographic system of its own,—lakes and rivers that have nocommunicationwith the sea; butwhosewaters spend themselveswithin thelimitsof thedesert itself, andarekept inequilibriumbyevaporation,—as isthecasewithmanywatersystemsofthecontinentsoftheOldWorld,bothinAsiaandAfrica.Thelargestlakeofthe“Basin”isthe“GreatSaltLake,”—oflatesocelebratedinMormonstory:sincenearitssouthernshorethechiefcityofthe“Latter-daySaints”issituated.ButthereareotherlargelakeswithinthelimitsoftheGreatBasin, both fresh and saline,—most of them entirely unconnected with theGreat Salt Lake, and some of them having a complete system of waters oftheir own. There are “Utah” and “Humboldt,” “Walker’s” and “Pyramid”lakes,withalonglistofothers,whosenameshavebeenbutrecentlyenteredupon themap, by the numerous very intelligent explorers employed by the

governmentoftheUnitedStates.Largerivers,too,runinalldirectionsthroughthiscentraldesert,someofthemfallingintotheGreatSaltLake,asthe“Bear”river,the“Weber,”the“Utah,”fromUtah Lake,—upon which theMormonmetropolis stands,—and whichstream has been absurdly baptised by these free-living fanatics as the“Jordan?”Other rivers are the “Timpanogos,” emptying intoLakeUtah; the“Humboldt,” that runs to the lake of that name; the “Carson” river; besidesmanyoflessernote.ThelimitsassignedtotheGreatBasinaretolerablywell-defined.ItswesternrimistheSierraNevada,or“snowyrange”ofCalifornia;whiletheRockyandWahsatchmountainsareitsboundariesontheeast.Severalcross-ranges,andspursof ranges, separate it from the systemofwaters that emptynorthwardinto theColumbiaRiver ofOregon;while upon its southern edge there is amoreindefinite“divide”betweenitandthegreatdesertregionofthewestern“Colorado.”Strictlyspeaking,thedesertoftheGreatBasinmightberegardedasonly aportionof thatvast tractof sterile, andalmost treeless soil,whichstretchesfromtheMexicanstateofSonoratotheupperwatersofOregon;butthe deserts of the Colorado on the south, and those of the “forks” of theColumbia on the north, are generally treated as distinct territories; and theGreatBasin,withthelimitsalreadyassigned,issufferedtostandbyitself.Asaseparatecountry,then,weshallhereconsiderit.Fromitsname,youmightfancythattheGreatBasinwasalow-lyingtractofcountry.This,however,isfarfrombeingthecase.Onthecontrary,nearlyallof it is of the nature of an elevated tableland, even its lakes lying severalthousandfeetabovethelevelof thesea.It isonlybyits“rim,”ofstillmoreelevatedmountainridges,thatitcanlayclaimtobeconsideredasa“basin;”but,indeed,thename—givenbythesomewhatspeculativeexplorer,Fremont—is not very appropriate, since later investigations show that this rim is inmany places neither definite nor regular,—especially on its northern andsouthernsides,wherethe“GreatBasin”maybesaidtobebadlycracked,andeventohavesomepieceschippedoutofitsedge.Besides the mountain chains that surround it, many others run into andintersect it inalldirections.Somearespursof themainranges;whileothersform “sierras”—as the Spaniards term them—distinct in themselves. Thesesierras are of all shapes and of every altitude,—from the low-lying ridgescarcerisingabovetheplain,topeaksandsummitsofovertenthousandfeetin elevation. Their forms are as varied as their height. Some are round ordome-shaped;othersshootuplittleturretsor“needles;”andstillothersmountinto the sky in shapelessmasses,—as if theyhadbeen flungupon theearth,andupononeanother,insomestruggleofTitans,whohaveleftthemlyinginchaoticconfusion.Averysingularmountainformishereobserved,—thoughit

isnotpeculiartothisregion,sinceitisfoundelsewhere,beyondthelimitsofthe Great Basin, and is also common in many parts of Africa. This is theformationknownamongtheSpaniardsasmesas,or“table-mountains,”andbythisverynameitisdistinguishedamongthecolonistsoftheCape.The Llano estacado, already mentioned, is often styled a “mesa,” but itselevation is inconsiderable when compared with the mesa mountains thatoccurintheregionswestofthegreatRockychain,—bothintheBasinandonthedesertsoftheColorado.Manyoftheseareofgreatheight,—risingseveralthousandfeetabove thegeneral level;and,with theirsquare truncated table-liketops,lendapeculiarcharactertothelandscape.Thecharacteristicvegetationof theGreatBasin isverysimilar to thatof theothercentralregionsoftheNorth-Americancontinent.Onlynearthebanksoftheriversandsomeofthefresh-waterlakes,isthereanyevidenceofafertilesoil;andeveninthesesituationsthetimberisusuallyscarceandstunted.Ofcourse,therearetractsthatareexceptional,—oases,astheyaregeographicallystyled.Of this character is the country of theMormons on the Jordan, theirsettlements on the Utah and Bear Rivers, in Tuilla and Ogden valleys, andelsewhereatmoreremotepoints.Therearealsoisolatedtractsonthebanksofthesmallerstreamsandtheshoresoflakesnotyet“located”bythecolonist;andonlyfrequentedbytheoriginaldwellersofthedesert,theredaborigines.Intheseoasesareusuallyfoundcottonwood-trees,ofseveraldistinctspecies,—one or other of which is the characteristic, vegetation on nearly everystreamfromtheMississippitothemountainsofCalifornia.Willowsofmanyspeciesalsoappear;andnowandthen,instuntedforms,theoak, the elm, maples, and sycamores. But all these last are very rarelyencounteredwithinthelimitsofthedesertregion.Onthemountains,andmorefrequently in the mountain ravines pines of many species—some of whichproduceediblecones—growinsuchnumbersastomeritthenameofforests,of greater or less extent. Among these, or apart from them, may bedistinguished thedarker foliageof the cedar (Juniperus)of several varieties,distinctfromthejuniperusvirginianaoftheStates.Thearidplainsaregenerallywithoutthesemblanceofvegetation.Whenanyappearsuponthem,itisofthecharacterofthe“chapparal,”alreadydescribed;itsprincipalgrowthbeing“tornilla,”or“screw-wood,”andothervarietiesofmezquite;allof themspeciesof theextensiveorderof the leguminosae,andbelonging to the several genera of acacias,mimosas, and robinias. Inmanyplaces cactacae appear of an endless variety of forms; and some,—as the“pitahaya”(cereusgiganteus),andthe“tree”and“cochineal”cacti(opuntias),—ofgigantesqueproportions.These,however,areonlydevelopedtotheirfullsizeintheregionsfurthersouth,—onthedesertsoftheColoradoandGila,—where also the “tree yuccas” abound, covering tracts of large extent, and

presentingtheappearanceofforestsofpalms.Perhaps the most characteristic vegetation of the Great Basin—that is, if itdeserve the name of a vegetation—is thewild sage, or artemisia.With thisplantvastplainsarecovered,asfarastheeyecanreach;notpresentingahueof green, as the grass prairies do, but a uniform aspect of greyishwhite, asmonotonousasiftheearthwerewithoutaleaftocoverit.Insteadofrelievingtheeyeofthetraveller,theartemisiaratheraddstothedrearinessofadesertlandscape,—foritspresencepromisesfoodneithertomannorhorse,norwaterforthemtodrink,butindicatestheabsenceofboth.Uponthehill-sidesalsoisitseen,alongtheslopingdeclivitiesofthesierras,marblingthedarkvolcanicrockswithitshoaryfrondage.More than one species of this wild sage occurs throughout the Americandesert: there are four or five kinds, differing very considerably from eachother, and known to the trappers by such names as “wormwood,” “grease-bush,” “stink-plant,” and “rabbit-bush.” Some of the species attain to aconsiderableheight,—theirtopsoftenrisingabovetheheadofthetravelleronhorseback,—whileanotherkindscarcereachesthekneeofthepedestrian.Insomeplacestheplainsaresothicklycoveredwiththisvegetation,thatitisdifficultforeithermanorhorsetomakewaythroughthem,—thegnarledandcrookedbranchestwistingintoeachotherandforminganimpenetrablewattle.Atotherplaces,andespeciallywherethelargerspeciesgrow,theplantsstandapart like apple-trees in an orchard, and bear a considerable resemblance toshrubsorsmalltrees.Both man and horse refuse the artemisia as food; and so, too, the lessfastidiousmule.Evenadonkeywillnoteatit.Thereareanimals,however,—bothbirdsandbeasts,aswillbeseenhereafter,—thatrelishthesage-plant;andnot only eat of it, but subsist almost exclusively on its stalks, leaves, andberries.The denizens of the Great Basin desert—I mean its human denizens—arecomprehended in two great families of the aboriginal race,—theUtahs andSnakes, or Shoshonees. Of the white inhabitants—the Mormons and trap-settlers—we have nothing to say here. Nor yetmuch respecting the above-mentionedIndians,theUtahsandSnakes.Itwillbeenoughforourpurposetomakeknownthatthesetwotribesaredistinctfromeachother,—thattherearemany communities or sub-tribes of both,—that each claims ownership of alargetractof thecentralregion, lyingbetweentheRockyMountainsandtheSierraNevada;andthattheirlimitsarenotcoterminalwiththoseoftheGreatBasin:sincetherangeoftheSnakesextendsintoOregonuponthenorth,whilethat of the Utahs runs down into the valley of the Rio del Norte upon thesouth. Furthermore, that both are in possession of the horse,—the Utahsowning large numbers,—that both are of roving and predatory habits, and

quiteaswickedandwarlikeasthegeneralityoftheirredbrethren.TheyarealsoaswelltodointheworldasmostIndians;buttherearemanydegreesintheir“civilisation,”orratherinthecomfortsoftheirlife,dependinguponthesituationinwhichtheymaybeplaced.Whendwellinguponagood“salmon-stream,”oramongtherockymountain“parks,”thataboundingame,theymanage to pass a portion of the year in luxuriant abundance. In otherplaces,however,andatothertimes,theirexistenceisirksomeenough,—oftenborderinguponactualstarvation.It may be further observed, that the Utahs and Snakes usually occupy thelarger and more fertile oases of the desert,—wherever a tract is found ofsufficient size to subsist a community.With this observation I shall dismissboth these tribes; for it is not of them that our present sketch is intended totreat.This is specially designed for a far odder people than either,—for theYamparicos, or “Root-diggers;” and having described their country, I shallnowproceedtogivesomeaccountofthemselves.Itmaybenecessaryheretoremarkthatthename“Diggers,”hasoflatebeenveryimproperlyapplied,—notonlybythesettlersofCalifornia,butbysomeof the exploring officers of the United States government. Every tribe orcommunity throughout the desert, found existing in a state of specialwretchedness,hasbeensostyled;andalearnedethnologist(!),writinginthe“Examiner,” newspaper, gravely explains the name, by deriving it from thegold-diggersofCalifornia!This“conceit”of theLondoneditor isapalpableabsurdity,—sincetheDiggerIndiansweresodesignated,longbeforethefirstgold-digger of California put spade into its soil. The name is of “trapper”origin;bestoweduponthesepeoplefromtheobservationofoneoftheirmostcommon practices,—viz, the digging for roots, which form an essentialportionoftheirsubsistence.Theterm“yamparico,”isfromaSpanishsource,andhasaverysimilarmeaningtothatof“Root-digger.”Itisliterally“Yampa-rooter,”or“Yampa-rooteater,”therootofthe“yampa”(anethumgraviolens)beingtheirfavouritefood.Thetrue“Diggers”arenotfoundinCaliforniawestof theSierraNevada; thoughcertain tribesof ill-usedIndians in thatquarterarecalledbythename.ThegreatdesertsextendingbetweentheNevadaandthe Rocky Mountains are their locality; and their limits are more or lesscotemporaneouswiththoseoftheShoshoneesorSnakes,andtheUtahs,—ofbothofwhich tribes they are supposed to be a sort of outcast kindred.Thishypothesis, however, rests only on a slight foundation: that of someresemblance inhabits and language,which areveryuncertain criteriawheretwo people dwell within the same boundaries,—as, for instance, the whitesand blacks in Virginia. In fact, the language of the Diggers can scarce becalledalanguageatall:beingasortofgibberishlikethegrowlingofadog,

ekedoutbyacopiousvocabularyofsigns:andperhaps,hereandthere,byanodd word from the Shoshonee or Utah,—not unlikely, introduced by theassociationoftheDiggerswiththeselast-mentionedtribes.In the western and southern division of the Great Basin, the Digger existsunder the name of Paiute, or more properly, Pah-Utah,—so-called from hissupposed relationshipwith the tribeof theUtahs. In some respects thePah-Utahsdiffer from theShoshokee, orSnake-Diggers; though inmost of theircharacteristic habits they are very similar to each other. Theremight be noanomaly committed by considering them as one people; for in personalappearanceandhabitsoflifethePah-Utah,andthe“Shoshokee”—thislastisthe national appellationof the yampa-eater,—are as like eachother as eggs.Weshallherespeakhowever,principallyof theShoshokees: leaving it tobeunderstood, that their neighbours the “Paiutes” will equally answer thedescription.AlthoughtheShoshokees,asalreadyobserved,dwellwithinthesamelimitsastheirsupposedkindredtheShoshonees,theyrarelyorneverassociatewiththelatter.Onthecontrary,theykeepwelloutoftheirway,—inhabitingonlythosedistrictsofcountrywherethelargerShoshoneecommunitiescouldnotdwell.The very smallest oasis, or the tiniest stream, affords all the fertility that isrequiredforthesupportofaDiggerfamily;andrarelyarethesepeoplefoundliving more than one, or at most, two or three families together. The verynecessityoftheircircumstancesprecludesthepossibilityofamoreextensiveassociation;foronthedesertswheretheydwell,neithertheearthnortheair,nor yet the water, affords a sufficient supply of food to support even thesmallest“tribe.”Not in tribes, then,but insinglefamilies,or littlegroupsoftwoorthree,dotheDiggerIndiansdwell,—notinthelargerandmorefertilevalleys, but in those small and secluded; in themidst of the sage-plains, ormorefrequently in therockydefilesof themountains thatstandthicklyoverthe“Basin.”The Shoshokee is no nomade, but the very reverse. A single and isolatedmountain is often the abode of his group or family; and beyond this hiswanderingsextendnot.Thereheisathome,knowingeverynookandrat-holeinhisownneighbourhood;butasignorantoftheworldbeyondasthe“sand-rats”themselves,—whosepursuitoccupiesthegreaterportionofhistime.Inrespecttohis“settled”modeoflife,theShoshokeeoffersastrikingcontrasttotheShoshonee.ManyofthelatterareIndiansofnobletype,—warriorswhohave tamed the horse, and who extend their incursions, both hunting andhostile,intotheveryheartoftheRockyMountains,—uptheirfertilevalleys,andacrosstheirsplendid“parks,”oftenbringingbackwiththemthescalpsofthesavageandredoubtableBlackfeet.FardifferentisthecharacterofthewretchedShoshokee,—themeresemblance

of a human being,—who rarely strays out of the ravine in which he wasbroughtforth;andwho,atsightofahumanface—beitoffriendorenemy—fliestohiscragorcavelikeahuntedbeast!ThePah-UtahDiggers,however,areofamorewarlikedisposition;orratheramorewickedandhostileone,—hostiletowhites,oreventosuchotherIndiansasmayhaveoccasiontotravelthroughthedesertstheyinhabit.Thesepeoplearefoundscatteredthroughoutthewholesouthernandsouth-westernportionoftheGreatBasin,—andalsointhenorth-westernpartoftheColoradodesert,—especially about the SevierRiver, and on several of the tributaries of thegreatColoradoitselfofthewestItwasthroughthispartofthecountrythatthecaravansfromCaliforniatoNewMexicousedtomaketheirannual“trips,”—longbeforeAltaCalaforniabecameapossessionof theUnitedStates,—andtheroutebywhichtheytravelledisknownastheSpanishtrail.Theobjectofthesecaravanswastheimportofhorses,mules,andotheranimals,—fromthefertile valleys of theSan Joaquin andSacramento rivers, to themore sterilesettlements of NewMexico. Several kinds of goods were also carried intotheseinteriorcountries.ThisSpanishtrailwasfarfromrunninginadirectline.Thesandy,waterlessplain—knownmoreparticularlyastheColoradodesert—couldnotbecrossedwith safety, and the caravan-route was forced far to the north; and enteredwithin the limits of the Great Basin—thus bringing it through the countyinhabitedbythePah-UtahDiggers.Theconsequencewas,thatthesesavageslookedoutannuallyforitsarrival;and,wheneveranopportunityoffered,stolethe animals that accompanied it, ormurdered anyof themenwhomightbefound straggling from the main body. When bent on such purposes, theseDiggers for a time threw aside their solitary habits,—assembling in largebands of several hundred each, and following the caravan travellers, likewolvesuponthetrackofagangofbuffaloes.Theynevermadetheirattacksuponthemainbody,orwhenthewhitemenwere inanyconsiderableforce.Onlysmallgroupswhohadlaggedbehind,orgonetoorashlyinadvance,hadtofearfromthesemercilessmarauders,—whoneverthoughtofsuchathingasmakingcaptives,butmurdered indiscriminatelyallwhofell into theirhands.Whenhorsesormuleswerecaptured,itwasneverdonewiththeintentionofkeepingthemtorideupon.ScarcelyeverdothePah-Utahsmakesuchauseofthehorse.Onlyforfoodwerethesestolenorplunderedfromtheirowners;andwhen a booty of this kind was obtained, the animals were driven to someremotedefileamongthemountains,andthereslaughteredoutright.Solongasamorselofhorseormulefleshremaineduponthebones,theDiggerskeptupa scene of feasting andmerriment—precisely similar to the carnivals of theAfricanBushmen,afterasuccessfulforayuponthecattleoftheDutchsettlersnear theCape. Indeed there is suchaverystriking resemblancebetween theBushmenofAfricaandtheseDiggerIndiansofNorthAmerica; that,wereit

not for the distinction of race, and some slight differences in personalappearance,theymightpassasonepeople.Innearlyeveryhabitandcustom,the twopeopleresembleeachother;andinmanymentalcharacteristics theyappeartrulyidentical.The Pah-Utah Diggers have not yet laid aside their hostile and predatoryhabits. They are at the present hour engaged in plundering forays,—actingtowardstheemigranttrainsofCalifornianadventurersjustastheydidtowardsthe Spanish caravans.But they usuallymeetwith a very different receptionfrom the more daring Saxon travellers, who constitute the “trains” nowcrossing their country; and not unfrequently a terrible punishment is therewardoftheiraudacity.Forallthat,manyoftheemigrants,whohavebeensoimprudentastotravelinsmallparties,havesufferedattheirhands,losingnotonly their property, but their lives; since hundreds of the bravestmen havefallenbythearrowsoftheseinsignificantsavages!EventheexploringpartiesoftheUnitedStatesgovernment,accompaniedbytroops,havebeenattackedby them; andmore thanoneofficer has fallen a victim to their Ishmaelitishpropensities.Itisnotinopenwarfarethatthereisanydreadofthem.Thesmallestpartyofwhitesneednotfeartoencounterahundredofthematonce;buttheirattacksaremadebystealth,andundercoverof thenight;and,assoonas theyhavesucceededinseparatingthehorsesorotheranimalsfromthetravellers’camp,theydrive themoff soadroitly thatpursuit is impossible.Wheneveragrandblow has been struck—that is, a traveller has been murdered—they alldisappearasifbymagic;andforseveraldaysafternotoneistobeseen,uponwhomrevengemightbetaken.Thenumerous“smokes,”risingupoutoftherockydefilesofthemountains,arethentheonlyevidencethathumanbeingsareintheneighbourhoodofthetravellers’camp.TheDiggerisdifferentfromotherNorth-AmericanIndians,—bothinphysicalorganisationandintellectualcharacter.Solowisheinthescaleofboth,astodispute with the African Bushman, the Andaman Islander, and the starvingsavageofTierradelFuego, theclaimtothatpoint inthetransition,whichissupposedtoseparatethemonkeyfromtheman.Ithasbeenvariouslyawardedbyethnologists,andIasonehavehadmydoubts,astowhichofthethreeisdeservingofthedistinction.Uponmatureconsideration,however,IhavecometotheconclusionthattheDiggerisentitledtoit.This miserable creature is of a dark-brown or copper colour,—the hue sogenerallyknownascharacteristicoftheAmericanaborigines.Hestandsaboutfivefeetinheight,—oftenunderbutrarelyoverthisstandard,—andhisbodyisthinandmeagre,resemblingthatofafrogstretcheduponafish-hook.Theskin that covers it—especially that of an old Digger—is wrinkled andcorrugated like the hide of anAsiatic rhinoceros,—with a surface as dry as

parchedbuck-skin.Hisfeet,turnedinatthetoes,—aswithalltheaboriginesof America,—have some resemblance to human feet; but in the legs thisresemblance ends. The lower limbs are almost destitute of calves, and theknee-pansareofimmensesize,—resemblingapairofpadsorcallosities,likethose upon goats and antelopes. The face is broad and angular, with highcheek-bones; the eyes small, black, and sunken, and sparkle in their hollowsockets,notwithtrueintelligence,butthatsortofvivacitywhichmayoftenbeobserved in the lower animals, especially in several species of monkeys.Throughout thewholephysical compositionof theDigger, there isonlyonethingthatappearsluxuriant,—andthatishishair.LikeallIndiansheisamplyendowed in this respect, and long, black tresses—sometimes embrownedbythe sun, andmatted together withmud or other filth—hang over his nakedshoulders.Generallyhecropsthem.In thesummermonths, theDigger’scostumeisextremelysimple,—after thefashion of that worn by our common parents, Adam and Eve. In winter,however, the climate of his desert home is rigorous in the extreme,—themountains over his head, and the plains under his feet, being often coveredwithsnow.Atthisseasonherequiresagarmenttoshelterhisbodyfromthepiercingblast;andthisheobtainsbystitchingtogetherafewskinsofthesage-hare,soastoformakindofshirtorbody-coat.Heisnotalwaysrichenoughtohaveevenagoodcoatofthissimplematerial;anditsscantyskirttoooftenexposeshiswrinkledlimbstothebitingfrost.Between theDigger and hiswife, or “squaw,” there is notmuch differenceeither in costume or character.The lattermay be distinguished, by being oflessstature,ratherthanbyanyfemininegracesinherphysicalorintellectualconformation.Shemightberecognised,too,bywatchingtheemploymentofthefamily;foritisshewhodoesnearlyallthework,stitchestherabbit-skinshirt,digsthe“yampa”and“kamas”roots,gathers the“mezquite”pods,andgets together the larderof“prairiecrickets.”Though lowestofallAmericanIndiansinthescaleofcivilisation,theDiggerresemblesthemallinthis,—heregardshimselfaslordandmaster,andthewomanashisslave.Asalreadyobserved,thereisnosuchthingasatribeofDiggers,—nothingofthe nature of a political organisation; and the chief of their miserable littlecommunity—for sometimes there is a head man—is only he who is mostregardedforhisstrength.Indeed,thenatureoftheircountrywouldnotadmitofalargenumberofthemlivingtogether.Thelittlevalleysor“oases”—thatoccuratintervalsalongthebanksofsomelonedesertstream,—wouldnot,anyoneof them,furnishsubsistence tomore thana fewindividuals,—especiallytosavagesignorantofagriculture,—thatis,notknowinghowtoplantorsow.The Diggers, however, if they know not how to sow, may be said tounderstand something about how to reap, since root-digging is one of their

mostessentialemployments,—thatoccupationfromwhichtheyhaveobtainedtheirdistinctiveappellation,inthelanguageofthetrappers.Not being agriculturists, you will naturally conclude that they are either apastoralpeople,orelseanationofhunters.But in truth theyareneitheronenor the other. They have no domestic animal,—many of them not even theuniversaldog;andastohunting,thereisnolargegameintheircountry.Thebuffalo does not range so farwest; and if he did, it is not likely they couldeither kill or capture so formidable a creature; while the prong-hornedantelope,whichdoesinhabittheirplains,isaltogethertooswiftacreature,tobe takenbyanywilesaDiggermight invent.The“big-horn,”and theblackandwhite-tailedspeciesofdeer,arealsotooshyandtoofleetfortheirpunyweapons;andastothegrizzlybear,theverysightofoneisenoughtogiveaDiggerIndianthe“chills.”If,then,theydonotcultivatetheground,norrearsomekindofanimals,noryetlivebythechase,howdothesepeoplemanagetoobtainsubsistence?Theanswertothisquestionappearsadilemma,—sinceithasbeenalreadystated,thattheircountryproduceslittleelsethanthewildandworthlesssageplant.WerewespeakingofanIndianoftropicalAmerica,oranativeofthelovelyislands of the great South Sea, there would be no difficulty whatever inaccounting for his subsistence,—even though he neither planted nor sowed,tended cattle, nor yet followed the chase. In these regions of luxuriantvegetation, nature has been bountiful to her children; and, itmay be almostliterallyallegedthattheloafofbreadgrowsspontaneouslyonthetree.ButtheveryreverseisthecaseinthecountryoftheDiggerIndian.Eventhehandofcultivation could scarce wring a crop from the sterile soil; and Nature hasprovidedhardlyonearticlethatdeservesthenameoffood.PerhapsyoumayfancythattheDiggerisafisherman;andobtainshislivingfromthestream,bythesideofwhichhemakeshisdwelling.Noteventhisispermitted to him. It is true that his supposed kindred, the Shoshonees,occasionallyfollowtheoccupationoffishermenuponthebanksoftheGreatSnake River,—which at certain seasons of the year swarms with the finestsalmon;butthepoorDiggerhasnoshareinthefinnyspoil.Thestreams,thattraversehisdeserthome,emptytheirwatersintothebrinybosomoftheGreatSaltLake,—atrueDeadSea,whereneithersalmon,noranyotherfishcouldliveforaninstant.How then does the Digger obtain his food? Is he a manufacturer,—andperforceamerchant,—whoexchangeswithsomeothertribehismanufacturedgoodsforprovisionsand“rawmaterial?”Nothingofthesort.Leastofallisheamanufacturer.Thehare-skin shirt ishishighest effort in the lineof textilefabrics;andhispoorweakbow,andflint-tippedarrows,aretheonlytoolsheiscapableofmaking.Sometimesheisevenwithouttheseweapons;andmay

beseenwithanother,—alongstick,withahookatoneend,—thehookitselfbeingthestumpofaloppedbranch,withitsnaturalinclinationtothatwhichforms the stick. The object and purpose of this simple weapon we shallpresentlydescribe.The Digger’s wife may be seen with a weapon equally simple in itsconstruction.Thisisalsoastick—butamuchshorterone—pointedatoneend,andbearingsomeresemblancetoagardener’s“dibble.”Sometimesitistippedwith horn,—when this can be procured,—but otherwise the hard point isproducedbycalcining it in the fire.This tool is essentiallyan implementofhusbandry,—aswillpresentlyappear.Let us now clear up the mystery, and explain how the Digger maintainshimself.Thereisnotmuchmysteryafterall.Although,asalreadystated,hiscountryproducesnothingthatcouldfairlybetermedfood,yetthereareafewarticles within his reach upon which a human beingmight subsist,—that is,might justkeepbodyandsoul together.Oneof thesearticles is thebean,orlegumeofthe“mezquite”tree,ofwhichtherearemanykindsthroughoutthedesertregion.TheyareknowntoSpanishAmericansasalgarobiatrees;and,in the southern parts of the desert, grow to a considerable size,—oftenattainingthedimensionoftwentytotwenty-fivefeetinheight.They produce a large legume, filledwith seeds and a pulp of sweetish-acidtaste,—similartothatofthe“honey-locust.”Thesebeansarecollectedinlargequantities,bythesquawoftheDigger,stowedawayingrass-wovenbaskets,orsometimesonlyinheapsinacornerofhiscave,orhovel, ifhechancetohaveone.Ifso,it isamerewattleofartemisia, thatchedand“chinked”withgrass.The mezquite seeds, then, are the bread of the Digger; but, bad as is thequality,thesupplyisoftenfarbehindthedemandsofhishungrystomach.Forvegetables, he has the “yampa” root, an umbelliferous plant, which growsalongthebanksofthestreams.This,withanotherkind,knownas“kamas”or“quamash”(Camassiaesculenta),isaspontaneousproduction;andthediggingfortheserootsforms,atacertainseasonoftheyear,theprincipaloccupationof the women. The “dibble-like” instrument already described is the root-digger. The roots here mentioned, before being eaten, have to undergo aprocessofcooking.Theyampaisboiledinaveryingeniousmanner;butthispieceofingenuityisnotnativetotheShoshokees,andhasbeenobtainedfromtheirmorecleverkindred,theSnakes.Thepotisawoodenone;andyettheycanboilmeatinit,ormakesoupiftheywish!Moreover,itisonlyabasket,amerevesselofwicker-work!How,then,canwaterbeboiledinit?Ifyouhadnotbeenalreadytoldhowitisdone,itwouldnodoubtpuzzleyoutofindout.But most likely you have read of a somewhat similar vessel among theChippewaIndians,—especiallythetribeknownasthe“Assineboins,”orstone

boilers—whocooktheirfishorfleshinpotsmadeofbirch-bark.Thephrasestoneboilerswillsuggesttoyouhowthedifficultyisgotover.Thebirch-barkpot isnot setover fire;but stonesareheatedand thrown into it,—ofcoursealreadyfilledwithwater.Thehotstonessooncausethewatertosimmer,andfreshonesareaddeduntilitboils,andthemeatissufficientlycooked.Byjustsuchaprocessthe“Snakes”cooktheirsalmonanddeer’sflesh,—theirwickerpotsbeingwovenofsoclosea texture thatnotevenwatercanpass throughtheinterstices.It isnotoften,however, that, theDigger isrichenoughtohaveoneof thesewickerpots,—andwhenhehas,heisoftenwithoutanythingtoputintoit.Thekamasrootsareusuallybaked inaholedug in theearth,andheatedbystonestakenfromthefire.Itrequiresnearlytwodaystobakethemproperly;andthen,whentakenoutofthe“oven,”themassbearsastrongresemblancetosoftglueorsize,andhasasweetandratheragreeabletaste,—likenedtothatofbakedpearsorquinces.Ihavenotyetspecified thewholeof theDigger’s larder.Werehe todependaltogetheron therootsandseedsalreadymentioned,hewouldoftenhave tostarve,—and in reality he often does starve,—for, even with the additionalsupplies which his sterile soil scantily furnishes him, he is frequently thevictimoffamine.Theremaybeabadseasonofthemezquite-crop,andthebears—whoareascunning“diggers”ashe—sometimesdestroyhis“plantations”ofyampaandkamas. He finds a resource, however, in the prairie cricket, an insect—orreptile,youmaycallit—ofthegryllustribe,ofadark-browncolour,andmorelikeabugthananyothercrawler.These,atcertainseasonsoftheyear,maketheirappearanceuponthedesertplains,andinsuchnumbersthatthegroundappears to be alive with them. An allied species has of late years becomecelebrated:onaccountofavisitpaidbyvastnumbersofthemtotheMormonplantations;where,asmayberemembered,theydevastatedthecrops,—justasthelocustsdoinAfrica,—causingaverysevereseasonoffamineamongtheseisolated people. It may be remembered also, that flocks of white birdsfollowedthemovementsoftheseAmericanlocusts,—preyinguponthem,andthinningtheirmultitudinoushosts.Thesebirdswereof thegullgenus(Larus),andoneof themostbeautifulofthespecies.TheyfrequenttheshoresandislandsoftheriversofPrairie-land,living chiefly upon such insects as are found in the neighbourhood of theirwaters. It was but natural, therefore, they should follow the locusts, or“grasshoppers,”astheMormonstermedthem;butthepseudo-prophetofthesedeludedpeoplecouldnotsuffertopasssuchafineopportunityofprovinghisdivineinspiration:whichhedidbyaudaciouslydeclaringthatthebirdswere“heaven-born,”andhadbeensentbytheAlmighty(inobediencetoaprayer

fromhim,theprophet)toridthecountryofthepestofthegrasshoppers!These prairie crickets are of a dark-brown colour,—not unlike the gryllusmigratoriusofAfrica,andwithverysimilarhabits.Whensettledthicklyupontheground,thewholesurfaceassumesadarkishhue,asifcoveredwithcrape;andwhentheyareallinmotion,—creepingtoandfroinsearchoftheirfood,—avery singular effect is produced.At this time theydo not take towing;thoughtheyattempttogetoutoftheway,bymakingshorthopsfromplacetoplace, and crawling with great rapidity. Notwithstanding their efforts toescape,hundredsofthemare“squashed”beneaththefootofthepedestrian,orhoofsofthetraveller’shorse.These crickets,with several bug-like insects of different species, furnish theDiggerwithanimportantarticleoffood.Itmayappearastrangeprovenderfora human stomach; but there is nothing unnatural about it,—any more thanabout the eating of shrimps or prawns; and it will be remembered that theBushmen,andmanyother tribesofSouthAfricaeat thegryllusmigratorius;while,inthenorthernpartofthatsamecontinent,manynationsregardthemasa proper article of food.Though somewriters have asserted, that itwas thelegume of the locust-tree (an acacia) which was eaten by Saint John theBaptist inthewilderness, it iseasilyprovedthatsuchwasnotthecase.Thathis foodwas the locust (gryllusmigratorius) andwild honey, is strictly andliterally true; and at the present day, were you to visit the “wilderness”mentionedbytheApostle,youmightseepeoplelivingupon“locustsandwildhoney,”justastheydideighteenhundredyearsago.The Diggers cook their crickets sometimes by boiling them in the potsaforementioned, and sometimesby “roasting.”They alsomix themwith themezquite seeds and pulp,—the whole forming a kind of plum-pudding, or“cricket-pasty,”—or,asitisjocoselytermedbythetrappers,“cricket-cake.”Their mode of collecting the grasshoppers is not without some display ofingenuity.Whentheinsectsare inabundance, thereisnotmuchdifficulty inobtainingasufficientsupply;butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Sometimestheyappearverysparselyupontheplains;and,beingnimble in theirmovements,arenoteasilylaidholdof.Onlyonecouldbetakenatatime;and,bygleaningin this way, a very limited supply would be obtained. To remedy this, theDiggershaveinventedasomewhat ingeniouscontrivanceforcapturingthemwholesale,—which is effected in the following manner:—When thewhereaboutsofthegrasshoppershasbeendiscovered,aroundhole—ofthreeorfourfeetindiameter,andofaboutequaldepth—isscoopedoutinthecentreof theplain. It isshapedsomewhatafter thefashionofakiln;andtheearth,thathasbeentakenout,iscarriedoutoftheway.The Digger community then all turn out—men, women, and children—anddeploy themselves into a wide circle, enclosing as large a tract as their

numbers will permit. Each individual is armed with a stick, with which hebeats the sage-bushes, and makes other violent demonstrations: the objectbeing to frighten thegrasshoppers, and cause them tomove inward towardsthepitthathasbeendug.Theinsects,thusbeset,moveasdirected,—graduallyapproaching the centre,—while the “beaters” follow in a circle constantlylessening in circumference. After a time the crickets, before only thinlyscattered over the plain,—grow more crowded as the space becomescontracted;untilatlengththesurfaceiscoveredwithablackmovingswarm;andthebeaters,stillpressinguponthem,anddrivingthemonward,forcethewholebodypellmellovertheedgesofthepit.Bunchesofgrass,alreadyprovidedarenowflungoverthem,anduponthatafewshovelfulsofearthorsand;andthen—horribletorelate!—alargepileofartemisiastalksisheapeduponthetopandsetonfire!Theresultisthat,inafewminutes, thepoorgrasshoppersare smoked todeath,andparchedat thesame time—soas tobereadyforeating,whenever thedébrisof thefirehasbeenremoved.Theprairiecricketisnottheonlyarticleoftheflesh-meatkind,foundinthelarderof theDigger.Anotheranimal furnisheshimwithanoccasionalmeal.This is the “sage-hare,” known to hunters as the “sage-rabbit,” but tonaturalistsasthelepusartemisia.Itisaverysmallanimal,—lessinsizethanthe common rabbit,—though it is in reality a true hare. It is of a silvery, orwhitish-greycolour—whichadaptsittothehueoftheartemisiabushesonthestalksandberriesofwhichitfeeds.It is from the skins of this animal, that theDiggerwomenmanufacture therabbit-skinshirts,alreadydescribed.ItsfleshwouldnotbeveryagreeabletoaEuropean palate,—even with the addition of an onion,—for it has the sageflavourtosuchadegree,astobeasbitteraswormwooditself.Anonionwithitwould not be tasted!But tastes differ, and by theDigger the flesh of thesage-hareisesteemedoneofthenicestdelicacies.Hehuntsit,therefore,withthe greatest assiduity; and the chase of this insignificant animal is to theDigger,whatthehuntofthestag,theelephant,orthewildboar,istohuntersofamorepretentiousambition.Withhisbowandarrowshefrequentlysucceedsinkillingasinglehare;butthis is not always so easy,—since the sage-hare, like all of its kind, is shy,swift, and cunning. Its colour, closely resembling the hue of the artemisiafoliage,isaconsiderableprotectiontoit;anditcanhideamongthesebushes,where they grow thickly—as they generally do—over the surface of theground.ButtheDiggerisnotsatisfiedwiththescantyanduncertainsupply,whichhisweak bow and arrows would enable him to obtain. As in the case of thegrasshoppers, he has contrived a plan for capturing the sage-hares by

wholesale.This he accomplishes bymaking a “surround,” anddriving the animals, notintoapit,butintoapound.Thepoundisconstructedsomethingafterthesamefashion as that used by the Chippewas, and other northern Indians, forcapturingtheherdsofreindeer;inotherwords,itisanenclosure,enteredbyanarrowmouth—fromthejawsofwhichmouth,twofencesarecarriedfaroutintotheplain,inagraduallydivergingdirection.Forthedeerandotherlargeanimals,thefencesofthepound—asalsothoseofthefunnelthatconductstoit,requiretobemadeofstrongstakes,stockadedsidebyside;butthiswork,aswellasthetimberwithwhichtoconstructit,isfarbeyondthereachoftheDigger. His enclosure consists of a mere wattle of artemisia stalks andbranches,wovenintoarowofthosealreadystanding—withhereandthereapatchingof rudenets,madeof roots andgrass.Theheight isnotover threefeet; and the sage-hare might easily spring over it; but the stupid creature,whenonce“in thepound,”never thinksof lookingupward;butcontinues todashitslittleskullagainstthewattle,untilitiseither“clubbed”bytheDigger,orimpaledupononeofhisobsidianarrows.Other quadrupeds, constituting a portion of the Digger’s food, are severalspecies of “gophers,” or sand-rats, ground-squirrels, andmarmots. In manyparts of the Great Basin, the small rodents abound: dwelling between thecrevices of rocks, or honeycombing the dry plains with their countlessburrows. The Digger captures them by various wiles. One method is byshootingthemwithbluntarrows;butthemoresuccessfulplanis,bysettingatrapattheentrancetotheirearthencaves.Itisthe“figureof4trap,”whichtheDigger employs for this purpose, andwhichhe constructswith ingenuity,—placingagreatmanyarounda“warren,”andoftentakingasmanyasfiftyorsixty“rats”inasingleday!Inweathertoocoldforthegopherstocomeoutoftheircaves,theDiggerthen“digs”forthem:thusfurtherentitlinghimtohisspecialappellation.That magnificent bird, the “cock of the plains,” sometimes furnishes theDiggerwith“fowl”forhisdinner.This isabirdof thegrousefamily(tetraourophasianus), and the largest species that is known,—exceeding in size thefamed “cock of the woods” of northern Europe. A full-fledged cock of theplainsisaslargeasaneagle;and,unlikemostofthegrousekind,hasalong,narrowbody.Hisplumageisofasilverygreycolour—producedbyamottleofblackandwhite,—nodoubt,givenhimbyanaturetoassimilatehimtothehueof the artemisia,—amidstwhichhehabituallydwells, and theberriesofwhichfurnishhimwithmostofhisfood.He is remarkable for two large goitre-like swellings on the breast, coveredwith a sort of hair insteadof feathers; but, though a fine-looking largebird,andagrousetoo,hisfleshisbitterandunpalatable—evenmoresothanthatof

thesage-hare.Forallthat,itisadelicacytotheDigger,andarareone;forthecockoftheplainsisneitherplentiful,noreasilycapturedwhenseen.Thereareseveralothersmallanimals—bothquadrupedsandbirds—inhabitingDigger-land,uponwhichanoccasionalmealismade.Indeed,thefoodoftheDigger issufficientlyvaried.It isnot in thequalitybut thequantityhefindsmostcauseofcomplaint:forwithallhisenergieshenevergetsenough.Inthesummer season, however, he is less stinted.Then theberries of thebuffalo-bushareripe;andthese,resemblingcurrants,hecollectsinlargequantities,—placing his rabbit-skin wrapper under the bush, and shaking down the ripefruitinshowers.Amélangeofprairiecricketsandbuffalo-berriesisesteemedbytheDigger,asmuchaswouldbethebestspecimenofa“currant-cake”inanynurseryinChristendom!TheDiggerfindsaverycuriousspeciesofediblebug,whichbuildsitsnestontheledgesofthecliffs,—especiallythosethatoverhangastream.Thesenestsareofaconicalorpine-appleshape,andaboutthesizeofthisfruit.This bug,—not yet classified or described by entomologists,—is of a dark-brown colour, about the size of the ordinary cockroach; andwhen boiled isconsideredaproperarticleoffood,—notonlybytheunfastidiousDiggers,butbyIndiansofamoreepicureangoût.Besidestheyampaandkamas,thereareseveralotherediblerootsfoundintheDiggercountry.Amongothersmaybementionedaspeciesofthistle(circiumvirginiarum),—therootofwhichgrowstothesizeofanordinarycarrot,andisalmostaswellflavoured.Itrequiresagreatdealofroasting,orboiling,beforeitissufficientlycookedtobeeaten.The kooyah is another article of food still more popular among Diggergourmands. This is the root of theValeriana edulis. It is of a bright-yellowcolour,andgrowstoaconsiderablesize.Ithasthecharacteristicodourofthewell-knownplant;butnotsostrongasinthepreparedsubstanceofvalerian.Theplant itselfdoesnotgrowin thearidsoilof thedesert,but rather in therich fertilebottomsof the streams,oralong the shoresofmarshy lakes,—incompanywiththekamasandyampa.Itiswhentheserootsareinseason,thattheShoshokeesmostfrequentsuchlocalities;and,indeed,thissameseasonisthe timewhen all other articles of Digger food are plenteous enough,—thesummer.Thewintermonthsaretohimthe“tighttimes.”Insomepartsofthedesertcountry,asalreadyobserved,growspeciesofpines,with edible cones,—or rather edible seeds which the cones contain. Theseseedsresemblenuts,andareaboutthesizeofthecommonfilberts.Morethanonespeciesofpineproducesthissortoffood;butinthelanguageof the Spanish Californians and New Mexicans, they are all indifferentlytermed piñon, and the seeds simply piñones, or “piñons.”Where these are

withinthereachoftheDigger,—astheyareinsomedistricts,—heisthenwellprovidedfor;sincethepiñons,whenroasted,notonlyformanagreeableandnutritious article of food, but can be stored up as awinter stock,—thatwillkeepforaconsiderabletime,withoutdangerofspoiling,orgrowingtoostale.SuchisthecommissariatoftheDiggerIndian;and,poorinqualitythoughitbe, there are timeswhen he cannot obtain a sufficient supply of it.At suchtimeshehasrecoursetofoodofastillmeanerkind,—toroots,scarceeatable,and even to the seeds of several species of grass!Worms, grubs, the agamacomuta,or“horned-frogoftheprairies,”withotherspeciesoflizards,becomehissoleresource;andin thesearchandcaptureof theseheoccupieshimselffrommorningtonight.Itisinthisemploymentthathefindsuseforthelongsapling,withthehookedenduponit,—thehookbeingusedfordraggingthelizardsoutofcleftsintherocks,withinwhich theyhavesoughtshelter. In theaccomplishmentof this,theDiggerdisplaysanadroitnessthatastonishesthetraveller:often“jerking”thereptileoutofsomedarkcrevicewithinwhichitmightbesupposedtohavefoundaretreatsecurefromallintruders.Manyothercurioushabitsmightberelatedofthisabjectandmiserableraceofhumanbeings;butperhapsenoughhasbeendetailed,tosecurethemaplaceinthelistofour“oddpeople.”

ChapterFourteen.TheGuaraons,orPalm-Dwellers.

Youngreader,ImaytakeitforgrantedthatyouhaveheardofthegreatriverOrinoco,—one of the largest rivers not only of South America, but in theworld.Byenteringatitsmouth,andascendingtoitssource,youwouldhavetomakeajourneyofaboutonethousandfivehundredmiles;butthisjourney,so far frombeing direct, or in a straight line,would carry you in a kind ofspiralcurve,—verymuchlikethefigure6,theapexofthefigurerepresentingthemouthof theriver. Inotherwords, theOrinoco, rising in theunexploredmountains of Spanish Guiana, first runs eastward; and then, having turnedgradually to every point of the compass, resumes its easterly course,continuing in this direction till it empties itsmighty flood into theAtlanticOcean.Not by one mouth, however. On the contrary, long before the Orinocoapproaches the sea, its channel separates into a great many branches (or“caños,” as they are called in the language of the country), each of which,slowlymeanderinginitsowncourse,reachesthecoastbyaseparatemouth,or

“boca.” Of these caños there are about fifty, embracing within theirramificationsa“delta”nearlyhalfaslargeasEngland!Thoughtheyhaveallbeendistinguishedbyseparatenames,onlythreeorfourofthemarenavigablebyshipsofanyconsiderablesize;and,excepttothefewpilotswhosedutyitistoconductvessels into thatmainchannelof theriver, thewholedeltaof theOrinocomayberegardedasacountrystillunexplored,andalmostunknown.Indeed,thesameremarkmightbemadeofthewholeriver,wereitnotforthemagnificent monument left by the great traveller Von Humboldt,—whosenarrative of the exploration of the Orinoco is, beyond all comparison, thefinestbookoftravelsyetgiventotheworld.Tohimarewechieflyindebtedfor our knowledge of theOrinoco; since the Spanish nation,who, formorethan three centuries, haveheldundisputedpossessionof thismighty stream,haveleftusscarcealineaboutitwortheithercreditorrecord.

It is nowmore than half a century, since the date ofHumboldt’s “PersonalNarrative;”andyet,strange tosay,duringall thatperiod,scarcean itemhasbeen added to our knowledge of the Orinoco, beyond what this scientifictravellerhadalready toldus. Indeed, there isnotmuch to say: for therehasbeenlittlechangeintheriversincethen,—eitherintheaspectofnature,ortheconditionofman.Whatchange therehasbeenpossessesratheraretrograde,thanaprogressivecharacter.Still,now,asthen,onthebanksoftheOrinoco,we behold a languid commerce,—characteristic of the decaying Spano-Americanrace,—andthedecliningeffortsofaselfishandbigotedmissionaryzeal,whoseboastedaimof “christianisingandcivilising”has endedonly inproducing a greater brutalisation. After three centuries of paternosters andbell-ringing, the red savage of the Orinoco returns to the worship of hisancestral gods,—or to no worship at all,—and for this backsliding he can,perhaps,giveasufficientreason.Pardonme,youngreader,for thisdigression.It isnotmypurposetodiscussthepolemicalrelationsofthosewhoinhabitthebanksoftheOrinoco;buttogiveyousomeaccountofaverysingularpeoplewhodwellnearitsmouth,—upon thenumerouscanos, alreadymentionedasconstituting itsdelta.Theseare the “Guaraons,”—a tribe of Indians,—usually considered as a branch oftheGreatCaribfamily,butformingacommunityamongthemselvesofsevenor eight thousand souls; and differing somuch frommost other savages intheirhabitsandmodeoflife,asfairlytoentitlethemtotheappellationofan“OddPeople.”TheOrinoco, likemanyother large rivers, is subject toaperiodical riseandfall; that is, once every year, the river swells to a great height above itsordinary level. The swelling or “flood” was for a long time supposed toproceed from the melting of snow upon the Cordilleras of the Andes,—in

whichmountainsseveralofthetributariesoftheOrinocohavetheirrise.Thishypothesis,however,hasbeenshown tobean incorrectone: since themainstreamof theOrinocodoesnotproceedfromtheAndes,nor fromanyothersnowcappedmountains;buthas itsorigin,asalreadystated, in thesierrasofGuiana.Thetruecauseofitsperiodicalrising,therefore,isthevastamountofrainwhich fallswithin the tropics; and this is itself occasionedby the sun’scourseacrossthetorridzone,whichisalsothecauseofitsbeingperiodicalor“annual.”Soexactisthetimeatwhichtheserainsfall,andproducethefloodsof theOrinoco, that the inhabitants of the river can tell,within a few days,whentherisingwillcommence,andwhenthewaterswillreachtheirlowest!The flood season very nearly corresponds to our own summer,—the risecommencinginApril,andtheriverbeingatitsmaximumheightinAugust,—while theminimum is again reached inDecember. The height towhich theOrinocoriseshasbeenvariouslyestimatedbytravellers:someallegingittobenearlyonehundredfeet;whileothersestimateittobeonlyfifty,orevenless!Thereasonofthisdiscrepancymaybe,thatthemeasurementshavebeenmadeat different points,—at each of which, the actual height to which the floodattains,maybegreaterorlessthanattheothers.Atanyoneplace,however,theriseisthesame—orverynearlyso—insuccessiveyears.Thisisprovedbyobservationsmadeat thetownofAngostura,—thelowestSpanishsettlementofanyimportanceupontheOrinoco.There,nearlyinfrontofthetown,alittlerockyislettowersupinthemiddleoftheriver;thetopofwhichisjustfiftyfeetabovethebedofthestream,whenthevolumeofwaterisatitsminimum.Asolitarytreestandsuponthepinnacleofthisrock;andeachyear,whenthewater is in full flood, the tree alone is visible,—the islet being entirelysubmerged. From this peculiar circumstance, the little islet has obtained thenameof“Orinocometer,”ormeasureroftheOrinoco.Therisehereindicatedisaboutfiftyfeet;butitdoesnotfollowfromthis,thatthroughoutitswholecoursetherivershouldannuallyrisetosogreataheight.Inrealityitdoesnot.AtAngostura,asthenameimports,theriverisnarrowedtolessthanhalfitsusualwidth,—beingthereconfinedbetweenhighbanksthatimpingeuponitschannel.Above and below, itwidens again; and, no doubt, in proportion tothiswideningwilltheannualrisebegreaterorless.Infact,atmanyplaces,thewidth of the stream is no longer that of its ordinary channel; but, on thecontrary,avast“freshet”orinundation,coveringthecountryforhundredsofmiles,—here flooding over immense marshes or grassy plains, and hidingthemaltogether,—thereflowingamongforestsoftalltrees,thetopsofwhichalone project above the tumult of waters! These inundations are peculiarlyobservable in thedeltaof theOrinoco,—whereeveryyear, in themonthsofJuly andAugust, thewhole surface of the country becomes changed into a

grandfresh-watersea: the topsof the treesalonerisingabove theflood,andproclaimingthatthereislandatthebottom.At this season the ordinary channels, or caños, would be obliterated; andnavigationthroughthembecomedifficultorimpossible,butforthetree-tops;which,afterthemannerof“buoys”andsignal-marks,servetoguidethepilotsthroughtheintricatemazesofthe“bocasdelOrinoco.”Now it is this annual inundation, and the semi-submergence of these treesundertheflood,thathasgivenorigintothepeculiarpeopleofwhomweareabouttospeak,—theGuaraons;or,perhaps,weshouldrathersay,fromthesecauseshavearisentheirstrangehabitsandmodesoflifewhichentitlethemtobeconsideredan“oddpeople.”During the period of the inundation, if you should sail up the southern orprincipal caño of the Orinoco,—known as the “boca de navios,” or “ships’mouth,”—andkeepyourfacetothenorthward,youwouldbeholdthesingularspectacle of a forest growing out of the water! In some places you wouldperceivesingletrees,withtheupperportionoftheirstraight,branchlesstrunksrisingverticallyabove thesurface,andcrownedbyaboutadozengreat fan-shaped leaves, radiating outwards from their summits. At other places, youwould see many crowded together, their huge fronds meeting, and formingcloseclumps,or“watergroves,”whosedeep-greencolourcontrastsfinelyasitflingsitsreflectionontheglisteningsurfacebelow.Wereitnight,—andyourcourseledyouthroughoneofthesmallercanosinthe northern part of the delta,—you would behold a spectacle yet moresingular, andmore difficult to be explained; a spectacle that astounded andalmost terrified the bold navigators, who first ventured to explore theseintricate coasts.—Youwould not only perceive a forest, growing out of thewater; but, high up among the tops of the trees, youwould behold blazingfires,—not the conflagrationof the trees themselves, as if the forestwere inflames,—but fires regularly built, glowing as from so many furnaces, andcastingtheirredglareupwardsuponthebroadgreenleaves,anddownwardsuponthesilverysurfaceofthewater!Ifyoushouldchancetobenearenoughtothesefires,youwouldseecookingutensilssuspendedoverthem;humanforms,both,ofmenandwomenseatedorsquattingaroundthem;otherhumanforms,flittinglikeshadowsamongthetops of the trees; and downbelow, upon the surface of thewater, a fleet ofcanoes (periaguas), fastenedwith theirmooring-ropes to the trunks.All thiswouldsurpriseyou,—asitdidtheearlynavigators,—and,verynaturally,youwould inquire what it could mean. Fires apparently suspended in the air!human beingsmoving about among the tops of the trees, talking, laughing,andgesticulating!inaword,actingjustasanyothersavageswoulddo,—forthesehumanbeingsaresavages,—amidstthetentsoftheirencampmentorthe

housesoftheirvillage.Inrealityitisavillageuponwhichyouaregazing,—avillagesuspendedintheair,—avillageoftheGuaraonIndians!Letusapproachnearer;letusstealintothiswatervillage—foritwouldnotbealwayssafetoenterit,exceptbystealth—andseehowitssingularhabitationsareconstructed,asalsoinwhatwaytheiroccupantsmanagetogettheirliving.The village under our observation is now,—at the period of inundation,—nearly a hundredmiles from shore, or fromanydry land: itwill bemonthsbeforethewaterscansubside;and,eventhen,thecountryaroundwillpartakemoreofthenatureofaquagmire,thanoffirmsoil;impassabletoanyhumanbeing,—though not to a Guaraon, as we shall presently see. It is true, thecanoes,alreadymentioned,mightenabletheirownerstoreachthefirmshoresbeyondthedelta;andsotheydoattimes;butitwouldbeavoyagetoolongandtooarduoustobemadeoften,—asforthesupplyoffoodandotherdailywants,—anditisnotforthispurposethecanoesarekept.No:theseGuaraonsvisitterrafirmaonlyatintervals;andthenforpurposesoftradewithaportionof their own and other tribeswho dwell there; but they permanently residewithintheareaoftheinundatedforests;wheretheyareindependent,notonlyofforeignaggression,butalsofortheirsupplyofallthenecessariesoflife.Inthese forests,whether floodedornot, theyprocureeverythingofwhich theystandinneed,—theytherefind,touseanold-fashionedphrase,“meat,drink,washing, and lodging.” In other words: were the inundation to continueforever,andwere theGuaraonsentirelyprohibitedfromintercoursewith thedryland,theycouldstillfindsubsistenceinthis,theirhomeuponthewaters.Whencecomestheirsubsistence?Nodoubtyouwillsaythatfishistheirfood;anddrink,ofcourse, theyhave inabundance;but thiswouldnotbe the trueexplanation.Itistruetheyeatfish,andturtle,andthefleshofthemanatee,or“fish-cow,”—sincethecapturingoftheseaquaticcreaturesisoneofthechiefoccupations of the Guaraons,—but they are ofttimes entirely without suchfood; for, it is tobeobserved, that,during theperiodof the inundations fisharenoteasilycaught,sometimesnotatall.AtthesetimestheGuaraonswouldstarve—since, like all other savages, they are improvident—were it not thatthesingularregiontheyinhabitsuppliesthemwithanotherarticleoffood,—onethatisinexhaustible.Whatisthisfood,andfromwhencederived?Itwillscarcesurpriseyoutohearthat it is the produce of the trees already mentioned; but perhaps you willdeemitsingularwhenItellyouthatthetreesofthisgreatwater-forestareallofonekind,—allof thesamespecies,—sothatherewehave theremarkablefactofasinglespeciesofvegetable,growingwithoutcareorcultivation,andsupplying all the wants of man,—his food, clothing, fuel, utensils, ropes,houses,andboats,—notevendrinkexcepted,aswillpresentlybeseen.Thenameofthiswonderfultree?“Itá,”theGuaraonscallit;thoughitismore

generallyknownas“morichi”amongtheSpanishinhabitantsoftheOrinoco;but I shall here givemy young reader an account of it, fromwhich hewilllearnsomethingmorethanitsname.Theitáisatruepalm-tree,belongingtothegenusmauritia;and,Imayremark,thatnotwithstanding the resemblance in sound, thenameof thegenus isnotderived from the words “morichi,” “murichi,” or “muriti,” all of which aredifferent Indian appellations of this tree. Mauritia is simply a LatiniseddesignationborrowedfromthenameofPrinceMauriceofNassau, inwhosehonour the genus was named. The resemblance, therefore, is merelyaccidental.Imayadd,too,thattherearemanyspeciesofmauritiagrowingindifferent parts of tropicalAmerica,—some of thempalms of large size, andtoweringheight,withstraight,smoothtrunks;whileothersareonlytinylittletrees, scarce taller than a man, and with their trunks thickly covered withconicalprotuberancesorspines.Someof them,moreover,affectahigh,drysoil,beyondthereachoffloods;while others do not prosper, except on tracts habituallymarshy, or annuallycovered with inundations. Of these latter, the itá is perhaps the mostconspicuous; sincewehavealready stated, that fornearly sixmonthsof theyearitgrowsliterallyoutofthewater.Like all its congeners, the itá is a “fan-palm;” that is, its leaves, instead ofbeingpinnatelydivided,asinmostspeciesofpalms,oraltogetherentire,asinsome few, radiate from the midrib of the leaf-stalk, into a broad palmatedshape, bearing considerable resemblance to a fan when opened to its fullextent. At the tips these leaflets droop slightly, but at that end where theyspring out of the midrib, they are stiff and rigid. The petiole, or leaf-stalkitself, is long, straight, and thick; and where it clasps the stem or trunk, isswollenouttoafootinwidth,hollowed,orconcaveontheupperside.Afull-grownleaf,withitspetiole,isawonderfulobjecttolookupon.Thestalkisasolidbeamfulltwelvefeetinlength,andtheleafhasadiameterofnearlyasmuch.Leafandstalktogethermakeaload,justasmuchasonemancancarryuponhisshoulders!Setaboutadozenoftheseenormousleavesonthesummitofatallcylindricalcolumnoffivefeetincircumference,andaboutonehundredinheight,—placethemwiththeirstalksclaspingorsheathingitstop,—sothatthespreadingfanswillpointineverydirectionoutwards,incliningslightlyupwards;dothis,andyouwillhavethegreatmorichipalm.Perhaps,youmayseethetrunkswollenatitsmiddleornearthetop,—sothatitslowerpartisthinnerthanabove,—butmoreoftenthehugestemisaperfectcylinder.Perhapsyoumayseeseveraloftheleavesdroopingdownward,asifthreateningtofallfromthetree;youmayeven see themupon the groundwhere theyhave fallen, and a splendid ruinthey appear.Youmay see again rising upward out of the very centre of the

crownof foliage, a straight, thick-pointed column.This is the young leaf inprocessofdevelopment,—itstenderleafletsyetunopened,andcloselyclaspedtogether.Butthefervidtropicalsunsoonproducesexpansion;andanewfantakes theplaceof theone that has served its timeand fallen to the earth,—theretodecay,ortobesweptoffbythefloodofwaters.Stillmoremaybenoticed,whileregardingthisnoblepalm.Outofthatpartofthetrunk,—whereitisembracedbythesheathingbasesofthepetioles,—atacertainseasonoftheyear,alargespathewillbeseentoprotrudeitself,untilithasattaineda lengthofseveral feet.Thisspathe isabract-likesheath,ofanimperfect tubular form. It bursts open; and then appears the huge spadix offlowers,ofawhitish-greencolour,arrangedalongtheflower-stalkinrows,—pinnately.Itwillbeobserved,moreover,thatthesespadicesaredifferentupondifferenttrees;foritmustberememberedthatthemauritiapalmisdiaecious,—thatis,havingthefemaleflowersononetree,andthemaleorstaminiferousflowersuponanother.Aftertheformerhaveglowedforatimeintheheatofthe sun, and received the fertilising pollenwafted to them by the breeze,—carried by bee or bird, or transported by some unknown and mysteriousagencyofnature,—thefruitstakeformandripen.These,whenfullyripe,haveattainedtothesizeofasmallapple,andareofaverysimilarform.Theyarecovered with small brown, smooth scales,—giving them somewhat theappearanceoffir-cones,except that theyareroundish insteadofbeingcone-shaped.Underneath the scales there is a thinnish layerofpulp, and then thestoneornut.Asinglespadixwillcarrycarryseveralhundreds—thousands,Imightsay—ofthesenuts;andthewholebunchisaloadequaltothestrengthoftwoordinarymen!Such is the itá palm. Now for its uses,—the uses to which it is put by theGuaraons.WhentheGuaraonwishestobuildhimselfahabitation,hedoesnotbeginbydiggingafoundationintheearth.Inthespongysoilonwhichhestands,thatwouldbeabsurd.Atafewinchesbelowthesurfacehewouldreachwater;andhemightdigtoavastdepthwithoutfindingfirmground.Buthehasnoideaoflayingafoundationupontheground,orofbuildingahousethere.Heknowsthat in a few weeks the river will be rising; and would overtop his roof,however high hemightmake it. His foundation, therefore, instead of beinglaidintheground,isplacedfaraboveit,—justsofar,thatwhentheinundationisatitsheightthefloorofhisdwellingwillbeafootortwoaboveit.Hedoesnottakethisheightfromguesswork.Thatwouldbeaperilousspeculation.Heisguidedbycertainmarksuponthetrunksofpalm-trees,—notcheswhichhehashimselfmadeontheprecedingyear,orthenaturalwatermark,whichheisable to distinguish by certain appearances on the trees. This point oncedetermined,heproceedstothebuildingofhishouse.

A few trunks are selected, cut down, and then split into beamsof sufficientlength.Fourfinetrees,standinginaquadrangle,havealreadybeenselectedtoformthecorner-posts.Ineachofthese,justabovethewatermark,iscutadeepnotchwithahorizontalbasetoserveasarestforthecross-beamsthataretoformthefoundationofthestructure.Intothesenotchesthebeamsarehoisted,—bymeansofropes,—andtheresecurelytied.Toreachthepointwheretheplatform is to be erected—sometimes a very high elevation—ladders arenecessary;andtheseareofnativemanufacture,—beingsimplythetrunkofapalm-tree,withnotchescutinitforthetoesoftheclimber.Theseafterwardsserve as a means of ascending and descending to the surface of the water,during the period of its rise and fall. Themain timbers having been firmlysecuredintheirplaces,cross-beamsarelaiduponthem,thelatterbeingeitherpiecesofthesplittrunks,or,whatisusuallyeasiertoobtain,thepetiolesofthegreat leaves,—eachofwhich,asalreadystated,formsof itselfa largebeam,twelvefeetinlengthandfromsixtotwelvesinchesinbreadth.Thesearenextsecuredatbothendsbyropesofthepalmfibre.Next comes a layer of palm-leaves, the strong, tough leaflets servingadmirably as laths to uphold the coating ofmud,which is laid thickly overthem.Themudisobtainedfrombelow,withoutdifficulty,andinanyquantityrequired;andwhentrowelledsmooth,anddry,—whichitsoonbecomesunderthe hot sun,—constitutes an excellent floor, where a fire may be kindledwithoutdangerofburningeitherthelathsorjoistsunderneath.AsyettheGuaraonhascompletedonlythefloorofhisdwelling,butthatishisprincipallabour.Hecaresnotforwalls,—neithersidesnorgables.Thereisnocold, frostyweather to chill him in his tropical home,—no snow to be keptout.The rainalone,usually falling inaverticaldirection,has tobeguardedagainst; and from this he secures himself by a second platform of lightermaterials,coveredwithmats,whichhehasalreadywovenforthepurpose,andwith palm-leaflets, so placed as to cast off the heaviest shower. This alsosheltershimagainsttheburningsun,—anenemywhichhedreadsevenmorethantherain.Hishouseisnowfinished;and,withtheexceptionofthemudfloor,isallofitá palm,—beams, cross-timbers, laths, ropes, and mats. The ropes he hasobtained by stripping off the epidermis of the full-grown leaflets, and thentwistingitintocordageofanythicknessrequired.Forthispurposeitisequaltohemp.Thematshehasmadefromthesamematerial,—andwelldoeshe,orrather his wife—for this is usually the work of the females—know how toplaitandweavethem.Havingcompletedthebuildingofhisaerialdwelling,theGuaraonwouldeat.Hehasfish,whichhasbeencaughtintheneighbouringcaño,—perhapsturtle,—perhaps the fleshof themanatee,or thealligator,—forhispalate isbyno

meansofadelicate fineness,andwillnot refusea steak from the tailof theAmerican crocodile. Butwhen the flood time is on, fish become scarce, orcannotbehadatall,—nomorecanturtles,orsea-cows,oralligators.Besides,scarceorplenty,somethingelse iswanted tovary thediet.Bread iswanted;andforthistheGuaraonhasnotfartogo.Theitáagainbefriendshim,forhefinds,uponsplittingopenitstrunk,alargedepositofmedullarypithorfecula;which,when submitted to theprocessof bruisingor grating, and afterwardsstirredinwater,formsasedimentatthebottomofthevessel,asubstancenotonlyeatable,but equal in excellence to thewell-knownproduceof the sagopalm.This farinaceouspith, formed intocakesand roastedover the fire,—the fuelbeingsuppliedbyleavesandleaf-stalks,—constitutestheyuruma,—thedailybreadoftheGuaraon.Theyuruma,orratherthesagooutofwhichitismade,isnotobtainableatalltimes.It isthemalepalmwhichproducesit;anditmustbeextractedjustasthe tree is about to expand its spadix of flowers. The same curious fact isobservedwithregardtothemaguey,orgreatAmericanaloe,whichproducesthedrinkcalled“pulque.”Toprocurethesapinanyconsiderablequantity,themaguey must be tapped just on that day when the flower-stalk is about toshootupwardfromamongtheleaves.TheGuaraon,havingeatenhisyuruma,woulddrink.Doeshehaverecoursetothewaterwhich flows in abundancebeneathhis dwelling?No.Onordinaryoccasions he may quench his thirst in that way; but he wishes for somebeveragemorecheering.Again the itáyields itwithoutstint,andevengiveshimachoice.Hemaytapthetrunk,anddrawforththesap;which,afterbeingsubmitted toaprocessoffermentation,becomesawine,—“murichiwine,”abeveragewhich,iftheGuaraonbesoinclined,anddrinktoexcess,willmakehim“asdrunkasalord!”But he may indulge in a less dangerous, and more delicate drink, alsofurnishedbyhisfavouriteitá.Thisheobtainsbyflingingafewofthenutsintoavesselofwater,andleavingthemawhiletoferment;thenbeatingthemwithapestle,until thescalesandpulparedetached;and,lastly,passingthewaterthroughasieveofpalmfibre.Thisdone,thedrinkisreadytobequaffed.Forall these purposes tools and utensils are required, but the itá also furnishesthem.Thetrunkcanbescoopedoutintodishes;orcutintospoons,ladles,andtrenchers.The flower “spathes” alsogiveshimcups and saucers. Iron tools,suchashatchetsandknives,hehasobtainedfromcommercewithEuropeans;but,beforetheirarrivalintheNewWorld,theGuaraonhadhishatchetofflint,andhisknife-bladeofobsidian;andevennow,ifnecessary,hecouldmanagewithoutmetalofanykind.The bow and arrows which he uses are obtained from the tough, sinewy

petiole of the leaf; so is the harpoon spear with which he strikes the greatmanatee,theporpoise,andthealligator;thecanoe,lightascork,whichcarrieshimthroughtheintricatechannelsofthedelta,isthehollowtrunkofamorichipalm.Hisnetsandlines,andtheclothwhichhewearsaroundhisloins,areallplaitedorwovenfromtheyoungleafletsbeforetheyhaveexpandedintothefan-likeleaf.Likeotherbeings,theGuaraonmustattimessleep.Wheredoeshestretchhisbody,—onthefloor?—onamat?No.Hehasalreadyprovidedhimselfwithamoreluxuriouscouch,—the“rede,”orhammock,whichhesuspendsbetweentwotrees;andinthishereclines,notonlyduringthenight,butbyday,whenthe sun is too hot to admit of violent exertion. His wife has woven thehammockmostingeniously.Shehascutoffthecolumnofyoungleaves,thatprojectsabovethecrownofthemorichi.Thisshehasshaken,untilthetenderleafletsbecomedetachedfromeachotherandfallapart.Eachshenowstripsof itsoutercovering,—a thin, ribbon-likepellicleofapale-yellowcolour,—which shrivels up almost like a thread. These she ties into bundles, leavingthem to dry awhile; afterwhich she spins them into strings, or, if need be,twists them into larger cords. She then places two horizontal rods or polesaboutsixfeetapart,anddoublesthestringoverthemsomefortyorfiftytimes.Thisconstitutesthewoof;andthewarpisobtainedbycrossstringstwistedortied toeachof the longitudinalones,at intervalsofsevenoreight inches.Astrongcord,madefromtheepidermisofthefull-grownleaves,isnowpassedthroughtheloopofallthestrings,drawntogetheratbothends,andthepolesare thenpulledout.Thehammock,beingfinishedandhungupbetweentwotrees,provides thenakedIndianwithacouch,uponwhichhemayreposeasluxuriantlyasamonarchonhisbedofdown.Thus, then,doesa single treefurnish everything which man, in his primitive simplicity, may require. Nowonderthattheenthusiasticmissionarieshavegiventothemorichipalmthedesignationof“arboldevida”(treeoflife).It may be asked why does the Guaraon live in such a strange fashion,—especiallywhen on all sides around him there are vast tracts of terra firmauponwhich hemightmake his dwelling, andwhere he could,with far lessdifficulty, procure all the necessaries, andmanyof the luxuries of life?Thequestion is easily answered; and this answer will be best given by askingothers in, return. Why do the Esquimaux and Laplanders cling to theirinhospitable home upon the icy coasts of theArctic Sea?Why do tribes ofmentaketothecold,barrenmountains,anddwellthere,withinsightoflovelyand fertile plains?Whydoothers betake themselves to the arid steppes anddrearyrecessesofthedesert?NodoubttheGuaraon,bypowerfulenemiesforcedfromhisaboriginalhomeupon the firm soil, first sought refuge in the marshy flats where we now

encounterhim: therehe foundsecurity frompursuit andoppression; there—evenattheexpenseofotherluxuries—hewasenabledtoenjoythesweetestoffill,—theluxuryofliberty.Whatwasonlyanecessityatfirst,soonbecameahabit;andthathabitisnowanessentialpartofhisnature.Indeed,itisnotsolongsincethenecessityitselfhasbeenremoved.Evenat thepresenthour, theGuaraonwouldnotbesecure,werehe tostraytoofarfromhisshelteringmarshes,—for,sadthoughitbetosayso,thepoorIndian, when beyond the protection of his tribe, is in many parts of SouthAmericastilltreatedasaslave.Inthedeltahefeelssecure.Noslave-hunter,—no enemy can follow him there. Even the foeman of his own race cannotcompete with him in crossing the wide flats of spongy quagmire,—overwhich,fromlonghabit,heisenabledtoglidewiththelightnessandfleetnessof a bird.During the season of overflow, orwhen thewaters have fallen totheirlowest,heisequallysecurefromaggressionorpursuit;and,nodoubt,inspiteofmissionaryzeal,—inspiteofthegeneralprogressofcivilisation,—inthissavagesecurityhewilllongremain.

ChapterFifteen.TheLaplanders.

Oneoftheoldest“odd”peoplewithwhichweareacquaintedaretheLapsorLaplanders. For many centuries the more civilised nations of Europe havelistenedtostrangeaccounts,toldbytravellersofthesestrangepeople;manyoftheseaccountsbeingexaggerated,andothers totallyuntrue.Someof theoldtravellers,beingmisledbythedeer-skindresseswornbytheLaps,believed,orendeavouredtomakeothersbelieve,thattheywerebornwithhairyskinslikewildbeasts;andonetravellerrepresentedthattheyhadonlyasingleeye,andthatinthemiddleofthebreast!Thisveryabsurdconceptionaboutaone-eyedpeoplegainedcredit,evensolateasthetimeofSirWalterRaleigh,—withthisdifference, that the locality of these gentrywith the odd “optic”was SouthAmericainsteadofNorthernEurope.InthecaseofthepoorLaplander,not theslightestexaggerationisneededtorender him an interesting study, either to the student of ethnology, or to themerelycuriousreader.Heneedsneithertheoddeyenorthehairypelt.Inhispersonalappearance,dress,dwelling,modeofoccupation,andsubsistence,heissodifferentfromalmosteveryothertribeornationofpeople,astofurnishamplematterforamonographatonceuniqueandamusing.I shallnotstay to inquirewhenceoriginated thisoddspecimenofhumanity.

Suchspeculationsaremoresuitedtothoseso-calledlearnedethnologists,who,resemblingtheanatomistsinotherbranchesofnaturalhistory,delighttodealin themerepedantryof science,—who, from themerecoincidenceof a fewwords,canprovethattwopeoplesutterlyunlikehavesprungfromacommonsource:preciselyasMonsieurCuvier,bytheexaminationofasingletooth,hasprovedthatarabbitwasarhinoceros!I shallnot, therefore,waste time in thisway, inhuntingup theoriginof themiserableLaplander;nordoesitmattermuchwherehesprangfrom.Heeithercamefromsomewhereelse,orwascreatedinLapland,—oneofthetwo;andIdefy all thephilosophers in creation to saywhich: since there is no accountextant of when he first arrived in that cold northern land,—not a word tocontradict the idea of his having been there since the first creation of thehumanrace.Wefindhimtherenow;andthatisallthatwehavetodowithhisoriginatpresent.Werewetospeculate,as towhat racesarekindred tohim,andtowhichhebearsthegreatestresemblance,weshouldsaythathewasofeither the sameor similaroriginwith theEsquimauxofNorthAmerica, theGreenlandersofGreenland,andtheSamoeids,Tuski,andothertribesdwellingalongthenorthernshoresofAsia.Amongallthesenationsoflittlemen,thereisaverygreatsimilarity,bothinpersonalappearanceandhabitsoflife;butitwould not be safe to say that they all came from one common stock. Theresemblancesmaybetheresultofasimilarityinthecircumstances,bywhichtheyaresurrounded.Asforlanguage,—somuchrelieduponbythescientificethnologist,—therecouldscarcebeamoreunreliableguide.Theblacknegroof Carolina, the fair blue-eyed Saxon, and the red-skinned, red-polledHibernian,allspeakonelanguage; thedescendantsofall three, thousandsofyears hence, will speak the same,—perhapswhen they arewidely scatteredapart,—and the superficial philosopher of those future timeswill, no doubt,ascribetothemallonecommonorigin!Language, of itself, is noproofof thenatural affinitiesof twopeoples. It isevidence of their once having been in juxtaposition,—not much more. Ofcoursewhenotherpointscorrespond,similarityofspeechbecomesavaluablecorroboration. It is not our purpose, then, to inquire whence the Laplandercame,—onlywhereheisnow,andwhatheisnow.Whereishenow?IfyoutakeyourmapofEurope,anddrawalinefromtheGulfofKandalax,intheWhiteSea, to themiddleof theLoffoden Isles,on theNorwegiancoast,you will cut off the country which is now properly called Lapland. Thecountry at present inhabited by the people called Laplanders,will be foundnorthofthisline.Itisaboundarymoreimaginarythanreal:forintruththereisnopoliticaldivisionknownasLapland,norhastherebeenforhundredsofyears. It is said there once was a kingdom of Lapland, and a nation ofLaplanders; but there is no proof that either one or the other ever existed.

Therewasapeculiarpeople,whomwenowstyleLaplanders,scatteredoverthewholenorthernpartof theScandinavianpeninsula,andwanderingas farsouthastheshoresoftheGulfofBothnia;but,thatthispeoplehadeveranygeneralcompact,orunion,deservingthenameofgovernmentornation,thereis no proof.There is no evidence that they ever enjoyed a higher degree ofcivilisationthantheydoatpresent;andthatisnotoneiotahigherthanexistsamong the Esquimaux of North America,—notwithstanding the advantagewhichtheLaplanderhasinthedomesticationofaruminatingquadrupedandaknowledgeoftheChristianreligion.ThetractofcountrywhichIhaveaboveassignedtothemodernLaplander,istoberegardedratherasmeaningthatportionofNorthernEurope,whichcanscarcelybesaidtobeintheoccupationofanyotherpeople.TrueLaplandersmaybefounddwelling,orratherwandering,muchtothesouthofthelinehereindicated,—almost to theheadof theBothnianGulf,—but in these southerndistricts,henolongerhastherangecleartohimself.TheFinn—acreatureofaverydifferentkind—heremeetshim;constantlyencroachingasacolonistonthatterritorywhichoncebelongedtotheLaplanderalone.Itbecomesnecessarytosayafewwordsaboutthenamesweareusing:sinceaperfectchaosofconfusionhasarisenamongtravellersandwriters,inrelationtothenomenclatureofthesetwopeople,—theFinnsandtheLaplanders.In the first place, then, there is in realityno such apeople asLaplanders inNorthernEurope.Thewordisameregeographicalinvention,or“synonyme,”if you wish. The people to whom we apply the name, call themselves“Samlash.”TheDanes andNorwegians term them“Finns;” and theSwedesandRussians style them“Laps.”ThepeoplewhomweknowasFinns—andwhoarenotLaplandersinanysense—havereceivedtheappellationofFinnserroneously. These Finns have for a long period been making progress, ascolonists,intheterritoryonceoccupiedbythetrueFinns,orLaplanders;andhavenothing in commonwith these lastpeople.Theyare agriculturists, anddwell in fixed settlements; not pastoral and nomadic, as the Laplanderseminently are. Besides, there are many other essential points of differencebetween the two,—in mind,—in personal appearance, in habits, in almosteverything.Iamparticularuponthispoint,—becausethewrongapplicationofthe name Finns, to this last-mentioned race, has ledwriters into aworld oferror;anddescriptionsgivenofthemandtheirhabitshavebeenappliedtothepeoplewhoarethesubjectsofthepresentchapter,—leading,ofcourse,tothemosterroneousconclusions.ItwouldbelikeexhibitingthepictureofaCaffreasthelikenessofaHottentotorBushman!The Finns, as geography now designates them,—and which also assigns tothemacountrycalledFinland,—are, therefore,notFinnsatall.Where, theyarefoundintheoldLaplandterritoryascolonists,theyarecalledQüans;and

thisnameisgiventhemalikebyRussians,Swedes,Danes,andNorwegians.ToreturntoourLaplanders,whoarethetrueFinns.Ihavesaidthattheyarecalledbydifferentnames;bytheDanesandNorwegians“Finns,”andbytheRussiansandSwedessimply“Laps.”Noknownmeaningisattachedtoeithername;norcanitbediscoveredatwhatperiodeithercameintouse.Enoughtoknow that theseare thedesignationsbywhich theyarenowknown to thosefournationswhohavehadchieflytodealwiththem.Since thesepeoplehave received somanyappellations,—andespeciallyonethat leads tomuch confusion,—perhaps it is better, for geography’s sake, toaccepttheerror:toleavethenewFinnstotheirusurpedtitle,andtogivetheoldFinnsthatdistinctivenamebywhichtheyarebestknowntotheworld,vizLaplanders. So long as it is remembered, that this ismerely a geographicaltitle,noharmcanresultfromemployingit;andshouldthewordFinnsoccurhereafter, it is to be considered as meaning not the Finns of NorwegianFinmark,buttheQüansofFinland,ontheGulfofBothnia.IhavespokenofthecountryoftheLaplanders,asiftheyhadacountry.Theyhavenot.There isa territory inwhich theydwell;but it isnot theirs.Long,longago the lordshipof thesoilwas taken from them;anddividedbetweenthreepowerfulneighbours.Russiatookherlargestslicefromtheeast;Swedenfell in for its southern part; andNorway claimed that northern andwesternportion, lyingalong theAtlanticandArcticOceans.ThisafterwardsbecamethepropertyofDenmark:whenNorwayherselfceasedtobeindependent.Thecountry,therefore,whichIhavedefinedasLapland,inmoderntimesissostyled,merelybecauseitisalmostexclusivelyoccupiedbythesepeople:itnotbeingworththewhileoftheirDanish,Swedish,orRussianmasterstocoloniseit. All three, however, claim their share of it,—have their regular boundarylines,—andeachmulcts themiserableLaplanderof an annual tribute, in theshape of a small poll-tax. Each, too, has forced his own peculiar views ofChristianityonthosewithinhisborders,—theRussianhasshapedtheLapintoaGreekChristian;while,underSwedishinfluence,heisadiscipleofMartinLuther.Hisfaith,however,isnotveryrational,onewayortheother;and,inout-of-the-waycornersofhischaoticcountry,hestilladheres tosomeofhisoldmythiccustomsofsorceryandwitchcraft:inotherwords,heisa“pagan.”Before proceeding to describe the Laplander, either personally orintellectually, aword about the country inwhich he dwells. I have called itachaoticland.Ithasbeendescribedasa“hugecongeriesoffrightfulrocksandstupendous mountains, with many pleasant valleys, watered by an infinitenumberofrivulets,thatrunintotheriversandlakes.”Someofthelakesareoflarge extent, containing a countless numberof islands; one alone—theLakeEnaro—having so many, that it has been said no Laplander has lived longenoughtovisiteachparticularisland.Thereisagreatvarietyinthesurfaceof

theland.Insomepartsofthecountrytheeyerestsonlyonpeaksandridgesofbleak,barrenmountains,—onsummitscoveredwithnever-meltingsnow,—onbold, rocky cliffs or wooded slopes, where only the firs and birches canflourish. Inotherparts there aredusky forestsofpines, intersectedhere andthere by widemorasses or bogs. Elsewhere, are extensive tracts of treelesschampaign,coveredwiththewhitereindeer-lichen,asiftheywereunderafallofsnow!Duringsummertherearemanygreenandbeautifulspots,whereeventheroseshedsitsfragrancearound,andmanyberry-bearingbushesblossombrightly;but the summer is of short duration, and in those parts where it is mostattractive, the pest of gnats, mosquitoes, and gadflies, renders the countryuninhabitable to the Laplander.We shall see presently, that, in the summermonths,hefleesfromsuchlowlandscenes,asfromapestilence;andbetakeshimselfandhisherdtothebleak,barrenmountains.HavinggiventhisshortsketchofthecountryinhabitedbytheLaplander,weproceedtoadescriptionofhimself.Heisshort,—notmorethanfivefeetfiveinches,averageheight,—squatandstoutish,—rarelycorpulent,—thoughthereisadifferenceinalltheserespects,between those who inhabit different parts of the country. The Laps ofNorwegianLaplandaretallerthanthoseintheRussianandSwedishterritory.Hisfeaturesaresmall,hiseyeselongated,orslit-like,asamongtheMongoliantribes; his cheek-bones prominent,—hismouth large andwide, and his chinsharply-pointed. His hair is black, or sometimes brownish; though amongsometribessettledalongthecoastslighthairisnotuncommon.Itisprobablethat thismay have originated in some admixture of bloodwithNorwegian,Russian,andotherfishermenwhofrequentthesecoasts.The Laplander has little or no beard; and in this respect he resembles theGreenlander and Esquimaux. His body is ill-made, bony andmuscular, andstronger than would be expected from his pigmy stature. He is active, andcapable of enduring extreme fatigue andprivation; though it is amistake tosuppose that he is the agile creature he has been represented,—this errorarisingnodoubtfromthesurprisingspeedwithwhichhabithasenabledhimto skate over the frozen snow; and which, to a person unused to it, wouldappear to prove an extraordinary degree of agility. The hands and feet aresmall,—anotherpointincommonwiththeEsquimaux.TheLaplander’svoiceisfarfrombeingamanlyone.Onthecontrary,itisofsmallcompass,weak,and of a squeaking tone. The complexion of the Laplander is generallyregarded asdark. Its natural hue is perhaps notmuchdarker than that of theNorwegian.Certainlynotdarker thanmanyPortugueseorSpaniards;but,asheisseen,heappearsasswarthasanIndian.This,however,arisesfromthelong and almost constant exposure to smoke: in the midst of which the

miserablecreaturespendsmorethanhalfofhistime.Itmay againbeobserved, that thosedwellingon the seashore areof lightercomplexion;butperhapsthatisalsoduetoaforeignadmixture.WehavegivenapictureoftheLaplander’sperson;nowawordortwoabouthismind.Both his intellectual and moral man are peculiar,—even more so than hisphysical,—differing essentially from that of all the other nationalities withwhich he is brought in contact. He is cold-hearted, selfish, andmorose. Tolove he is almost a stranger; andwhen such a feeling does existwithin hisbosom, it is ratherasaspark thanapassion.Hiscourtshipandmarriagearepuremattersof business,—rarelyhaving anyothermotive than self-interest.Onewomanwilldoforhiswifewifeaswellasanother;andbetter,ifshebericherbyhalfadozenreindeer!Hospitalityisavirtueequallyunknowntohim.Hewishestoseenostranger;andevenwonderswhyastrangershouldstrayintohiswild,bleakcountry.Heiseversuspiciousofthetravellerthroughhisland;unlessthattravellerchancetocomeintheguiseofaRussianorNorwegianmerchant,toexchangestrongbrandyforhisreindeer-skins,orthefursoftheanimalshemayhavetrapped.Inhisdealingsheexhibitsa sufficientdegreeofcunning,—muchmore thanmightbeexpectedfromthelowstandardofhisintellect;andhewilltakenopaper-money or any kind of “scrip” in exchange.This caution, however, hehas acquired from a terrible experience,which he once had in dealingwithpaper-money;andheisdeterminedthatthefollyshallneveragainberepeated.Eveninhisout-of-the-waycorneroftheglobe,therewasatonetimeabankspeculation of the “Anglo-Bengalee” character, of which the poor Lap wasmadeanespecialvictim.He has no courage whatever. He will not resist oppression. The stranger—Russ or Norwegian—may strike, kick, or cuff him,—he will not return theblow.Belikehewillburstintotears!Andyet,undersomecircumstances,heshowsafeelingakintocourage.Heiscool in moments of danger from the elements, or when opposed to fierceanimals,asthewolforthebear.Heisalsocapableofenduringfatiguetoanextreme degree; and it is known historically that he was once warlike,—atleastmuchmoresothanatpresent.Now,thereisnotadropofwarriorbloodinhisveins.Onthecontrary,heis timidandpacific,andrarelyquarrels.Hecarries constantly upon his person a long ugly knife, of Norwegianmanufacture; but he has never been known to draw it,—never known tocommitmurderwithit.Thesearecertainlyvirtues;butitistobefearedthatwithhimtheyowetheirorigin to timidity and the dread of consequences. Now and then he has a

quarrel with one of his fellows; but the knife is never used; and the“punishment” consists in giving and receiving various kicks, scratches,pullingsofthehairandears:genuineblows,however,arenotattempted,andthelongknifeneverleavesitssheath.Intheoldentimehewasagreatbelieverinwitches;infact,notedforhisfaithinsorcery.Christianity,suchasitis,hasdonemuchtoeradicatethisbelief;butheisstilltroubledwithahostofsuperstitions.Of filial and parental affection his stock is but scanty. The son shifts forhimself,assoonasheisabletodoso;andbutlittleanxietyisexhibitedabouthimafterwards.Thedaughtergoestothehighestbidder,—tohimwhoismostliberalinpresentsofbrandytotheparent.Jealousyislittleknown.Howcoulditbefelt,wherethereisnolove?OneoftheworstvicesoftheLaplanderishisfondnessfordrink,—amountingalmosttoapassion.Itisoneofhiscostliest,too:sinceheoftenconsumestheproduceofhisindustryinitsindulgence.Hisfavouritebeverageisstrong,badbrandy,—astaplearticlekeptbythetraders,toexchangeforthecommoditieswhichthecountryaffords.Asthesemencare littlefor theresult,andhaveafargreater influenceover theLaplander thaneither thegovernmentofficials,or the lazy, timeservingmissionaries, it isnotprobable that temperancewilleverbe introducedamongthesewretchedpeople.Fortunately,only thecoastLaplandersareatall timessubject to this influence.Themountainpeopleorthosewho dwellmost of their time in the interior, are too distant from the“tap”tobesogrievouslyaffectedbyit.Itisonlyontheirshortannualvisitstothemerchantstationson thecoast, that theyfallextensively into the jawsofthisdegradingvice.ThedressoftheLaplanderisnowtobedescribed.Themenwearon theirheads tall caps,of aconical form,usuallyofaclothcalledwadmal,orsomespeciesofkerseyfurnishedbythemerchants.Thiscaphasatasselattop,andaroundthebottomisturnedupseveralinches,—whereitisstrengthenedbyabandofreindeer-skin,orthefuroftheotter.Thecoatisaloosegarmentorfrock:madeoftheskinofthereindeer,withthehairysideout,andfastenedaroundthewaistwithabroadleathernbelt.Inthisbelt isstuckthepointedknife,andapouchor two,forpipe, tobacco,andspoon,arealsosuspendedfromit.Breechesofreindeer-skin—thehideoftheyoungfawns—reachtotheankles;andbuskins,orratherstockings,ofthesamematerialcoverthefeet.Thesearegarteredovertheendsofthebreeches,in such a way that no snow can get in; and since there is neither shirt nordrawersworn,wehavegiveneveryarticleofaLaplander’sdress.No.Thereare thegloves,ormittens,whichmustnotbe forgotten,—as theyareoneofthethingsmostessentialtohiscomfort.Thesearealsotheuniversaldeer-hide.

SimpleasisthisdressoftheLaplandmen,itisnotmoresimplethanthatoftheLaplandwomen, sincebothoneand theotherareexactlyalike.Aslightdifference isobservable in theshapeof thebonnet;but for therest, the ladywears thedeer-skin frock, thebreeches, andboots,—and likeher liege lord,shescornstoincludelineninherwardrobe.Thisplaindress,however,istheeveryday winter costume. The summer one, and especially upon grandoccasions,issomewhatdifferent,andaltogethergayer.Theshapeismuchthesame;butthetunicorfrockisofcloth,sometimesplain,coarsewadmal;butinthecaseof thericherproprietors,offinecolouredcloth,—evenscarletbeingsometimes worn. No matter what the quality of the cloth, however, thetrimmingsarealwaysof rich,bright-colouredstuffs;andconsistofbandsorcordsaroundtheskirt,sleeves,andcollar,elaboratelystitchedbythefemales,—whoare inallcases the tailors.The leathernbelt,wornwith thisdress, isloadedwithornaments,—little square and triangularplatesofbrassorwhitemetal, and often of heavy, solid silver. The belt is an esteemed article,—asmuchsoashiswampumtoaNorth-Americansavage,—anditrequiresalargesumtotemptaLaplandertopartwiththepreciousequipment.Afinercapisalso worn, on these summer and holiday occasions. Not unfrequently,however,theLaplander—especiallythemountainLap—stickstohisdeer-skincoat,thepaesk,throughallweathers,andthroughoutallseasons,—whenitistoohotsimplytakingoffthebelt,andleavingtheflapslooseandopen.Incoldweather, and especially when riding in his sledge, an additional garment isworn.Thisisafur“tippet,”whichcovershisshouldersdowntotheelbows.Itismadefromtheshaggyskinofthebrownbear,—withtheclawsleftonandhangingdowninfrontofthebreast.Before proceeding to describe the mode of life and occupation of theLaplander,itisnecessarytostatethatallofthepeopleknownasLaplanders,are not occupied alike. On the contrary, they may be separated into threedistinct classes, according to the lives which they lead; and it is absolutelynecessarytomakethisclassificationintheillustrationoftheirhabits.Theyareallalikeinraceandnationalcharacteristics,—allLaplanders,—andtheydifferbutlittleintheir—styleofdressing;but,inotherrespects,whatmightbesaidofonewouldnotbetrueoftheothertwo.Iproceed,therefore,topointoutthedistinction.Thefirsttobenoticedarethosewehavealreadymentionedunderthetitleof“Coast,”or“ShoreLaplanders.”Thenamewillgiveanideaoftheirhabitat,—as also theirmodeof life and subsistence.Theydwell along theNorwegiancoasts,roundtotheNorthCape,andevenbeyondit.Theybuildtheirgammes,or sod-thatched dwellings, in little villages around the numerous creeks and“fiords”thatintersectthisrock-boundshore.Theircallingisthatoffishermen.Theysubsistalmostentirelyuponfish;and

livebysellingtheirsurplustothemerchantsandRussiantraders.Theykeepafewsheep,sometimesapoorcow,butrarelyownthereindeer.The life theyleadisentirelydifferentfromthatoftheirkindred,whodwellhabituallyintheinterior. As it differs little from that of poor fishermen elsewhere, I shalldismissthecoastLaplanderwithoutanotherword.The secondkind ofLapwhomerits our consideration, is that known as the“WoodLaplander,”or,morecommonly,“WoodLap.”Heislessknownthaneitherof the twoothervarieties;but,asalreadystated,hediffers from themprincipally on account of his occupation.His home is to be foundupon theextensive plain country of Russian Lapland, and not near the sea. He is adwellerinthepineandfir-forests;andbuildshimarudehut,verysimilartothegammeof the coastLap; but he is inpossessionof some reindeer,—notenough,however,tosupporthim,—andheekesoutasubsistencebyfishinginthe riversand fresh-water lakesof the interior,by shooting theelkandwildreindeer, and trapping the fur-bearing animals,—the ermine, the sable, theminiver-squirrel,thebadger,glutton,foxes,andwolves.Ashiscallingischieflythatofahunterandtrapper,andthereforeverysimilarto likeoccupations inmanyotherpartsof theworld,weneednotenter intodetails of it here. For the present, therefore,wemust shelve theWood Lapalongwithhiskinsmanofthecoast.Thisbringsustothethirdclass,—the“Mountain,”or,asheisoftencalled,the“Reindeer Laplander:” since it is the possession of this animal that chieflydistinguisheshimfromtheothertwoclassesofhiscountrymen.Hismodeoflifeisaltogetherdifferentfromeither,—infact,resemblingtheirsinbut fewparticulars.True,he fishesa little, andoccasionallydoesabitofamateurhunting;butthesearemereadjunctsorpastimes.Hismainsupportishisantleredflock:itwouldbemoretruthfultocallithissolesupport.Bythereindeerlives,bythereindeerhemoves,bythereindeerhehashisbeing.Hislifeispurelypastoral;heisanomade,—awanderer.Alltheworldknowsthis;butall theworlddoesnotknowwhyhewanders.Writershaveassertedthat itwas to seeknewpasture for his flocks,—theold groundhavingbeeneatenbare.Nothingofthesort.Heleavesthefertileplains,justasthewillowsareputtingforththeirsucculentshoots,—justastherichgrassbeginstospringfresh and green,—and betakes himself to the bleak sides of the mountains.Thatdoesnotlooklikeseekingforabetterpasture.Ithasnothingtodowithit.Letusfollowhim,however,throughouthiswanderings,—throughthecircuitofasingleyear,—and,perhaps,weshallfindoutthemotivethatinductshimintotherovinghabit.First,then,tobea“ReindeerLaplander,”hemustbetheownerofonehundred

headofdeer;fewerthanthatwillbeofnouse.Ifhehaveonlyfifty,hemustsell out, and betake himself to some settlement ofQüans orNorwegians,—theretogivehisserviceforhire,—orelseturnCoastLaplanderandfisherman,—acallingwhichhedespises.Thiswouldbeasinkinginthesocialscale;but,ifhehasbeenimprudentorunfortunate,andhisflockhasgotreducedtofiftyhead,thereisnohelpforit.Ifhehaveonehundred,however,hemaymanagewithgreat economy to rubon; andkeepuphis character as a freeReindeerLap.Withthreehundredhecanlivecomfortably;betterwithfivehundred;buta thousandwould render him affluent.With fifteen hundred hewould be agrandee;andtwothousandwouldgivehimtherankofamillionaire!ThereareveryfewmillionairesinLapland,andnotmanygrandees.Proprietorsofevena thousand head are scarce; there aremorewhose herds number from threehundredtofivehundredeach.Andhere,Imayremark,thatthereisnogovernment,—notribalorganisation.Theownerofeachherdistheheadofafamily;overthemheispatriarch,buthispowerextendsnofurther.Itisnotevengreatsofar,iftherechancetobegrown-upunrulysonssharingthecommontent.I have used theword tent. That is theReindeer Laplander’s home,—winterand summer alike. Notwithstanding the severity of his clime, he builds nohouse;andevenhistentisoftheveryrudestkindknownamongtentingtribes.Itconsistsofsomebirchsaplingssetupinthesnow,benttowardseachother,and then covered over with a piece of coarse cloth,—the wadmal. This heprefers to a covering of skins; and obtains it from the Norwegian or Russtraderinexchangeforthelatter.Thetent,whenstanding,isonlysixfeethigh,andnotmuchmoreindiameter.Inthiscircumscribedspacehiswholefamily,wife, daughters, sons, often a retainer or two, and about a dozen dogs findshelter from the piercing blast,—seated, or lying beside, or on top of oneanother,higgledy-piggledy,anywaytheycan.Thereisroomfoundbesidesforalargeironorbrasscooking-pot,somedishesandbowlsofbirch,arudestonefurnace,anda fire in themiddleof the floor.Above the fire,a rack formsashelf for countless tough cheeses, pieces of reindeers’ flesh, bowls ofmilk,bladdersofdeer’sblood,andamultiplicityoflikeobjects.Thespringisjustopening;thefrosthasthawedfromthetrees,—forthewinterhome is in themidst of a forest,—the ground is bare of snow, and alreadysmilingwithacarpetofgreen,enamelledbymanybrilliantflowers.Itistime,therefore,fortheReindeerLaplandertodecampfromthespot,andseeksomeother scene less inviting to the eye.Youwill naturally inquirewhy he doesthis? andperhapsyouwill express some surprise at aman showing so littlejudgment as to take leave of the fertile plain,—just now promising to yieldhim a rich pasture for his herds,—and transport hiswhole stock to the colddeclivityofableakmountain?Yes,itisnaturalthisshouldastonishyou,—not,

however,whenyouhaveheardtheexplanation.Werehetostayinthatplain—inthatwoodwherehehaswintered—amonthlonger,hewould run the riskof losinghalfofhispreciousherd:perhaps inone season find himself reduced to the necessity of becoming aCoast Lap.Thereasonissimple,—thegreatgadfly(Aestrustarandi),withnumerousothertormentors,areabouttospringforthfromthemorass;and,assoonasthehotsun has blown them into full strength and vitality, commence theirwork ofdesolation upon the deer. In a few short days or hours their eggswould bedepositedintheskin,—eveninthenostrilsoftheantleredcreature,—theretogerminateandproducediseaseanddeath.Indeed,thetormentofbitinggnatsandotherinsectswouldofitselfmateriallyinjurethehealthandconditionoftheanimals;andifnotdriventothemountains, theywould“stampede,”andgo there of their own accord. It becomes a necessity, then, for theReindeerLaptoremovehishabitation;and,havinggatheredafewnecessaryutensils,andpackedthemonhisstoutestbucks,heisofftothemountains.He does not take the whole of his penates along with him. That would bedifficult, for the snow is now gone, and he cannot use his proper mode oftravelling,—the sledge. This he leaves behind him; as well as all otherimplements and articles of household use, which he can do without in hissummerquarters.Thecooking-pot,andafewbowlsanddishes,goalongwithhim,—alsothetent-cloth,andsomeskinsforbedding.Thesmallerarticlesaredepositedinpanniersofwicker,whichareslungoverthebacksofanumberofpack-deer;and, ifabalanceberequired, the infantLap, in its littleboat-likecradle,formstheadjustingmedium.The journey is often of immense length. Theremay be highlands near, butthesearenot totheLaplander’sliking.Nothingwillsatisfyhimbuttheboldmountain range that overlooks the sea, trending along thewholeNorwegiancoast:onlyonthedeclivitiesofthis,orononeofthethousandelevatedrockyisles that guard this extensive seaboard, does the Laplander believe that hisdeer will enjoy proper health. He has a belief, moreover, that at least onceevery year, the reindeer should drink sea-water to keep them in condition.Certain it is, that on reaching the sea, these animals rush eagerly into thewater, anddrink thebriny fluid; andyet ever after, during the same season,they refuse to taste it! It is thegeneralopinion that thesolitarydraught thustakenhastheeffectofdestroyingsuchlarvae,asmayhavealreadyformedintheirskins.This journey often costs the Laplander great fatigue and trouble. It is notuncommon for him to go two hundred miles to the Norwegian coast; foralthoughhishabitualhomemayliemuchnearertotheshoresoftheBothniangulf,itwouldnotservehispurposetotakehisflockthere.Theforestonthatsidegrowstothewater’sedge;andthegadflyisasabundantthere,asinthe

woodeddistrictsoftheinterior.On reaching his destination, the Laplander chooses his grazing-ground,sometimes on the mountains of the mainland; but he prefers one of theelevated islets so numerous along the shore. This insures him against alldanger from the flies, and also saves himmuch trouble in herding his deer.The isletmaybe twomiles from themain,oranyother land.Thatdoesnotsignify.The reindeercanswim likeducks,and theherd is soondrivenover.Thewadmal tent is then pitched; and thework of the summer begins. Thisconsists inmilking, cheese-making, and looking after theyoungdeer; and alittle fishingadds to thekeepof the family: for it isat this time that foreignsupportismostrequired.TheseasonofsummeriswiththemountainLaphisseasonofscarcity!Hedoesnotdreamofkillinghisdeeratthisseason,—thatwould be sheer waste,—nor does he drink their milk, only in very littlequantity.Itgoestothemakingofcheese,andtheowneroftheherdcontentshimselfwiththewhey.ButterisnotmadeatallbytheReindeerLap,thoughtheQüansandNorwegiansmakesome.TheLapwouldhavenouseforit,—sinceheeatsnobread,—anditwouldnotkeepsowell,noryetbesosafeanarticleofmerchandiseasthecheese.Thelatterheregardsashisstaplearticleofprofit.Hesellsittothecoast-merchant:receivinginexchangehisfavouritedram-stuff,andafewpiecesofcoarsecloth,orutensils.Themerchantisnearathand:forjustforthisverypurposeareseveralsmallportsandsettlementskeptinexistencealongtheotherwisedesertshoresofNorway.Deer-skinsanddried fish,oilsof theseal, fursandpeltsofvariouskinds,havedrawn theselittlesettlementstothecoast.Otherwisetheywouldnotbethere.Whentheheatofthesummerisover,thereindeerLaplandercommenceshisreturntohiswinterabode,—backtotheplacewhencehecame.Thegadfliesare now gone, and he can drive his deer back with safety; and just as hetravelledtothecoast,hewendshiswayhomeagain:forit is tobeobservedthatheregardsthewinterresidenceastherealhome,andthesummeroneonlyas a place of temporary sojourn.He does not look upon it, aswe at such aseason.Tohim it isnopleasant excursion: rather is it hisperiodof toil anddearth,—histightesttime.Once home again, he has nothing to do but erect hiswadmal tent and lookafter his deer,—that now find food upon their favourite lichen. It is buriedinchesdeepunderthesnow.Theycarenotforthat.Theycansoonuncoverthepasture with their broad hoofs; and their keen scent never allows them toscrapeupthesnowwithoutfindingthelichenunderneath.Uponittheythrive,andatthisseasonareinthebestconditionfortheknife.TheLaplandernowalsoenjoys life. If rich,hehas freshvenisoneveryday;butevenifonlymoderatelywelloff,he“kills”twoorthreetimesaweek.Hismodeofslaughteringisoriginal.Hestickshislong,knife-bladeintothethroat

oftheanimal,leavingittheretillthecreatureisdead!Thisprecautionhetakestopreventwaste.Werehetopullouttheblade,thebloodwouldflowandbelost. The knife acts as a stopper to the wound it has made. The blood ispreserved and carefully put away,—the bladder being used as the vessel tocontainit.Youmust not imagine that the Reindeer Lap remains all the winter in oneplace;on thecontrary,hemoves repeatedly, always takinghis tent and tent-utensilsalongwithhim.Thetentisaseasilysetupastakendown.Thegroundinallshelteredplacesis,atthisseason,coveredwithsnow.Itisonlynecessarytoshovelitoff,clearingacircularspaceaboutthesizeoftheground-planofthe tent.The snow, thus removed,producesa sortof elevated ringor snow-dykeallroundthebarespot;andintothisthetent-polesarehammered.Theyare then bent inward, tied near the tops, and the wadmal being laid on asbefore,thetentisreadyforuse.Freshbranchesofevergreenpines,andothertrees,arestrewedoverthefloor;andon topof theseare laid thedeer-skins thatserveforbeds,chairs, tables,and blankets. These,with the iron cooking-pot, a large iron or brass pail toholdmelted snow-water for drinking, and a few other utensils, are the onlyfurnitureofthedwelling.Ihavealreadystatedthatthefireisbuiltinthecentreof the tent,—on some large stones, forming a rudely-constructed hearth. Ahole in theroof is intendedforachimney;but itsdraught issobad, that thetentisalmostalwaysfilledwithacloudofbittersmoke,—sothickastorenderobjects invisible. In this atmosphere no other European, excepting a Lap,couldpossiblyexist;andtravellers,passingthroughtheLaplandcountry,haveoftenpreferredbravingthecoldfrostofthenightair,tobeinghalfsmotheredbythesmoke;andhaveconsequentlytakenshelterunderaneighbouringtree.The Laplander himself feels but little inconvenienced by the very thickestsmoke.Habit iseverything,andto thishabithashebeenusedfromhis infancy.Hiseyes,however,arenot so indifferent to theannoyance.Thesesuffer from it;andtheconsequenceisthattheeyesoftheLaplandersarealmostuniversallysoreandwatery.Thisisanotablecharacteristicoftherace.Smoke,however,isnotthesolecauseofit.TheEsquimauxequallysufferfromsoreeyes;andthese,burningoil in theirhouses insteadofwood, are seldom troubledwithsmoke.Morelikelyitisthesnow-glaretowhichtheLaplander,aswellastheEsquimaux, ismuch exposed, that brings about this copiouswateringof theeyes.TheLaplandercooksthereindeerfleshbyboiling.Alargepieceisputintothegreat familypot,andnothingaddedbutaquantityofwater. In this themeatboilsandsimmerstillitisdonetender.Theoilyfatisthenskimmedoff,andputintoaseparatevessel;andthemeatis“dished”inalargetrayorbowlof

birch-bark.Apieceisthencutoff,foreachindividualofthefamily;andhandedaroundthecircle.Itiseatenwithoutbread,andevensaltisdispensedwith.Adipinthebowlofskim-fatisalltheseasoningitgets;anditiswasheddownwiththe“liquor” inwhich ithasbeenboiled,andwhich isnothingbutgreasywater,withoutvegetablesoranyother“lining.”Ithastheflavourofthefatvenison,however;andisbynomeansill-tasted.TheangelicaflourishesinthecountryoftheLaplander,andofthisvegetablehemakesoccasionaluse,noteatingtheroots, but the stalks and leaves, usually raw and without any preparation.Perhapshe is led touse it,byaknowledgeof theantiscorbuticpropertiesoftheplant.Severalspeciesofberry-producingbushesalsofurnishhimwithanoccasionalmealof fruit.There arewild currants, the cranberry,whortle, andbilberries.Thefruitsof thesetreesdonotfall in theautumn,aswithus;butremainallwinteruponthebranches.Buriedunderthesnow,theyarepreservedinperfectcondition,until the thawof thefollowingspringoncemorebringsthemintoview. At this time they are sweet and mellow; and are gathered in largequantitiesby theLapwomen.Sometimes theyareeaten,as theycome fromthetree;butitismoreusualtomakethemintoa“plum-pudding:”thatis,theyaremixedwith a kind of curdledmilk, and stored away in bladders.Whenwanted,asliceiscutfromthemass,—includingapieceofthebladder,withinwhich they have now attained to the stiffness and consistence of a “cream-cheese.”Another great luxury of theLaplander, is the reindeer’smilk frozen into an“ice.” This is easily obtained; and the process consists simply in filling abirchenbowlwithmilk,andexposingittotheopenairduringfrost.Itissoonconverted into solid ice; and in this condition will keep perfectly sweetthroughout thewhole of thewinter.As the reindeer are nevermilked in thedepth of the winter season, the Laplander takes care, before that periodapproaches,tolayinastockofice-milk:sothathemayhaveadrinkofitatalltimes,bysimplysettingoneofhisbirchenbowlswithinreachofthefire.Heevenmakesamerchandiseof thisarticle: for the frozen reindeermilk ishighly prized by the foreign merchants; who are ready, at any time, toexchangeforthedeliciousarticleadramoftheirdevilishfire-water.It is at this season that theLaplandermoves about, both on foot and in hissledge.Henotonlytravelsfromplacetoplace,inacircuitoftwentymiles,—round the little solitary church which the Swedish missionary has built forhim,—buthemakesanoccasionaljourneytothedistantcoast.In his sledge, or even afoot, a hundredmiles are to him as nothing: for thefrozen snow enables him to perform such a distance in an incredibly shorttime.Onhis“skis,”orsnow-skateshecoulddoahundredmilesinacoupleof

days;even though thepaths ledhimoverhills,mountains, lakes,and rivers.Allarenowalike,—allconcealedunderthecommoncoveringofadeepsnow.The lakes and rivers are frozen and bridged for him; and the mountaindeclivitiesarerenderedsmoothandeasilytraversed,—eitherbythesledgeorthe“skis.”Withtheformerhewouldthinklittleofahundredmilesinasingleday;andiftheoccasionwerea“killing”one,andrelayscouldbehadupontheroute,twicethatenormousdistancehecouldeasilyaccomplish.Themode of sleigh-travelling by theReindeerLaplander, as also his snow-skimming,orskating,havebeenbothoftenandelaboratelydescribed.Ihaveonlyspaceheretopresentthemoresalientpointsofthepicture.Thissleighorsledge is termedbyhim“pulka;”buthehas threevarietiesofthis article,—two for travelling, and the third for carrying luggage.The twofirstkindsarenearlyalike;and,infact,differonlyinalittleextra“furniture,”whichoneofthemhasuponit,—thatis,acoveringoverthetop,tokeepmorecomfortable the feetand legsof the traveller. Inother respects it isonly thecommon pulk, being similar to the latter in shape, size, atelage, andeverything.TogetanideaoftheLaplander’ssledge,youmustfancyalittleboat,aboutsixfeetlong,andsixteeninchesinbreadthofbeam.Thisisthewidthatthestern,whereit isbroadest;butfromthesternitnarrowsall thewayforward,until,onreachingthestem,ithastaperedalmosttoapoint.Itssidesareexactlylikethoseofaboat;anditrestsupona“keel”ofaboutfourinchesbreadth,whichkeel is theoneandonly“runner.”Astrongboardboxesup thesternend, infrontofwhichistheseat;andtheboarditselfservestosupportthebackoftherider.His legs and feet are stretched out longitudinally; filling up the spacebetween thequarter-deckand the“forward”partof the little craft; and, thusfixed,theLaplanderisreadyfortheroad.In the best class of “pulk”—that used by theRuss andSwedish traders andtravellers—the forward part is covered with a sort of half-deck of skins orleather; but the Laplander does not often fancy this. It gives him toomuchtroubletogetoutandin;asheisoftencompelledtodotolookafterhistrainof deer. His pulk, therefore, is open from stem to stern; and his deer-skincoveringskeephislegswarmenough.Onlyonedeerisused;andthemodeofharnessingisofprimitivesimplicity.Abandofskinactsasacollarroundtheneckoftheanimal;andfromthelowestpointof thisapiecefallsdownwardsbelowtheanimal’sbreast,—striking inonthecounterlikethependantsofamartingale.Tothispieceisattachedthetrace,—thereisbutone,—which,passingbetweentheforelegs,andafterwardsthehindones, is looped intoan ironringuponthestemof thesledge.Uponthis trace,which is a strong strapof rawhideor leather, thewholedraught-power is exerted. A broad surcingle—usually of cloth, neatly stitched and

ornamented—passes round the deer’s body. Its use is to hold up the traceunderneath the belly, and prevent it from dragging the ground, or gettingamongtheanimal’sfeet.Asimilarbandofclothpassesrounditsneck,givingafineappearancetothenoblecreature.Asinglereinattachedtothelefthorn,orfixedhalter-fashionaroundthedeer’shead,isallthatisnecessarytoguideitalong;themovementsofthis,aidedbytheaccentsofitsmaster’svoice,areunderstoodbythiswell-trainedanimal.Forallthat,thedeerdoesnotalwaystravelkindly.Frequentlyhetakesafitofobstinacy or anger; and will then turn upon his trainer,—presenting hisantleredfrontinanattitudeofattack.OnsuchoccasionstheLaptakesshelterbehindhis“pulk,”raisingitinhisarms,andholdingitasashieldwherewithtodefendhimself;untilhecanpacify,orotherwisesubdue,theirritatedbuck.The tumblingof thesledge,andconsequentspillingof its load, isa thingoffrequent occurrence, owing to the narrow base upon which the vehicle issupported;buttheLaplanderthinksnothingofatriflingmishapofthisnature.Inatricethe“snow-boat”isrighted,thevoyagerinhisseatagain,andoffoverthefrozensnowwiththespeedoflightning.The reindeer can travel nearly twenty English miles an hour! This rate ofspeedhasbeenprovedandtested;andwithfreshrelaysalongtheroute,overfourhundredmilesmightbemadeinaday.Butthesamethingcouldbedonewithhorses,—thatis,uponadesperateemergency.The luggage “pulk” of the Laplander differs only from the other kinds ofsledgesinbeinglonger,broader,deeper,andconsequentlyofmorecapacitytocarry goods. It is used for transporting the skins, and other merchantablecommodities,fromtheinteriortothetradingdepotsonthecoast.Theskisorsnow-skatesrequireverylittledescription.Theyareonthesameprincipleasthesnow-shoesinuseamongtheNorth-AmericanIndians;thoughfrom these they differmaterially in construction. They aremerely two longpiecesofsmoothboard,afewinchesinbreadth,andslightlyturnedupattheends. One is full six feet,—the right one; the left is about twelve inchesshorter.Nearthemiddletheyarelashedfirmlytothefeetbystrongpiecesofhide; and bymeans of these curious appendages,when the snow is crustedover, theLaplander can skimover its surfacewith great rapidity.He uses alongpoletoguideandassisthiminhismovements;andthispolehasapieceofcircularboard,ora roundball,near itspoint,—toprevent it fromsinkingtoodeeply in the snow.Goinguphillupon the skis isnot soeasy,—but thepractised skater can ascend even the steep acclivities of themountainswithlessdifficultythanmightbeimagined.Thisisaccomplishedinzigzaglines,—each leading to a higher elevation.Downhill, the course upon skis is rapidalmost as the flight of an arrow; and, by means of the long pole, rocks,ravines,andprecipices,are shunnedwithadexterity that isquite surprising.

AltogetheraLaplander,eitherinhisreindeersledge,oruponhislongwooden“skis,”isasinterestingasightasmaybeseenanywhere.After all that has been said, itwill appear pretty clearly, that theLaplander,thoughdwelling soverynear to civilised lands, is still very fardistant fromtruecivilisation.

ChapterSixteen.TheAndamaners,orMud-Bedaubers.

On the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal lies a cluster, or archipelago, ofislands known as the “Andamans.” They form a long string running nearlynorthward and southward; and with the Nicobar group, still further to thesouth,theyappearlikeaseriesofstepping-stonesconnectingCapeNegrais,intheBurmesecountry,withtheislandofSumatra.IndependentoftheNicobarIslands,theAndamansthemselveshaveanextentofseveralhundredmilesinlength;while theirbreadth isnowhereoverabout twentymiles.Untilof latethe greater portion of the group was supposed to form only one island,—knownasthe“GreatAndaman;”but,intheyear1792,thiswasdiscoveredtohaveachannelacrossitthatdivideditintotwodistinctparts.Thediscoveryof thischannelwasaccidental; and theaccidentwasattendedwithmelancholy consequences.A vessel fromMadras had entered betweentheGreatAndaman,andtheoppositecoastofBurmah.Thisvesselwasladenwith provisions, intended for the supply of Port Cornwallis,—a convictsettlement, which the British had formed the preceding year on the easternsideoftheisland.Themasterofthevessel,notknowingthepositionofPortCornwallis, sent a boat to explore an openingwhich he saw in the land,—fancyingthatitmightbetheentrancetotheharbour.Itwasnotthis,however;butthemouthofthechannelabovementioned.ThecrewoftheboatconsistedoftwoEuropeansandsixLascars.Itwaslateintheafternoonwhentheystoodintotheentrance;and,asitsoonfelldarkuponthem,theylosttheirway,andfoundthemselvescarriedalongbyarapidcurrentthatsettowardstheBayofBengal.Thenorth-eastmonsoonwasblowingatthetimewithgreatviolence;and this, together with the rapid current, soon carried the boat through thechannel; and, in spite of their efforts, they were driven out into the IndianOcean,farbeyondsightofland!Hereforeighteendaystheunfortunatecrewwerebuffetedabout;untiltheywerepickedupbyaFrenchship,almostundertheequinoctial line,manyhundredsofmiles fromthechannel theyhad thusinvoluntarilydiscovered!Thesadpartof thestoryremains tobe told.WhenrelievedbytheFrenchvessel,thetwoEuropeansandthreeoftheLascarswerestill living; theother threeLascarshaddisappeared.Shocking to relate, they

hadbeenkilledandeatenbytheircompanions!Theconvictsettlementabovementionedwascarriedononlyforafewyears,andthenabandoned,—inconsequenceoftheunhealthinessoftheclimate,bywhichtheSepoyguardsoftheestablishmentperishedingreatnumbers.Notwithstandingthis,theAndamanIslandspresentaveryattractiveaspect.Aridgeofmountainsrunsnearly throughout theirwholeextent, rising insomeplaces toaheightofbetween twoand three thousand feet.Thesemountainsare covered to their tops by dense forests, thatmight be called primeval,—sincenotraceofclearingorcultivationistobefoundonthewholesurfaceoftheislands;norhasanyeverexistedwithinthememoryofman,exceptingthatoftheconvictsettlementreferredto.Someoftheforesttreesareofgreatsizeandheight;andnumerousspeciesareintermixed.Mangroveslinetheshores;andpricklyfernsandwildrattansformanimpenetrablebrakeonthesidesofthe hills; bamboos are also common, and the “gambier” or “cutch” tree(Agathis),fromwhichisextractedtheTerraJaponicaofcommerce.Thereareothers that yield dyes, and a curious species of screw-pine (pandanus),—knownasthe“Nicobarbreadfruit.”Notwithstanding their favourable situation, the zoology of these islands isextremelylimitedinspecies.Theonlyquadrupedsknowntoexistuponthemarewildhogs,dogs,and rats;andavarietyof themonkey tribe inhabits theforestsof theinterior.Theland-birdsarefew,—consistingofpigeons,doves,small parrots, and the Indian crow; while hawks are seen occasionallyhoveringover the trees; and a species of humming-bird flies about at night,uttering a soft cry that resembles the cooing of doves. There are owls ofseveralspecies;andthecliffsthatfrontthecoastarefrequentedbyasingularswallow,—the hirundo esculenta, whose nests are eaten by the wealthymandarinsofChina.Along the shores there aregulls, kingfishers, andotheraquatic birds. A large lizard of the guana species is common, with severalothers; and a green snake, of the most venomous description, renders itdangeroustopenetratethejunglethicketsthatcoverthewholesurfaceofthecountry.In all thesematters there is notmuch that is remarkable,—ifwe accept theextremepaucityof thezoology;andthis is reallyapeculiarity,—consideringthat theAndaman Islands liewithin less than eighty leagues of theBurmanterritory, a country so rich in mammalia; considering, too, that they arecovered with immense forests, almost impenetrable to human beings, onaccountof their thick intertwiningofunderwoodandparasiticalplants,—theveryhome,onewouldsupposeforwildbeastsofmanykinds!Andwithalwefindonlythreespeciesofquadrupeds,andthesesmallones,thinlydistributedalong the skirts of the forest. In truth, theAndaman Islands and their faunahavelongbeenapuzzletothezoölogist.

But longer still, and to a far greater extent, have their human inhabitantsperplexed the ethnologist; and here we arrive at the true peculiarity of theAndamanIslands,—thatistosay,thepeoplewhoinhabitthem.Withperhapsnoexception,thesepeoplearethemosttrulysavageofanyonthefaceoftheglobe;andthishasbeentheircharacterfromtheearliesttimes:fortheyhavebeen known to the ancients as far back as the time of Ptolemy. Ptolemymentionsthemunderthetitleofanthropophagi(man-eaters);andtheArabsofthe ninth century, who navigated the Indian Ocean, have given a similaraccount of them.Marco Polo adopts this statement, and what is still moresurprising,oneofthemostnotedethnologistsofourowntime—DrLatham—has given way to a like credulity, and puts the poor Andamaners down as“pagan cannibals.” It is an error: they are not cannibals in any sense of theword;andiftheyhaveevereatenhumanflesh,—ofwhichthereisnoproof,—ithasbeenwhenimpelledbyfamine.Underlikecircumstances,someofeverynation on earth have done the same,—Englishmen, Germans, Frenchmen,Americans,—oflateyearsfrequently,—inthemountainsofNewMexicoandCalifornia.The charge of cannibalism against thesemiserable beings rests on no otherfoundationthantheallegationsofChinesesailors,andthevaguestatementsofPtolemyandtheArabsabovementioned.TheChinesehaveoccasionnowandthentovisittheAndamanIslandsintheirjunks, tocollect theediblenestsof theswallow(hirundoesculenta),—whichbirdshaveextensivebreeding-placeson thecliffs thatoverhang thecoastofthe Great Andaman. The “trepang,” or sea-slug, is also found in largequantities upon the rocks near the shore; and this is equally an object ofcommerce, and esteemed an article of the greatest luxury, among themandarins,andotherrichcelestialswhocanaffordtoindulgeinit.Nowandthen,ajunkhasbeenwreckedamongtheserocks;anditsmiserablecrewhavefallenavictimtothehostilityofthenatives:justastheymighthavedone onmore civilised coasts,where no cannibalismwas ever suspected toexist.Crewsofjunkshavebeentotallydestroyed,—murdered,ifyouplease,—butitwouldnotbedifficulttoshow,thatthiswasdonemorefrommotivesofrevenge than fromamere sanguinary instinct or disposition; but there is noproofwhatever of, even a single case, of true cannibalism. Indeed there arestrong reasons forourdisbelief in thishorridcustom,—so faras regards thepoor savages of the Andamans. An incident, that seems to give a flatcontradiction to it, occurredduring theoccupancyof the islandby theEast-IndiaCompany in the year 1793; and other proofs of non-cannibalismhavebeenobtainedatastillmorerecentperiod,towhichweshallpresentlyallude.The incident of 1793 was as follows: A party of fishers belonging to thesettlemententicedanAndamanwomantocomenear,byholdingoutpresents

offood.Thewomanwasmadecaptivebythesetreacherousmen;who,insteadof relieving her hunger, proceeded to behave to her in the most brutal andunfeelingmanner.Thecriesofthepoorcreaturebroughtanumeroustroopofher people to the spot; who, rushing out of the thickets from every side,collected around the fishermen; and, having attacked them with spears andarrows, succeeded in killing two of their number. The rest with difficultyescapedtothesettlement;and,havingobtainedassistance,alargepartysetouttosearchforthebodiesoftheircompanions.Therewasbutlittleexpectationthat thesewould be recovered: as allwere under the belief that the savagesmusthavecarriedthemawayforthepurposeofmakingacannibalfeastuponthem.Therehadbeenampletimefortheremovingofthem:sincethesceneofthestrugglewasataconsiderabledistancefromthefort.Thesearchers,therefore,weresomewhatastonishedatfindingbothbodiesonthespotwheretheyhadfallen,andtheenemyentirelygonefromtheground!The bodies were disfigured in the most shocking manner. The flesh waspiercedineverypart,—byspears,nodoubt,—andtheboneshadbeenpoundedwith heavy stones, until they weremashed into fragments; but not a bit offleshwasremoved,notevenanarmorlimbhadbeensevered!Theother instance towhichwehavepromised toalludeoccurredatamuchmore recent period,—so late, in fact, as the period of the King of Delhi’simprisonment.Itwillbefreshin thememoryofmyreaders, thathisHindoomajestywascarriedtotheislandofGreatAndaman,alongwithanumberof“Sepoy” rebels,who had been taken prisoners during the late Indian revolt.The convict settlement was restored, especially for this purpose; and adetachmentof “East-IndiaCompany’s troops”was sent alongwith the rebelsepoys to guard them. It was supposed that the troops would have greatdifficultyintheperformanceoftheirduty:sincethenumberoftheirprisonerswaslargerthancouldbefairlylookedafter;and,itwaswell-known,that,ifaprisonercouldonceget clearof thewallsof the fort, itwouldbealtogetheridletopursuehim.ThechaseafterafugitivethroughthetangledforestsoftheAndamanswouldbeemphaticallya“wild-goose”chase;and therewouldbetenchancestooneagainsthisbeingrecaptured.Such, in reality, did it appear, for the firstweekor two, after the settlementwasre-established.Numerousprisonersescapedintothewoods,andasitwasdeemedidletofollowthem,theyweregivenupas“lostbirds.”In the end, however, it proved that theywere not all lost,—though some ofthemwere.Afteraweekortwohadexpired,theybegantostragglebacktothefort,andvoluntarilydeliverthemselvesuptotheiroldguards,—nowone,nowanother, or two or three at a time,—but all of them in themost forlorn anddeplorablecondition.Theyhadenjoyedalittle,libertyontheAndamanisles;butatasteofithadprovedsufficienttosatisfythemthatcaptivityinawell-

rationedguard-housewasevenpreferabletofreedomwithahungrystomach,addedtotheriskwhichtheyraneveryhourofthedayofbeingimpaleduponthespearsofthesavages.Manyofthemactuallymetwiththisfate;andothersonly escaped half dead from the hostile treatment they had received at thehandsoftheislanders.Therewasnoaccount,however,thatanyofthemhadbeeneaten,—noevidencethattheirimplacableenemieswerecannibals.Sucharea fewarguments that seemtocontrovert theaccusationofPtolemyand the twoArabmerchants,—inwhose travels the statement is found, andafterwards copied by the famousMarco Polo. Probably the Arabs obtainedtheir idea from Ptolemy,Marco Polo from theArabs, andDr Latham fromMarco Polo. Indeed, it is by no means certain that Ptolemy meant theAndaman Islands by his Islae bonae Fortunae, or “Good-luck Isles,”—certainlyamost inappropriateappellation.Hemayhave referred toSumatraanditsBattas,—whoarecannibalsbeyondadoubt.And,afterall,whatcouldPtolemyknowaboutthematterexceptfromvaguereport,or,morelikelystill,morevaguespeculation,—aprocessofreasoningpractisedinPtolemy’stime,justasatthepresentday.Wearetooreadytoadopttheerrorsoftheancientwriters,—as ifmenweremore infallible then than theyarenow;and,on theother hand, we are equally prone to incredulity,—often rejecting theirtestimonywhenitwouldconducttotruth.I believe there is no historic testimony—ancient or modern—before us, toprovethattheAndamanislandersarecannibals;andyet,withallthetestimonyto the contrary, there is one fact, or rather a hypothesis, which shall bepresentlyadduced,thatwouldpointtotheprobabilityoftheirbeingso.Iftheyarenotcannibals,however,theyarenotthelessunmitigatedsavages,of thevery lowestgradeanddegree.Theyareunacquaintedwithalmost theveryhumblestartsofsociallife;andarenotevensofaradvancedinthescaleas to have an organisation. In this respect they are upon a par with theBushmen of Africa and the Diggers of North America: still more do theyresemblethewretchedstarvelingsofTierradelFuego.Theyhavenotribaltie;butdwellinscatteredgroupsorgangs,—justasmonkeysorotheranimalsofagregariousnature.Inperson,theAndamanisoneofthevery“ugliest”ofknownsavages.Heisofshortstature,attainingtotheheightofonlyfivefeet;andhiswifeisaheadshorterthanhimself.Bothareasblackaspitch,couldtheirnaturalcolourbediscovered;buttheskinisusuallyhiddenunderamaskofrarematerial,whichweshallpresentlyhaveoccasiontodescribe.TheupperhalfoftheAndamaner’sbodyisstronglyandcompactlybuilt,andhis arms are muscular enough. It is below, in the limbs, where he is mostlackingindevelopment.Hislegsareosseousandthin;and,onlywhenheisinfine condition, is there the slightest swell on them that would indicate the

presence of a calf. His feet are of monstrous length, and without anysymmetry,—the heel projecting far backwards, in the fashion usually styled“lark-heeled.”Itisjustpossiblethatagooddealofpractice,byrunningovermud-banks and quicksands in search of his shell-fish subsistence,mayhaveaddedtothenaturaldevelopmentofhispedalextremities;fortherecanbenolonger any doubt, that like effects have been produced by such causes,—effectsthatareindeed,afterall,morenaturalthanartificial.The Andamaner exhibits the protuberance of belly noticed among othersavages,wholeadastarvinglife;andhiscountenanceisusuallymarkedwithanexpressionthatbetraysamixtureofferocityandfamine.It is worthy of remark, however, that though these stunted proportions aregenerallyobservableamongthenativesof theAndamanIslands, theydonotappeartobeuniversal.ItischieflyontheislandoftheGreatAndamanthatthemost wretched of these savages are found. The Little Andaman seems toproduce a better breed: since parties have beenmetwith on this last-namedisland,inwhichmanyindividualswereobservednearlysixfeetinheight,andstout inproportion.Oneoftheseparties,andtheincidentofmeetingwithit,arethusdescribedbyanofficerwhowaspresent:—“Wehadnotgonefar,when,atanangleofthejungle,whichcoverstheislandtowithinafewyardsofthewater’sedge,wecamesuddenlyuponapartyofthe natives, lying upon their bellies behind the bushes, armed with spears,arrows, and long-bows,which they bent at us in a threateningmanner.OurLascars,assoonastheysawthem,fellbackingreatconsternation, levellingtheirmuskets and running into the sea towards the boats. It waswith greatdifficultywecouldpreventourcowardly rascals fromfiring; the tyndalwastheonlyonewhostoodbythechiefmateandmyself.Weadvancedwithinafewpacesofthenatives,andmadesignsofdrinking,tointimatethepurposeofourvisit.The tyndalsalaamed to them,according to thedifferentorientalmodes of salutation,—he spoke to them inMalay, and other languages; butthey returned no answer, and continued in their crouching attitude, pointingtheirweaponsatuswheneverweturned.Iheldoutmyhandkerchiefbuttheywouldnotcomefrombehindthebushestotakeit.Iplaceditupontheground;andwereturned, inordertoallowthemanopportunityofpickingitup:stilltheywouldnotmove.“Icountedsixteenstrongandable-bodiedmenoppositetous,manyofthemvery lusty;and furtheron, sixmore.Theywereverydifferent inappearancefromwhatthenativesoftheGreatAndamanarerepresentedtobe,—thatis,ofa puny race. Thewhole partywas completely naked,with the exception ofone,—astoutmannearlysixfeet inheight,whowasstandingupalongwithtwoor threewomen in therear.Heworeonhisheada redclothwithwhitespots.

“Theywerethemostferociousandwild-lookingbeingsIeverbeheld.Thosepartsoftheirbodiesthatwerenotbesmearedwithmud,wereofasootyblackcolour.Theirfacesseemedtobepaintedwitharedochre.”Notwithstanding the difference in stature and other respects,—the result nodoubt of a better condition of existence,—the inhabitants of both islands,GreatandLittleAndaman,arethesameraceofpeople;andintheportrait,thefacesofbothmaybeconsideredasoneand the same.Thisbringsus to thestrangest fact in the whole history of the Andaman islander. Instead of aHindooface,oraChineseMongolianface,orthatofaMalay,—anyofwhichwemightreasonablyexpecttofindinanaboriginaloftheBayofBengal,—wetraceintheAndamanislanderthetruephysiognomyofanegro.Notonlyhavewetheflatnoseandthicklips,butthecurlyhair,thesootycomplexion,andalltheothernegrocharacteristics.Andthemostill-favouredvarietyatthat;for,inaddition to the ungraceful features alreadymentioned,we find a head largebeyond all proportion, and a pair of small, red eyes deeply sunken in theirsockets.TrulytheAndamanislanderhasfewpretensionstobeingabeauty!Wretched, however, as the Andaman islander may appear, and of littleimportanceashecertainlyisinthegreatsocialfamilyofthehumanrace,heis, ethnologically speaking, one of its most interesting varieties. From theearliest timeshehasbeen a subject of speculation, or rather his presence inthat particular part of theworldwhere he is now found: for, since it is thegeneral belief that he is entirely isolated from the two acknowledged negroraces,andsurroundedbyother typesof thehumanfamily,fardifferentfromeither,thewonderishowhecametobethere.Perhapsnoothertwothousandpeopleonearth—forthatisaboutthenumberof Andaman islanders—have been honoured with a greater amount ofspeculation in regard to their origin. Some ethnologists assign to them anAfricanorigin,andaccountfortheirpresenceupontheAndamanIslandsbyasingular story: that a Portuguese ship laden with African slaves, andproceedingtotheIndiancolonies,waswreckedintheBayofBengal,and,ofcourse, off the coast of theAndamans: that the crewweremurdered by theslaves; who, set free by this circumstance, became the inhabitants of theisland. This story is supported by the argument, that the hostilitywhich thenativesnowsonotoriouslyexhibit, had itsorigin ina spiritof revenge: thatstillrememberingthecrueltreatmentreceivedonthe“middlepassage”atthehands of their Portuguesemasters, they have resolved never to be enslavedagain; but to retaliate upon thewhiteman,whenever hemay fall into theirpower!Certainlythecircumstanceswouldseemtogivesomecolourtothetale, if ithadanyfoundation;butithasnone.Werewetocreditit,itwouldbenecessarytothrowPtolemyandtheArabmerchantsoverboard,andMarcoPolotoboot.

All thesehaverecorded theexistenceof theAndaman islanders, longbeforeeveraPortuguesekeelcleftthewatersoftheIndianOcean,—longevenbeforeDiGamadoubledtheCape!But without either the aid of Ptolemy or the testimony of the Arabianexplorers, it can be established that the Andaman Islands were inhabitedbeforetheeraofthePortugueseinIndia;andbythesameraceofsavagesasnowdwelluponthem.AnothertheoryisthatitwasanArabianslave-shipthatwaswrecked,andnota Portuguese; and this would place the peopling of the islands at a muchearlier period. There is no positive fact, however, to support this theory,—which,liketheother,restsonlyonmerespeculation.The error of these hypotheses lies in theirmistaken data; for, although, wehavestatedthattheAndamanislandersareundoubtedlyanegrorace,theyarenotthatnegroracetowhichthespeculationpoints,—inotherwords,theyarenotAfricannegroes.Beyondcertainmarkedfeatures,astheflatnoseandthicklips, theyhavenothing incommonwith these last.Theirhair ismoreof thekind called “frizzly,” than of the “woolly” texture of that of the Ethiopiannegro; and in this respect they assimilate closely to the “Papuan,” or NewGuinea“negrillo,”whicheveryoneknowsisaverydifferentbeingfromtheAfricannegro.Their moral characteristics—such as there has been an opportunity ofobserving among them—are also an additional proof that they are not ofAfricanorigin;whilethesepointunmistakablytoakinshipwiththeothersideoftheIndianOcean.Evensomeoftheirfashions,asweshallpresentlyhaveoccasion to notice, have a like tendency to confirm the belief that theAndaman isa“negrillo,”andnota“negro.”Theonlyobstacle to thisbeliefhashithertobeenthefactoftheirisolatedsituation:sinceitisalleged—ratherhastily as we shall see—that the whole of the opposite continent of theBurmeseandotherempires,ispeopledbyracesentirelydistinct:thatnoneoftheadjacent islands—theNicobarsandSumatra—haveanynegroornegrilloinhabitants: and that theAndamaners are thus cut off, as it were, from anypossiblelineofmigrationwhichtheycouldhavefollowedinenteringtheBayofBengal.Ethnologists,however,seemtohaveoverlookedthecircumstancethat this allegation is not strictly true. The Samangs—a tribe inhabiting themountainous parts of the Malayan peninsula—are also a negro or negrillorace; a fact which at once establishes a link in the chain of a supposedmigrationfromthegreatIndianarchipelago.This lets theAndaman islander into theGreatChina Sea; or rather, comingfromthatsea,itformsthestepping-stonetohispresentresidenceintheBayofBengal.Whocansay thathewasnotatone time theownerof theMalayanpeninsula?Howcanweaccountforthestrangefact,thatfiguresofBoodh—

theGuadmaoftheBurmeseandSiamese—areoftenseeninIndiabeyondtheGanges,delineatedwiththecurlyhairandothercharacteristicfeaturesofthenegro?The theory that the Samang and Andaman islander once ruled the Malaypeninsula;thattheythemselvescamefromeastward,—fromthegreatislandsof theMelanesiangroup, thecentreandsourceof thenegrillo race,—will insome measure account for this singular monumental testimony. Theprobability,moreover,isalwaysinfavourofamigrationwestwardwithinthetropics.Beyondthetropics,theruleissometimesreversed.A coincidence of personal habit, between the Andaman islander and theMelanesian,isalsoobserved.Theformerdyeshisheadofabrownorreddishcolour,—theveryfashionoftheFeegee!Suppose,then,thattheSamangandAndamanislandercamedownthetrades,ataperiodtooremoteforeventraditiontodealwithit:supposetheyoccupiedtheMalay peninsula, no matter how long; and that at a much more recentperiod, they were pushed out of place,—the one returning to the AndamanIslands,theothertothemountainsoftheQuedah:supposealsothatthepartypushing them off were Malays,—who had themselves been drifted forhundredsofyearsdownthetradesfromthefarshoresofAmerica(forthisisour“speculation”): supposeall thesecircumstances tohave takenplace,andyouwillbeabletoaccountfortwofactsthathaveforalongtimepuzzledtheethnologist.OneisthepresenceofnegroesontheislandsofAndaman,—andthe other of Malays in the south-eastern corner of Asia. We might bringforwardmany arguments to uphold the probability of these hypotheses, hadwespaceandtime.Both,however,compelustoreturntothemoreparticularsubject of our sketch; and we shall do so after having made a remark,promisedabove,andwhichrelatestotheprobabilityoftheAndamanislanderbeingacannibal.This,then,wouldlieinthefactofhisbeingaPapuannegro.And yet, again, it is only a seeming; for it might be shown that with thePapuancannibalismisnotanaturalinstinct.Itisonlywherehehasreachedahighdegreeofcivilisation,asinthecaseoftheFeegeeislander.Callthelatteramonster if youwill; but, asmaybe learnt fromour account of him, he isanythingbut asavage, in theusual acceptationof the term. In fact, languagehasnoepithetsufficientlyviletocharacterisesuchananomalousanimalashe.IhaveendeavouredtocleartheAndamanislanderofthechargeofthisguilt;and,sinceappearancesaresomuchagainsthim,heoughttofeelgrateful.Itisdoubtfulwhetherhewould,shouldthisfall intohishands,andhebeabletoreadit.Theportraitofhisfacewithoutthatstainuponit,hemightregardasugly enough; and that of his habits, which now follows, is notmuchmoreflattering.His house is little better than the den of a wild beast; and far inferior in

ingenuityofconstruction to thosewhichbeaversbuild.Afewpolesstuck inthe ground are leant towards each other, and tied together at the top. Overthese awattle of reeds and rattan-leaves forms the roof; and on the floor a“shake-down”ofwithered leavesmakeshisbed,or,perhaps it should ratherbe called his “lair.” This, it will be perceived, is just the house built byDiggers, Bushmen, and Fuegians. There are no culinary utensils,—only adrinking-cup of the nautilus shell; but implements of war and the chase inplenty:forsucharefoundevenamongstthelowestofsavages.Theyconsistofbows, arrows, anda speciesof javelinordart.Thebowsarevery long, andmade of the bamboo cane,—as are also the darts. The arrows are usuallypointedwiththetusksofthesmallwildhogswhichinhabittheislands.Thesetheyoccasionallycapture in thechase,hangingup theskulls in theirhutsastrophies andornaments.With stringsof thehog’s teeth also they sometimesornament theirbodies;but theyarenotveryvain in this respect.Sometimespiecesof ironare foundamong them,—nails flattened to form thebladesofknives, or tomake an edge for their adzes, the heads ofwhich are of hardwood.Thesepiecesofirontheyhavenodoubtobtainedfromwreckedvessels,or in the occasional intercourse which they have had with the convictestablishment; but there is no regular commerce with them,—in fact, nocommercewhatever,—aseventheMalaytraders, thatgoeverywhere,donotvisittheAndamaners,fromdreadoftheirwell-knownIshmaelitishcharacter.Some of the communities, more forward in civilisation, possess articles ofmore ingenious construction,—such as baskets to hold fruits and shell-fish,well-madebows, andarrowswith severalheads, for shooting fish.Theonlyotherarticle theypossessof theirownmanufacture, isa rudekindofcanoe,hollowedoutof the trunkofa tree,bymeansof fireand theirpooradze.Abambooraft,ofstillruderstructure,enablesthemtocrossthenarrowbaysandcreeksbywhichtheircoastisindented.Their habitual dwelling-place is upon the shore. They rarely penetrate thethickforestsoftheinterior,wherethereisnothingtotemptthem:forthewildhog,towhichtheysometimesgivechase,isfoundonlyalongthecoastswheretheforestisthinnerandmorestraggling,oramongthemangrove-bushes,—onthe fruits of which these animals feed. Strange to say, the forest, thoughluxuriant in species, affordsbut few trees thatbearedible fruits.Thecocoa-palm—abundantinallotherpartsoftheEast-Indianterritories,andevenupontheCocosIslands,thatliealittlenorthoftheAndamans—doesnotgrowuponthese mountain islands. Since the savages know nothing of cultivation, ofcourse their dependence upon a vegetable diet would be exceedinglyprecarious. A few fruits and roots are eaten by them. The pandanus, abovementioned,bearsafinecone-shapedfruit,oftenweighingbetweenthirtyandforty pounds; and this, under the name ofmellori, or “Nicobar breadfruit,”forms part of their food.But it requires a process of cooking,which, being

quiteunknowntotheAndamaners,mustmakeittothema“bitterfruit”evenwhen roasted in theashesof their fires,which is theirmodeofpreparing it.Theyeatalsothefruitofthemangrove,andofsomeothertrees—butthesearenot obtainable at all seasons, or in such quantity as to afford them asubsistence.Theydependprincipallyuponfish,whichtheybroilinaprimitivemanneroveragridironofbamboos, sometimesnotwaiting till theyarehalfdone.Theyespeciallysubsistuponshell-fish,severalkindsaboundingontheircoasts, which they obtain among the rocks after the tide has gone out. Togather theseis theworkof thewomen,while themenemploythemselves infishingorinthechaseofthewildhog.Thespeciesofshell-fishmostcommonare the murex tribulus, trochus telescopium, cypraea caurica, and mussels.Theyaredexterousincapturingotherfishwiththeirdarts,whichtheystrikedown upon the finny prey, either from their rafts, or bywading up to theirkneesinthewater.Theyalsotakefishbytorchlight,—thatis,bykindlingdrygrass,theblazeofwhichattractscertainspeciesintotheshallowwater,wherethefishersstandinwaitforthem.Whenthefisheryfailsthem,andtheoystersandmusclesbecomescarce,theyareoftendriventosadextremities,andwilltheneatanythingthatwillsustainlife,—lizards, insects, worms,—perhaps even human flesh. They are notunfrequentlyinsuchstraits;andinstancesarerecorded,wheretheyhavebeenfoundlyingupontheshoreinthelaststagesofstarvation.Aninstanceofthiskindisrelatedinconnectionwiththeconvictsettlementof1793.A coasting-party one day discovered twoAndamaners lying upon thebeach.Theywereatfirstbelievedtobedead,butasitproved,theywereonlydebilitated from hunger: being then in the very last stages of famine. Theywereanoldmanandaboy;andhavingbeencarriedatoncetothefort,everymeans that humanity could suggestwasused to recover them.With theboythis result was accomplished; but the old man could not be restored: hisstrength was too far gone; and he died, shortly after being brought to thesettlement.Twowomenoryounggirlswerealsofoundfargonewithhunger;sofar,thatapieceoffishheldoutwassufficienttoallurethemintothepresenceofaboat’screw that had landed on the shore.Theywere taken on board the ship, andtreatedwith theutmosthumanity. Ina short time theygot ridofall fearsofviolencebeingoffered them;butseemed,at thesametime, tobesensibleofmodestytoagreatdegree.Theyhadasmallapartmentallottedto them;andthoughtheycouldhardlyhavehadanyrealcauseforapprehension,yetitwasremarkedthatthetwoneverwenttosleepatthesametime:onealwayskeptwatch while the other slept!When timemade themmore familiar with thegood intentions towards them, they became exceedingly cheerful, chatteredwith freedom, and were amused above all things at the sight of their own

personsinamirror.Theyallowedclothestobeputonthem;buttookthemoffagain,whenevertheythoughttheywerenotwatched,andthrewthemawayasa useless encumbrance! They were fond of singing; sometimes in amelancholy recitative, and sometimes in a lively key; and they often gaveexhibitions of dancing around the deck, in the fashion peculiar to theAndamans. They would not drink either wine or any spirituous liquor; butwere immoderately fond of fish and sugar. They also ate rice when it wasoffered to them. They remained, or rather were retained, several weeks onboard theship;andhadbecomesosmoothandplump,under the liberaldietthey indulged in, that they were scarce recognisable as the half-starvedcreatures thathadbeenbroughtaboard so recently. Itwasevident,however,that they were not contented. Liberty, even with starvation allied to it,appearedsweetertothemthancaptivityinthemidstofluxuryandease.Theresultprovedthatthissentimentwasnostrangertothem:foronenight,whenall but the watchman were asleep, they stole silently through the captain’scabin, jumpedoutof the sternwindows into the sea, and swam toan islandfullhalfamiledistantfromtheship!Itwasthoughtidletopursuethem;but,indeed,therewasnointentionofdoingso.Theobjectwastoretainthembykindness, and try what effect might thus be produced on their wildcompanions,when they should return to them. Strange to say, thismode ofdealing with the Andaman islanders has been made repeatedly, and alwayswiththesamefruitlessresult.Whatevermayhavebeentheoriginalcausethatinterrupted their intercoursewith the restofmankind, they seemdeterminedthatthisintercourseshallneverberenewed.Whenplentyreignsamongthem,andtherehasbeenagoodtakeoffish,theyact like other starved wretches; and yield themselves up to feasting andgorging, tillnotamorsel remains.Atsuch times theygiveway toexcessivemirth,—dancingforhourstogether,andchatteringall thewhilelikeasmanyapes.Theyare extremely fondof “tripping it on the light fantastic toe;” and theirdance ispeculiar. It iscarriedonby thedancers forminga ring,and leapingabout,eachatintervalssalutinghisownposteriorswithaslapfromhisfoot,—a feat which both the men and women perform with great dexterity. Notunfrequently thismodeof salutation ispassed fromone to theother, aroundthethewholering,—causingunboundedmerrimentamongthespectators.Theirfashionofdressis,perhaps,themostpeculiarofallknowncostumes.Asto clothing, they care nothing about it,—the females onlywearing a sort ofnarrowfringearoundthewaist,—notfrommotivesofmodesty,butsimplyasanornament;andinthisscantgarmentwehavearesemblancetothelikuoftheFeegeeans. It canhardlybesaid,however, thateithermenorwomengoentirely naked; for eachmorning, after rising from his couch of leaves, the

Andamanerplastersthewholeofhisbodywithathickcoatofmud,whichhewears throughout theday.Wherever thiscracksfromgettingdryby thesun,theplaceispatchedormendedupwithafreshlayer.Theblackmopuponhishead is not permitted to wear its natural hue; but, as alreadymentioned, iscolouredbymeansofaredochreousearth,whichisfoundinplentyupontheislands.This reddeningofhispoll is theonlyattemptwhich theAndamanermakesatpersonaladornment;forhisliveryofmudisassumedforapurposeof utility,—to protect his body from the numerous mosquitoes, and otherbitinginsects,whosemyriadsinfestthelowlandcoastuponwhichhedwells.Astartlingpeculiarityoftheseislandersistheunmitigatedhostilitywhichtheyexhibit, and have always exhibited, towards every people with whom theyhave, come in contact. It is not the white man alone whom they hate andharass;buttheyalsomurdertheMalay,whoseskinisalmostasdarkastheirown.Thiswouldseemtocontradict thehypothesisofa traditionofhostilitypreservedamongst them,anddirectedagainstwhitemenwhoenslaved theirancestors; but, indeed, that story has been sufficiently refuted. A far moreprobablecauseoftheiruniversalhatredis,that,atsomeperiodoftheirhistory,they have been grossly abused; so much so as to render suspicion andtreacheryalmostaninstinctoftheirnature.In these very characteristicmoral featureswe find another of those strikinganalogies that would seem to connect them with the negrillo races of theEasternArchipelago; but,whether they are or are not connectedwith them,their appearance upon theAndaman is no greatermystery, than the solitary“fox-wolf” on the Falkland Islands, or the smallestwingless insect in someloneisletoftheOcean?

ChapterSeventeen.ThePatagonianGiants.

Whohas not heard of the giants of Patagonia? From the days ofMagellan,whentheywerefirstseen,manyatalehasbeentold,andmanyaspeculationindulgedinaboutthesecolossalmen:somerepresentingthemasveryTitans,of twelve feet inheight, and stout inproportion: that,when standinga littleastride, an ordinary-sized man could pass between their legs without evenstoopinghishead!SotalkedtheearlynavigatorsoftheGreatSouthSea.Since the time when these people were first seen by Europeans, up to thepresent hour,—in all, three hundred and thirty years ago,—it is astonishinghowlittlehasbeenaddedtoourknowledgeofthem;themoreso,thatalmosteveryvoyagerwhohassincepassedthroughtheStraitsofMagellan,hashad

some intercourse with them;—the more so, that Spanish people have hadsettlements on the confines of their country; and one—an unsuccessful one,however—in the very heart of it! But these Spanish settlements have alldecayed, or are fast decaying; and when the Spanish race disappears fromAmerica,—which sooner or later it will most certainly do,—it will leavebehind itagreaterpaucityofmonumental record, thanperhapsanycivilisednationeverbeforetransmittedtoposterity.Little,however,aswehavelearntaboutthecustomsofthePatagonianpeople,wehaveatleastobtainedamoredefiniteideaoftheirheight.Theyhavebeenmeasured.Thetwelve-feetgiantscannolongerbefound;theyneverexisted,except in the fertile imaginations of some of the old navigators,—whoseembodiedtestimony,nevertheless,itisdifficulttodisbelieve.OtherandmorereliablewitnesseshavedoneawaywiththeTitans;butstillweareunable toreduce the stature of the Patagonians to that of ordinarymen. If not actualgiants, they are, at all events, very tallmen,—manyof them standing sevenfeetintheirbootsofguanaco-leather,fewlessthansix,andalikefewrisingnearlytoeight!Thesemeasurementsaredefiniteandcertain;andalthoughthewholenumberoftheIndiansthatinhabittheplainsofPatagoniamaynotreachtheabovestandardtherearetribesofsmallermencalledbythecommonnamePatagonians,—yetmanyindividualscertainlyexistwhocomeuptoit.If not positive giants, then, it is safe enough to consider the Patagonians asamong the“tallest”ofhumanbeings,—perhaps thevery tallest that exist,orever existed, upon the faceof the earth; and for this reason, if for noother,theyareentitledtoberegardedasan“oddpeople.”Buttheyhaveotherclaimsto this distinction; for their habits and customs, although in generalcorresponding to those of other tribes ofAmerican Indians, present uswithmanypointsthatarepeculiar.Itmayberemarked that thePatagonianwomen,althoughnotso tallas theirmen,areintheusualproportionobservablebetweenthesexes.Manyofthemaremorecorpulentthanthemen;andifthelatterbecalledgiants,theformerhaveeveryclaimtotheappellationofgiantesses!Wehaveobserved,elsewhere,theveryremarkabledifferencebetweenthetwoterritories, lying respectively north and south of the Magellan Straits,—thePatagonian on the north, and the Fuegian on the south.No two lands couldexhibitagreatercontrast than these,—the formerwith itsdry sterile treelessplains,—the latteralmostentirelywithoutplains;and,exceptingaportionofitseasternend,withoutonelevelspotofanacreinbreadth;butagrandchaosof humid forest-clad ravines and snow-covered mountains. Yet these twodissimilar regions are only separated by a narrow sea-channel,—deep, it istrue;butsonarrow,thatacannon-shotmaybeprojectedfromoneshoretotheother.Notlessdissimilararethepeoplewhoinhabittheseoppositeshores;and

one might fancy a strange picture of contrast presented in the Straits ofMagellan: on some projecting bluff on the northern shore, a stalwartPatagonian,eightfeetinheight,withhisampleguanacoskinfloatingfromhisshoulders, and his long spear towering ten feet above his head;—on thesouthernpromontory,thedwarfedandshrivelledfigureofaFuegian,—scarcefive feet tall,—with tiny bow and arrows in hand, and shivering under hispatchofgreasysealskin!—andyetsoneareachother,thatthestentorianvoiceofthegiantmaythunderintheearsofthedwarf;whilethehenlikecackleofthelattermayevenreachthoseofhiscolossalvis-à-vis!Notwithstandingthisproximity,thereisnoconversebetweenthem;for,unlikeasare theirpersons, theyarenotmoredissimilar than their thoughts,habits,andactions.Theoneisanaquaticanimal,theotheressentiallyterrestrial;and,strangetosay,inthispeculiaritytheweakercreaturehastheadvantage:sincethe Fuegian can cross in his bark canoe to the territory of his giganticneighbour, while the latter has no canoe nor water-craft of any kind, andtherefore never thinks of extending his excursions to the “land of fire,”exceptingatoneverynarrowplacewherehehaseffectedacrossing.Inmanyother respects, more particularly detailed elsewhere,—in their naturaldispositionsandmodesof life, these twopeoplesareequallydissimilar;andalthoughlearnedcraniologistsmayprovefromtheirskulls,thatbothbelongtoone division of the human family, this fact proves also that craniology, likeanatomy, is but a blindguide in the illustrationof scientific truth,—whetherthesubjectbe theskullofamanorananimal.Despiteall therevelationsofcraniologicskill,anIndianofPatagoniabearsaboutthesameresemblancetoan Indian of Tierra del Fuego, as may be found between a bull and abluebottle!Beforeproceeding todescribe themodesof lifepractisedby thePatagoniangiants,awordortwoaboutthecountrytheyinhabit.ItmaybegenerallydescribedasoccupyingthewholesouthernpartofSouthAmerica,—from the frontier of the Spanish settlements to the Straits ofMagellan,—and bounded east and west by the two great oceans. Now, themost southern Spanish (Buenos-Ayrean) settlement is at the mouth of RioNegro; therefore, theRioNegro—which is the largest river south of theLaPlata—may be taken as the northern boundary of Patagonia. Not that theweak, vitiated Spanish-American extends his sway from the Atlantic to theAndes:onthecontrary,theIndianaborigines,underonenameoranother,aremastersofthewholeinterior,—notonlytothenorthoftheRioNegro,buttotheveryshoresoftheCaribbeanSea!Yes,thebroadinlandofSouthAmerica,fromCapeHorntotheseaoftheAntilles, isnow,asitalwayshasbeen,thedomain of the Red Indian; who, so far from having ever been reduced byconquest, has not only resisted the power of the Spanish sword, and the

blandishments of the Spanish cross; but at this hour is encroaching, withconstantandrapidstrides,upontheblood-stainedterritorywrestedfromhimbythatChristianconquest!Andthisisthemanwhoissorapidlytodisappearfromthefaceoftheearth!Ifso, it isnot thepunySpaniardwhoisdestinedtopushhimoff.Ifheis todisappear,itwillbeatsuchatime,thatnoSpaniardwillbelivingtowitnesshisextermination.Let us take Patagonia proper, then, as bordered upon the north by the RioNegro, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In that case it is acountry of eight hundred miles in length, with a breadth of at least twohundred,—acountry larger thaneitherFranceorSpain.Patagonia isusuallydescribedasacontinuationofthegreatplains,knownasthe“Pampas,”whichextendfromtheLaPlataRivertotheeasternslopeoftheAndes.Thisideaisaltogether erroneous. It is true that Patagonia is a country of plains,—excepting that portion of it occupied by the Andes, which is, of course, amountaintract,muchofitresemblingTierradelFuegoincharactermorethanPatagonia. Indeed,Patagoniapropercanhardlyberegardedas includingthismountainstrip: since thePatagonian Indiansonly inhabit theplainsproperlysocalled.TheseplainsdifferessentiallyfromthoseofthePampas.Thelatterarebasedupon a calcareous formation: andproduce a rank, richherbage,—hereofgigantic thistlesandwildartichokes,—thereof tallgrasses;and, stillnearer themountains, they are thinly coveredwith copses of low trees.Theplains of Patagonia on the other hand, are of tertiary formation, covered allover with a shingly pebble of porphyry and basalt, and almost destitute ofvegetation.Hereand therearesome tuftsofscantygrasswitha fewstuntedbushes in thevalleysof thestreams,butnothing thatcanbecalleda tree.Asurfacedrearandarid,inplacesmottledwith“salinas”orsaltlakes;withfreshwateronlyfoundat longintervals,and,whenfound,ofscantysupply.Therearemanyhillytracts,butnothingthatcanbecalledmountains,—exceptingthesnow-coveredCordillerasinthewest.ThePatagonianplainisnoteverywhereofequalelevation:itrisesbysteps,asyoufollowitwestward,beginningfromthesea-levelof theAtlanticshore;until,havingreachedthepiedmontof theAndes, you still find yourself on a plain, but one which is elevated threethousand feet above the point from which you started. At all elevations,however,itpresentsthesamesterileaspect;andyouperceivethatPatagoniaisatruedesert,—asmuchsoasAtacama,inPeru,thedesertoftheColoradointhe north, the “barren grounds” of Hudson’s Bay, the Sahara and Kalahari,Gobi,orthesteppeofKaurezm.TotheSouth-Africandesertsitbearsamorestrikingresemblancethantoanyoftheothers,—aresemblanceheightenedbythepresenceofthatmostremarkableofbirds,—theostrich.Twospeciesstalkover the plains of Patagonia,—thestruthio rhea and struthio Darwinii. TheformerextendsnorthwardoverthePampas,butnotsouthwardtotheStraitsof

Magellan; the latter reaches the Straits, but is never seen upon the Pampas.TherangesofbothmeetandoverlapnearthemiddleofthePatagonianplain.Inadditiontotheostrich,thereareotherlargebirdsthatfrequentthesteppesofPatagonia.Thegreatcondorherecrosses thecontinent,andappearsupontheAtlantic shores.Heperchesupon the cliffsof the sea,—aswell as thosethat overhang the inland streams,—and builds his nest upon the bare rock.Two species of polyborus, or vulture-eagles,—the “carrancha” and“chiniango,”—flysidebysidewiththecondor;andtheblackturkey-vulturesarealsodenizensofthisdesertland.Theredpuma,too,hashishomehere;thefoxofAzara;andseveralspeciesofhawksandeagles.With the exceptionof the first-mentioned—theostrich—all these beasts andbirdsarepredatorycreatures;andrequirefleshfortheirsubsistence.Wheredotheygetit?Uponwhatdotheyallprey?Surelynotupontheostrich:sincethisbird is bigger than any of the birds of prey, and able to defend itself evenagainstthegreatcondor.Thereareonlyoneortwootherspeciesofbirdsuponwhichtheeaglesmightsubsist,—apartridgeandtwokindsofplover;butthevulturescouldnotgetalivingoutofpartridgesandplovers.Smallquadrupedsarealikescarce.Thereareonlytwoorthreespecies;andverysmallcreaturestheyare,—oneasortofmole,“terutero,”andseveralkindsofmice.Thelatterare,indeed,numerousenoughinsomeplaces,—swarmingoverthegroundintracts sosterile, that it isdifficult tounderstanduponwhat theysubsist.Butvulturesdonotrelishfood,whichtheyrequiretokillforthemselves.Theyaretooindolentforthat;andwherevertheyarefound,theremustbesomesourceofsupply,—somelargequadrupedstoprovidethemwiththeirfavouritefood,—carrion. Otherwise, in this desert land, how should the ravenous pumamaintainhimself?—howthevulturesandvulture-eagles?and,aboveall,uponwhat does the Patagonian himself subsist,—a man of such great bulk, asnaturallytorequiremorethantheordinaryamountoffood?Theanswertoallthese questions, then, is, that a quadruped does exist in the deserts ofPatagonia; which, if it furnish not all these creatures with their full dietsupplies,doesalargeproportionofit.Thisquadrupedistheguanaco.Beforeproceedingtogiveanaccountoftheguanaco,letuspainttheportraitofthePatagonianhimself.As already observed, he is nearly seven feet in height, without anyexaggeration in thewayof ahat.Hewearsnone, but suffershis longblackhair tohang looselyoverhisshoulders,or,morefrequently,gathers it intoaknotorclubupon thecrownofhishead.Tokeep it fromstraggling intohiseyes,heusuallywearsanarrowstrapofguanacoskinaroundhisforehead,oraplaitedbandofthehairofthesameanimal;but,althoughpossessingostrich-feathersatdiscretion,herarelyindulgesinthefashionofwearingaplume,—he knows he is tall enough without one. Over his shoulders, and hanging

nearly to his heels, he wears a loosemantle of guanaco skins; which is ofsufficientwidthtowraproundhisbody,andmeetoverhisbreast,—shouldhefeel cold enough to require it.Buthe isnotof a chillynature; andheoftenthrowsthismantleentirelyasidetogivehimthefreedomofhisarms;ormoregenerallytiesagirdleroundit,andleavestheupperparttofallbackfromhisshoulders,andhangdownoverthegirdle.Thismantle—withtheexceptionofa small pouch-like apron in front—is the only “garment,” the Patagonianwearsuponhisbody;buthislowerlimbshaveacoveringoftheirown.Theseareencasedinasortofbootsormocassins,—butdifferingfromallotherbootsandmocassins,inthefactoftheirbeingwithoutsoles!Theyaremadeofthesame material as the mantle,—that is, of the skin of the guanaco,—butsometimes alsoof the skinof a horse’s shank,—for thePatagonian, like thePampasIndian,isinpossessionofthisvaluableanimal.Thissolelessbootcoversthelegallroundfrombelowtheknee,passingoverthe top of the foot like a gaiter; it extends also around the heel, and a littleunder it,butnotsofaras theinstep, thusleavingthegreaterpartof thesolebare,and the toespeepingout infront!Theyare, inreality,nothingmoreorlessthangaiters,butgaitersofguanacoskin,withthehairturnedoutward,andworn,notover apair ofbootsor shoes, asgaitersusually are, butupon thenakedshanks.IhavebeenthusparticularinmydescriptionofthePatagonianchaussure;butyou will understand my reasons, when I tell you that, from this triflingcircumstance, not only has a vast territory of country, but the people whoinhabitit,obtainedtheappellationbywhichbothhavelongbeenknowntothecivilisedworld,thatis,Patagonian.When the sailors who accompaniedMagellan first saw these colossal men,they noticed a peculiar circumstance in relation to their feet. The flaps, or“uppers,” of the gaiters, extending loosely across the tops of their feet, andexaggeratedinbreadthbythelonghairthatfringedoutfromtheiredges,gaveto these Indians the appearance of having paws or “patas;” and the namepatagones,or“duck-feet,”wasgiventhembythesailors,—everproneto thebestowal of a ludicrous epithet. This name, in a slightly altered form, theyhave borne ever since,—so that Patagonia means the country of the duck-footedmen.ThegaitersofthePatagonianshavetheirpeculiarpurpose.Theyarenotwornmerelyforthesakeofkeepingthelegswarm,butalsoasaprotectionagainstthe thornyshrubswhich inPatagonia,as inalldesert lands,areexceedinglyabundant.Themantle andmocassins, then, constitute thePatagonian’s costume; and itdoesnotdiffersowidely fromthatofhisneighbour theFuegian,—thechiefpointsofdifferencebeinginthesizeandmaterial.

Ofcoursetheguanacoskinismuchlargerthanthatofthecommonseal;andagood Patagonian cloak would furnish “doublets” for a whole tribe of thediminutive Fuegians. Perhaps his ample garment has something to do inproducingtheexaggeratedaccountsthathavebeengivenofthestatureofthePatagonians. Certain it is, that a man thus apparelled, looks larger than heotherwisewoulddo;andpresentsaltogetheramoreimposingappearance.TheCaffre,inhiscivet-cat“kaross,”andthePawneeIndian,inhisrobeofshaggybuffalo-hide, loom very large upon karroo and prairie,—much larger inappearancethantheyreallyare.Itisbutnatural,therefore,tosupposethatthePatagonian,attired inhisguanacomantle,andseenagainst thesky,standingupon the summit of a conspicuous cliff, would present a truly giganticappearance.When first seen in this position hewas on foot. Itwas in the year 1520,—before theSpaniardshadset footuponSouth-Americansoil,—andofcoursebeforethehorsebecamenaturalisedtothatcontinent.Inlessthanthirtyyearsafterward,heappeareduponthesesamecliffsbestridingasteed:forthisnobleanimalhadextendedhisrangeovertheplainsofAmerica,—evenatanearlierperiodthanhisEuropeanowner.WhentheSpaniards,intheirafter-attemptsatconquering the Indians of the Pampas and those of the northern prairies,entereduponthesegreatplains,theyencountered,totheirgreatastonishment,their red enemies upon horseback, brandishing long lances, and managingfierychargerswithaskillequaltotheirown!Amongtheearliesttribesthatobtainedpossessionofthehorse,werethoseofthe Pampas: since the first of these animals that ran wild on the plains ofAmericawerethoselandedintheLaPlataexpeditionofMendoza,—whencetheybecamescatteredovertheadjacentpampasofBuenosAyres.From the banks of the La Plata, the horse passed rapidly southward to theStraitsofMagellan;andfromthathourthePatagonianwalkednomore.Withtheexceptionofaspur,—usuallyasharpstickofwood,uponhisheel,—theonly additional article of his “wear,” the horse has made no change in hiscostume,norinthefashionofhistoilet.Hestillpaintshisface,asMagellanfirst saw it,—with a white ring encircling one eye, and a black or red onearound theother;withonehalfofhisbodycolouredblack,andawhite sundelineatedupon it,while theotherhalf iswhite, forming the“ground” forablackmoon!Scarcetwoindividuals,however,wearthesameescutcheon;forthefashionofhavingeyes,arms,andlegsoftwodifferentcolours—justasourancestors used to wear their doublets and hose—is that followed by thePatagonians.Notwithstanding this queer custom,—usually regarded as savage,—it wouldbeunjusttocallthePatagonianasavage.Ifweoverlookthecircumstanceofhispaintinghimself,—which,afterall,isscarcemoreabsurdthannumberless

practices of civilised life,—if we excuse him for too scantily covering thenakednessofhisperson,andrelishinghis fooda little“underdone,”wefindlittleelse,eitherinhishabitsorhismoralnaturethatwouldentitlehimtobetermedasavage.Onthecontrary,fromallthetestimonythatcanbeobtained,—inalltheintercoursewhichwhitemenhavehadwithhim,—thereisscarceanactrecorded,thatwouldhinderhisclaimtobeingconsideredascivilisedasthey. Honourable and amiable, brave and generous, he has ever provedhimself;andneverhasheexhibitedthosetraitsofvindictiveferocitysupposedtobecharacteristicof theuntutoredman.HehasnotevenharbouredmaliceforthewrongsdonehimbytheunprincipledadventurerMagellan:who,inhistreatmentofthesepeople,provedhimselfmoreofasavagethanthey.ButthePatagonian restrained his vengeance; and apparently burying the outrage inoblivion,haseversincethat timetreatedthewhitemanwithagenerousanddignified friendship. Those who have been shipwrecked upon his solitaryshores,havehadnoreasontocomplainofthetreatmenttheyhavereceivedathishands.Heisneithercannibal,noryetbarbarian,—butintruthagentleman,—or,ifyoupreferit,agentlemansavage.Buthowdoesthisgentlemanmaintainhimself?Wehavealreadyseenthatheis not a fisherman,—for he owns no species of boat; and without that hischances of capturing fish would be slight and uncertain. We have stated,moreover,thathiscountryisasteriledesert;andsoitis,—producingonlythescantiest of herbage; neither plant, nor tree, that would furnish food; andincapable of being cultivated with any success. But he does not attemptcultivation,—he has no knowledge of it; nor is it likely he would feel theinclination,even if temptedby themost fertilesoil.Neither ishepastoral inhishabits:hehasnoflocksnorherds.Thehorseanddogarehisonlydomesticanimals; and these he requires for other purposes than food. The formerenables him to pass easily over thewide tracts of his sterile land, and bothassisthiminthechase,—whichishistrueandonlycalling.Oneofthechiefobjects of his pursuit is the ostrich; and he eats the flesh of this fine desertbird.Heeatsit,wheneverhecanprocureit;buthecouldnotlivesolelyuponsuchfood:sincehecouldnotobtainitinsufficientquantity;andwerethisbirdtheonlymeanshehadforsupplyinghislarder,hewouldsoonbeindangerofstarvation.True, theostrich laysagreatmanyeggs, andbrings fortha largebroodofyoung;butthereareagreatmanyhungrymouths,andagreatmanylargestomachsamongthePatagonianpeople.Theostrichcouldneversupplythemall;andwereittheironlyresource,thebirdwouldsoondisappearfromtheplainsofPatagonia,and,perhaps,theraceofPatagoniangiantsalongwithit.FortunatelyforthePatagonian,hiscountryfurnisheshimwithanotherkindofgame,fromwhichheobtainsamoresufficientsupply;andthatistheguanaco.Beholdyonderherdofstatelycreatures!Thereareseveralhundredsofthemin

all.Theirbodiesarecoveredwithlong,woollyhairofareddish-browncolour.If theyhadantlersupon theirheads,youmightmistake themforstags,—fortheyarejustaboutthesizeofthemaleofthereddeer.Buttheyhavenohorns;andotherwisetheyareunliketheseanimals,—intheirlongslendernecks,andcoatofwoollyhair.Theyarenotdeerofanykind,—theyareguanacos.These,then, are the herds of the Patagonian Indian; they are the game he chieflypursues;andtheirfleshthefood,uponwhichheismainlysubsisted.Ineednotheregivethenaturalhistoryoftheguanaco.Sufficeittosaythatitisoneofthefour(perhapsfive)speciesofllamasor“camel-sheep”peculiartothecontinentofSouthAmerica,—theotherthreeofwhicharethevicuña,thetruellama,andthepaco,oralpaca.Thellamaandalpacaaredomesticated;butthe vicuña, the most graceful of all, exists only in a wild state, like theguanaco.ThefourkindsinhabitthetablelandsoftheAndes,fromColombiatoChili;buttheguanacohasextendeditsrangeacrosstotheAtlanticsideofthecontinent:thisonlyintheterritorysouthoftheLaPlataRiver.OntheplainsofPatagonia it is the characteristic quadruped: rarely out of sight, and usuallyseen inherdsof twentyor thirty individuals;but sometimes in largedroves,numbering as many as five hundred. There the puma—after the Indian ofcourse—isitsgreatestenemy,—andthedébrisofhisfeastconstitutesthefoodofthevulturesandvulture-eagles,—thusaccountingforthepresenceofthesegreatbirdsinsuchadesertland.The guanaco is among the shyest of quadrupeds; and its capture would bedifficulttoanyoneunacquaintedwithitshabits.Butthesebetraythemtotheskilled Patagonian hunter,—who is well acquainted with every fact in thenaturalhistoryoftheanimal.The Patagonian mode of capturing these creatures is not without manypeculiaritiesinhuntingpractice.Hisfirstcareistofindouttheirwhereabouts:forthehauntswhichtheguanacosmostaffectarenotthelevelplains,wheretheymightbeseenfromafar,butratherthoseplaceswherethegroundishillyorrolling.There theyare tobemetwith, ranged inextended linesalong thesidesof thehills,withanoldmalekeepingwatchupon thesummitofsomeeminence that overlooks the flock. Should the sentinel espy any danger, orevensuspectit,hegivesthealarmbyutteringashrill,whistlingcry,somewhatresemblinganeigh.Onhearingthiswell-knownsignal,theothersatoncetaketo flight, andgallop straight for the sideof someotherhill,—where theyallhaltinline,andstandwaitingtoseeiftheyarefollowed.Veryoftenthefirstintimationwhichthehunterhasof theirpresence, isbyhearingtheirstrangesignalofflight,—whichmaybedescribedasasortoftriangularcrossbetweensquealing,neighing,andwhistling.Shy as they are, and difficult to be approached, they have the strangepeculiarity of losing all their senses when put into confusion. On these

occasionstheybehaveexactlylikeaflockofsheep:notknowingwhichwaytoran;nowdashingtooneside, thentotheother,andoftenrushingintotheveryteethofthatdangerfromwhichtheyaretryingtoescape!Knowingtheirstupidityinthisrespect,thePatagonianhunteractsaccordingly.Hedoesnotgoouttohunttheguanacosalone,butincompanywithothersofhistribe,thehunting-partyoftencomprisingthewholetribe.Armedwiththeir“chuzos,”—lightcanespearsofeighteenfeetinlength,—andmountedontheirwell-trainedsteeds,theysallyforthfromtheirencampment,andproceedtothefavourite pasturing-ground of the guanacos. Their purpose is, if possible, toeffectthe“surround”ofawholeherd;andtoaccomplishthis,itisnecessarytoproceedwithgreatskillandcaution.Theanimalsarefoundatlength;and,bymeansofadeploymentofdogsandhorsemen,aredriven towards somehillwhichmaybeconvenienttothepasture.Theinstinctoftheanimalguidingitthither,rendersthispartoftheperformanceeasyenough.Onreachingthehill,theguanacosdashonward,up to itssummit;and there,halting inacompactcrowd, make front towards their pursuers. These meanwhile have gallopedintoacircle,—surroundingtheeminenceonallsides;and,advancingupwardsamidstloudyellsandtheyelpingoftheirdogs,closefinallyaroundtheherd,andrushforwardtotheattack.Thelongchuzosdotheirworkwithrapidity;and,inafewminutes,numbersoftheguanacoslielifelessamongtherocks.Thedogs,withsomemen,formanoutercircleofassailants;andshouldanyguanacosescapethroughthelineofhorsemen,theyareseizeduponbythedogs,andpinnedtothespot,—foritis another sheep-like trait in the character of this animal, that themoment adog—eventhoughhebethemerestcur—seizesholdofit,itneitherattemptsfurther flight nor resistance, but remains “pinned” to the spot as if under aparalysis of terror. They sometimes give battle, however, though never to adog; and their mode of assault is by kicking behind them,—not with theirhoofsashorsesdo,butwiththeknee-joints,thehindlegsbeingbothraisedatonce.Amongthemselvesthemalesfightterriblebattles:bitingeachotherwiththeirteeth,andofteninflictingcruellacerations.Strange to say, when the guanacos are found solitary, or only two or threetogether, they are far less shy thanwhen assembled in large herds.At suchtimes,thefeelingofcuriosityseemsstrongerthanthatoffearwithinthem;andthehuntercaneasilyapproachwithinadozenpacesofone,bysimplycuttingafewcapers,orholdingupsomethingthatmaybenewtoit,—suchasastripofcolouredrag,orsomeshowyarticleofanykind.Itwasbysuchdevicesthatthe Patagonian captured these creatures, before possession of the horseenabled him to effect their destruction in themorewholesale fashionof the“surround.”Bytumblingaboutovertheground,hewasenabledtobringthegamewithin

reach,—notofhisbowandarrows;noryetofhislongspear,—forhedidnotuseitforsuchapurpose,—and,ofcourse,notofagun,forheneverhadheardofsuchaweapon.Withinreachofwhatthen?Ofaweaponpeculiarlyhisown,—aweaponofsingularconstructionanddeadlyeffect;whichheknewhowtoemploy before ever the white man came upon his shores, and which theSpaniardswhodwellinthePampascountryhavefoundbothprideandprofitinadopting.Thisweaponisthe“bolas.”Itissimpleandeasilydescribed.Tworoundstones,—thewomenmakethemroundbygrinding the one against the other,—two round stones are coveredwith a piece of guanaco raw hide, presenting verymuch the appearance ofcricket-balls, though of unequal size,—one being considerably smaller thantheother.Twothongsarecut;andoneendofeachisfirmlyattachedtooneoftheballs.Theotherendsof thethongsareknottedtoeachother;andwhenthestringsareatfullstretch,theballswillthenbeabouteightfeetapart,—inotherwords,eachthongshouldbefourfeetinlength.Thebolasarenowmade,andreadyfor use.The chief difficulty in theirmanufacture lies in the roundingof thestones;which,asaboveobserved,istheworkofthewomen;andatleasttwodaysarerequiredtogrindapairofbola-stonestothepropersphericalshape.Tohandle them requires longpractice; and this thePatagonianhashad: for,eversincetheyounggiantwasabletostanduponhisfeet,hehasbeeninthehabitofplayingwiththebolas.Theyhavebeenthetoyofhischildhood;andto display skill in theirmanagement has been the pride of his boyish days;therefore,onarrivingatfullmaturity,nowonderheexhibitsgreatdexterityintheir use.He can then project them to a distance of fifty yards,—with suchprecisionastostrikethelegsofeithermanorquadruped,andwithsuchforce,thatthethongnotonlywhipsitselfaroundtheobjectstruck,butoftenleavesadeepweal in theskinand flesh.Themodeof throwing themiswell-known.Therighthandonlyisused;andthisgraspsthethongsattheirpointofunion,about halfway between the ends. The balls are then whirled in a circularmotion around the head; and, when sufficient centrifugal power has beenobtained, theweapon is launched at the object to be captured.The aim is amatterofnicecalculation,—inwhicharm,eye,andmind,allbearapart,—andsotrueisthisaim,inPatagonianpractice,thatthehunterseldomfailstobringdownorotherwisecripplehisgame,—beitostrich,cavy,orguanaco.By these bolas, then, did the Patagonian hunter capture the guanaco andostrichintimespast;andbythesameweapondoeshestillcapturethem:forhe can use it even better on horseback than on foot. Either the bird or thequadruped,withinfiftyyards,hasnochanceofescapefromhisunerringaim.Thebolas,insomedistricts,havebeenimproveduponbytheintroductionofathirdball;butthisthePatagoniandoesnotconsideranimprovement.Wooden

ballsaresometimesemployed;andironones,wheretheycanbehad,—thelastsortcanbeprojectedtothegreatestdistance.ThePatagoniantakestheyoungguanacosalive;andbringsthemupinastateofdomestication.Thelittlecreaturesmayoftenbeobserved,standingoutsidethetentsofaPatagonianencampment,—eithertiedbyastring,orheldinhandbysome“infantgiant”ofthetribe.Itisnotsolelyforthepleasureofmakingpetsofthem,thattheyoungguanacosarethuscherished;noryettoraisethemforfood.Theobjectaimedathasaverydifferentsignification.Theseyoungguanacosareintendedtobeusedasdecoys:forthepurposeofattractingtheirown relatives,—fathers,mothers, sisters,brothers,uncles, andaunts, even tothemostdistantthirty-secondcousinship,—withinreachoftheterriblebolas!This is effected by tying the innocent little creature to some bush,—behindwhich the hunter conceals himself,—and then imitating the mother’s call;whichtheIndianhuntercandowithalltheskillofaventriloquist.Theyoungcaptive responds with the plaintive cry of captivity,—the parents are soonattractedtothespot,andfallvictimstotheirinstinctofnaturalaffection.Wereit not for this, and similar stratagems adopted by the Patagonian hunter, hewouldpursuetheguanacoinvain.Evenwiththehelpofhispackofdogs,andmounted upon the fleet Spanish horse, the guanaco cannot be hunted withsuccess.Nature, indenyingto theseanimalsalmosteverymeansofdefence,hasalsobestoweduponthemagiftwhichenablesthemtoescapefrommanykindsofdanger.Ofmildand inoffensivehabits,—defencelessas thehare,—they are also possessed of a like swiftness. Indeed, there is perhaps noquadruped—noteven theantelope—thatcangetover thegroundasspeedilyas theguanacoor itskindredspecies thevicuña.Bothareswiftas thewind;and the eye, following either in its retreat over the level plain, or up thedeclivityofahill,isdeludedintothefancythatitiswatchingsomegreatbirduponthewing.Therearecertainseasonsduringwhichtheguanacoismuchmoredifficulttoapproachthanatothertimes;butthisistrueofalmosteveryspeciesofanimal,—whether bird or quadruped. Of course, the tame season is that of sexualintercourse,wheneventhewildbeastsbecomerecklessundertheinfluenceofpassion.Atother times theguanacos aregenerallyvery shy; and sometimesextremely so. It is notuncommon for aherdof them to take the alarm, andscamper off from the hunter, even before the latter has approached nearenough to be himselfwithin sight of them! They possess great keenness ofscent,butitistheeyewhichusuallyprovestheirfriend,warningthemoftheapproachofanenemy—especiallyifthatenemybeamanuponhorseback—beforethelatterisawareoftheirproximity.Oftenacloudofdust,risingafaroffovertheplain,istheonlyproofthehuntercanobtain,thattherewasgamewithin the range of his vision. It is a curious circumstance connected with

huntingonthesegreatplains,—bothonthePampasandinPatagonia,—thatamanonfootcanapproachmuchnearertoanygamethanifheweremounteduponahorse.Thisistruenotonlyinrelationtotheguanacoandostrich,butalsoofthelargePampasdeer(cervuscampestris);andindeedofalmosteveryanimal that inhabits these regions. The reason is simple enough. All thesecreaturesareaccustomedtoseeingtheirhumanenemyonlyonhorseback:for“stillhunting,”orhuntingafoot, is rarelyorneverpractisedupon theplains.Notonlythat,butamanonfoot,wouldbeararesighteithertoanostrichorguanaco;andtheywouldscarcerecognisehimasanenemy!Curiositywouldbe their leading sentiment; and, being influencedby this, thehunter on footcan often approach them without difficulty. The Patagonian, knowing thispeculiarity,notunfrequently takesadvantageof it, tokillorcaptureboththebirdandthequadruped.Thissentimentofthebrutecreation,ontheplainsofPatagonia,isdirectlythereverseofwhatmaybeobserved inourownfields.Theslycrowshowsbutlittleof this shyness, so longasyouapproach itonahorse’sback;butonlyattempttostealuptoitonfoot,—evenwithathickhawthornhedgetoscreenyou,—and every fowler knows how wary the bird can prove itself. Somepeoplepronouncethisinstinct.Ifso,instinctandreasonmustbeoneandthesamething.Besides hunting the guanaco,much of the Patagonian’s time is spent in thechase of the ostrich; and, to circumvent this shy creature, he adopts variousruses. The American ostrich, or more properly rhea, has many habits incommonwithitsAfricancongener.Oneoftheseis,whenpursueditrunsinastraight track, and, if possible, against the wind. Aware of this habit, thePatagonianspursue itonhorseback,—takingtheprecaution toplacesomeoftheir party in ambush in the direction which the bird ismost likely to run.Theythengallophastilyuptothelineofflight,andeither intercept therheaaltogether,orsucceedin“hoppling”itwiththebolas.Themomentthesetouchitslonglegs,botharedrawnsuddenlytogether;andthebirdgoesdownasifshot!Drake and other voyagers have recorded the statement that the Patagoniansattract the rheawithin reach,bydisguising themselves inaskinof thisbird.Thisisevidentlyanuntruth;andtheerror,whetherwilfulorotherwise,derivesitsoriginfromthefact,thatastratagemofthekindisadoptedbytheBushmenofAfricatodeceivetheostrich.Butwhatispracticableandpossiblebetweenapigmy Bushman and a gigantic African ostrich, becomes altogetherimpracticable and improbable, when the dramatis persona are a giganticPatagonianandanAmericanrhea.Moreover,itisalsoworthyofremark,thatthe rhea of the Patagonian plains is not the larger of the two species ofAmericanostrich,butthesmallerone(rheaDarwinii),whichhasbeenlately

specificallynamedafterthecelebratednaturalist.AndjustlydoesMrDarwinmeritthehonour:sincehewasthefirsttogiveascientificdescriptionofthebird. Hewas not the first, however,—as he appears himself to believe,—todiscover its existence, or to give a record of it in writing. The old Styrianmonk,Dobrizhoffer,twocenturiesbeforeMrDarwinwasborn,inhis“HistoryoftheAbipones”clearlypointstothefactthatthereweretwodistinctspeciesofthe“avestruz,”orSouth-Americanostrich.MrDarwin,however,hasconfirmedDobrizhoffer’saccount;andbroughtbothbirds homewith him; and he,who chooses to reflect upon the subject,willeasily perceive how impossible itwould be for a Patagonian to conceal hisbulky corpus under the skin of a rhea Darwinii, or eventhat of its largercongener, the rheaAmericana. The skin of eitherwould be littlemore thanlargeenoughtoformacapforthecolossusofthePatagonianplains.In themore fertile parts of Patagonia, the large deer (cervus campestris) isfound.These are also hunted by thePatagonian, and their flesh is esteemedexcellentfood;not,however,untilithaslainseveraldaysburiedunderground,—foritrequiresthisfunerealprocess,toriditoftherank,goat-likesmell,sopeculiar to the species. The mode of hunting this deer—at least that mostlikelytoinsuresuccess—isbystealingforwardtoitonfoot.Sometimesamanmayapproachit,withinthedistanceofafewyards,—evenwhenthereisnocovertoshelterhim,—bywalkinggentlyuptoit.OfalltheotherquadrupedsofthePampas,—andtheseplainsareitsfavouritehabitat,—the cervus campestris most dreads the horseman:—since its enemy alwaysappearsinthatguise;andithaslearntthedestructivepowerofbothlazoandbolas, by having witnessed their effects upon its comrades. The hunterdismountedhasnoterrorsforit;andifhewillonlykeeplazoandbolasoutofsight,—for these it can distinguish, as our crow does the gun,—hemay getnearenoughtoflingeitheroneortheotherwithafatalprecision.The “agouti” (cavia Patagonica) frequently furnishes the Patagonian with ameal. This species is a true denizen of the desert plains of Patagonia; andformsoneofthecharacteristicfeaturesoftheirlandscape.Ineednotdescribeits generic characters; and specifically it has been long known as the“Patagoniancavy.”ItshabitsdifferverylittlefromtheotherSouth-Americananimalsof this rodentgenus,—except that,unlike thegreatcapivara, itdoesnotaffect todwellnear thewater. It isaltogetheradenizenofdryplains, inwhich it burrows, and uponwhich it may be seen browsing, or hopping atintervalsfromonepointtoanother,likeagiganticrabbitorhare.Infact,thecaviesappeartobetheSouth-Americanrepresentativesoftheharefamily,—takingtheirplaceuponalloccasions;and,thoughofmanydifferentspecies,—according to climate, soil, and other circumstances,—yet agreeing with thehares inmostof their characteristichabits.Somuchdo someof the species

assimilate to these last, thatcolonialsportsmenareaccustomed togive themthe Old-World appellation of the celebrated swift-footed rodent. ThePatagonian cavies are much larger than English hares,—one of them willweigh twenty-five pounds,—but, in other respects, there is a great deal ofresemblance. On a fine evening, three or four caviesmay be seen squattedneareachother,orhoppingaboutovertheplains,onefollowingtheotherinadirectline,asiftheywereallproceedingonthesameerrand!Justsuchahabitis frequently observed among hares and rabbits in a field of young corn orfallow.ThePatagonianboysandwomenoftenemploythemselvesinseekingouttheostriches’nests, and robbing themof their eggs,—which last they findgoodeating.Inthenestsofthesmallerspecieswhichwehavealreadystatedtobethe most common in the Patagonian country,—they are not rewarded soliberallyfortheirtrouble.OnlyfromsixteentotwentyeggsarehatchedbytherheaDarwiniiandabouttwenty-fivetothirtybytherheaAmericana.Itwillbeseen, that this isfarbelowthenumberobtainedfromthenestof theAfricanostrich (struthio camelus),—in which as many as sixty or seventy eggs arefrequently found. Itwould appear, therefore, that the greater the size of thebird, belonging to this genus the greater the number of its brood. Both theAmerican rheas follow the peculiar habit of the true ostrich: that is, severalhens deposit their eggs in the same nest; and the male bird assists in theprocess of incubation. Indeed, in almost every respect—except size andgeneral colour of plumage—the American and African ostriches resembleeachothervery closely; and there is no reason in theworldwhyapedanticcompiler should have bestowed upon themdistinct generic names.Both aretrue camel birds: both alike the offspring, as they are the ornament, of thedesertland.AnotheroccupationinwhichthePatagonianengages—andwhichsometimesrewards himwith ameal—is the snaring of the Pampas partridge (nothuriamajor). This is usually the employment of themore youthful giants; and isperformedbothonfootandonhorseback.Asmallspeciesofpartridgeistakenonfoot;butthelargerkindcanbesnaredbestfromthebackofahorse.ThemodeisnotaltogetherpeculiartoPatagonia:sinceitisalsopractisedinotherparts of America,—both north and south,—and the bustard is similarlycaptured upon the karoos of Africa. During the noon hours of the day, theperformancetakesplace:thatis,whenthesunnolongercastsashadow.Thelocalityofthebirdbeingfirstascertained,thefowlerapproachesit,asnearasitwillallow.Hethencommencesridinground,andround,andround,—beingallthewhilewatchedbythefoolishbird,that, inconstantlyturningitshead,appearstogrowgiddy,andlosesalldreadofdanger.TheIndianeachmomentkeeps lessening his circle; or, in other words, approaches by a spiral line,continually closing upon its centre.His onlyweapon is a long light reed,—

something like the common kind of cane fishing-rod, seen in the hands ofrusticyouthinourowncountry.Ontheendofthisreedhehasadjustedastiffsnare;thenooseofwhichismadefromtheepidermisofanostrichplume,orapiece of the split quill; and which, being both stiff and elastic, servesadmirablyforthepurposeforwhichitisdesigned.Havingat lengtharrivedwithinaproperdistance to reach thebeguiledbird,theboy softly stopshishorse,bendsgently sidewards, and, adroitlypassinghisnooseovertheneckofthepartridge,jerksthesillycreatureintotheair.InthiswayanIndianboywillcaptureadozenofthesebirdsinafewhours;andmightobtainfarmore,ifthesunwouldonlystayalldayinthezenith.Butasthebrightorbsinkswestward, theelongatedshadowof thehorsemanpassesover the partridge before the latter is within reach of the snare; and thisalarmingthecreature,causesittotakeflight.ThePatagonian builds no house; nor does he remain long in one place at atime.Thesterilesoiluponwhichhedwellsrequireshimtoleadanomadelife;passingfromplace toplace insearchofgame.A tent is thereforehishome;and this is of the simplest kind: the tent-cloth consisting of a number ofguanaco skins stitched together, and the poles being such as he can obtainfromthenearesttractofthicketorchapparal.Thepolesaresetbow-fashionintheground,andoverthesetheskincoveringisspread,—oneofthebentpolesbeingleftuncovered,toserveasadoorway.MostofthePatagonian’stimeisoccupied inprocuringgame:which,aswehaveseen, ishissolesustenance;andwhenhehasanyleisuremoments,theyaregiventothecareofhishorse,ortothemakingorrepairinghisweaponsforthechase.Aboveall,thebolasarehisespecialpride,andeverpresentwithhim.Whennotinactualuse,theyare suspended fromhis girdle, or tied sash-like around hiswaist,—the ballsdanglingdownlikeapairoftassels.Onlyduringhishoursofsleep,isthisnationalweaponeveroutofthehandsofthePatagoniangiant.Hadthewonderfulgiantofournurseriesbeenprovidedwith sucha sling, it isprobable that little Jackwouldhave found inhimanadversarymoredifficulttosubdue!

ChapterEighteen.TheFuegianDwarfs.

ThegreatcontinentofSouthAmerica,taperinglikeatonguetothesouthward,endsabruptlyon theStraitsofMagellan.Thesestraitsmayberegardedasasortofnaturalcanal,connectingtheAtlanticwiththePacificOcean,windingbetween high rocky shores, and indented with numerous bays and inlets.

Thoughthewaterisofgreatdepth,theStraitsthemselvesaresonarrowthatashippassingthroughneedneverlosesightoflandoneitherside;andinmanyplacesashell,projectedfromanordinaryhowitzer,wouldpitchclearacrossthemfromshoretoshore!Thecountryextendingnorthwardfromthesestraitsis,asalreadyseen,calledPatagonia;thatwhichliesontheirsouthernsideisthefamed“landoffire,”TierradelFuego.Thecanal,orchannel,oftheStraitsofMagellandoesnotruninadirectlinefrom the Atlantic to the Pacific. On the contrary, a ship entering from theformer,insteadofpassingduewest,mustfirstruninasouth-westdirection,—rathermoresouththanwest.Thiscoursewillcontinue,untiltheshipisabouthalfwaybetweenthetwooceans.Shewillthenheadalmostatarightangletoherformercourse;andkeepthisdirection—whichisnearlyduenorth-west—untilsheemergesintothePacific.

Itwill thusbeseen, that theStraits formananglenear theirmiddle;and thepoint of land which projects into the vertex of this angle, and known tonavigators as Cape Forward, is the most southern land of the Americancontinent.Ofcourse this isnotmeant toapply to themostsouthernpointofAmericanland,—sinceTierradelFuegomustbeconsideredaspartofSouthAmerica. The far-famed “CapeHorn” is the part ofAmerica nearest to theSouthPole;andthisisapromontoryononeofthesmallelevatedislandslyingoff the southern coast ofTierradelFuego itself.TierradelFuegowas for alongtimeregardedasasingleisland;though,eveninthevoyageofMagellan,several large inlets, that resembledchannels,wereobserved running into theland; and it was suspected by that navigator, that these inlets might bepassages leading through to the ocean. Later surveys have proved that theconjecturesoftheSpano-Portuguesevoyagerwerewellfounded;anditisnowknownthatinsteadofasingleisland,thecountrycalledTierradelFuegoisacongeriesofmanyislands,ofdifferentshapesandsizes,—separatedfromoneanother by deep and narrow channels, or arms of the sea, with an endlessramification of sounds and inlets. In thewestern part—and occupyingmorethan three fourths of their whole territory—these close-lying islands arenothingelsethanmountains,—severalofthemrisingfivethousandfeetabovethelevelofthewater;andsteppingdirectlydowntoit,withoutanyfoothillsintervening!Someof themhave their lowerdeclivitiescoveredwith sombreforests; while, farther up, nothing appears but the bare brown rocks, variedwithblueglaciers,ormottledwithmassesofsnow.Themoreelevatedpeaksarecoveredwithsnowthatnevermelts;sincetheirsummitsriseconsiderablyabovethesnow-lineofthiscoldregion.Thesemountain islands ofTierra del Fuego continue on toCapeHorn, andeastwardtotheStraitsofLeMaire,andthebleakisletofStaatenLand.They

may,infact,beconsideredasthecontinuationofthegreatchainoftheAndes,ifweregard the intersectingchannels—including thatofMagellan itself—asmerecleftsorravines,thebottomsofwhich,lyingbelowthelevelofthesea,havebeen filledwithsea-water. Indeed,wemay rationally take thisviewofthecase:sincethesechannelsbearaverygreatresemblancetothestupendousravinestermed“barrancas”and“quebradas,”whichintersecttheCordillerasoftheAndesinotherpartsofSouthAmerica,—asalsointhenortherndivisionoftheAmericancontinent.Regarding theStraitsofMagellan, then,and theotherchannelsofTierradelFuego,asgreatwater-barrancas,wemayconsidertheAndesasterminatingatCapeHorn itself, or rather at StaatenLand: since that island is a stillmoredistantextensionofthis,thelongestchainofmountainsontheglobe.Anotherpointmaybehereadduced,inproofoftherationalityofthistheory.The western, or mountainous part of Tierra del Fuego bears a strongresemblancetothewesternsectionofthecontinent,—thatis,thepartoccupiedbytheAndes.ForaconsiderabledistancetothenorthoftheMagellanStraits,nearlyonehalfofthecontinentallandisofamountainouscharacter.Itisalsoindentedbynumeroussoundsandinlets,resemblingthoseofTierradelFuego;while the mountains that hang over these deep-water ravines are eithertimbered, or bare of trees and snow-covered, exhibiting glacier valleys, likethosefarthersouth.Thewholephysicalcharacterissimilar;and,whatisastillmore singular fact, we find that in the western, or mountainous part ofPatagonia, therearenotruePatagonians;butthat there, thewater-Indians,orFuegians,frequentthecreeksandinlets.Again,upontheeast,—orrathernorth-eastofTierradelFuego,—thatangulardivisionofit,whichliestothenorthoftheSebastianchannelpresentsuswithphysical features that correspond more nearly with those of the plains ofPatagonia;anduponthispartwefindtribesofIndiansthatbeyonddoubtaretruePatagonians,—andnotFuegians,as theyhavebeendescribed.ThiswillaccountforthefactthatsomenavigatorshaveseenpeopleontheFuegiansidethatwerelarge-bodiedmen,clothedinguanacoskins,andexhibitingnoneofthose wretched traits which characterise the Fuegians; while, on the otherhand,miserable, stuntedmenareknown tooccupy themountainouswesternpartofPatagonia. Itamounts to this,—that thePatagonianshavecrossed theStraitsofMagellan;and it is thispeople, andnotFuegians,whoareusuallyseen upon the champaign lands north of the Sebastian channel. Even theguanaco has crossed at the same place,—for this quadruped, as well as aspeciesofdeer,isfoundintheeasterndivisionofTierradelFuego.Perhapsitwas the camel-sheep—which appears to be almost a necessity of thePatagonian’s existence—that first induced thesewater-hating giants tomakesoextensiveavoyageasthatofcrossingtheStraitsatCapeOrange!

At Cape Orange the channel is so narrow, one might fancy that thePatagonians,iftheypossessedonehalfthepedestrianstretchattributedtothegiants of old,might have stepped from shore to shorewithoutwetting theirgreatfeet!Perhaps there are no two people on earth, living so near each other as thePatagoniansandFuegians,whoaremoreunlike.Except in thecolourof theskinandhair,thereishardlyapointofresemblancebetweenthem.Theformerseems to hate the sea: at all events he never goes out upon, nor evenapproachesitsshore,exceptinpursuitofsuchgameasmaywanderthatway.Heneitherdwellsnear,nordoeshedrawanyportionofhissubsistencefromthewatersofthegreatdeep,—fishconstitutingnopartofhisfood.AllthisisdirectlythereversewiththeFuegian.Thebeachisthesituationhechoosesforhisdwelling-place,andtheseaoritsshoreishisproperelement.Heismorethanhalfhistime,eitheronit,orinit,—onitinhiscanoe,andinit,whilewadingamongthetidalshoalsinsearchoffish,mussels,andlimpets,whichconstituteverynearlythewholeofhissubsistence.It is very curious, therefore, while noting the difference between these twotribes of Indians, to observe how each confines its range to that part of theMagellaniclandthatappearsbestadaptedtotheirownpeculiarhabits,—thoseof thePatagonianbeingaltogether terrestrial,while thoseof theFuegianareessentiallyaquatic.We have stated elsewhere the limits of the Patagonian territory; and shownthat,ethnologicallyspeakingtheydonotoccupythewholenorthernshoreoftheMagellan Straits, but only the eastern half of it.Westward towards thePacific theaspectof the land,onboth sidesof this famouschannel,mayberegardedasofthesamecharacter,thoughaltogetherdifferentfromthatwhichisseenattheentrance,oreasternend.WestofCapeNegroononeside,andtheSebastianpassageontheother,bleakmountain summits, with narrow wooded valleys intervening, become thecharacteristicfeatures.Therewebeholdanincongruouslabyrinthofpeaksandridges, of singular and fantastic forms,—many of them reaching above thelimitsofperpetualsnow,—which, in thiscoldclimatedescendstotheheightoffour thousandfeet.Wehaveseenthat thesemountainsareseparatedfromeachother,—notbyplains,norevenvalleys,intheordinaryunderstandingofthe term; but by ravines, the steep sides ofwhich are coveredwith sombreforestsuptoaheightofonethousandfivehundredfeetabovethelevelofthesea:atwhichpointvegetationterminateswithauniformityasexactasthatofthe snow-line itself! These forests grow out of awet, peaty soil,—inmanyplaces impassable on account of its boggy nature; and of this character isalmost the whole surface of the different islands. The trees composing theforestsarefewinspecies,—thoseof thegreatestsizeandnumbersbeingthe

“winter’s bark” (drymys), of the ordermagnoliacae, a birch, and, moreabundantly, a species of beech-tree, the fagus betuloides. These last-namedtreesaremanyofthemofgreatsize;andmightalmostbecalledevergreens:sincetheyretainpartoftheirfoliagethroughoutthewholeyear;butitwouldbemore appropriate to style them ever-yellows: since at no period do theyexhibitaverdure,anythingliketheforestsofothercountries.Theyarealwaysclad in the same sombre livery of dull yellow, rendering the mountainlandscapearoundthem,ifpossible,moredrearyanddesolate.TheforestsofTierradelFuegoareessentiallyworthlessforests; their timberoffering but a limited contribution to the necessities ofman, and producingscarceanyfoodforhissubsistence.Manyoftheravinesaresodeepastoend,asalreadystated,inbecomingarmsorinletsofthesea;whileothersagainarefilledupwithstupendousglaciers,thatappear likecataractssuddenlyarrested in their fall,bybeingfrozenintosolidice!Mostoftheseinletsareofgreatdepth,—sodeepthatthelargestshipmay plough through them with safety. They intersect the islands in everydirection,—cutting them up into numerous peninsulas of the most fantasticforms;whilesomeof thechannelsarenarrowsounds,andstretchacross thelandofTierradelFuegofromoceantoocean.The“LandofFire”isthereforenotanisland,—asitwaslongregarded,—butratheracollectionofislands,terminatedbyprecipitouscliffsthatfrownwithingunshotofeachother.Ofttimesvastmassesofrock,orstill largermassesofglacierice,fallfromthesecliffsintotheprofoundabyssesoftheinletsbelow;theconcussion,astheystrikethewater,reverberatingtothedistanceofmiles;whilethewateritself,stirredtoitslowestdepths,risesingrandsurgingwaves,thatoftenengulfthecanoeoftheunwarysavage.“TierradelFuego”issimplytheSpanishphrasefor“LandofFire.”Itwassocalled byMagellan on account of the numerous fires seen at night upon itsshores,—whileheandhispeoplewerepassingthroughtheStraits.Theseweresignalfires,kindledbythenatives,—nodoubttotelegraphtooneanotherthearrivalofthosestrangeleviathans,theSpanishships,thenseenbythemforthefirsttime.The name is inappropriate. A more fit appellation would be the “land ofwater;”for,certainly,innopartoftheearthiswatermoreabundant:bothrainand snow supplying it almost continually. Water is the very plague of theisland;itliesstagnantorrunseverywhere,—formingswamps,whereverthereisaspotoflevelground,andrenderingeventhedeclivitiesofthemountainsasspongyasapeat-bog.The climate throughout the whole year is excessively cold; for, though thewinter is perhaps notmore rigorous than in the same latitude of a northern

land, yet the summer is almost as severe as the winter; and it would be amisnomertocallitsummeratall.Snowfallsthroughoutthewholeyear;andeveninthemidsummerofTierradelFuegomenhaveactuallyperishedfromcold,atnogreatelevationabovethelevelofthesea!Underthesecircumstances,itwouldscarcebeexpectedthatTierradelFuegoshouldbe inhabited,—eitherbymenor animalsof anykind;butnocountryhasyetbeenreached,toocoldfortheexistenceofboth.Nopartoftheearthseems to have been created in vain; and both men and beasts are founddwellingunderthechillskiesofTierradelFuego.Theland-animals,aswellasthebirds,arefewinspecies,asinnumbers.Theguanacoisfoundupontheislands;butwhether indigenous,orcarriedacrossfromthePatagonianshore,canneverbedetermined:sinceitwasaninhabitantof the islands long anterior to the arrival ofMagellan. It frequents only theeasternsideofthecluster,—wherethegroundisfirmer,andafewlevelspotsappearthatmightbetermedplainsormeadows.Aspeciesofdeerinhabitsthesame districts; and besides these, there are two kinds of fox-wolves (canisMagellanicusandcanisAzarae),threeorfourkindsofmice,andaspeciesofbat.Ofwater-mammaliathereisagreaterabundance:thesecomprisingthewhale,seals,sea-lions,andthesea-otter.But few birds have been observed; only thewhite-tufted flycatcher, a largeblackwoodpeckerwith scarlet crest, a creeper, awren, a thrush, a starling,hawks,owls,andfourorfivekindsoffinches.The water-birds, like the water-mammalia, muster in greater numbers. Ofthesethereareducksofvariouskinds,sea-divers,andpenguins,thealbatross,and sheer-water, and, more beautiful than all, the “painted” or “Magellangoose.”Reptiles do not exist, and insects are exceedingly rare. A few flies andbutterflies are seen; but the mosquito—the plague of other parts of SouthAmerica—does not venture into the cold, humid atmosphere of theLand ofFire.Wenowarriveatthehumaninhabitantsofthisdesolateregion.Asmightbeexpected,theseexhibitnoveryhighconditionofeitherphysicalormentaldevelopment,butthecontrary.Thecharacteroftheircivilisationisincompletecorrespondencewith thatof theirdrearydwelling-place,—at thevery bottom of the scale. Yes, at the very bottom, according to mostethnologists; even lowerdown than that of theDigger Indian, theAndamanislander, the Bushman ofAfrica, or the Esquimaux of theArcticOcean: infact, any comparison of a Fuegian with the last-mentioned would beridiculous, as regards either their moral or physical condition. Below the

Esquimaux,theFuegiancertainlyis,andbymanyalongdegree.Inheight, thetallestFuegianstandsaboutfivefeet,—notinhisboots,forhewears none; but on his naked soles.Hiswife is just six inches shorter thanhimself—adifferencewhichisnotabadproportionbetweenthesexes,butinother respects they aremuch alike.Both have small,misshapen limbs,withlargeknee-caps, andbut little calf;bothhave longmassesof coarse tangledhair,hanginglikebunchesofblacksnakesovertheirshoulders;andbothareasnakedasthehourinwhichtheywereborn,—unlesswecallthatadress,—thatbitofstinkingsealskinwhichisslungattheback,andcoversaboutafifthpart of thewhole body!Hairy side turned inward, it extends only from thenapeofthenecktoafewinchesbelowthehollowoftheback;andisfastenedinfrontbymeansofathongorskewerpassingoverthebreast.Itisrarelysoampleastoadmitofbeing“skewered;”andwiththisscantycovering,inrainandsnow,frostandblow,—someoneofwhichiscontinuouslygoingon,—theshiveringwretchiscontented.Nay,more;ifthereshouldhappenanintervalofmildweather, or thewearerbe atwork inpaddlinghis canoe, he flings thisunique garment aside, as if its warmth were an incumbrance! When theweather is particularly cold, he shifts the sealskin to that side of his bodywhichmaychancetobeexposedtotheblast!TheFuegianwearsneitherhat,norshirt,waistcoat,norbreeches,—noshoes,nostockings,—nothingintendedforclothingbutthebitofstinkingskin.Hisvanity, however, is exhibited, not in his dress, to some extent in hisadornments. Like all savages and many civilised people, he paints certainportionsofhisperson;andhis“escutcheon”ispeculiar.Itwouldbedifficulttodetail its complicated labyrinth of “crossings” and “quarterings.” We shallcontentourselvesbystatingthatblacklinesandblotchesuponawhitegroundconstitute its chief characteristic. Red, too, is sometimes seen, of a dark or“bricky”colour.Theblackissimplycharcoal;whilethewhite-groundcoatisobtainedfromaspeciesofinfusorialclay,whichhefindsatthebottomofthepeaty streams, that pour down the ravines of the mountains. As additionalornaments,hewearsstringsof fish-teeth,orpiecesofbone,abouthiswristsandankles.Hiswifecarriesthesameuponherneck;andboth,whentheycanprocureit, tieaplainbandaroundthehead,ofareddish-browncolour,—thematerial of which is the long hair of the guanaco. The “cloak,” alreadydescribed, is sometimesof sea-otter insteadof sealskin; andon someof theislands,where thedeerdwells, thehideof thatanimalaffordsamoreamplecovering. Inmostcases,however, thesizeof thegarment is thatofapockethandkerchief; andaffordsaboutasmuchprotectionagainst theweatherasakerchiefwould.Though the Fuegian has abundance of hair upon his head, there is none, oralmost none on any part of his body.He is beardless andwhiskerless as an

Esquimaux; though his features,—without the adornment of hair,—aresufficientlyfierceintheirexpression.Henotonlylooksferocious,butinrealityisso,—deformedinmind,asheishideousinperson.Heisnotonlyungratefulforkindnessdone,butunwillingtorememberit;andheiscruelandvindictiveintheextreme.Beyondadoubtheisacannibal;nothabituallyperhaps,butintimesofscarcityandfamine,—atruecannibal,forhedoesnotconfinehimselftoeatinghisenemies,buthisfriends if needbe,—andespecially theoldwomenofhis tribe,who fall thefirst victims, in those crises produced by the terrible requirements of animpendingstarvation.Unfortunatelythefactistoowellauthenticatedtoadmitofeitherdoubtordenial;and,evenwhilewewrite,theaccountofamassacreofaship’screwby thesehostilesavages isgoing the roundsof thepress,—that ship, too, amissionary vessel, that had landed on their shoreswith thehumaneobjectofamelioratingtheircondition.Ofcoursesuchunnaturalfoodisonlypartakenofatlongandrareintervals,—bymanycommunitiesnever,—andthereisnoproofthatthewretchedFuegianhasacquiredanappetiteforit:liketheFeegeeandsomeothersavagetribes.Itis tobehopedthatheindulgesinthehorridhabit,onlywhenforcedtoitbythenecessitiesofextremehunger.Hisordinarysubsistenceisshell-fish;thoughheeatsalsothefleshofthesealandsea-otter;ofbirds,especiallythepenguinandMagellanicgoose,whenhecan capture them.His stomachwill not “turn” at the blubber of awhale,—when by good chance one of these leviathans gets stranded on his coast,—eventhoughthegreatcarcassbefargoneinthestagesofdecomposition!Theonlyvegetabledietinwhichheindulgesistheberryofashrub—aspeciesofarbutus—whichgrows abundantly on the peaty soil; and a fungus of a verycuriouskind,thatisproduceduponthetrunksofthebeech-tree.Thisfungusisof a globular form, and pale-yellow colour. When young, it is elastic andturgid,witha smooth surface;but as itmatures it becomes shrunken,growstougher in its texture, and presents the pitted appearance of a honeycomb.When fully ripe, theFuegians collect it in largequantities, eating itwithoutcookingorotherpreparation.Itistoughbetweentheteeth;butsoonchangesintopulp,withasweetishtasteandflavour,—somewhatresemblingthatofourcommonmushroom.Thesetwovegetables—aberryandacryptogamicplant—arealmosttheonlyoneseatenbythenativesofTierradelFuego.Thereareothersupontheislandthat might enable them to eke out their miserable existence: there are twoespeciallysoughtafterbysuchEuropeansasvisitthisdrearyland,—the“wildcelery” (opium antarcticum), and the “scurvy grass” (cardamineantiscorbutica);butforthesetheFuegiancaresnot.Heevenknowsnottheiruses.

In speaking of other “odd people,” I have usually described the mode ofbuilding their house; but about the house of the Fuegian I have almost “nostorytotell.”Itwouldbeidletocallthatahouse,whichfarmoreresemblesthelairofawildbeast;andis,inreality,littlebetterthanthedenmadebytheorang-outangintheforestsofBorneo.Suchasitis,however,Ishalldescribeit.Havingprocuredanumberoflongsaplingsorbranches,—notalwaysstraightones,—the Fuegian sharpens them at one end bymeans of hismussel-shellknife;andthenstickingthesharpenedendsintothegroundinakindofcircle,hebringsthetopsalltogether,andtiestheminabunch,—soastoformarudehemisphericalframe.Uponthishelayssomesmallerbranches;andovertheseafewarmfulsoflongcoarsegrass,andthehouseis“built”.Oneside—thattoleewardoftheprevailingwind—isleftopen,toallowforanentranceandtheescapeofsmoke.Asthisopeningisusuallyaboutaneighthpartofthewholecircumference, the house is, in reality, nothingmore than a shed or lair. Itsfurnituredoesnotcontradicttheidea;but,onthecontrary,onlystrengthensthecomparison.Thereisnotable,nochair,nobedstead:a“shake-down”ofdampgrass answers for all. There are no implements or utensils,—ifwe except arudebasketusedforholdingthearbutusberries,andasealskinbag,inwhichthe shell-fish are collected. A bladder, filled with water, hangs upon someforkingstuckagainsttheside:inthetopofthisbladderisahole,fromwhicheachmemberofthefamilytakesa“suck,”whenthirstinclinesthemtodrink!The“tools”observableareabowandarrow,thelatterheadedwithflint;afishspearwithaforkedpoint,madefromaboneofthesea-lion;ashortstick,—awoman’s implement for knocking the limpets from the rocks; and someknives,thebladesofwhicharesharpenedshellsofthemussel,—averylargespecies of which is found along the coast. These knives are simplymanufactured. The brittle edge of the shell—which is five or six inches inlength—isfirstchippedoff,andanewedgeformedbygrindingtheshellupontherocks.Whenthusprepared,itwillcutnotonlythehardestwood,buteventhebonesoffish;andservestheFuegianforallpurposes.Outsidethehut,youmayseethecanoe,—nearathandtoo,—fortheshielingof the Fuegian universally stands upon the beach. He never dwells in theinterior of his island; and but rarely roams there,—thewomen onlymakingsuchexcursionsasarenecessarytoprocuretheberryandthemushroom.Thewoods have no charms for him, except to afford him a little fuel; they aredifficult to be traversed on account of themiry soil out of which the treesgrow; and, otherwise, there is absolutely nothing to be found amidst theirgloomydepths,thatwouldinanywaycontributetohiscomfortorsustenance.Heisthereforeessentiallyadwellerontheshore;andeventhereheisnotfreetocomeandgoashemightchoose.Fromtheboldcharacterofhiscoast,there

arehereandtherelongreaches,wherethebeachcannotbefollowedbyland,—places where the water’s edge can only be reached, and the shell-fishcollected, by means of some sort of navigable craft. For this purpose theFuegianrequiresacanoe;andthenecessityofhislifemakeshimawaterman.Hisskill,however,bothintheconstructionofhiscraft,andthemanagementofit,isofaveryinferiororder,—infinitelyinferiortothatexhibitedeitherbytheEsquimauxortheWater-IndiansoftheNorth.Hiscanoeisusuallymadeofthebarkofatree,—thebirchalreadymentioned.Sometimesitissorudelyshaped,astobemerelyalargepieceofbarkshelledfromasingletrunk,closedateachend,andtiedtightlywiththongofsealskin.A few cross-sticks prevent the sides from pressing inward; while as manystaysofthongkeepthemfrom“bulging”inthecontrarydirection.Iftherearecracksinthebark,thesearecaulkedwithrushesandaspeciesofresin,whichthewoodsfurnish.With this rude vessel the Fuegian ventures forth, upon the numerous straitsandinletsthatintersecthisland;butherarelytrustshimselftoatempestuoussea.Ifrichorindustrious,hesometimesbecomesthepossessorofacraftsuperiorto this. It is also a bark canoe, but not made of a single “flitch.” On thecontrary,therearemanychoicepiecesusedinitsconstruction:foritisfifteenfeetinlengthandthreeinwidthamidships.Its“build”alsoisbetter,—withahighprowand stern, and cross-pieces regularly set and secured at the ends.Thepiecesofbarkareunitedbyastitchingofthongs;andtheseamscarefullycaulked so that nowater can enter. In this vessel, the Fuegianmay embarkwithhiswholefamily,—andhiswholefurnituretoboot,—andvoyagetoanypartofhiscoast.Andthisinrealityhedoes;forthe“shanty”abovedescribed,istohimonlyatemporaryhome.Thenecessitiesofhisliferequirehimtobecontinuallychangingit;anda“removal,”withthebuildingofanewdomicile,isacircumstanceoffrequentrecurrence.Notunfrequently,inremovingfromonepartofthecoasttoanother,hefindsitsafermakingalandjourney,toavoidthedangersofthedeep.Intimesofhighwind,itisnecessaryforhimtoadoptthiscourse,—elsehisfrailbarkmightbedashedagainsttherocksandriventopieces.Inthelandjourneyhecarriesthecanoe alongwith him; and in order to do thiswith convenience, he has socontrivedit,thattheplankscomposingthelittlevesselcanbetakenapart,andput together againwithoutmuch difficulty,—the seams only requiring to befreshly caulked. In the transport across land, each member of the familycarriesapartofthecanoe:thestrongerindividualstakingtheheavierpieces,—asthesideandbottomplanks,—whiletheribsandlightbeamsarebornebytheyoungerandweaker.Thenecessityofremovalarisesfromaverynaturalcause.Afewdaysspentat

a particular place,—on a creek or bay,—even though the community be asmallone,soonexhausts thechiefstoreoffood,—themussel-bankuponthebeach,—and, of course, another must be sought for. This may lie at somedistance; perhaps can only be reached by a tedious, and sometimes perilouswater-journey; and under these circumstances the Fuegian deems it lesstroubletocarrythemountaintoMahomet,thancarryMahometsooftentothemountain.Thetransportinghiswholeménage,isjustaseasyasbringinghomea load of limpets; and as to the building of a new house, that is a merebagatelle,which takes little labour, andnomore time than the erectionof atent.SomeFuegiansactuallypossessatent,coveredwiththeskinsofanimals;butthisarareandexceptionaladvantage;andthetentitselfoftherudestkind.TheFuegianhashisownmodeofprocuringfire.Heisprovidedwithapieceof “mundic,” or iron pyrites, which he finds high up upon the sides of hismountains.Thisstruckbyapebblewillproducesparks.Thesehecatchesuponatinderofmoss,orthe“punk”ofadeadtree,whichheknowshowtoprepare.Thetinderonceignited,isplacedwithinaroundishballofdrygrass;and,thisbeingwavedaboutincircles,setsthegrassinablaze.Itisthenonlynecessarytocommunicatetheflametoabundleofsticks;andtheworkiscomplete.Theprocess, though easy enough in a climate where “punk” is plenty, and drygrassandstickscanbereadilyprocured,isneverthelessdifficultenoughinthehumidatmosphereofTierradelFuego,—wheremossislikeawetsponge,andgrass,sticks,andlogs,canhardlybefounddryenoughtoburn.Wellknowingthis,theFuegianishabituallycarefulofhisfire:scarceeverpermittingittogoout;andevenwhiletravellinginhiscanoe,insearchofa“newhome,”sidebysidewithhisother“penates”hecarriesthefirealongwithhim.Notwithstandingtheabundanceoffuelwithwhichhiscountryprovideshim,he seems never to be thoroughlywarm.Having no closewalls to surroundhim, and no clothing to cover his body, he suffers almost incessantly fromcold. Wherever met, he presents himself with a shivering aspect, like oneundergoingaseverefitoftheague!The Fuegians live in small communities,which scarce deserve the name of“tribes,”sincetheyhavenopoliticalleader,norchiefofanydescription.Theconjuror—andtheyhavehim—istheonlyindividualthatdiffersinanydegreefrom theothermembersof thecommunity;buthispower isvery slight andlimited;nordoesitextendtotheexerciseofanyphysicalforce.Religiontheyhave none,—at least, nonemore sacred or sanctified than a vague belief indevilsandotherevilspirits.Although without leaders, they are far from being a peaceful people. Thevariouscommunitiesoftenquarrelandwagecruelandvindictivewaragainstoneanother;andwereitnotthattheboundariesofeachassociationarewell-defined, by deep ravines and inlets of the sea, aswell as by the impassable

barriers of snow-covered mountains, these warlike dwarfs would thin oneanother’s numbers to a far greater extent than they now do,—perhaps to amutualextermination.Fortunatelythepeculiarnatureoftheircountryhindersthemfromcomingveryoftenwithinfightingdistance.Theirwhole systemof life is abject in theextreme.Althoughprovidedwithfires, their food is eaten raw; and a fish taken from the water will beswallowedupontheinstant—almostbeforethelifeisgoneoutofit.Sealandpenguinflesharedevouredinthesamemanner;andtheblubberofthewhaleis also a raw repast.Whenoneof these is founddeadupon thebeach,—forthey have neither the skill nor courage to capture the whale,—the luckyaccidentbringsaseasonofrejoicing.Afleetofcanoes—ifitistobereachedonly by water—at once paddle towards the place; or, if it be an overlandjourney,thewholecommunity—man,woman,andchild—startforthonfoot.Inanhourortwotheymaybeseenreturningtotheirhutvillage,eachwithalarge “flitch” of blubber flapping over the shoulders, and the head justappearing above, through a hole cut in the centre of the piece,—just as aMexicanrancherowearshis“serape,”oradenizenofthePampashiswoollen“poncho.”Afeastfollowsthissingularprocession.LiketheEsquimauxofthenorth, theFuegianisveryskilful incapturingtheseal.Hismodeofcapturingthiscreature,however,isverydifferentfromthatemployedbythe“sealer”oftheArcticSeas;andconsistssimplyinstealingasnearaspossibleinhiscanoe,whenheseestheanimalasleepuponthesurface,andstrikingitwithajavelin,—whichhethrowswithanunerringaim.We have already observed that the principal subsistence of the Fuegian issuppliedbythesea;andshell-fishformsthemostimportantitemofhisfood.Thesearemussels,limpets,oysters,andotherkindsofshell-fish,andsomanyareannuallyconsumedbyasinglefamily,thatanimmenseheapoftheshellsmay be seen not only in front of every hut, but all along the coast of theislands, above high-water mark,—wherever a tribe has made its temporarysojourn.Thereisasingularfactconnectedwiththeseconglomerationsofshells,whichappearstohaveescapedtheobservationsoftheMagellanicvoyagers.Itisnotbymereaccidenttheyarethuscollectedinpiles.Thereisacertainamountofsuperstitioninthematter.TheFuegianbelievesthat,weretheshellsscatterednegligently about, ill-luckwould follow; and, above all, if the emptiedoneswere thrownback into thesea: since thiswouldbeawarningofdestructionthatwould frighten the livingbivalves in their “beds,”anddrive themawayfromthecoast!Henceitisthattheshell-heapsaresocarefullykepttogether.Incollectingtheseshell-fish,thewomenarethechieflabourers.Theydonotalwaysgatherthemfromtherocks,afterthetidehasgoneout;thoughthatisthe usual time. But there are some species not found in shallowwater, and

thereforeonlytobeobtainedbydivingtothebottomafterthem.Ofthiskindisaspeciesofechinus,or“sea-urchin,”oftheshapeofanorange,andabouttwice the bulk of one,—the whole outside surface being thickly set withspines,orprotuberances.Thesecuriousshell-fisharecalled“sea-eggs”bythesailor navigators; and constitute an important article of the food of theFuegian.Itisoftennecessarytodiveforthemtoagreatdepth;andthisisdoneby theFuegianwomen,whoareasexpert inplungingas thepearl-diversofCaliforniaortheIndianseas.FishisanotherarticleofFuegiandiet;andmanykindsarecapturedupontheircoasts,someofexcellentquality.Theysometimesobtainthefishbyshootingthemwiththeirarrows,orstrikingthemwithadart;buttheyhaveamodeofcatching the finny creatures, which is altogether peculiar: that is to say,huntingthemwithdogs!TheFuegianspossessabreedofsmallfox-likedogs,mean,wretched-lookingcurs,usuallyontheveryvergeofstarvation,—sincetheir owners take not the slightest care of them, and hardly ever troublethemselves about feeding them. Notwithstanding this neglect, the Fuegiandogsarenotwithoutcertaingoodqualities;andbecomeimportantauxiliariesto the Fuegian fisherman. They are trained to pursue the fish through thewater, and drive them into a net, or some enclosed creek or inlet, shallowenoughforthemtobeshotwiththearrow.Indoingthisthedogsdivetothebottom;andfollowthefishtoandfro,asiftheywereamphibiouscarnivora,likethesealsandotters.Forthisusefulservicethepoorbrutesreceiveaveryinadequate reward,—getting only the bones as their portion. They wouldundoubtedly starve,were it not that, being left to shift for themselves, theyhavelearnthowtoprocuretheirownfood;andunderstandhowtocatchafishnowandthenontheirownaccount.Theirprincipalfood,however,consistsinshell-fish, which they find along the shores, with polypi, and such otheranimal substances as the sea leaves uncoveredupon thebeach after the tidehasretired.Acertainkindofsea-weedalsofurnishesthemwithanoccasionalmeal,asitdoestheirmasters,—oftenashungryandstarvingasthemselves.In his personal habits no human being is more filthy than the Fuegian. Heneveruseswaterforwashingpurposes;norcleansthedirtfromhisskininanyway. He has no more idea of putting water to such use, than he has ofdrowninghimselfinit;andinrespecttocleanliness,heisnotonlybelowmostother savages, but below the brutes themselves: since even these are taughtcleanlinessbyinstinct.ButnosuchinstinctexistsinthemindoftheFuegian;andhelivesinthemidstoffilth.Thesmellofhisbodycanbeperceivedataconsiderabledistance;andHotspur’sfopmighthavehadreasonablegroundsof complaint, had it been a Fuegian who came between the “wind and hisnobility.”Tousethepithylanguageofoneoftheoldnavigators,“TheFuegianstinkslikeafox.”

Fairly examined, then, in all his bearings,—fairly judged by his habits andactions,—theFuegianmayclaimthecreditofbeingthemostwretchedofourrace.

TheEnd.

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